Masaryk University Faculty of Arts
Department of English and American Studies
English Language and Literature
Ivona Schöfrová
Darkness in William Blake’s The First Book of Urizen
Master’s Diploma Thesis
Supervisor: Stephen Hardy, Ph. D.
2015
I declare that I have worked on this thesis independently, using only the primary and secondary sources listed in the bibliography.
…………………………………………….. Ivona Schöfrová
Acknowledgement
I would like to thank my family and my partner Miroslav Vrzal for their loving support throughout my studies. I would also like to thank my supervisor, Stephen Hardy, Ph.D., for his valuable advice and encouragement. Table of Contents
Table of Contents…………………………………………………………………..1
1 Introduction.…………………………………………………………..……..2
2 William Blake………………………………………………..………...... 6
2.1 Blake’s Prophetic Books……………………...………………9
2.2 The [First] Book of Urizen……………….….…………..…..12
3 Darkness in The First Book of Urizen...... ……………………..……………19
3.1 Birth …………………………………….…………………………..21
3.1.1 Womb……………………………………………………22
3.1.2 Sex………………………………………….……………27
3.1.3 Embryology……………………………………………...32
3.2 Depths………………………………………………………………43
3.2.1 Abyss………………………………………………....…43
3.2.2 Sleep………………………………………………..…...51
3.2.3 Death…………………………………………..………..56
3.3 Perception………………………………………………………………61
3.3.1. Senses……………………………………………...... …62
3.3.2. Law……………………………………………………..71
4 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………82
5 Works Cited.……………………………………………………………….87
6 List of Abbreviations………………………………………………………91
7 Resumé (Englsih) …………………………………………………………92
8 Resumé (Czech) …………………………………………………………..93
Appendix …………………………………………………………………….……94
1
1 Introduction
The main aim of this thesis is to analyse selected aspects of darkness in William
Blake’s The First Book of Urizen in terms of references to darkness at the textual level as well as at the visual level, taking into account also the imagery and the metaphorical level of
The First Book of Urizen. These aspects are analysed in order to explain and comment on the significance of darkness and its meaning in Blake’s poem. The thesis analyses darkness with respect to the form of Blake’s The First Book of Urizen, which consists of twenty-eight plates in the form of relief etching with hand colouring, distinguishing between eighteen plates of text and designs, and ten full page designs. The thesis tries to observe how Blake uses darkness and how he employs it in order to express poetically his views on selected myths. Blake seems to derive his mythology from different sources of myths, such as Greek and Christian myths, which appear to be interconnected in his The First Book of Urizen.
This allows him to introduce his own perspectives on genesis influenced by the concepts of
Gnosticism, particularly the concepts of the demiurge1and his material world. Blake attempts to comment on various problematic aspects of the material world and its establishment in order to express his personal philosophies.
The thesis consists of three major chapters, each divided into specific sections in order to provide a clear thematic division. The first chapter offers a theoretical background which is considered necessary for general understanding of the analysed aspects of darkness and its negative connotations in The First Book of Urizen. To be more specific, the chapter is devoted to William Blake and its main aim is to introduce not only William Blake but also the relevant aspects of his life, family background, education, and possible influences on his works, which are considered important and relevant for the subsequent analysis. It further
1 Term used in Gnosticism to refer to the creator of the material world.
2 focuses on William Blake’s prophetic writings and tries to provide a brief outline of his literary works known as prophetic books. This outline may be important in order to understand Blake’s literary tendencies in relation to the selected aspects of darkness.
Furthermore, William Blake’s The First Book of Urizen is introduced and its significance within Blake’s works and his prophetic writings is explained. In addition, the chapter attempts to outline the methodology of the research and it further elaborates on the research question. A chronology of events and key characters from The First Book of Urizen is provided in order to clarify the epics of the poem, which may be helpful in terms of understanding the interpretation of the poem as well as the analytical part of the thesis.
Subsequently, the following chapter ‘Darkness in The First Book of Urizen’ attempts to analyse the selected aspects of darkness within three main categories. The first category deals with birth in relation to darkness and it tries to explain the significance of darkness in terms of the three following subcategories related to birth, including the symbolism and interpretations of a womb, conception and embryology. The following chapter deals with the category of depths in relation to darkness and it analyses the significance of darkness and its meaning and negative connotations in terms of three categories particularly interested in abysses, sleep and the concept of death. The third analytical chapter is devoted to perception and possible problems resulting from perception in their relation to darkness.
Perception is analysed in terms of the category of senses and Urizen’s law.
The analytical part of the thesis partially relies on The William Blake Archive, which is a 1996 digital humanities project providing digital reproductions of William Blake’s works and it is used as a primary source. In addition, the thesis also takes into account selected academics and their woks which are considered relevant to the analysis of The First Book of
Urizen. In particular, the theoretical background and the analytical part frequently refer to works of Northrop Frye, namely his Collected Works of Northrop Frye: Northrop Frye on
3
Milton and Blake 2and Fearful Symmetry: A Study of William Blake3, which may be important for understanding William Blake’s works and literary tendencies. Furthermore, references to Peter Ackroyd’s Blake4 as well as to Kathleen Raine’s William Blake5 are used to clarify Blake’s biographical data including his life and his family background. For the purpose of the thesis, Camille Paglia and her Sex Bound and Unbound. Blake6 is also considered an important source of references since it deals with possible interpretations of
Blake’s works. Finally, the thesis also takes into consideration other scholars, such as
Alexander Gilchrist’s The Life of William Blake7, David Erdman and his commentaries to
Blake’s designs in The Illuminated Blake8 or J. Sloss’s and J. P. R. Wallis’s The Prophetic
Writings of William Blake9. The complete list of secondary sources is provided in the Works
Cited of this thesis.
The last part of the thesis is the conclusion. It introduces the findings resulting from the analysis of the aspects of darkness in Blake’s The First Book of Urizen with respect to the mentioned categories of darkness at the textual, visual and metaphorical level. In the chapter, Blake’s development of the concept of darkness will be further discussed and particularised.
Finally, it may be necessary to emphasise Appendix of the thesis because it provides the mentioned twenty-eight plates of William Blake’s The First Book of Urizen, as well as other selected designs by William Blake which are considered relevant for the thesis (in terms of the possibility to compare and contrast The First Book of Urizen with other Blake’s
2 Erdman, David V. The Illuminated Blake. Garden City, NY: Anchor/Doubleday, 1974. Print. 3 Fearful Symmetry: A Study of William Blake. 4 Ackroyd, Peter. Blake. London: Vintage; 1999. Print 5 Raine, Kathleen. William Blake. London: Thames & Hudson, 1996. Print. 6 Paglia, Camille. "Sex Bound and Unbound. Blake". Sexual Personae. New York: Vintage, 1991. 270–299. 7 Gilchrist, Alexander. The Life of William Blake. Ed. Walford Graham Robertson. London: John Lane, 1929. Print. 8 Erdman, David V. The Illuminated Blake. Garden City, NY: Anchor/Doubleday, 1974. Print. 9 D. J. Sloss and J. P. R. Wallis "The Book of Urizen." The Prophetic Writings of William Blake. Ed. Vol. 1. Oxford: Clarendon, 1926. 80-104. Print.
