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o. f 3 In this chapter, you will read about the colonization of Canada. By the end of this chapter, you will •identify important events in the early oo. stages of European exploration and the colonization of Canada •explain the meaning of colonialism and mercantilism •reconstruct past ways of life from a variety of primary sources •evaluate the relationships between the Native peoples and the colonists • synthesize information from a variety of Coo .041.1" gig graphic and written historical sources •read and interpret historical maps •evaluate photographic evidence of changes in communities _ . •••ftmair Ip• -7,11 •••. Gabriel and the Red Cow

The Acadians were pioneers who came from France in the early i 600s and settled mostly along the coast of Nova Scotia. They built a number of large farming communities on the shores of the Bay of Fundy. The Acadians saw themselves as distinct—separate even from the other French settlers in Canada. They always tried to avoid getting involved in wars between England and France. Acadia was occupied several times by the British, and finally became a British possession after 1713. During the Seven Years' War, the Acadians had to take an oath of unconditional allegiance to Britain. When they refused, the British expelled them from their prosperous farms. This fictional story tells how a young Acadian lost his family during these times.

abriel shook blood father pull a half-formed calf one this morning—months from his hands, and from the red cow. Such a strange before she should have calved. looked out from the day already, and it wasn't even In the village, lantern light Gstable toward the dawn. The red cow had streamed from many windows. village and the sea. A moment experienced no trouble with her People were tense and fearful. ago, he had been helping his calves before, but she'd lost the The proclamation had been a

Groups of people made their way down to the beach, pushing carts and carrying whatever they could.

212 mmmmmmmmmmmmm ■ ■ mmmmm ■ ■ ■ complete surprise. It was true small carts and carrying vain. Gabriel looked for that few in Acadia liked the whatever they could. There was Constance, his childhood friend. British, but people had tried to little resistance, since no one He thought he saw her standing cooperate as best they could. wanted to put anyone else in near the water. He called out, and Mostly they just wanted to be danger. The children were Constance turned to meet him, left alone. There wasn't much already terrified. her eyes glistening with tears. hope that France would help Like the others, Gabriel had Quite suddenly the sky Acadians. Canada was the joined the crowds heading for the began to glow red. Gabriel priority, and everyone in Acadia beach. That evening, the looked back toward the farm and knew it. September breeze was chill and saw the horizon ablaze. The It was unbelievable. A damp. Everywhere, families had soldiers must be firing the barns British officer had announced gathered around fires. Those who and houses. He had to get back! that all Acadians must leave spoke kept their voices low. The red cow was probably still in their homes and be sent away. Many people had already been her stall. He touched Constance For what crime? They had done put aboard ships. Soldiers, none on the shoulder and whispered, nothing. When the meeting of whom spoke French, had "Wait for me." Then he turned broke up, Gabriel's father had pushed people into the boats, in away, rushed past his horrified come home directly. He could spite of protests. Families were family, and ran back up the barely speak, brushing tears broken up and even husbands and darkened road. Several times away as he told the family about wives sent to different ships. soldiers challenged him, and he the British order. They must Children separated from their was even shot at by a drunken leave behind everything they had parents screamed and cried in sentry standing near the church. known and worked for. No, they would not be returning. No, they would not be able to sell their lands first. No, they could not keep their livestock. No, they would not be paid for what they lost. No, they could not pick where they would be sent. No, they could not choose with whom they would be sent. No! No! No! Frantically, people ran from neighbour to neighbour, asking for advice or support, though it was the same for everyone. Pere Joseph had visited just before dark to try to encourage them. Since then, the family had worked through the night, trying to bundle up their most prized possessions. They could only take what they could carry. The soldiers landed at dawn and marched directly through the village to the church. From there, patrols were sent out to all the farms. Groups of people began to make their way down the roads to the beach, pushing The colony of Acadia

213 mmmmmm ••• •••••••• • ■ • SUMMING ■ ■ III • Gabriel ran through the floor. Bolting through the door, alone in his life. fields to the farm. None of the Gabriel realized that the barn Gabriel knew that he had to farm buildings had yet been set and house were about to go up in make a decision soon. He might afire, and there seemed to be no smoke. He watched the scene in try to go northwards towards soldiers around. It was eerie and horror from the relative safety of Louisbourg, but he had no desire quiet, and the red cow was his father's wood lot. to join the militia in that cold nowhere to be seen. Gabriel The morning came, but it and forbidding fortress. Or he heard a noise in the house and brought with it heavy mists from could head toward the St. went through the open front the Bay of Minas. Gabriel pulled Lawrence and Canada. As he door to investigate. himself out from his hiding pondered his options, he was Inside, two red-coated place. He waited for a long time pushed roughly from behind. soldiers were rummaging before he thought it was safe to "Shoot me, you fool!" he said, through chests, and another was see what had happened at the too tired to care. But no shot chipping at the plaster with his farm. The soldiers were gone, came. bayonet. He cursed and called but everything was ashes. The Gabriel turned slowly, out to the others. house, the barn, the sheds, all expecting to look into the "These farmers'll have burned to the ground—even the unshaven face of a British money hid somewheres, boys. crops had been burned. Gabriel soldier. The red cow stood there But look quick—the sergeant was in shock. He could see calmly chewing her cud. A long will want to see bonfires here in nothing but desolation. He tether rope hung around her a few minutes." turned towards the bay, hoping neck. Clearly, she had escaped Gabriel tried to back away, that his family and Constance too. No doubt, she was to be hoping he hadn't been seen. The were still safe. taken along to feed the British sight of the soldiers looting the As the mist cleared, Gabriel soldiers. Gabriel was delighted to house made him furious. saw that the ships had left the see her, and told her so. "So, all "Well, here's a boy that bay. Everyone had been taken, is not lost, my beauty. And now, could tell us where them and he was alone. Then, a flash to Louisbourg?" The cow, valuables is hid." Gabriel was of colour? What was that? On a bothered by the flies that rose given a hard push from behind, bush, a red ribbon fluttered in from the seaweed that scattered which sent him sprawling into the quickening breeze. Gabriel the beach, shook her head the room. The sergeant aimed a recognized it—the ribbon from vigorously. Well, at least they kick at him, but Gabriel rolled Constance's hair. He untied it were communicating, Gabriel aside. The soldier with the from the branch, and stood thought. He picked up the end of bayonet tried to stick him, but looking at it for many minutes. the tether rope, and the two of lost his balance. Gabriel grabbed Where was she now? Where were them began the long, slow trek his wrists and pulled him to the they all? He had never felt so to Canada.

ACTIVITIES

1. Imagine you are an Acadian woman or man. What 3.Does Constance add anything to the story? Explain advice would you give to other Acadians at why or why not. meetings about taking an Oath of Allegiance to 4.Imagine that you have also escaped the expulsion Britain? and meet Gabriel on the trek he is about to take. 2.A story must have a conflict to be interesting. In conversation, present Gabriel with a plan to get Identify a conflict in this story. How does it help to you to the St. Lawrence region. In a paragraph, keep you reading? outline your plan.

214 TIME LINE

CE ARRIVAL OF 1000 LEIF THE LUCKY IN VINLAND

FREY DIS 1014 ERIKSDOTTIR LEADS EXPEDITION TO VINLAND

CABOT SAILS TO 1497 NEWFOUNDLAND

JACQUES 1534 CARTIER MAKES FIRST VOYAGE TO CANADA

HUMPHREY 1583 GILBERT CLAIMS NEWFOUNDLAND FOR ENGLAND

CHAMPLAIN 1608 FOUNDS THE HABITATION AT QUEBEC

KIRKE 1629 CAPTURES QUEBEC

DESTRUCTION 1649 OF THE HURON IA MISSIONS

ASSASSINATION 1687 OF LA SALLE

MADELEINE DE 1692 VERCHERES DEFENDS HER SEIGNEURY

TREATY OF 1713 UTRECHT

FIRST 1731 WESTWARD JOURNEY BY LA VERENDRYE

EXPULSION OF 1755 THE ACADIANS

BATTLE OF THE 1759 PLAINS OF It was a finer greeting than ever a father gave to his own child, and it ABRAHAM made us marvellously happy. For the men danced in one band, the women in another, the children in another. And afterwards they brought us fish and the bread they make of coarse meal, throwing it into our ships in such quantities that it seemed to fall from the sky. —JACQUES CARTIER, UPON SAILING TO THE VILLAGE OF HOCHELAGA IN 1536

Jacques Cartier was one of the first European explorers to come to Canada. This description of the welcome extended to him by the Iroquois of Hochelaga (modern-day Montreal) seems so positive. As you work through this chapter, consider why the Native peoples of the region would have welcomed Cartier so warmly. What can we learn from this episode in history?

ARRIVAL IN CANADA 215 ■ • • • • • • • • • • • a • • • to colonize: to settle and control new lands middle latitudes: above INTRODUCTION the Tropic of Cancer, but below the Arctic Circle he years from 1450 to 1600 English to the north, the French imperialism: the policy of were Europe's Age of charted a course along the middle extending control of a Exploration. Powerful latitudes. France also wanted to region or regions by one nation. Imperialism monarchs, beginning with discover the passage that would link usually involves both T the Portuguese and Spanish, wanted the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific economic and political control. to explore "new worlds" and gain the Ocean. sagas: stories of adventure legendary riches of the East. While the St. Lawrence River did In 1492, Christopher Columbus not lead to Asia, the French did come artifact: something made by people convinced the queen of Spain that he to Canada, where they found a land recreation: something that could find a new trade route to Asia. rich in many natural resources, is restored like the Instead, he landed at San Salvador and including furs. The French stayed in original began to colonize the Americas. It soon Canada and built a great commercial became apparent that North America empire around the fur trade that was not part of Asia, but an entirely brought enormous profit to France. separate continent. This economic imperialism was not However, most European unique to France, but a feature of all explorers continued to hope that European empires that began to exploration would uncover a sailing develop during this era. route through North America—a In Canada, the French came into Northwest Passage to Asia. While you contact with long-established Native may find this notion preposterous, communities, who gave them access Columbus and other Europeans of his to ancient trading networks. They era had no knowledge at all of the built a successful colony in the St. interior of North America, nor of its Lawrence-Great Lakes area, called great land mass. "New France." In the Maritimes, Following the example of Spain, their colony was known as "Acadia." Portugal, and England, France sent its These two colonies became an explorers westward in 1534. Avoiding important part of the foundations of the Spanish to the south and the modern Canada.