4 works and concepts). Thus, not only textual but also visual references are provided and also clarified.
5
2 William Blake
William Blake (28 November 1757 – 12 August 1827) is a generally known and recognised English poet of the Romantic Age. However it is not possible to reduce his sphere of interest and his work only to poetry or generally literature. William Blake, apart from being a canonical author, is also a recognised visual artist, particularly engraver, painter and colourist. He is also indisputably regarded a graphic designer, calligrapher, printmaker and the inventor of the illuminated printing method. Furthermore, one needs to take into the account that William Blake is also considered an important philosopher, visionary, mystic and occultist. However, the list is still not complete. William Blake is also recognised for his political views as well as his views on religion, which are considered provocative. Therefore, Blake is also appreciated as a non-conformist, radical, autodidact, decided and strict individualist or sexual rebel whose revolutionary views were seen in terms of a radiating antichristian ethos10. Blake’s artworks are regarded as a complex and masterful combination of Blake’s skills including elements from various branches and spheres of his interests.
William Blake was born into the family of James Blake, a hosier, and Catherine
Blake. Peter Ackroyd claims that “all evidence suggests, that his parents were more than usually affectionate and considerate. Theirs was a liberal household in every sense (…).
Yet [Blake] did always remember that they had once ‘threatened’ to beat him” (Ackroyd
10). However, Ackroyd further adds that “at one time, his mother beat him for declaring that he had seen visions. On another occasion his father threatened to do the same for
10 Largely dependent on perspective and interpretation, rising also the question of today’s possible interpretation of Blake’s work, for further information, see A Satanist Introduction to William Blake, official text of The First Church of Satan available on their webpage http://www.churchofsatan.com which could be considered a representative and also determining for the whole phenomenon of Contemporary Satanism and subcultures connected to it because many successor organisations (Such as Temple of Seth and others) were organised as a result of Church of Satan schism.
6 precisely the same reason” (Ackroyd 9). This may advert to sensitivity or maybe even oversensitivity regarding Blake’s seeming touchiness, or, as Ackroyd suggests, it may be the sign of the early beginnings of his revolt, which caused him to “remain deeply nervous and resentful of any authority, even when it took the most benign form. (Ackroyd 10).
Consequently, the question of formal education or family business appeared problematic.
Once again, Blake’s parents proved to be very supportive and benevolent (which may be surprising because of Blake’s obscure relationship to his family). However, Ackroyd mentions Blake’s mother having Blake’s early drawings and verses displayed in her room and he also points out that “the father also excused his young son from the duties of family business, kept him from school, and even purchased engravings and plaster casts for his private study” (Ackroyd 9), which Kathleen Raine considers to be ‘father’s enlightened tolerance of his son’s artistic bent” (Raine 11). Blake himself, being a keen autodidact, seemed to appreciate this. Nevertheless, Ackroyd argues, that “there may have been disadvantages in such an autodidactic course – his spelling and grammar are never orthodox” (Ackroyd 11). However, Blake discusses the question of the formal education in many respects in his works and it is possible to assume, that Blake generally disapproved of the formal, institutionalised form education:
“Thank God I never was sent to school
To be Flogd into Following the Style of a Fool” (Erdman 510) 11
Later, William Blake, aged 14, was apprenticed to James Basire12. Peter Ackroyd suggests that Blake’s apprenticeship with Basire was very important for Blake. On the one hand,
11 Taken from Blake’s poem Schoolboy from Songs of Innocence. 12 James Basire (1730-1802) was an English engraver and a member of the Society of Antiquaries. Peter Ackroyd emphasises Basire’s influence on William Blake to a considerable extent.
7
Ackroyd argues that “it was an arduous and difficult apprenticeship even with a kind master” (Ackroyd 35) but on the other hand, it allowed Blake “to work out his own identity” (Ackroyd 33) and gradually, “Basire’s studio and workshop became Blake’s home” (Ackroyd 35). During his apprenticeship, Blake was able to combine his skills in craft, which did not limit Blake in his artistic efforts.
Even though Kathleen Raine argues, that the decision of Blake’s father to apprentice young Blake to Basire was not a fortunate one because “Blake’s great imaginings were cramped somewhat by the limitations of the engraver’s art, which inevitably influenced his style as a painter” (Raine 13), she then agrees that on the other hand, “any loss to painting was compensated for the enrichment of the art of engraving” (Raine 13). Being apprenticed to Basire, Blake had the opportunities to encounter Antiquity, or, as Ackroyd mentions, another key moment for Blake could be Basire sending Blake to Westminster
Abbey in order to make records of (not exclusively) the tombs. Blake thus became influenced by Gothic art and architecture, which could be considered a great influence on his work, too.
Another important aspect that could provide for the subsequent analysis of Blake’s work would be Blake’s encounter of New System of Mythology13 by a British scholar and mythographer Jacob Bryant14 who emphasises the links of world’s mythologies to those described in Genesis.15 Of course, there are many key moments in life of William Blake, as well as various, probably countless, (either proved or unknown) influences. The complete list, which would contain the important names, theories, concepts and historical moments in terms of references to possible influences on Blake and his work, is beyond
13 As pointed out by Kathleen Raine in Blake (Rayne 13). 14 Peter Ackroyd clarifies that owing to the fact that A New System (also known as An Analysis of Ancient Mythology) by Jacob Bryant was one of Basier’s projects. Blake had thus the opportunity to acquaint himself with Bryant’s works. 15 Refers to The Old Testament of The Bible.
8 the scope of this thesis, therefore, only a few might be mentioned here16, such as his marriage to Catherine Boucher in 1782, or other important moments deciding Blake’s fascination with Dürer and his Melancholia, or contemplations on Edmund Burke’s
Sublime and Beautiful, Plotinus’ On the Beautiful, the impacts of The French Revolution, the Graveyard School17 fashionable during Blake’s own period, which was preoccupied with contemplations on mortality and also immortality, which is significantly manifested in Blake’s work.
2.1 Blake’s Prophetic Books:
William Blake’s Prophetic Books are a series of poetic works including Tiriel, The
Book of Thel, America a Prophecy, Europe a Prophecy, Visions of the Daughters of
Albion, The [First] Book of Urizen, The Book of Ahania, The Book of Los, The Songs of
Los, Vala, or The Four Zoas and Jerusalem The Emanation of the Giant Albion written between 1789 and 1820, with Vala, or The Four Zoas18(unfinished). These works are rather lengthy, interrelated pieces of work focused on the mythological system that Blake
16 For the purpose of this thesis, influences will be referred to in individual parts of the thesis within and in terms of individual chapters. 17 Peter Ackroyd claims that Blake “was always preoccupied with death, displaying it in a thousand heterogeneous images” (Ackroyd 46) and he compares Blake’s work to the Graveyard School. Eric Parisot in his Religion, Aesthetics and the Mid-Eighteenth-Century Poetic Condition (for further reference, see Parisot, Eric. Graveyard Poetry: Religion, Aesthetics and the Mid-Eighteenth-Century Poetic Condition. Aldershot: Ashgate, 2013. Print.) suggests that “Graveyard poetry is a relatively modern literary term” and “at its narrowest, the term refers to four individual poems: Thomas Parnell’s “Night-Piece on Death” (1721); Robert Blair’s The Grave (1743); Edward Young’s Night Thoughts(1742–45); and Thomas Gray’s Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard(1751)”. (Parisot; 2003: 1). However, as Parisot further clarifies, the term ‘Graveyard School’ is often understood as “ a rather loose conglomeration of British poetry from the early to mid-eighteenth century that meditated upon the transience of life, the imminence of death, and (on most occasions) the consolation accorded by a Christian afterlife” (Parisot; 2003: 1). Parisot suggests that the term ‘Graveyard School’ is known owing to “William Macneile Dixon’s specific use of the term in 1898” (Parisot; 2003: 1). 18 The complete list is provided in order to point out that Blake’s prophetic works are interrelated in terms of Blake’s extensive cosmology and cosmogony.