THE VIKINGS anding long before the French, By the beginning of the eleventh the Vikings were most likely century, the Vikings had completely the first explorers of Canada. colonized Iceland and had small LThey came from Scandinavia, settlements on Greenland. Next, the the modem countries of Sweden, Vikings reached the shores of North Norway, and Denmark. They were America and briefly settled there. farmers in their homeland, and very Although some historians believe warlike. Before 1000, many Vikings that the Irish or others found their left their small farms to look for new way to North America before the opportunities. Some raided Europe, Vikings, there is no firm evidence causing great destruction wherever that such journeys took place. they went. Others sailed their long- Evidence for Viking landings in ships westward. North America is found in historical

216 CHAPTER 8 Figure 8-1 This Parks Canada recreation of the Viking settlement at L'Anse aux Meadows is in northern Newfoundland, the likely location of Leif Erikson's Vinland. The site was discovered by Helge and Anne Ingstad, who found some Viking artifacts there. How would you check to make sure that the site had been occupied by Vikings, and that the artifacts had not been brought there by Native peoples?

stories known as the sagas— Too few Vikings came to North YOU KNOW especially those from Iceland. They America to build a permanent Freydis Eriksdottir, daughter told of voyages by Leif Erikson, community. Thorfinn Karlsefni of Erik the Red, led a Viking sometimes called "Leif the Lucky," to brought three ships and a few expedition to Newfoundland in the early eleventh places he called Helluland, Markland, hundred people as settlers—possibly century. According to one and Vinland. For many years, to L'Anse aux Meadows—but left saga, Freydis made fun of historians wondered about the actual within a few years. Freydis Eriksdottir several Viking soldiers as they retreated from a Native locations of these landings. Some led an expedition to Vinland in 1014. attack. Despite being thought Vinland was a southern Her attempt to establish a settlement pregnant she told them: "If region where vines actually grew. also failed. I only had weapons I could make a better fight than any Others thought that Leif had landed From the beginning, the Vikings of you." She followed them in Newfoundland when the climate were in conflict with local Native to the edge of the forest, was warmer. The discovery of Viking peoples. Having no qualms about where she discovered a artifacts and the remains of Viking- attacking and killing anyone they dead Viking soldier, picked up his sword, and began to style buildings at L'Anse aux found, they were in turn attacked in fight. Meadows, in Newfoundland, have force and driven off. In time, even the convinced many historians that settlements in Greenland were Vinland was really northern forgotten by Europe, and they Newfoundland. mysteriously disappeared.

ARRIVAL IN CANADA 217

Focal Point A Focal Point 8 Focal Point C Focal Point D The picture resembles the In the foreground are This boat is a fairy-tale craft. This boat is an ancient Greek "last stand" scene of an bunches of grapes, to prove It bears little resemblance to galley, a long, narrow ship adventure novel or to the viewer that the setting a real Viking ship. propelled by oars. The galley Hollywood movie. is Vinland, where grapes was built for sheltered seas, Illustrations of this type were grow. not crossing an ocean. The used in textbooks as well as Vikings would not have used works of fiction as recently as such a ship. fifty years ago.

Figure 8-2 Illustrations of historical events are often romanticized. This picture of the Viking landing in Newfoundland is based on fact. The Vikings did ambush the sleeping men and women they encountered on the shores of Newfoundland, and Thorald, Leif's brother, was later attacked and killed. But the illustration is also misleading. Examine all the circled elements and read the accompanying text. Then decide: Does this picture help us understand the history of the Vikings in North America in any way?

romanticized: made gentle, happy ambush: trap monopoly: completely control of the market for a certain good or service ACTIVITIES Letters Patent: royal documents that set out terms and permission 1. So far as we know, the Vikings stopped visiting North America in the eleventh century. Imagine you belong to a small Viking community which was left behind heathen: not-Christian by the last ships. Write part of a saga describing your experiences in North infidel: non-believer, in this America. Give your saga a memorable name. case, non-Christian

218 CHAPTER 8 c, • • • ' ID YOU KNOW?1 1997 marked the five- FISHERS AND FREEBOOTERS: hundredth anniversary of John Cabot's voyage to Newfoundland. An English EARLY EUROPEAN ARRIVALS team sailed in an exact reproduction of the Mathew t the end of the fifteenth instructed by the king, claimed the to North America. People century, Spain and England "New Found Land" for England. followed the voyage of the were trying to break Cabot was astonished by the great Mathew by consulting an Portugal's monopoly on schools of cod fish on Newfoundland's Internet web site every day. A The governments of Canada trade with Asia. No one knew that Grand Banks. Following his voyage, and Newfoundland spent other continents lay to the west. English, French, and Portuguese ships $20 million on the project, which involved 1400 artists Columbus's journey launched the also travelled to Newfoundland and and seventy-five major competition among European nations Labrador. events. to open trade routes to Asia by going across the Atlantic. In 1497, Henry VII of England Figure 8-3 A reproduction of the Mathew was built to honour the five-hundredth anniversary gave John Cabot, an Italian, of John Cabot's voyage to North America. It permission to explore the North made the same ocean crossing as the original. Atlantic in the hopes of finding the riches of Asia. Cabot's licence—his Letters Patent—gave him the right to "seek out, discover, and finde whatsoever isles, countreys, regions, or provinces of the heathen and infidel" and to "subdue, occupy, and possesse all such townes, cities, castles and isles of them found." Cabot first set sail with a single small ship—the Mathew—and nineteen crew members. He expected to find Japan and China. During his voyage, Cabot sailed against the prevailing winds (winds blow from the west in the northern hemisphere). As he drew closer to Newfoundland, he probably picked up the Labrador Current, which flows down toward Newfoundland. The crew of the Mathew undoubtedly found themselves on a rocky, forbidding coast. Cabot landed and, as

DID YOU KNOW? tin The Grand Banks extend northeast and southwest some 480 kilometres and are 320 kilometres wide. In its heyday, the Grand Banks were the most important cod-fishing region in the world, attracting approximately 100 000 fishers a year. Today, the Grand Banks cod fishery is endangered, with stocks dangerously depleted by over-fishing and environmental changes.

ARRIVAL IN CANADA 219 y the early 1500s, European summer—it was simply too cold to Portuguese and French fishers had Bfishing fleets were regularly fish in winter. Fishing in the region access to cheap salt from the Bay of summering along the Atlantic was also hazardous. There was Biscay, off Frances west coast, they coast of Canada to fish for cod and persistent fog because of the did not always come ashore. But the trade with the local Native peoples. meeting of two currents—one English dried their fish on the shores Europeans required a great warm, one cold. The warm Gulf of the Grand Banks and spent the quantity of fish. Much of Europe Stream sweeps along the eastern short summer season there. was still Roman Catholic, and edge of the Banks, and occasionally A small number of Native Catholics frequently abstained its southern edge, while the people were kidnapped by the from meat. During the early part of Labrador Current cools the waters Europeans who came to the Grand the sixteenth century, there were a to the north and west. The Banks Banks during this period. Some total of 165 meatless days in the are also in the path of glaciers were sold as slaves in Lisbon; three Church calendar! The most carried down by the Labrador were sent to England, along with a popular fish was young, lightly Current. Still, these risks were more hawk and an eagle, where they salted, dried cod. Cod has a very than offset by the profits to be were displayed as curiosity items. mild flavour, which probably made on a fishing expedition. For the most part, however, accounted for its popularity. Because fish had to be relations between the Europeans Many risks were associated preserved—either by drying or and the Native peoples during this with a fishing expedition to the salting—fishers set up camps. They early period were marked by a Grand Banks. It took twenty days also explored, looking for bait fish spirit of cooperation. to reach Newfoundland from and animals to hunt, adding to Europe, and all the work had to be European knowledge of the Figure 8-4 An early scene along the done in the short northern Canadian east coast. Since the Grand Banks. Identify as many activities as you can by reviewing the text.

220 CHAPTER 8

ACTiVITIES

1.John Cabot was lost at sea. Draw a memorial who have arrived on the Grand Banks. Draw up a tombstone for him complete with a brief list of pros and cons to assist you and your description of his accomplishments. community in this decision. 2.We have no written records of what Native 3.Brainstorm a list of three or four natural resources peoples thought when they encountered that are in demand today because of custom or Europeans for the first time. Imagine that you are fashion. They can be edible, but they do not have an elder in a Native community. You must decide to be. Is the environment suffering because of whether or not to cooperate with the Europeans human demand for these things?