9 created. Northrop Frye defines Blake’s Prophecies as “symbolic poems in which the characters are states or attitudes of human life [which] embody religious and philosophical concepts as well as poetic imagery. (Frye, MB 361). Moreover, these concepts are, according to Northrop Frye, “mainly concerned with Blake’s sense of the relevance and importance of the arts and of the creative faculty of man, and seem to have been derived mainly from a negative reaction to the British empirical tradition of thought” (Frye, MB
361). Nevertheless, when exploring Blake’s work, these characteristics, however accurate, need to be further explored in relation to the negative reactions and religious and philosophical concepts mentioned.
Here, it may be important to point out that Blake considered himself a religious person and a (self-proclaimed) prophet. The question of self-proclamation and Blake’s religiousness may need a further explanation. First and foremost, it seems necessary to mention that the matter of self-proclamation here may be problematic. It seems necessary clarify, that Blake’s Prophetic Books are inspired by Biblical themes and they also resemble other myths (the Greek myths or the Christian myths) both in structure and imagery. Blake’s own perspective on this is significantly important because Blake himself has a rather distinctive perspective on prophets and prophecies: “Prophets in the modern sense of the word have never existed (…) Every honest man is a Prophet he utters his word of private & public matters (…) A Prophet is a seer not an Arbitrary Dictator”
(Blake, AAB; 1982: 617). In other words, Blake’s perspective on prophecies is rather distinctive and needs to be taken into account.
Secondly, the question of Blake’s religious belief appears also rather complex.
During his life, William Blake claimed to see angels, demons or various other religious figures and as Ackroyd points out, “it could be said, in fact, that his decision to establish his myth was a way of strengthening and deepening that sense of a visionary world which
10 he had possessed since childhood” (Ackroyd 181). He also claimed to have “the Interest of
True Religion & Science & whenever any thing appears to affect that Interest. (Especially if I myself omit any duty to my [self]
Generally, William Blake is believed to incline to Christianity19 and his interest in Biblical themes and prophecies is not considered to be extraordinary, or, as Peter Ackroyd points out, Blake was “in competition with other prophets in this era20” (Ackroyd 179) and adds that “times of calamity are peculiarly fertile in visions and prognostications, predictions and prophecies” (Ackroyd 180), which suggests that such tendencies were fashionable in
Blake’s era.
Significantly, Blake’s works are often interpreted, regardless of (or including) his own perspective on his artwork, as based on anti-Christian ethos21 expressing his protest against various forms of institutions and authorities. Northrop Frye explains, that for
Blake, Christianity (as a form of institutionalised religion) cannot be considered heroic because it is only a “part of the purposeless welfare of the state of nature and not progressing towards a better kind of humanity” (Frye, MB 200).
However, it was already in 1818, when one of the most significant critic of the period, William Hazlitt in his Lectures on the English Poets: Delivered at the Surrey
Institution emphasises that Satan is “the most heroic subject that ever was chosen for a poem” (Hazlitt 110). With regard to Romanticism (and also Romantic Satanism), William
19 Blake’s biographer Peter Ackroyd mentions that William Blake’s father “James Blake may have been a Baptist (…) and his wife might equally well have been a Muggletonian (…). They might have been Sandemanians or Hutchinsonians, Thraskites or Salmonists, or, alternatively, they might have been part of a sectarian congregation with no settled name” (Ackroyd, 1999: p.4). However, it is possible to trace that William Blake “was baptised in Christopher Wren’s church of St James Picadilly” (Ackroyd, 1999: p.5). 20 Peter Ackroyd mentions Richar Brothers as one of the most significant. His prophetic writing A Revealed Knowledge of the Prophecies and Times, was published in 1794 (the same year as Blake’s The First Book of Urizen) and it “attacked king and empire” (Ackroyd 180). 21 For some authors, the category of Romanticism was not sufficient in terms of Blake’s works. One of the contemporary trends thus categorizes Blake in terms of Romantic Satanism. The most significant authors emphasising the phenomenon of Contemporary Satanism would be Peter Shock and Romantic Satanism or Adriana Craicun and her Romantic Satanism and the Rise of Nineteenth-Century Women's Poetry.
11
Blake is a well-known example of the poet who heroizes Milton’s Satan from Paradise
Lost. Peter Shock in his Romantic Satanism: Myth and the Historical Moment in Blake,
Shelley, and Byron22 analyses the elements of Romantic Satanism which he traces in works of Blake, Byron and Shelley and points out their possible interpretations in terms of the anti-Christian ethos. In reference to Blake’s Lambeth Prophecies23, Shock argues, that they “contain a primary form of Romantic Satanism, [which is] a Gnostic countermyth”
(Shock 6). Significantly, Gnosticism24 appears to be a very important concept penetrating
Blake’s prophetic writings and its significance will be further clarified in relation to The
First Book of Urizen and its aspects of darkness.
2.2 The [First] Book of Urizen
The main aim of this chapter is to introduce Blake’s The [First]25 Book of Urizen and to outline its significance not only in general but also to explain why it was chosen for the subsequent analysis in the thesis. The chapter also tries to describe the methodology of the research, which needs to be clarified in order to understand the main attempts of the thesis.
22 Schock, Peter A. Romantic Satanism: Myth and the Historical Moment in Blake, Shelley, and Byron. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003. 23 The term refers to Blake’s Prophetic Books which were written in Lambeth, Surrey. 24 Gnosticism refers to a concept of a system dealing with origins of good and evil, the relation between material and spiritual world. Gnosticism suggests that the world is imperfect because it is in material form. Also, Gnosticism introduces the concept of the demiurge which is a divine principle, and it is understood as the creator of the material world and flesh. 25 The brackets are used because originally, the piece of work was called The First Book of Urizen. However, with regard to the later copies, ‘First’ was obliterated. On account of this, Damon in his William Blake: His Philosophy and Symbols suggests that “The Second Book was undoubtedly that one ultimately known as The Book of Ahania which continues the story” (Damon, PS 352). In The Prophetic Writings of William Blake, D. J. Sloss and J. P. R. Wallis observe and point out that two variants of the title page exist: One of them contains the word ‘First’ as well as Blake’s abbreviated first name ‘Will’, the second variant contains the continuation of a tree and the author’s name is abbreviated only to W (D. J. Sloss, J. P. R. Wallis; 1926: 80).