C. a 6 s ..4) • THE FRENCH EXPLORERS

■ ■ MMMMM Mi had noticed on his first journey—the archipelago: a group of St. Lawrence. For guides, Cartier islands JACQUES CARTIER relied on Taignoagny and Domagaya. AND THE Although they had been taken from their home, the brothers probably IROQUOIS agreed to be guides because they saw In 1524, France sent Giovanni great trade possibilities emerging Verrazano to find the fabled from an alliance with the French. They told Cartier of a fabulous land, Northwest Passage to Asia. Verrazano Figure 8-5 Jacques Cartier sailed the coast of North America the kingdom of the between Newfoundland and Florida, Saguenay, where discovering that North America was people wore gorgeous not an archipelago of islands, as many clothes and golden believed, but a real continent. The jewellery. king of France was disappointed by The journey Verrazano's failure and did not launch along the St. any new expeditions. Lawrence was Ten years later, a new king asked treacherous. The Jacques Cartier, one of Verrazano's banks of the river officers, to continue looking for the were forbidding, and Northwest Passage. Twenty days after great cliffs of barren sailing from Saint Malo, Cartier rock loomed over the sighted Labrador and Newfoundland. tiny caravels. But this He then sailed south to what are now landscape gradually Prince Edward Island and New gave way to open Brunswick. Upon reaching the Gaspe farm land and Native Peninsula, he claimed the territory for villages. At last, the France. He kidnapped Taignoagny and little fleet arrived at Domagaya, the sons of a local the community of Iroquois chief, and returned home. Stadacona, near The following year, Cartier present-day Quebec returned to explore the great river he City.

ARRIVAL IN CANADA 221 Kidnapped Tour Guides

country, and many hen Cartier arrived in Alter we had cast anchor WStadacona, he was between this large island and the large melons. And greeted the following day by north shore, we went on land and during that day many Donnaconna, the father of took with us the two Indians we canoes filled with the his Iroquois guides. Cartier had seized on our former people of the country, described the landing in his voyages. We came upon several both men as well as women, journal. Notice that he is not of the people of the country who twholcame to our ships to see embarrassed to admit that began to run away and would not and welcome our two Indians. two young men were come near, until our two Indians The Captain received them all, kidnapped. As you are had spoken to them and told and treated them to what he had reading this document, note them that they were Domagaya to offer. And to ingratiate himself Cartier's language. What and Taignoagny. And when they with them, he gave them some does it suggest about his knew who it was, they began to small presents of little value, at attitude to the Iroquois? welcome them, dancing and which they were much pleased. going through ceremonies. And On the morrow, the lord of some of the headmen came to Canada, named Donnaconna our long-boats, bringing us many (but as chief they call him eels and other fish, with two or Agouhanna), came to our ships three measures of Indian corn, accompanied by many Indians which is their bread in that in twelve canoes....

scurvy: a terrible, often Cartier did not stay at Believing that Cartier's explorations fatal, disease caused by a Stadacona—a relatively small might lead to wealth and territory for lack of vitamin C community. Ignoring Donnaconna's France, he approved a third immunity: resistance to advice, he sailed further up the St. expedition, to begin 1541. This time, disease Lawrence to the a much larger town a noble—the Sieur de Roberval—was Sieur: lord called "Hochelaga," where Montreal authorized to establish a French pyrites: a common mineral now stands. Cartier returned from his colony in North America. Roberval with a pale brass-yellow colour journey feeling less confident that he set sail a year later, in 1542. Both could reach China via the St. expeditions failed. By this time, the treachery: being false, betraying someone Lawrence. He prepared to spend the Iroquois were justifiably suspicious of winter at Stadacona. the French, who now built their forts Relations between the French and some distance from the town. the Iroquois were now strained. In the spring of 1542, Cartier Unprepared for the ordeal, the French loaded his ship with barrels of spent a miserable winter, and twenty- Canadian "diamonds and gold"— five sailors died of scurvy. Domagaya actually worthless quartz crystals and showed Cartier how to make a iron pyrites—and went to meet Vitamin-C-rich tea of spruce bark and Roberval, who was arriving in the needles, which saved many lives. Gulf of St. Lawrence. Against orders, When weather permitted, Cartier he left Roberval and set sail for returned to France, kidnapping France. Roberval was left to spend the Donnaconna and nine other Iroquois. winter alone and lost fifty settlers. Within six years, all the Iroquois had Disgusted by French treachery, the died in Europe from diseases for Iroquois refused to trade food, and which they had no immunity. None threatened war. ever saw their home land again. The French effort to colonize In France, King Francis I listened Canada had, for the time being, failed eagerly to Cartier and Donnaconna. utterly.

222 CHAPTER 8

Strait of Explorations of Jacques Cartier Belle Isle

First voyage 1534 SEVEN 4- Second voyage ISLANDS 1535-1536

Cape Bonavista

NA D'ORLEANS •St. Bay of John's Chafeur Stadacona ILE AUX CDLIDRES Cap Rouge CAPE ir PRINCE EDWARD BRETON 0,65 ISLAND ISLAND Hocheiaga #iver ti Lachine Rapids %do O Viand ATLANTIC OCEAN

0 100 2?0 km

Figure 8-6 The routes of Cartier's two voyages MMUNINIIIIR MUNE the new colony. The Native people also liked the THE BEGINNINGS idea of trading furs. There were so OF THE FUR many fur-bearing animals, and their pelts were easy to obtain. European TRADE trade goods, however, were not Cartier's "diamonds" did little to commonly available to them. Of fancy: a trade term used to persuade French business people, course, the monetary value of the furs describe certain furs nobles, and monarchs to invest in was far greater than the value of Canada. Yet these were the very items desired by the Native people— people who wanted to exploit the new knives, hatchets, pots, and beads. For colony. In the eyes of the French, the example, one trader's report showed colony existed primarily to raise that he had "netted, from an outlay of money for the home country, not to £4 in 'trifles,' a cargo valued at £130, open up new areas for settlement. which included dressed and painted However, soon another source of deerskins, sealskins, fisher, otter, potential wealth emerged. lynx, and enough beaver to make six- Europeans were still making good hundred hats." money fishing, but even more profits However, everyone was satisfied could be made from beautiful furs with the exchange for the time being. that were so coveted in Europe—wolf, In the early years, both the Native fisher, marten, lynx, and other people and the Europeans viewed the animals. These furs were used to fur trade as a supplement to their decorate the clothing and bedding of primary income from fishing and wealthy Europeans. Traders could hunting. pick up fancy furs at bargain prices in

ARRIVAL IN CANADA 223 Why What You Think is What You See The Difference to China and the rest of Asia could Figure 8-7 This map, dated 1852, was be found, then there would be drawn by English sea-farer Sir Between Perception many rewards. At long last, the Humphrey Gilbert. It represented his and Reality riches of the East would flow to own opinion about the shape of North America. The map led explorers to Europe on a regular basis— D y now you have read that many believe that they could easily sail Li European explorers, beginning something that could not be around the continent to China (Cathay) with John Cabot, were convinced achieved by overland routes. and Japan. The French had similar of the existence of a Northwest The Northwest Passage was maps. It is easy to see why Cartier was Passage to China. They and their just waiting to be found, or so it anxious to follow the St. Lawrence governments had good reasons to seemed. River, which he believed would believe this theory. if an easy route ultimately lead to the Pacific.

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224 CHAPTER 8

GUIDEBOOK'O

continued

Have you ever noticed that Background knowledge: The Northwest Passage existed. when everyone believes something, Europeans had no firm background In other words, there was a that is all they see? For example, if knowledge about North America. kind of feedback loop of false you are lying on the grass with your No one really knew what it looked information. It looked something friends gazing up at the sky and like or how large it was. Therefore, like the diagram shown below. one of you muses aloud that a it was possible that the Northwest The dream of the Northwest certain cloud resembles her dog Passage could exist, because no Passage to China would eventually Oscar, what will happen next? Now one said it didn't. evaporate, as the reality of that your friend has said the cloud Bias: The European explorers and geography took its place. Like all resembles a dog, you may find that monarchs were biased in favour of dreams, it was hard to let go. On the shape of a dog is all you can the Northwest Passage because it the plus side, reality kept map- see. Similarly, if you decide that suited their agenda. makers busy for the next 200 years. another cloud resembles your Immediate Suggestions: When perception: looking guitar, or your skateboard, you people viewed Humphrey Gilbert's won't be able to get that image map of the polar regions (Figure agenda: things to be done out of your mind. 8-7), which claimed to prove the feedback loop: a model that displays This very human trait is rooted existence of a Northwest Passage, how realities are interdependent, in other words, how each depends on the in perception, How you perceive or maps similar to it, they were existence of the other for its own the world is based on many reminded all over again that the existence factors, including your background knowledge, biases, and even the most recent suggestions made to you—for example, the suggestion that a cloud resembles a dog. While our perception of reality often differs from reality itself, we The Northwest Maps show the have no choice but to perceive the Passage exists Northwest Passage world through our own personal lens. After all, we're human. How does any of this relate to the European explorers of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries? Let's go down the following list:

YOUR TURN

1.Name other examples from history in which "what 3. Feedback loops help us to see reality as a system. they thought was what they saw." Could human They can be about almost anything, and range beings possibly have a false concept of the earth from simple to complex. Create a feedback loop or the universe today? Explain. for a series of events in your life. To get you started, here is another example: 2. How do groups like the Flat Earth Society—people who say the earth is flat—maintain their beliefs in the face of overwhelming evidence to the contrary: for example, pictures of the Earth taken from space? Enjoying Feeling positive Social Studies and energetic about assignments

ARRIVAL IN CANADA 225 • • • • • • • • • • • • THE ENGLISH AND THE DUTCH he Dutch and the English sea dogs who had attacked the Spanish looked for opportunities to treasure ships along the coastal waters colonize the north. In 1610, of northern South America following Tthe Dutch settled first on the the Spanish conquest of the Aztec and Hudson River, which Henry Hudson Inca empires. They included Martin had explored on behalf of the Dutch Frobisher, William Baffin, and John East India Company a few years earlier. Davis. They stayed until their colony, New In 1583, an Englishman, Amsterdam, fell to the English fifty Humphrey Gilbert, claimed years later. Newfoundland for England, even Like the French, the English were though many Portuguese and Basque also searching for a Northwest Passage, fishers lived there. Gilbert's idea of but they explored the Arctic, claiming diplomacy was to threaten to cut off territories as they went. The English the ears of anyone who would not explorers were often the same daring "hear" the king of England's claim.

C7 u 8 • • • •eseec.e•oar. THE FOUNDING OF Aim FRANCE was made an assistant to the Sieur de Monts. De Monts was a French noble SAMUEL DE appointed by the king of France to set CHAMPLAI N up trading posts in Canada. He was given a monopoly on the fur trade in I arrived there (Quebec) on filly the return for establishing a French Third. On arrival I looked for a place colony. In the summer of 1605, suitable for our settlement, but I de Monts, Champlain, and could not find any more suitable or approximately sixty settlers had better situated than the point of established a small post called "Port Quebec, so called by the natives, Royal" in what is now Nova Scotia. which was covered with nut trees. Port Royal was not a great Dutch East India success. Business was not as brisk as Company: one of the —SAMUEL DE CHAMPLAIN, 1608 de Monts had anticipated, and East India companies chartered by European After Cartier's failure to establish a eventually he lost his trading sovereigns to establish permanent French colony, the French monopoly. The settlers built several worldwide trading connections limited their activities in Canada to buildings at Port Royal, including a fishing, and trading by shore parties. mill, and planted a number of crops, sea dogs: English navigators, often pirates Later in the sixteenth century, several but the settlement was abandoned by Basque: people living near French expeditions set out to colonize 1607. Even Champlain's cooking the Bay of Biscay in Canada, but they all failed. club, The Company of Good Cheer, diplomacy: the settling of Samuel de Champlain, who was a could not hold the group together. A issues or disputes soldier and navigator, was intensely few settlers were permitted to stay without giving offence interested in the Americas. As a on, as long as they agreed not to work Reformation: the period in England in the sixteenth captain, he had sailed to the West the fur trade. They became highly century when the Roman Indies with the Spanish, and as a skilled farmers, and would eventually Catholic Church was soldier he had fought in the religious form the colony of Acadia, described reformed wars of the Reformation. In 1604, he in the Window on the Past,

226 CHAPTER 8 Champlain was still convinced that Canada could be profitable. In 1608, he led an expedition up the St. Lawrence. Arriving at what is now Quebec City, he found no evidence of the village of Stadacona, described by Cartier, but he did meet the Algonkians and the Montagnais, Native hunters from the northern forests. His soldier's eye must have noted the advantages of the region. Quebec's towering cliffs provided an almost impregnable natural fort. Champlain established a post—a habitation—at Quebec, and allied with the Algonkians and Montagnais against the Iroquois. In return, they agreed not to trade any furs with the English. Champlain also met Hurons Figure 8-8 Champlain's Order of Good Cheer (Ordre de Bon Temps) was an from the west, who told him that furs ingenious way to keep everyone's spirits up during the long winter months at Port could also be found in their Royal. This portrait shows Champlain playing the role of the Grand Master and territories. The next year he joined an leading the procession of cooks to the table. The Iroquois guests are shown looking Algonkian raid against the Iroquois. on. When it came time for them to cook, many residents spent days hunting for the right foods—usually game. In 1946, the Ordre de Bon Temps de Quebec was The firearms of the French helped the established to commemorate the original association and to promote adult Algonkians win several battles. education and recreation in Quebec.

Figure 8-9 Champlain's habitat included a ABITATION DE warehouse, various Q_VEBECCI storerooms, a building for munitions, and several residences. It was surrounded by a moat. Can you explain why?

impregnable: a location which an enemy cannot take by force habitation: residence

ARRIVAL IN CANADA 227

r hamplain found himself in the When we had gone about a half not to leave me. I k„.., middle of an ongoing war league through the thick woods, approached the enemy's between the Algonkians and among swamp and marsh, with barricade .... It was made • Montagnais, on one side, and the water up to our knees, each loaded of strong trees. placed one Iroquois nations, on the other. In down with a pikeman's corselet, upon the other, in a circle, this excerpt from his own account, which bothered us greatly, as did which is the ordinary form of their dated 1610, Champlain describes a the hordes of mosquitoes. a strange forts. All the Montagnais and battle scene in which the Iroquois sight. which were so thick that they Algonkians also approached the were introduced to the firearms of hardly allowed us to draw our barricade. Then we began firing the French. The element of surprise breath, so greatly and severely did many arquebus-shots through the and terror provided by these • they persecute us, we should not branches; for we could not see them weapons would not last long. The have known where we were had it as they could see us. As l was firing Iroquois quickly found ways to not been for two Indians of whom my first shot close to the barricade, I defend themselves. we caught sight, moving through the was wounded with an arrow which arquebus: one of the earliest shoulder- bush, to whom we called ... we split the tip of my ear and pierced held firearms, an early form of musket heard the howls and shouts of both my neck ... one could see arrows ally: one who helps when another parties flinging Insults at each other, flying on all sides as thick as hail. attacks or is attacked and continually skirmishing while The Iroquois were astonished at the perspective: the sense of three waiting for us ... I directed my reports [sounds] of our arquebuses, dimensions in a flat image companions to keep behind me and but most because the bullets pierced better than their arrows ... out of fear, thinking these shots to be irresistible, they would throw themselves upon the ground when they heard the report. Besides, we hardly missed a shot, and fired two or three bullets each time.

176 jj

.*:••

- • --=N-mf Figure 8-10 These illustrations from the early seventeenth century are based on Champlain's descriptions of warfare between the Algonkians and their French allies, and the Iroquois. Notice that the artist is not concerned with realism or perspective. The people are much larger and the buildings much shorter than they should be. Look carefully at the engraving above, which depicts the first battle in which Champlain participated. Locate the palm trees, canoes that look like French river skiffs, and a fort that looks like a French sheep pen. Compare this picture to the one on the right, which also depicts an attack on an Iroquois village. Which is probably more accurate? Why?

228 CHAPTER 8 MT7,-=11.41/=7. 11[=,411 Wri- numbered some 20 000. Their longhouses: homes longhouses were designed to house palisade: wall of upright, AN ALLIANCE several families and were surrounded often pointed, logs WITH THE by defensive palisades and huge fields. wampum: bead belts, used The Hurons were primarily by Native peoples to HURON EMPIRE record events, also used farmers who lived on their produce. as currency or in The Hurons were closely related to Their diet was supplemented by fish exchanges the Iroquois, but had become their and game from Georgian Bay, the enemies. Great traders themselves, Great Lakes, and local rivers. They the Hurons navigated the rivers of did not hunt much, and meat made central Canada and were very up less than 10 percent of their diet. prosperous. Champlain was eager to The Huron economy was based form an alliance with them and to use on farming, much of it directed by Huron trading connections. women. Every spring, Huron women Eventually they would become the would plant enough corn for several leading source of furs for the French. years, to insure against drought or to The Hurons had many economic trade. Corn could also be traded to the advantages because of their geographic tribes who lived north of the location. Their territory was located Canadian Shield, where fanning was on the southern shore of Georgian non-existent. In fact, the Nipissings Bay, where the fishing was excellent. and Algonkians were eager to trade The vegetation of the region included their furs for corn. Women also collected hemp, a tall herb that is Figure 8-11 This picture mixed forests, meadows, and fields. of a Huron town is very The sandy soil was perfect for planting tough and fibrous, and twisted it into European in style. How corn, squash, pumpkins, and beans. twine for fishing nets. Fishing nets can you tell? Identify the The Hurons lived in communities were always in demand and could be longhouses in this picture. traded for tobacco, wampum, and Have these been drawn of 800 to 1600 men, women, and with accuracy? Check an children. Their total population black-squirrel skins. encyclopedia or other source to find out.

ARRIVAL IN CANADA 229 ' I 1 j p as a Primary Source J •

in 1615, a Recollet missionary, Father iDenis Jamet, wrote to the French As for the Hurons, they are settled peoples Cardinal de Joyeuse. The Recollets were a living in large villages near a great lake the Roman Catholic order of Franciscans who other end of which they have never seen .... had come to Canada that year. Many All religious who go there can expect no missionaries were sent to New France with comfort. Their food is usually Indian corn cooked orders to convert the Native peoples to in water; for their feasts they have bread baked in hot Christianity. ashes. They have the advantage that the lake lacks no This letter is not a personal note to fish if they want to take the trouble to fish, but they are Joyeuse. It is more like a bulletin to bring lazy and content themselves with one dish when they the cardinal up to date on the progress of could have two. This is a bit annoying for us religious work in New France. Even though this letter is somewhat Frenchmen. But what matters most is that to win their official, it is also very plain-speaking. If friendship it would be necessary to live with them helter Jamet had wanted to tell the Hurons what skelter in their cabins, which is a strange dissatisfaction, he thought of them, would he have as you can Imagine. Monseigneur. written this letter?

YOUR TURN 1.What line in the letter suggests to you that Jamet 3.As a French Catholic missionary living in the early expects Joyeuse to agree with him? seventeenth century, could Jamet have avoided making these value judgements? Explain. 2.What lines suggest that Jamet has made value judgements about the Hurons? 4. Name other genres where it is most likely that you will express your views with complete honesty. What do these genres have in common?