12
First and foremost, it may be important to focus on the known copies of Blake’s
The [First] Book of Urizen and information available in order to distinguish between the copies. With regard to the formal aspects of the analysis, it seems necessary to emphasise that, as it had been already mentioned, The [First] Book of Urizen is one of William
Blake's Prophetic Books published in 1794. The [First] Book of Urizen is available in nine26 known copies, two of them are in private collections. The remaining copies available differ in a number of details, frequently mentioned are right/left hand differences, differences in colour, objects, various pictorial details or arrangement of the plates. Considering the scope and the structure of the thesis, it would not be possible to engage in the analysis of darkness and its aspects and to include a comparative analysis of all the seven available copies of The [First] Book of Urizen.
Therefore, for the purpose of the thesis, the text analyses the copy B27 only. The
Copy B was chosen purposively because it contains all the twenty-eight known plates, including the title plate, Preludium plate, sixteen plates combining text and illustration, and finally ten illustrated plates without text. The plates without text may appear problematic because of their possible arrangement since it is possible to place them in different positions within The First Book of Urizen28. Thus, several possible narratives and
26 List of copies including present locations: Copy A, 1794: Yale Center for British Art, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut. Copy B, 1795: Morgan Library and Museum, New York City. Copy C, 1794: Yale Center for British Art, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut. Copy D, 1794: British Museum, Dept. of Prints and Drawings, London. Copy F, 1794: Houghton Library,Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Copy G, c. 1818: Rosenwald Collection, Library of Congress, Washington D.C. Copy J, 1794: Albertina Museum, Vienna, Austria. Copy E, 1794: Private Collection. Copy K, possibly 1794 or later: Untraced. (Source: Eaves, Morris, Robert N. Essick, and Joseph Viscomi, eds. The William Blake Archive. 1996-2015. Web. Accessed 20 October 2015.
13 subsequent interpretations may occur. It appears possible to arrange the plates with text only because they include numbered chapters. To avoid the problem with arrangement of designs without text, that would result in the need for another comparative analysis, the plates29 will be considered in their most probable order suggested, respecting the Keynes model numbering.
Secondly, it may be necessary to introduce The [First] Book of Urizen in terms of its supposed narrative, context and general perception. Such a task is not an easy one, since The [First] Book of Urizen may have been provoking various interpretations for many years. D. J. Sloss and J. P. R. Wallis consider The [First] Book of Urizen to be
“Blake’s first attempt at a cosmogonic myth.” (D. J. Sloss, J. P. R. Wallis 80). Peter
Ackroyd concludes that The [First] Book of Urizen “provides an introduction to Blake’s mythological world (…) and is at one level a parody of Genesis, in which Creation itself is seen as a giant fall (…) and the God worshipped in this world [is seen] as a most cruel demon.” (Ackroyd 180). It is possible to conclude then, that “Blake sees no difference between creation and fall” (Frye, MB 201). In addition, Northrop Frye suggests that “the
Prophecies are symbolic poems in which the characters are states or attitudes of human life. (…) These poems embody religious and philosophical concepts as well as imagery”
(Frye, MB 361).
These characteristics seem to reflect important and relevant notions. In general, it may be agreed that The [First] Book of Urizen follows a structure and a form of creation myths30 but it employs a different, rather provocative and parodic perspective on rooted creation myths. The [First] Book of Urizen may be understood as an introduction to
29 For further references to plate images, please see Appendix of this thesis (p. 93). All the twenty-eight plates with images are provided in full colour. Keynes model numbering refers to supposed and the most probable arrangement and position of the plates within the The First Book of Urizen, while object number refers to the supposed order of production. 30 Refers to The Book of Genesis – The Old Testament.
14
Blake’s elaborated mythology, serving, together with other Prophetic Books, as a sort of idiosyncratic Summa Theologica31 presenting Blake’s views and perspectives on cosmogony and cosmology. Blake’s distinctive perspectives allowed him to comment not only on the genesis myth but also to express his attitudes to religion, science, law, institutional establishment and their effects on morality (which will be further discussed in relevant chapters of the analysis).
Blake introduces the Eternals as well as Urizen32 (whose name readers encounter directly in the title of The [First] Book of Urizen) who is the creator, characterized as “the
Southern Zoa who symbolizes Reason. (…) He is the limiter of Energy, the law-maker, and the avenging conscience” (Damon, BD 419). He is depicted as an old man with white hair and beard (keeping various proprieties, such as compass). As Peter Ackroyd points out, Urizen may also interpreted as the “God of Old Testament, (…) the Great Architect,
(…) the Ratio (…) and the Moral Law” (Ackroyd 378). In the gnostic perspective, he may be interpreted as the demiurge, the creator of the material world. He defines himself as well as the universe and establishes a world which he tries to rule. In addition, as Northrop
Frye argues, “one should not fail to notice here the association of uniformity with a frigid paternalism. What Urizen wants is mental uniformity” (Frye, FS 223). Urizen is subsequently chained by Los33 who is another character of a great importance. He represents creative imagination and is perceived as “the worker in iron being regarded in the Old Testament as a new and suspicious substance, not to be used in constructing altars to the sky-god” (Frye, MB 412). In The [First] Book of Urizen he is often depicted as a
31Summa Theologica is used in terms of comparison in order to illustrate the scope of The [First] Book of Urizen but it does not actually speculate about Thomas Aquinas’s Summa Theologiae. 32 Two predominant opinions on the meaning of the name Urizen are generally known. First theory perceives the name Urizen as a wordplay on ‘Your Reason’, the second theory suggests that the name Urizen is derived from a Greek word for ‘to limit’ or ‘horizon’ (The latter theory supported by Kathleen Raine). 33 Two predominating theories about the name are in existence. First, supported by Northrop Frye, suggests that Los “is taken from the old English word los or loos meaning praise or glory (Frye, MB 412). The second theory suggests that the name Los is taken from Old Norse word Sól meaning Sun.
15 figure of blacksmith keeping his anvil, often surrounded by fire and flames. He is responsible for the human image and material body of Urizen, which is created in the course of seven dreadful ages.
Los pities his work and thus emanates Enitharmon34. She is the first woman, vulnerable and fragile, characterised as an emanation of “Spiritual Beauty, the twin, consort and inspiration of the poet Los” (Damon, BD 124). She gives birth to Los’s son,
Orc. He is the cause of Los’s jealousy towards Enitharmon, he symbolizes “Revolution in the material world” (Damon, BD 309) and he may also represent latent human energy. Orc is chained to rock by his father Los, his cry awakes Urizen from his deadly sleep. Urizen subsequently measures and experiences the world he had created, creates a net of Religion and his four children are born (four elements – Thiriel/Air, Utha/Water, Grodna/Earth,
Fuzon/Fire).
The introduction of the main characters in The [First] Book of Urizen may be helpful in terms of understanding their role and symbolic representation and value in the story of The [First] Book of Urizen. However, it seems necessary to emphasise that
Blake’s distinctive cosmology and cosmology introduced in The [First] Book of Urizen may be interpreted as a creation myth with its own distinctive structure as well as its inner chronology. Therefore, it may be equally important to provide a brief outline of chronology of the The [First] Book of Urizen in terms of significant events and their causality, which might be conductive in terms of better orientation in the analysis.
34 Again, two theories about the meaning of the name predominate. As Damon suggest, Enitharmon’s „name has been derived from the Greek anarithmon (“numberless“) or from (z)enith plus (h)armon(y)” (Damon, BD 124). Or, the second theory suggests that the name is a combination of Tharmas (“the self governed by instinct, and one of the Four Zoas) and Enion (“emanation of Tharmas, the body, Enion personifies bodily or maternal impulses”) (Gourlay; 2015: n.p.).
16
Blake informs the readers of The [First] Book of Urizen that Eternity35 occurs. For
Eternity, temporal or spatial dimensions were irrelevant, similarly to the concepts of life and death. However, Urizen, one of the Eternals, is not satisfied with Eternity. He becomes expulsed from Eternity because he fights and struggles to define both himself and his world. The Eternals 36 send Los, an eternal prophet, to control Urizen and his deeds.
Los’s activity and its temporal aspects enchain Urizen. Consequently, both Los and
Urizen are irretrievably separated from the Eternals (Eternity), owing to the Abyss of Los, which symbolizes the actual separation from Eternity. Furthermore, Los and Urizen seem to succumb to temporality. This results in Urizen’s transformation from the Eternal into a material body. Urizen is on the verge of death which simultaneously signalises his rebirth into a material form. During seven terrible ages, Urizen is transformed into a human mortal body.
Los pities Urizen and as a result of his pity, his soul is divided: Enitharmon, the first woman, emanates. Los seizes Enitharmon who gives birth to Los’s son Orc. However, because of Orc, Los is jealous of Enitharmon and he decides to chain Orc to a mountain.
The cry of the chained Orc arouses Urizen from his deadly sleep. Urizen, now transformed into the material form of a human body, rises to explore his new form as well as to explore his world in order to continue measuring and defining. Finally, he introduces his laws to the inhabitants of his world. Subsequently, in order to explore his world in detail, Urizen begins his journey but he soon learns that his laws are broken and misinterpreted.
Dissatisfied with the findings, Urizen introduces the net of religion in order to control hypocrisy and morality. However, Urizen’s religion results in degradation of the senses of
35 In The [First] Book of Urizen, Eternity might be interpreted and understood as a concept which is understood as “the reality of the present moment, not the indefinite extension of the temporal sequence” (Frye, MB 305). However, Blake also uses Eternity as the reference to the Eternals who are personifications of Eternity. 36 The reference to personified Eternity. Also, the Eternals might be associated with the gnostic system of the spiritual and non-material world.
17 the inhabitants of Urizen’s world and it also encourages various kinds of intolerance.
Urizen’s tendencies to stabilise the world and minds results in inclination towards chaos and death. Fuzon then gathers his siblings and they leave Urizen’s world, which they call
Egypt37.
37 It may be important to mention that The [First] Book of Urizen may be interpreted and understood as a distinctive form of creation myth in Genesis (Old Testament). Egypt might be a very significant reference: It is further discussed in Blake’s The Book of Ahania which resembles Exodus.
18
3 Darkness in The First Book of Urizen
So far, references to the Genesis from The Old Testament had been mentioned in connection to Blake’s The [First] Book of Urizen. These could have motivated William
Blake to “establish his myth [as a] way of strengthening and deepening that sense of a visionary world which he had possessed since childhood” (Ackroyd 181), and as Ackroyd later points out, Blake’s early biographers “agree upon a single aspect of his childhood,
(…) since it is one that affected his entire life – his closest and most significant attachment was to the Bible” (Ackroyd 13). It would be possible to conclude then, that such influences played a significant role in Blake’s work and they may have inspired Blake to create his own modification of the biblical myth. What kind of modification is it and what form does it take?
To answer this question, one should pay attention to Blake’s Marriage of Heaven and Hell where Blake suggests: “Angel, who is now become a Devil, is my particular friend; we often read the Bible together in its infernal or diabolical sense, which the world shall have if they behave well. I have also the Bible of Hell, which the world shall have whether they will or no.” (Blake, MHH 42). In this extract, it seems that Blake notifies his future intentions to come up with his own modification of the Bible, which would be the
Bible of Hell. This could serve as a reference also to The [First] Book of Urizen, for the reasons mentioned above.
Generally, it is possible to observe that the poem itself works with the conception of darkness frequently. Moreover, it deals with darkness at several levels. The first level stands for the notion of darkness at the textual level of The First Book of Urizen38. The
38 Specific examples will be analysed in relevant chapters of the thesis.
19 word ‘darkness’ is used frequently, together with other words referring to darkness (such as black, dark, dim)39. The textual references may be interpreted and further analysed, which provides one with the possibility to search for and subsequently analyse metaphors and symbols connected to darkness. These aspects of the textual level form a distinctive imagery, which is also related to the visual aspects of The First Book of Urizen. However, to examine and analyse these two levels separately, one would probably infringe the basic purpose of the individual plates of The First Book of Urizen (and maybe even the author’s intentions): this thesis employs the presupposition that it does not seem to be suitable and convenient to separate Blake’s designs from the text. As Northrop Frye argues, “one of the main obstacles to reading the Prophecies [is] the difficulty in grasping their narrative structure” (Frye, MB 199) and he also explains that the narrative structure and the textual level is equally important, or maybe even “subordinated to a process of comprehending an interrelated pattern of images and ideas” (Frye, MB 199). Therefore, the textual as well as the visual level of The [First] Book of Urizen is taken into account.
Plate by plate analysis was rejected as well, since it was not found suitable for either the scope or research. Thus, different strategy was chosen for the purpose of the thesis. The main aim of the research is to observe the notions of darkness and to analyse, how Blake employs darkness in order to express poetically in The First Book of Urizen and how it allows him to point out different perspectives on creation myths. For the purpose of the thesis, eight basic categories (including symbols, metaphors, and design details) were identified and subsequently organised in relation to darkness: Womb, Sex,
Embryology, Abyss, Sleep, Death, Senses and Law.
39 For further information, see the relevant chapters of this thesis.
20
However, for the formal purpose of the thesis, these categories were divided into three superordinate categories: Birth (including Womb, Sex, Embryology), Depths
(including Abyss, Sleep, Death), and finally Perception (including Senses and Law). This kind of a formal division may be questionable on the one hand but on the other hand, it is necessary to point out that these categories are logically unified and they are in no conflict with the scope, relevance or the research.
3.1 Birth
The main purpose of this chapter is to provide for the analysis of darkness in terms of Womb, Sex, Worm and Serpent. It may appear almost symbolic to open the analysis with the category of Birth as it is generally perceived as a new start of a cycle or a new life. However, as the subsequent chapters try to demonstrate, The First Book of Urizen employs a different view: The birth is seen from a reserved perspective, not as a new, bright start. Instead, Blake suggests that a birth is only the beginning of the end, emphasising that the birth provides a material form which is subordinated to mortality and death. In order to illustrate these aspects, the thesis will look at symbols, metaphors and imagery connected to Wobm, Sex, Worm and Serpent, in order to analyse its connection to birth as well as to darkness.
21
3.1.1 Womb
First mention of or reference to a womb can be found in Chapter II of William
Blake’s The First Book of Urizen:
First I fought with the fire; consum’d
Inwards, into a deep world within:
A void immense, wild dark & deep,
Where nothing was: Natures wide womb (Blake, FBU; 1982: 72).