As you might expect, the Champlain began sending out Algonkians and Montagnais were young men, called coureurs de bois, uneasy about the prospect of to explore the Great Lakes region. Champlain forging links with the They were to live with Native mighty Huron nation. peoples and marry into their Champlain made many trips back communities. Coureurs de bois such and forth between Canada and France, as Etienne Brule travelled far into the usually looking for money to back his interior of the country, guided to trading ventures. There were great Lakes Ontario, Erie, and Superior by missionary: one who profits to be made. Hats made from Huron allies. In 1615, both travels to another region beaver fur—especially castor gras Champlain and Brule accepted an to communicate a d'hiver—were becoming the rage in invitation from the Hurons to visit religious message and assist the local people Europe, and North America seemed them in their own land, after which genre: literary form to be a place where money could be Champlain recorded his observations made. In 1613, Champlain became a of Huron culture. castor gras d'hiver: prime winter beaver pelt partner in a trading company with a Back in Quebec, Champlain (literally, "greasy winter monopoly in Canada. By 1616, his struggled to keep his venture going. beaver pelt") partners, the Hurons, were supplying The company was making good coureurs de bois: runners of the woods most of the beaver furs along the St. money from furs, but France had little Lawrence. interest in building a settlement. Nor

230 CHAPTER 8 did Champlain. In fact, Champlain Montagnais had turned on the French DID YOU KN,427 . tried to stop people from coming to because they were uneasy about the in 1627, only 107 French farm at the habitation because he prospect of Champlain forging links people resided in Canada. thought this would ruin the trade; with the mighty Huron nation. worse still, it might create trade Champlain's colony, however, did outside his monopoly. Some Native not die. When he was in his sixties, a allies became annoyed with new company—The Company of a Champlain. Christian missionaries Hundred Associates—took over, with who had begun to accompany traders strong backing from the most to Canada were trying to convert powerful person in France, Cardinal them to Roman Catholicism, and to Richelieu. Champlain returned to force them to change their own Quebec and began to rebuild the culture and traditions. When colony, which had been destroyed by Champlain's colony was attacked by the English. He set up new posts in the English Kirke brothers, the the Company's name at different Algonkians (and Etienne Bruit') guided places along the river. A few years the English and refused to help the later, Champlain died on Christmas French. Champlain was captured and Day. taken prisoner. The Algonkians and

6. Lake Nipigon Quebec. Lake of the Woods Rainy Trois e•• Lake Fort William Rivieres • •

Grand • superior Portage ,,_ake-e Lake Montreal. 4, Nlpissing Sault Ste. Marie

Fort Frontenac Fort •Fort Michilimackinac PIURONIA Ticonderoga Mohawk Rrser TERRITORY OF THE IROQUOIS •Fort Niagara Fort bP St. Joseph. 1:k1Vel Lake New York • . St. Clair

•Fort • Venange Philadelphia Aso Fort • Sandusky •Fort -4— Huron trading partners Duquesne N with French -4— Furs from interior peoples to Hurons -4— Some trade with Iroquois Rive' ATLANTIC Williamsburg . r7 Canadian Shield 0 100 200 km OCEAN

Figure 8-12 The Hurons had built a vast trading empire before the arrival of Champlain, and they expanded it when Champlain arrived. Their activities brought them into conflict with the Iroquois, who were also expanding their territories. From Huronia, canoes travelled between Georgian Bay and the Ottawa River, then down to the St. Lawrence. At which point would the Hurons most likely meet Iroquois war parties?

ARRIVAL IN CANADA 231 ACTIVITIES

1.Create a Time Line for the excursions of Giovanni 3.In point form, summarize Champlain's reasons for Verrazano, Jacques Cartier, and the Sieur de exploring Canada and his successes and failures in Roberval. Add as many dates as you can. Even if you Canada. What were your criteria for determining are not sure exactly when an event occurred, add it whether something was a success or failure? on your Time Line between two known dates. 4.Create a drawing that reflects the many facets of 2.What social values would have led Jacques Cartier Huron society. Use the text on page 229 as your to kidnap the sons of his Iroquois host at the information base. Gaspe Peninsula and take them to Europe?

• • • • • • SETTLEMENT AND COLONIZATION

YOU KNOW? y the time Champlain died, failure. It lost its monopoly in the fur The Hurons found the European countries were trade in 1660, and soon fell into Jesuits' robes and beards working hard to extend their bankruptcy. strange. They noticed that imperial interests around the the robes restricted B movement, dried slowly world. On the Atlantic Coast of North when wet smelled bad, America, the Dutch and the English li.i1E M EOM ni•-,3 caught on the underbrush, had colonies. They also took and dragged dirt into the canoes. The priests' beards possession of islands in the Caribbean, THE JESUIT were considered by the challenging France and Spain. By the Hurons to be "the greatest late 1600s, Holland had lost its colony MISSIONS disfigurement that a face can have." to the English, and the English The Jesuits, an order of Roman colonies of Massachusetts, Maryland, Catholic priests, were the partners of Connecticut, Rhode Island, Delaware, the Company of a Hundred Virginia, New Jersey, Maine, and Associates. Richelieu wanted the Carolina—also called "the Thirteen Native peoples to hear "the Colonies"—were growing rapidly. knowledge of the true God [and] ... be The Company of a Hundred civilized and instructed in the Associates was required by its charter Catholic faith." He was encouraged in to bring settlers to Canada and to this view by the king of France, establish seigneuries, which were Louis XIII. feudal-style manors. Overseeing posts Other missionaries had tried and along the St. Lawrence, including the failed to convert the Hurons to town of Montreal, the Company Catholicism, but the Jesuits were viewed the settlement issue with different. They were prepared to go some reluctance. They were, after all, anywhere and make any sacrifice to in the fur business, not in the farming spread the influence of the Church. charter: a document business. By mapping out seigneuries The Jesuits were also prepared to setting out terms of in Acadia and along the St. Lawrence, adapt to Native traditions and existence and appointing seigneurs to bring in customs. This accommodation seigneuries: feudal-like the settlers, they believed they had allowed them to live and work with states solved the problem. the Hurons, who were tolerant of the bankruptcy: a state of financial ruin In the long run, the Company of a newcomers, but unwilling to abandon Hundred Associates was a business their own culture or religious beliefs.

232 CHAPTER 8 Figure 8-13 These photographs show the reconstruction of the Jesuit mission of Saint Marie Among the Hurons. It was built on the ruins of the original, which burned down in 1649. One of a chain of missions, Saint Marie had a stockade and a protected system of water locks that allowed canoes to come up into the fort. The mission also had a chapel, smithy, bakery, storehouses, gardens, stables, and living quarters.

The Jesuits found the task of tone, or inflection. smithy: workshop mastering Native languages daunting, On the surface, the Jesuits tried to daunting: challenging yet this was essential for stay out of Huron politics. But inflection: the emphasis communication. Native languages because Hurons who converted to placed on a particular were very different from French or Christianity enjoyed privileges in the syllable of a word Latin (which every Jesuit had fur trade, many joined the Church studied). They included many and came to live near the Jesuit connected words and complicated missions in Huronia. Still, many verbs. The meaning of something Hurons refused to join the Church. could change according to where the This disagreement eventually split speaker was located—on land or in the Huron nation, which made it the water. And one word could have more vulnerable to attack. several meanings, based on breathing,

ARRIVAL IN CANADA 233 A Disappearing. Act

etween 1649 and 1650, Huronia This was a fearful time for both the Bwas attacked by a coalition of missionaries and the Hurons. The Seneca and Mohawk Indians. For the Iroquois were skilled aggressors—so next ten years, the powerful Iroquois skilled that even their enemies were in moved in and almost annihilated the awe of them, as the Jesuit account Hurons and other Native bands in below illustrates. As you are reading, southern Ontario. They destroyed all pay attention to the similes used in the missions in Huronia. Many Hurons, this excerpt. What do they have in Petuns, Tobacco, and others of the common? Are they effective? Why? bands of southern Ontario, were taken captive and later adopted into the Iroquois League of [The Iroquois] come like foxes Five Nations. Jesuit through the woods, which afford priests were captured them concealment and serve them and tortured to death. as an impregnable fortress. They attack like lions and. as their surprises Five Nations: the original are made when they are least expected, they Iroquois confederacy meet with no resistance. They take flight like similes: a figure of speech birds, disappearing before they have really comparing two things appeared.

Figure 8-14 This weapon was carved from a single piece of wood and thrown by an Iroquois warrior in battle. It could fell an enemy 40 metres away.

Mk YOU KNOW' MI II MI MI III EMU ■ IN IN The coureurs de bois were the The names du Lhut, independent traders of the fur Marquette, and Cadillac THE ROLE OF business. Furs were supposed to be survive in the twentieth controlled by monopolies, such as the century as the names of a THE COUREURS city (Duluth, Minnesota) a Company of a Hundred Associates, Catholic university DE BOIS but these rules were easy to bend. (Marquette University in Since the Iroquois had more or less Milwaukee, Wisconsin) and In keeping with their plan, the French a luxury car (the Cadillac). tried to develop close trading stopped the Algonkians and other relationships with Native peoples. Native bands from bringing furs to Officially, they wanted Native traders the St. Lawrence, the coureurs de bois to come to the St. Lawrence. But in had to go to the source. They paid practice, French explorers and officials fees and bribes to look the coureurs de bois travelled far out into other way. The coureurs de bois the continent, seeking both furs and travelled the waterways in birch-bark the elusive Northwest Passage. canoes, usually made by the

234 CHAPTER 8 Algonkians. This was the beginning Radisson and de Groseilliers failed to MEM of the fur brigades, which eventually interest France in their find, they One of the most famous of opened up the west to the fur trade. travelled to England, where King the independent trader- Once into the Great Lakes, they could Charles II sponsored the creation of explorers was Rene Robert, Sieur de La Salle, a noble travel great distances. the Hudson's Bay Company—soon to from Normandy in France_ Brothers-in-law Pierre Radisson be New France's Number One enemy. He built the first sailing ship and Medan de Groseilliers are Other travellers, such as Daniel on the Great Lakes, the Griffin, The ship sank and perhaps the most famous of the du Lhut, Jacques Marquette, and was rediscovered in deep coureurs de bois. De Groseilliers Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac, water at Tobermory, brought many furs from the north travelled the Great Lakes and the Ontario, in this century. country. Radisson, hearing of the upper Mississippi. By 1740, the great northern sea from the Verendrye family (a father and three Algonkians and Ojibwa, was guided sons) had crossed the prairies and had fur brigades: groups of to Hudson Bay and the rich fur established trading forts. They people who traded furs for a living territories that surrounded it. When probably saw the Rocky Mountains.