Blake here comments on Urizen, exiled from the Eternals. Urizen contemplates and struggles to define himself as well as a world which he could rule and delimit. At this stage, readers learn that:
Earth was not: nor globes of attraction
The will of the Immortal expanded
Or contracted his all flexible senses.
Death was not but eternal life sprung (Blake; FBU; 1982: 35).
One can observe that the state of being at this phase meant eternal life without death, there was neither earth and globes nor human forms. However, Urizen was not satisfied with eternity and from his point of view, it is not perceived as a pleasurable state being or existence. Therefore, Urizen later refers to it as the stage of “void immense” which is perceived as “wild, dark and deep” (Blake, FBU 72).
The corresponding Plate 4B40 pictorially represents naked Urizen within his holiness and solitude, struggling and contemplating. His head in his hands may suggest
40 See Appendix, The First Book of Urizen, Copy B, Plate 4, Object 4, Keynes 4.
22 either the intensity of contemplation or his struggle when he “fought with the fire”. Urizen fights the fire in “Natures wide womb”. This is probably represented in Plate 4B in terms of the dark space below Urizen, which is predominantly dark black. In the commentary to
Plate 4B, Erdman suggests that Urizen “sits on fluctuating ground more liquid than solid”
(Erdman 186). However, Urizen’s fight with the fire may be a very interesting point.
Damon suggests that “this battle with fire is the battle with Orc who is yet to be born” (Damon, PS 352). Damon’s interpretation contrasts Orc and Urizen in terms of
Blake’s concepts of innocence and experience (which will be further clarified in chapter
Embryology of this thesis41). Nevertheless, it may be important to mention that Los is also associated with fire. Moreover, Blake frequently depicts Los as a figure of blacksmith.
This might be in a striking contrast to Urizen who is often associated with stones42. The two different principles – Los (fire) and Urizen (stone) may provide for a second possible interpretation. This interpretation may emphasise a contrast between the poetic expressions of Los’s fire and Urizen’s stones. Here, Los’s fire may symbolize energies, creativity, dynamics but also fluidity and chaos, while Los’s stones may be interpreted in reference to rigidity, solidity and establishment rooted in laws and rules.
Finally, the pictorial representation of fire needs to be further discussed. The corresponding plate Plate 4B43 indicates that fire seems to rise like blades of black grass”
(Erdman 186). Such a depiction of what Urizen calls “Natures wide womb” (Blake, FBU
72) seems to be surrounded by darkness on the one hand but on the other hand, it could be also interpreted as a dark and not a very positive symbol itself. Camille Paglia considers it to be “mother nature’s dark embrace” (Paglia 270) which she associates with “every turn toward sex” (Paglia 270), where darkness plays an important role again because in
41 For further information, see p. 32 of this thesis. 42 For further reference to stone (in relation to sleep or death), see chapter Sleep, p. 51 of this thesis. 43 See Appendix, The First Book of Urizen, Copy B, Plate 4, Object 4, Keynes 4.
23
Paglia’s perspective, “the earth mother [means] both womb and tomb44” (Paglia 280). In order to understand this interpretation better, one needs to pay attention to Blake’s perspectives on nature, which he seems to comment on in From Annotations to
Swedenborg’s “Wisdom of Angels Concerning Divine Love and Divine Wisdom”45 perceiving it as a “meer nature or Hell” (Blake, Kazin 195), a perspective, which accuses nature of being “a Creation that groans, living on Death, where Fish & Bird & Beast &
Man & Tree & Metal & Stone live by Devouring, going into Eternal Death continually
(Erdman 199). In other words, in Blake’s The First Book of Urizen, Blake does not use the womb as an especially positive symbol because he defines it from Urizen’s perspective in connection to nature perceived as something dark and empty (before the Creation) and at the same time, he uses the womb also metaphorically as a symbol of new life. However, from this perspective, a new life only prepares the way for death, thus the new life is also associated with the notion of corporality and temporality.
Secondly, the second occurrence of a womb in The First Book of Urizen should be also taken into consideration. This time, the womb does not refer to nature as such. It is used in the form of simile; Urizen makes the Eternals furious and discouraged after he had defined his world and himself. Then he tries to form a shelter, to keep himself from the
Eternals. The shelter takes the form of ‘roof’, which could also stand for delimitation of
Urizen’s world: “And a roof vast, petrific, around / On all sides he fram’d: like a womb”
(Blake, FBU 73). At the same time, it could be useful to rethink the description of
Urizen’s shelter or roof. It is apparently compared to a womb – and thus it is perceived here not from the point of view of Urizen but from the perspective of the omniscient observer or the Eternals and it is described as vast but also petrific. Why and in what ways
44 The symbol of tomb may be often interpreted in terms of death, mourning and darkness which is associated with the end of life and secrets and unknowability of afterlives. 45 Blake, William, and Alfred Kazin. The Portable Blake. New York: Viking, 1946. Print.
24 a womb could be petrific is explained later in The First Book of Urizen. Moreover, it is possible to observe a link to darkness:
and like a black Globe,
View’d by sons of Eternity, standing
On the shore of the infinite ocean,
Like a human heart, struggling and beating,
The vast world of Urizen appear’d (Blake, FBU 73).
In this extract, Blake confirms that Urizen’s world is observed by the Eternals – referred to as ‘sons of Eternity’ in this case. Urizen’s world, metaphorically resembling a womb, appears to be petrific. The petrifying aspect here could be the notion of vastness and chaotic structure, which the Eternals perceive as a black globe, which symbolizes a human heart. The human heart is not only beating but it is also considered to be struggling. This kind of fight, or struggling, suggests, considering the perspective of the Eternals, not only the painful effort of a beating human heart but also the birth of a new life. It may suggest and be interpreted from almost existentialist46 viewpoint.
However, the corresponding plate 6B47 depicts neither the womb-like roof, nor the black Globe but it depicts Urizen presenting his “books of brass48”, surrounded by blackness. Black then changes into dark colours, mainly noticeable in the upper part of the design, possibly suggesting vastness and darkness of Urizen’s world which is in the early stages of the creation likened to “the dark deserts of Urizen” (Blake, FBU 73). At the same
46 Both in terms of being and also in the concept of time, for further information, see for example Heidegger, Martin. Being and Time. New York: Harper, 1962. Print. 47 See the Appendix, The First Book of Urizen, Copy B, Plate 6, Object 6, Keynes 5. 48Which is a very important detail both in terms of the world Urizen created and also for the concept of darkness but it will be discussed in the corresponding chapter (see chapter Law, p. 71 of this thesis).
25 time, the dark colour may suggest sinister visions of the Eternals, observing Urizen’s work which seems to be shrouded in darkness.
Finally, references to Enitharmon and her womb may be important and worth mentioning. From the context, the reference to Entharmon’s womb is not primarily a mere simile or a symbol but it is described as a bodily organ:
When Enitharmon, sick,
Felt a Worm within her womb.
(…)
All day the Worm lay on her bosom;
All night within her womb (Blake, FBU 79).
This extract describes Enitharmon’s pregnancy, during which Enitharmon’s womb is trembling while Enitharmon feels sick. Furthermore, foetus in the womb is present and affecting Enitharmon during days – differently than during nights. Such depiction does not account only for an organ which protects foetus until birth. It also refers to the cycle of life and death, symbolised by references to nights and days. This cycle seems to be natural on one hand. However, as one could see above, references to nature and its interpretations may be rather sinister and dark when it comes to The First Book of Urizen.
Blake, once again, provides a different perspective here since he mentions the
Eternals who are “alarm’d with these gloomy visions” (Blake, FBU 79). The gloomy visions again suggest darkness and a rather sinister suspicion or intuition of the Eternals who, witnessing Enitharmon emanate, tend to turn away from such a dark vision and they
“beg[i]n to weave curtains of darkness” (Blake, FBU 79), which would conceal
Enitharmon, Los, and thus also Urizen and his dark and a vast world. The corresponding
26 plate 20B49 depicts Los and Enitharmon within the “curtains of darkness” which form a noticeable part of the background. It is predominantly black, supplemented with rather aggressive and passionate dark red shades. One may assume then that Enitharmon’s pregnancy and the subsequent birth of Orc is natural on the one hand but on the other hand, nature and natural cycles, from the perspective of the Eternals of The First Book of
Urizen result in death, which is finite, limiting and it marks the end of a life which seems to be dark, terrible and oppressed in Urizen’s world of darkness.
3.1.2 Sex
Referring to Enitharmon’s pregnancy, the foetus in her womb, and the birth of her son Orc, it is necessary to focus on the process of sex and conception itself, too. One learns that Enitharmon is the first woman, or as Blake puts it “a female form, now separate” (Blake, FBU 78). Paglia argues that “emanations can be of either sex but the most important ones are female” (Paglia 287). The character of Enitharmon complies with
Paglia’s observations: Enitharmon is a female form and she is also a character of crucial importance. Enitharmon is called and subsequently considered Pity50 at the beginning. By this, Blake explains the process of emanating from Los. He weeps and pities Urizen in his deadly sleep and this seems to be the turning point because, as Blake argues, “Pity divides the soul” (Blake, FBU 77). Thus one learns that Enitharmon was originally part of Los, pity divided his soul which results in Enitharmon emanating from Los. Furthermore, one learns specific details about Enitharmon’s appearance and nature:
49 See the Appendix, The First Book of Urizen, Copy B, Plate 20, Object 20, Keynes 19. 50 Capitalised in order to suggest both Enitharmon’s (second) name, but at the same time, referring to her nature and character.
27
Fibres of blood, milk and tears,
In pangs, Eternity on Eternity.
At length in tears and cries embodied,
A Female form, trembling and pale,
Waves before his deathy face.
All Eternity shudder’d at sight
Of the first Female, now separate,
Pale as a cloud of snow,
Waving before the face of Los” (Blake, FBU 78).
It is possible to observe the striking differences between Enitharmon and Los from the extract mentioned above: Enitharmon is pale, likened to snow, trembling, while Los’s face is “deathy51”. The depiction of Enitharmon and Los in the mentioned plate 20B concurs with the description. Enitharmon’s naked body is pale, while Los’s naked body52 appears much darker, including shades of dark red and orange. These differences in colour are emphasised within the whole The First Book of Urizen, where Los is often depicted in, within or surrounded by fire and flames. The fire and flames seem to blacken Los’s body.
The connection to flames may also highlight the fact that Los is seen as a figure of blacksmith, with an anvil in his hand, referring to the notion of blacksmiths being generally smudged, grimy and smeared, thus often associated with dark colours or black.
This is the way Los is pictorially represented in most of the plates but to illustrate the
51 “Deathy” (Blake; 1982: 78) refers to Blake’s specific use of the word, which is associated with darkness in The First Book of Urizen (deadly black). 52 Nudity seems to be significant in The First Book of Urizen. D. H. Lawrence in his Late Essays and Articles emphasises that Blake “dares handle the human body” (Lawrence; 2004: 193) while the fashion of the era focuses on “painting of garments” (Lawrence; 2004: 193) in order to cover human bodies and their nakedness.
28 imagery, Los and his attributes, it is necessary to mention plate 18B53, where Los is shown before his emanation. That stage properly demonstrates Los’s nature. David Erdman highlights especially Los’s attributes which may be recognised “from the fiery heart’s center where the hammer pounds the anvil (Erdman 200), thus suggesting the similarity to blacksmiths.
On the other hand, as it has been already mentioned, Los’s appearance seems to provoke a striking contract to the appearance of Enitharmon who is described as snow or angelic white, fragile and trembling. However, a link to darkness may be also observed in the context of the moment of Enitharmon’s emanation. One learns that the actual emanation occurs when Los observes Urizen who is “deadly, black, in his chains bound”
(Blake, FBU 77) and that is the moment in which Enitharmon begins to emanate, or in
Blake’s words: “and Pity began” (Blake, FBU 77). Moreover, one subsequently learns that the process occurs “on the bosom of night” (Blake, FBU 77).
Considering the allusions to a night, it seems necessary to mention that nights are generally associated with the lack of light, lowered visibility, and darkness, and thus associated with black or dark colours. The imagery of darkness is intensified by the fact that during the process of emanation, “clouds and darkness” (Blake FBU 77) appear to witness the emanation, or, as Blake puts it, the process of “dark separation” (Blake FBU
77). Before the process is finished, the Eternals provide their own perspective – the poem reveals that:
So the expanding eyes of Immortals
Beheld the dark visions of Los,
53 See the Appendix, The First Book of Urizen, Copy B, Plate 18, Object 18, Keynes 18.
29
And the globe of life-blood trembling54 (Blake FBU 78).
The Eternals do not appear to approve of the separation and Los’s Emanation. Moreover, it does not seem acceptable for them to further observe Los and his Emanation
Enitharmon. The Eternals therefore decide to keep Los and Enitharmon from their sight:
‘Spread a Tent with strong curtains around them!
Let cords and stakes bind in the Void,
That Eternals may no more behold them’
They began to weave curtains of darkness (Blake FBU 78).
Curtains of darkness are spread around Enitharmon and Los - darkness is emphasised once again. The main purpose of the curtains is not only to prevent the Eternals from observing the dark visions of Los and Enitharmon but also to hide the fact that Los is attracted to
Enitharmon and that he tries to get closer to her in order to seize her. One subsequently learns about the process of the conception (which later results in Enitharmon realizing that she is pregnant). The conception occurs after Los beholds his Emanation Pity –
Enitharmon who is now completed:
But Los saw the Female, and pitied;
He embrac’d her; she wept, she refus’d;
In perverse and cruel delight
She fled from his ars, yet he follow’d. (Blake FBU 79).
54 The globe of life-blood trembling refers to Enitharmon before the process of emanation is finished.
30
The extract above could be interpreted in relation to darkness, too. Its textual level contributes to imagery of darkness owing to its almost sadistic aspects. These aspects emerge when Enitharmon rejects Los who wants to seize her. However, at the same time, it is a pleasurable moment for Enitharmon and she experiences delight which culminates with the notion of cruelty and perversity. Camille Paglia considers this sexual intercourse to be “a violent public sex act, from which the horrified universe cannot averse its eyes”
(Paglia 288) and because of the elements of perversity and cruelty or violence, she compares Blake’s sexual imagination to the concepts of Marquis de Sade 55 who is famous
(not only) for his libertine sexuality.