Figure 8-15 This map shows the routes of French coureurs de bois and adventurers into the interior of North America. They were always assisted by Native guides. Regions of the continent were named according to what the travellers saw, or recorded, with reference to the fur trade.

JAMES BAY Fort Albany t4 9 4 il` (1 P ER r • s (1684) - • g. pupe"?2'w Oy 0 Fort Charles11--•;"....—..--'.take7 1\ (15613) Mistarini 14

Lee of 4, St loan the Woods Quebec V Late Sup,, Sault Trois-Rivieres Ste. Marie Montreal MANITOULI Mi chi li macki na F Green Fort 5 • gay er Frontenac (1673) • F oxy paw Fort Niagara (1679) EtSe ATLANTIC Fort St. Louis OCEAN (1682) • Fort Miami 0 Fort Crevecoeur (1679) (1679) 01,10 e, 0

0 200 400 km

S. 04, Ri,er Radisson and Groseilliers • (1661-1662) 4-- Father Charles Albanel (1671-1672) 0 -4-- Marquette and Jolliet (1663) -4-- La Salle (1679-1682)

GULF OF MEXICO

ARRIVAL IN CANADA Z35 . •••••••••••••••••••••• • • •.17 THE ROYAL PROVINCI OF NEW FRANCE hen Champlain died in production. Wood was cheaper in 1635, only a few French Canada than anywhere else. Louis lived in New France. The and Colbert knew they had to WCompany of a Hundred organize life in New France so that it Associates had failed to bring settlers could operate successfully as a to Canada, and the Iroquois commercial venture. controlled much of the fur trade (after France responded to the colony's wresting it from the Hurons). They call for help by sending a regiment of began to set higher prices and to cut professional soldiers. The 1100 French profits. For the next twenty- soldiers almost doubled the five years, little changed. population of Canada. Led by the However, in 1661, an appeal to Marquis de Tracy, they attacked and France for help from New France met burned Iroquois villages until the with success. Louis XIV, now king of Iroquois asked for peace. Both parties staves: the narrow strips of France, and his minister of the got what they wanted: the French wood in barrel marine, Jean-Baptiste Colbert, were would open up the fur trade to the determined to make the colony strong west for themselves, and the Iroquois and profitable. could devote their energies to The theory of mercantilism was expanding their territory elsewhere. very popular in the seventeenth In 1663, the government of France century (see feature on page 237). To made New France a royal colony. A Louis and Colbert, Canada needed to governor was appointed to represent become a part of the French the king of France, supervise defence, mercantile empire. In addition to the and establish treaties with the Native fur trade, there was talk of New peoples. A chief administrator, the France shipping barrel staves to intendant, would govern the local France's colony in the West Indies, people. Professional soldiers were where they were needed for sugar sent for protection. A Catholic bishop

Figure 8-16 This map shows the flow of raw materials and finished products within the The Triangle Trade French and English empires. N CE ..Lantlqn R A Industrial Goods LMT In this type of trade, England NORTH I :HParl: stzt .Rushee Agricultural Supplies used waste-sugar products to AMERICA 4 L. R6chefle make rum, and traded it for FRANCE Or. Fish 011 furs in North America. As you EUROPE study this map, consider why 418W 4 ATLANTIC Fish the French government OCEAN wished to keep New France small. Tim6e1,11111111k, 111 - Staves

Sugar

Peas 4e4. AFRICA ES Rum C4 Ri 614 N sEP, ---- GUADELOUPE MARTINIQUE 1000 2000 km SOUTH AMERICA A

236 CHAPTER 8

would be responsible for religious seigneurial system, similar to the nun: a Catholic woman affairs, and Catholic priests and nuns feudal system, would ensure that the who takes vows and enters a religious would continue to convert the Native colony's aristocrats would have community peoples to Christianity. Together, the control of the land, with the same governor, the intendant, and the rights they enjoyed in France. bishop made up the Sovereign Champlain had wanted the Native Council—the government of New peoples and the French traders to France. A few settlers were also intermarry and make one nation. But represented on the Council. this idea was slowly replaced with a France wanted the colony to be a new plan—a strong colony populated small copy of the home country. The by French peasants.

The Role of Mercantilism in Colonialism

A ercantilism is an economic Profits are large when a As you continue reading this IV !theory you read about last country spends a small amount of chapter, think about the political year in your study of global history. money on the raw materials and social consequences of Mercantilism became popular in needed to create a product and mercantilism and colonialism. Start Europe in the 1500s and was the sells the finished product for a by looking at Figure 8-17. As you primary reason behind Europe's high price. It is easy to see how a learned in Chapter 4, the West desire to colonize new lands. new colony in North America Indies produced many goods that The theory of mercantilism would be the perfect place for Europeans wanted, especially states that there is a certain Europeans to find a steady supply sugar. Who provided the labour in amount of wealth in the world and of new raw materials. Europe's West Indian colonies? that it is in a nation's best interest Mercantilism was meant to What does this say about European to accumulate it. Through wealth, serve the interests of the empire, imperialism and the mercantilist a nation can achieve power. A not the colony. Colonies existed for system? country achieves wealth by the benefit of the home country. profit: an excess of money after spending producing and exporting more Colonies could not sell their raw raw materials: natural sources, such as goods than it imports. These goods materials to anyone but the home trees or furry animals must be sold at a profit for wealth country, and they were not allowed to accumulate. to manufacture anything for export. finished product: a product that has been manufactured

France Market for goods

Other Countries Other markets

Other Colonies Colony = Source of raw materials Home Country = Markets for surplus goods (beaver pelts) Manufacturer/Exporter Result = Small payment for valuable Result = Profit (accumulated wealth) raw material Restrictions = None Restrictions = Numerous

Figure 8-17 In this diagram of mercantilism, using beaver fur as an example, pelts were bought for a low price, made into hats, blankets, and other luxuries, and sold to home and foreign markets for profit. The surplus was often sold off to other colonies.

ARRIVAL IN CANADA 237 W ■. W - '■ ■ - ■ W tannery: a place where king's daughters." Over the next ten hides are converted to years, hundreds of young women leather THE FIRST came to start new lives in Canada. GOVERNMENT Talon also understood the role of the colony in the mercantile system. Jean Talon was New France's first He established lumber mills, a intendant. He knew that New France tannery, and a brewery in Canada. needed settlers, a good defence These did not compete with French system, and basic industries. The industries, but made trade within the arrival of so many French soldiers empire easier, and life in the colony made New France safer and also more comfortable. He also allowed increased its population, since many small ships to he built. These of the soldiers decided to settle in improvements made New France Canada. Talon recruited women by stronger, more self-sufficient, and looking to those who had the least to more profitable to France. gain by staying in France. These Frontenac, became New France's women, often orphans, became first governor. He agreed to take the known as the filles du nal, or the "the posting because he needed to escape people to whom he owed money in France! Almost from the beginning, Frontenac fought with the Church and the home government. Instead of keeping the colony small, as Louis XIV

Figure 8-18 The colony's first bishop, Francois de Laval, was an aristocrat who founded a training school for priests in New France, It later became Laval University. Laval fought very hard against the emerging trade in alcohol. Both French and English traders exchanged alcohol for furs at a large profit, a development that had a devastating impact on Native communities. This portrait shows the first bishop as a severe aristocrat. What other personality traits can you glean from this portrait?

Figure 8-19 Frontenac cooperated with—and fought with—the Iroquois.

238 CHAPTER 8 and Colbert wished, he ordered the attacks. The Iroquois said they would coureurs de bois to look for more furs, agree only if the French would not thereby extending the boundaries of expand their territory. Frontenac's the empire. He also disliked the own policy of encouraging the Jesuits, who were perceived to be coureurs de bois and other explorers harming the fur trade by trying to to travel far beyond the borders of limit the use of alcohol. New France seemed highly suspicious At one point, Frontenac asked the to the Iroquois. Frontenac was Iroquois to meet with him and build a recalled to France in 1682, but he was business alliance. Simultaneously, sent back several years later to lead however, he was building forts to his last campaign against the protect the French against their Iroquois.

ACTIVITIES

1. Create a dialogue between a Huron chief and a 4.Explain the relationship between mercantilism and Jesuit missionary in which both present their best colonialism (page 237). Can there ever be profit arguments for and against allowing the Jesuits to without one party being short-changed? Explain. stay and work in Huronia. 5.Talon, Frontenac, and Laval are often considered 2.Outline the reasons why young French Canadians important figures in the early history of New became coureurs de bois. Summarize the France. Do you agree? Make cases for and against explorations of the French in central North America. this proposition and draw a conclusion. 3.Outline the results of the fur trade from the points 6.Explain why some young women would agree to of view of both the French traders and the Native come to the colony of New France as filles du roi. peoples whom they encountered.

LIFE IN NEW FRANCE ife in New France was firmly prosperous. Many worked part-time anchored in the seigneurial in the fur trade system. Seigneurs, or lords, These various enterprises gave the were granted parcels of land, people of New France an attitude of Land the habitants, or peasant farmers, independence, which sometimes had the right to cultivate the land in irritated representatives of France. exchange for providing fees and They began to think that the services to the seigneur. This system colonists had forgotten their place. had much in common with the old Nevertheless, the people of New feudal system of Europe, but it was France were always loyal to France, also quite different. Both the and kept French traditions and seigneurs and the habitants, who customs. lived on the land, were relatively

ARRIVAL IN CANADA 239 argent: a french land measure midwife: a woman who THE SEIGNEURY helps deliver babies You read earlier that the parcelling of militia: citizens who train land into seigneuries was begun by as soldiers in their spare time the Company of a Hundred Associates. By 1663, there were 104 seigneuries divided into more than 13 million square arpents and spread over 320 kilometres on both sides of the St. Lawrence. The seigneur had to build and live in a manor house, hold court in the event of disputes, attract settlers, and build a mill. Usually, he was also responsible for defence. The habitants were required to pay rent, provide Figure 8-20 If the seigneur was absent and days of service to the seigneur, and could not defend the seigneury, members of his family could be called up. In 1692, teen-aged serve in the militia. They had to keep Madeleine de Vercheres led the defence of a their land productive and grind their seigneury when it was attacked by Iroquois grain into flour at the seigneur's mill. forces.

411111Elelafff, spared, in some of the small industries of Quebec. Women worked Figure 8-21 Rich merchants THE HABITANTS on the farm, and they had many working in New France were children, always delivered in the able to import furniture and The lives of the habitants were built home by midwives. They lived other articles from France. around the manor and the Church. Judging from the contents of simply, but reasonably well, once the Many of the younger people worked this room, what observations danger of attack by the Iroquois had in the fur trade or, if they could be can you make about the been removed. people who used it? Life was based on the cycle of the farm. In the spring, crops were planted, sugar was harvested from sugar maples, and the fishing season began (in the spring, many species

Figure 8-22 The homes of the habitants were well-built and often made of stone. Their furniture was made by local craftspeople, or by the habitants themselves. What signs of prosperity and lifestyle can you find in the picture?

240 CHAPTER 8 Better Off hi, New France?

lthough the habitants had the wheat they harvested. up with the attitudes of the Amany of the same duties as A French peasant, on the habitants, described them this way: peasants in France, their lives were other hand, paid 600 times as better in many ways. The average much rent as the habitant, and farm was 150 metres wide and many taxes, which the habitant did 2500 metres long, of which only not have to pay at all (see page 59, The men are all 25 percent needed to be farmed. Did You Know?). It is not surprising strong and The habitants paid the seigneur two that the peasants of New France vigorous but bushels of wheat, a live chicken, regarded themselves as superior to have no liking for ''••..... the peasants of the home country. and about $5 a year in rent. They work; the women love One intendant, apparently fed were tithed for one-twenty-sixth of display and are excessively lazy, those of the country distric is just as much as the to wns' people.

Figure 8-23 This watercolour looks towards the Ile d'Orleans, which is shown in Figure 8-6. You can see the style of farmhouses, and even a few habitants. You can't see the manor house, probably because the painter is using it as a vantage point. What might be the purpose of the fenced areas on the river itself?

to tithe: to tax

came into the shallows to spawn). cheese. Peas were an important crop, The habitants spent the summer and pea soup a common dish. They cultivating and weeding their fields, ate lots of fish, particularly on cutting wood, and clearing wasteland. Friday—the Catholic meatless day. The fall marked the climax of the Fruits and berries were abundant. year's labours. This was harvest time, Habitants enjoyed music and when the crops were gathered. In the story-telling, which occupied many a fall, animals were slaughtered and winter's evening. They were also foods preserved for the winter. regular church-goers. As was the The habitants ate well, and custom of the medieval farmers of shortages seem to have been rare. Europe, they often worked together People raised pigs, chickens, ducks, on joint projects and helped each geese, and some cows, so there was an other with planting, clearing, or abundance of milk, butter, and harvesting.

ARRIVAL IN CANADA 241 GUIDEBOOK Using a Satellite lime and a Map to Observe Chairs over Time

I n Quebec, most settlement took because they were given land in Although the map and satellite place along the St. Lawrence and strips, farms were very long and photo show two different areas, other rivers. This gave seigneuries a narrow. Moreover, many farms you can still see the strip farms of particular look, which is quite easy were subdivided lengthwise when the habitants. On the map, each to see from the air. children inherited them. strip is labelled with the farmer's Because river frontage was Examine this satellite photo name. The larger names are those important to the habitants, and and map for a few minutes. of the seigneurs. scale: the relationship between distance on a map and distance on the Earth's surface

Figure 8-25 An old map showing the St. Lawrence farms .•••

von 1.1•11411

Figure 8-24 A satellite image of the St. Lawrence farms. Vegetation is shown in red.

YOUR TURN

1. a) Examine the satellite photo of the region near 2.Locate the highway in Figure 8-25. What can you Montreal (Figure 8-24). (Downtown Montreal say about the direction of the highway? is the greyish area shown in the lower left 3.Locate the evidence of strip farms in Figure 8-24. quadrant of this photo.). Where are most of them located in relationship to a)Due east of Montreal is the Ile Sainte-Helene. Montreal? Find the Ile Sainte-Helene in Figure 8-25. 4.What can you say about the scale of Figure 8-25 b)In Figure 8-24, an island is shown just compared to that of Figure 8-24. (For information southeast of Ile Sainte-Helene. Why would it on map scales, see page 269.) not appear in Figure 8-25? (Hint: The map- maker did not make an error.)

242 CHAPTER 8 tr FA-r< d kr .1e,elle, THE TOWNS L.plazetfrw Avuste, The largest towns in New France X. La Catittatralia f. Le Arnaressre were Quebec and Montreal, 6. 124,k1D,At If . LevecAi followed by Trois Rivieres and 2% Xederag Tadoussac, all of which were on the 2.• mrtvartm apmant St. Lawrence River. Quebec was the oldest and most important of the towns. With its fortifications, it was also the strongest. None of these communities was large. In the early seventeenth century, only about 18 000 Europeans lived in the whole of Canada. Towns, with their small industries, schools, hospitals, and other amenities, were rather more interesting places to live than the scattered seigneuries. At the far end Figure 8-26 Quebec, with its upper city high on the bluffs and its lower city teeming with port activities, was the largest European of the St. Lawrence, bordering the town in Canada. Did the Church have much influence in New territory of the Iroquois (a border France? How can you tell? the Iroquois did not accept), Montreal was becoming a lively amenities: things and services which improve place. Fur brigades arrived via the life Ottawa River, the Church was very emissaries: people sent active, and Native visitors and out on missions emissaries came and went regularly.

WOMEN IN NEW FRANCE In the early days, Canada had attracted some women from France, but they were relatively few in number. If they could avoid it, the fur-trading monopolies did not want to build up communities of farmers. Some of the first female immigrants to New France were nuns, sent out by religious orders to help convert and educate Native peoples. Marie L'Incamation, who came to Quebec in 1668, founded the Ursuline Order of Nuns for just such a purpose. The Ursulines Figure 8-27 This woman, in her long, fur-trimmed cape and hood, established a long tradition of is dressed for winter. She also carries a fur hand-warmer. What can Catholic service in New France. you conclude about her financial and social status?

ARRIVAL IN CANADA 243

As in old France, women in As widows, women could and did Quebec and Acadia had few legal actively take part in the business life rights. A married woman could not of the colony. After her husband's easily carry on business, sue or be death in 1745, for example, Madame sued, or dispose of her own property, Marie-Ann Fornel invested in land without her husband's consent. Even and other ventures with great success. so, women often worked like partners Similarly, Louise de Ramezay ran in the family business, learning the lumber mills, a tannery, and a flour skills of buying and selling, investing, mill. Other women also operated and bookkeeping. Because many men successful businesses in New France. had to travel to trade furs, women Of course, on the farms, women were often more knowledgeable about worked alongside the men, much as the day-to-day running of the they did in Europe. business than the men.

Immigration to New Fran

Table 8-1 Immigration to New France, This graph shows 1608-1759 immigration to New France from the beginning to Period Men Women Total the virtual end of the colony 21 in 1760. Examine the chart Before 1630 15 6 carefully and make a 1630-1639 88 51 139 statement about the male-to- 1640-1649 141 86 227 female ratio of immigrants. 1650-1659 403 239 642 During what two periods 1660-1669 1075 623 1698 does immigration peak? 1670-1679 429 369 798 Read the text for reasons to 1680-1689 486 56 542 account for these peaks. 1690-1699 490 32 522 1700-1709 283 24 307 1710-1719 293 18 311 1720-1729 420 14 434 1730-1739 483 16 499 1740-1749 576 16 592 1750-1759 1699 52 1751 unknown 27 17 44 Total 6908 1619 8527

ACTIVITIES

1.Describe life on a seigneury on the St. Lawrence familiarity of surroundings, physical labour, and River, perhaps during the Iroquois wars. taxes. 2. Reread the feature on page 241 and decide 3.Like the Jesuits, the women of the Ursuline Order whether you would have preferred to stay in of Nuns were some of the first Europeans to come France and live in a feudal-style farm or move to to Canada. Why are people who are attached to Canada and live as a habitant. Make a list of pros religious orders ideally suited to leave their home and cons for each option. Consider criteria such as country and take up residence in a new land?

244 CHAPTER

•• • • • • • • • • • • • • • 0 • • • • • * @ • RIVALRY AND CONFLICT he history of New France British ships and sank another with was marked by struggles for his single ship. King William's War power. The French fought ended in 1697, when the Treaty of Tnot only the Iroquois and Ryswick was signed, returning all other Native communities, but also captured territories, including Acadia, the British and their American to their original owners, colonies. Fights occurred because one Queen Anne's War, or "the War of group or nation had infringed on the the Spanish Succession," began in territories of the other. Native bands 1704 and ended in 1713. This time, were often forced to side with the Acadia was captured once again by the European power that would help them English, but another attack on Quebec achieve the goals of their own people. failed. In other parts of the world, the There were four major wars British were also successful, defeating between the French and English in French armies in major battles in North America. Each conflict was a Europe. The Treaty of Utrecht, which European war that had been carried ended the war, gave Britain territories confederacy: an alliance; a joining of independent over to the colonies. in Canada and India, as well as states King William's War, also called Gibraltar, one of the most important to ally: to take sides with "the War of the Grand Alliance," strategic locations in the world. began in 1689 and ended in 1697. It was fought to block Louis XVI's

ambitions to expand his overseas JAMES BAY territory. In North America, the vc1/4‘49 GULF OF leader of the French forces was the RUPERV S • SI LAWRENCE 47-:.-1 ISLE Louisbouorg famous Frontenac. Although he was e . l ST. JEAN 70 years old, he personally led the Chignecto -Y Bay Fort Canso French, accompanied by Native allies, C C LBeausejour Quebec 4 Grand Pre on raids against Britain's Thirteen Ai Halifax Colonies. Trois-Rivieres • St 4,:;" Annapolis Montreal • (Port Royal) Sault

naval battle, d'Iberville captured two Ohio R. 0 200 400 km

11 Approximate area of figure 8-28 This map shows threats faced by eS R. English settlement New France to the east, south, and west. After Territory of the the defeat of the Hurons in 1649, most of New Iroquois Confederacy France's Native allies came from the woodlands [1.11 Huronia of the north. Britain allied with the powerful At— English thrusts Iroquois Confederacy. As new England grew, • French and the Iroquois grew stronger, the population • British of New France remained low. Why would the Iroquois need to ally themselves with anyone?

ARRIVAL IN CANADA 245 The Fortress of Louisbourg

n the seventeenth and eighteenth Louisbourg was supposed to through nearby coves. In addition, (centuries, when France and be impregnable. Roughly designed its walls were made of materials England were at war in North in the shape of a star, its walls that were slow to set and that America, strategic sites were were 2.4 metres thick and more crumbled easily. Louisbourg's critically important. These sites than 9 metres high. The walls were soldiers were often uncomfortable, were often fortified. angled to deflect cannon-balls. and morale was always low. A strategic site is one that Sappers could not easily Louisbourg fell to an assault by overlooks, or is close to, an undermine the wall because New Englanders in 1745. The important communication route. soldiers could shoot down at them fortress was returned to France in Because the St. Lawrence River was from many vantage points. return for the Madras Islands by a the highway of New France, France Unfortunately, Louisbourg had treaty in 1748. had to prevent the English from some disadvantages. It could be Sapper: a military specialist in the field of taking control of the Gulf of St. attacked by cannon-fire from a fortification Lawrence. In order to protect its number of surrounding hills, and it valuable river-route, France built was easily approached by boat the great fortress of Louisbourg in Cape Breton. Her other great fortress was Quebec, built high on a cliff-guarded hill overlooking the St. Lawrence.

Figure 8-29 This drawing of Louisbourg shows its thick, angled walls made of lime and mortar. The damp climate of the region encouraged the deterioration of the walls.

barracks and governor's residence

limestone walls

The Treaty of Utrecht, however, Louisbourg to protect the St. did not end fighting in North Lawrence, the lifeline of New France. America. Boundaries remained All sides prepared for another war, unclear, and the Native peoples were and one broke out in 1744. The final still unhappy about European act in the conflict began when the settlement in their territories. Fights Seven Years' War broke out in 1755. and raids were still common. In When it ended, New France had anticipation of further conflict, become a British possession, and France built the "super fortress" of Canada a British colony.

246 CHAPTER 8 farm lands. Although many Acadians to expel: to force managed to return home after a long departure THE SEVEN YEARS' exile, others moved to French tuberculosis: an infectious Louisiana. The expulsion of thousands disease that affects the WAR AND THE lungs of Acadians is one of the most tragic FALL OF NEW events in Canadian history. FRANCE In 1758, British troops under General James Wolfe captured the Your letters on the negotiations fortress of Louisbourg, the doorway to terrify me. The betrayal with which the St. Lawrence. Wolfe's victory at they threaten the colony, at once so Louisbourg was made possible useful and so loyal, is incredible ... because the British prime minister These letters bind my arms. had made the capture of Canada a top priority in the war with France. —GOVERNOR LA GALISSONNIERE [1600] Besides, Wolfe, although young and Unlike the previous wars, the Seven dying of tuberculosis, was a brilliant Years' War had its origins in North commander. America. The growing colonies of New France, on the other hand, New England resented the fact that, by had some chain-of-command treaty, they were not allowed to cross problems. The military commander, the Allegheny Mountains and settle in the Marquis de Montcalm, was a good the rich farm lands of the Ohio Valley general, but he did not get along with and neighbouring areas. In fact, before the Marquis de Vaudreuil, the the war broke out, fighting occurred governor. Vaudreuil, born in Canada, along the border areas even though thought Montcalm lacked knowledge France and Britain were officially at about fighting in North America. peace. Since both the French and Montcalm had little respect for the English claimed the valuable Ohio Canadian methods of Vaudreuil. The Valley, and were sending troops into two sometimes cancelled one the area, war was inevitable. another's orders. This confusion would In one of the first battles, a fight help bring about the fall of Quebec. between British soldiers led by George For a time, the war went well for Washington (who later became the French, who won victories in many president of the United States) and places. The loss of Louisbourg, French troops resulted in a British however, was a major defeat. Moreover, defeat in Ohio. In other areas, British because French Canadian farmers were and Mohawks fought the French and away fighting, not harvesting crops, their Native allies in the north. food and other supplies became short. The British government, realizing In 1759, British ships sailed down that a battle for the continent was the St. Lawrence and anchored within underway, sent more troops and took sight of Quebec's citadel. Seizing the other measures. In 1755, the Ile d'Orleans and the south shore of government ordered the Acadians (see the river, Wolfe then ordered his the Window on the Past) to be cannons to fire into the city and forcibly removed from their homes. fortress. However, because it was late The Acadians had refused to swear in the year, Montcalm and Vaudreuil loyalty to Britain, even though their hoped that they could hold on until land had become part of British the British had to leave the river before territory in 1713. winter set in. Wolfe understood this The removal of the Acadian people problem and looked for a solution. To made it possible for New England force the militia to desert, he settlers to move into their abandoned published orders that any farm missing

ARRIVAL IN CANADA 247 Fearing that even more British troops might arrive with heavier cannons, he gave the order to march out of the fortress, and led the attack in person. Charging the British, the militia began to fire before the British were in range. The British, however, held fire until the French were only 40 metres away. Then, on Wolfe's orders, they fired at the French forces. As one commentator put it, "With one deafening crash, the most perfect volley ever fired on battlefield burst forth as if fired from a single, Figure 8-30 The death of monstrous weapon, from end to end General Wolfe men would be burned—orders that helped to weaken the French forces. of the British line." Wolfe then discovered a small As French soldiers fell dead and cove, now called "Anse au Foulon." wounded by the hundreds, the British (Wolfe's Cove). From here a trail led reloaded and fired again and again. to the top of the cliffs. Under cover of Defeated, the French retreated to darkness, and fooling sentries by Quebec. Wolfe was killed, and pretending they were piloting French Montcalm was mortally wounded. He supply boats, longboats brought died later in the citadel. Soon after, troops to the cove. Highlanders of the Quebec surrendered. Although French British army scaled the cliffs and soldiers counter-attacked, they could overpowered the sentries. The rest of not displace the British once fresh Wolfe's soldiers followed. In the troops arrived the next spring. That morning, Montcalm saw the "thin, year, in 1760, Montreal was taken. red line" of 4500 soldiers stretched When the Treaty of Paris was signed across the Plains of Abraham, ready in 1763, New France was declared a to challenge the might of Quebec. British possession.

ACTIVITIES

1.Outline the causes of war between Britain and 3.Work with a partner or small team to create a France in North America. strategic plan for victory in the Seven Years' War, using outline maps that you have drawn and other 2.Explain why the Mohawks and other First Nations materials. You may represent the British, French, would choose to become allied with Europeans, or one of the nations of the Iroquois Confederacy. even though they knew that all Europeans were a Present your strategic plan to the class. threat to their territory and way of life.

248 CHAPTER 8 CONCLUSION

he long history of New France—as a Today, French culture is central to the identity possession of France—ended on the Plains of Canada. It is particularly strong in New of Abraham in 1759. But the culture and Brunswick, where most Acadians live, and in the Tsociety that had been established in province of Quebec. The dreams of Champlain and Acadia, in the interior of North America, and along the other founders of French Canada have not died. the St. Lawrence, did not die. It had deep roots, and, French-Canadian society, originally built on the fur for many reasons, the British were content to leave trade and strengthened through the seigneurial the French to live in their own way. system, has grown far beyond its founders' visions.

SUMMARY ACTIVITIES

1.In a group, create a large map of North America as you 4.In comic-book format, describe the growth of New think Cartier, Champlain, or La Salle might have France to 1700. imagined it. Research the Native cultures that they 5.Create a portion of a ship's log to describe the triangle would encounter to the west, south, and north. Draw of trade between Canada, the West Indies, and France. their territories on the map, and include notes about A ship's log usually includes daily entries that describe important cultural traits of which the French should be the ship's progress, the weather, and other events. aware 6.Some historians argue that the expulsion of the 2.With partners, create a play, from a Huron point of Acadians was cruel but necessary, since the Acadians view, about the destruction of Huronia. were potential enemies and more French were coming 3.Build a model of an Iroquois town, with stockade, to Acadia all the time. How would you respond to this houses, and surrounding fields. proposal? With a partner, construct a pro or con argument about the expulsion.

1. By the eighteenth century, many European nations had 2. Find out more about the revival of Acadian culture in built vast empires around the world. You have had the New Brunswick through literature, music, theatre, and opportunity to learn about the British and French cuisine. Collect as many pictures depicting Acadian imperial ambitions in Crossroads. Find out more culture as you can and display them on the class information about the empires of the Spanish, the bulletin board. Portuguese, and the Dutch. What regions of the world were controlled by these countries? When did these colonies gain their independence?

249