However, the notion of perversity might be interpreted also in a different way. As it is possible to observe in the following extract, Eternity is horrified:
Eternity shrudder’d when they saw
Man begetting his likeness
On his own Divided Image! (Blake FBU 79).
Perversity, in Blake’s view, does not necessarily need to refer to pleasure and the actual sexual act. At this point, it seems necessary to emphasise once again that Enitharmon was originally part of Los who felt pity, his soul had been thus divided and Enitharmon emanated as a result. Considering the original Christian creation myth and its background, with regard to Los and Enitharmon, it is possible to find a resemblance to the biblical characters Adam and Eve. According to the Christian creation myth, Eve was originally created out of Adam’s rib. Similarly, Enitharmon was created out of Los’s soul, which was
55 French aristocrat, (1740-1813) who is known for his philosophic concepts, revolutionary views on freedom, morality and sex, as well as for his libertine novels such as The 120 Days of Sodom, Justine, or he Misfortunes of Virtue or for example Juliette.
31 divided by pity. Subsequently, the sexual relationship of Adam and Eve as well as that of
Los and Enitharmon may question the morality of the sexual act. The main problem here would be probably the morality in terms of the incestuous relationships of the biblical couple as well as that of Blake’s Los and Enitharmon. This may lead to a question of perversity but as opposed to the former interpretation with elements of sadism, this time, it would be the morality of the incestuous relationship, which is generally considered immoral or at least controversial and rebellious against the shared conventional social values in the Euro-American cultural context56.
This interpretation therefore suggests that the Eternals are so horrified that they attempt to hide Los, Enitharmon, and their sexual intercourse in darkness. This darkness may thus also contribute to imagery of darkness hiding incestuous sexual intercourse which the Eternals try to ignore. Their attempts to conceal the incestuous sexual act may be interpreted as an attempt to taboo incest.
3.1.3 Embryology
The sexual act between Enitharmon and Los has its natural consequence.
Enitharmon’s womb is not barren and one learns that Enitharmon realizes that she is pregnant:
When Enitharmon, sick,
Felt a Worm within her womb.
56 The term Euro-American cultural context might be problematic because of its vagueness. Nevertheless, it is used in reference to Blackwell’s use of the term with regard to his views on incest as well as with regard to references to other authors using the same term: “In almost all cultures, …there are prohibitions against incest, but these vary considerably in Euro-American cultures” (Blackwell 188). For further reference, see Blackwell, Wiley. The Blackwell Guide to Ethical Theory. Ed. Hugh LaFollette and Ingmar Persson. 2nd ed. Chichester: Blackwell, 2013. Print.
32
Yet helpless it lay, like a Worm
In the trembling womb,
To be moulded into existence (Blake, FBU 79).
The extract above describes Enitharmon realizing her pregnancy and the first indication is that Enitharmon feels sick. Her pregnancy is from the very beginning identified with negative experiences. Moreover, it is intensified by the fact that the foetus in Enitharmon’s trembling womb is not called a child but at the beginning, the foetus appears to be dehumanised and is called the Worm. Worms may often be interpreted as symbols of something rotten and, by extension, as symbols of a decline in quality. This supposition may be also supported by Blake’s poem The Sick Rose included in his Songs of Innocence and Experience which works with a similar imagery:
O rose, thou art sick!
The invisible worm,
That flies in the night,
In the howling storm,
Has found out thy bed
Of crimson joy,
And his dark secret love
Does thy life destroy (Blake, SI&E 47).
Blake’s The Sick Rose may be a helpful tool for understanding not only the concept of
“dark secret love” (Blake, SI&E 47), comparable to aforementioned sexual relationship of
Enitharmon and Los but also, at the same time, it points out the nature of the worm which is associated with night and a howling storm in The Sick Rose. Moreover, the narrator of
33 the poem suggests that the Worm is also pernicious for the Rose because her life would be destroyed owing to worm’s dark love. Similarly, in The First Book of Urizen, it is possible to observe that the speaker of the poem associates the Worm57 in Enitharmon’s womb with nights because it dwells “All night within her womb” (Blake, FBU 79). D. J. Sloss and J.
P. R. Wallis in their The Prophetic Writings of William Blake58 conclude that Pity, therefore Enitharmon, too is “becoming apparent as the Female [who] gives rise to the phenomenon of ‘Sex’” (Sloss, Wallis 96). As its consequence, a female and especially a womb makes it possible to bear children but as it was suggested earlier in the thesis, womb, in Blake’s perspective, does not represent the reflection of the celebration of a new life but contrastively, it “produce[s] only generation and death” (Sloss, Wallis 96). In order to develop this idea, the Worm may be considered to be the start of a new generation but at the same time, it is one of the first signs of corporality and temporality which are marked by death and decay associated with darkness in its figurative meaning.
It is possible to conclude that Blake once again turns the attention to the nature, natural cycle and life and death. These are in The First Book of Urizen connoted with notions of corporality. Corporality apparently stands in opposition to eternity and the immortal, omniscient mind. And corporality is thus considered to be the gloomy and dark aspect of the genesis. Seen through the perspective of The First Book of Urizen, the Worm who is the result and the natural consequence of a sexual act and conception, seems to be the beginning of the end.
However, the foetus is not only brought to a standstill, the poem further tracks its development:
57 Capitalised in order to refer to the Worm, the actual character in The First Book of Urizen. 58 D. J. Sloss and J. P. R. Wallis "The Book of Urizen." The Prophetic Writings of William Blake. Ed. Vol. 1. Oxford: Clarendon, 1926. 80-104. Print.
34
All day the Worm lay on her bosom;
All night within her womb
The Worm lay till it grew to a Serpent,
Withdolorous hissings and poisons
Round Enitharmon’s loins folding (Blake FBU 79).
The Worm here represents the start of a new generation. However, at the same time, it symbolizes, in Camille Paglia’s words, the “death’s agent” (Paglia 276), which is the one to lead the mortals into “mother nature’s dark embrace” (Paglia 270). The Worm further develops into the Serpent.
Nevertheless, the Serpent does not appear highly dangerous and it does not manifest itself to a large extent, taking into consideration the textual level of the poem. It symbolizes corporeity, mortality but also passivity, and according to Foster S. Damon59 who, in his William Blake: His Philosophy and Symbols, deals also with the symbols in
The First Book of Urizen and their interpretation, it is also “a symbol of the Flesh, which appears simultaneously with lust” (Damon, PS 353).
In Blake’s designs, the Worm, hidden in the Enitharmon’s womb, is not pictorialized in the corresponding plates (see 20B60). However, it is possible to find depictions of worms in a different plate, particularly plate 25B61, which depicts Urizen’s children who “seem, from his “darkness,” the brood of monsters and worms” (Erdman
207). Dark colours also predominate in the upper left corner of the design, adding a schizophrenic dimension to the design with gloomy expressions in the faces of Urizen’s
59 Referring to Damon, S. Foster. William Blake: His Philosophy and Symbols. London: Constable, 1924. Print. 60 See the Appendix, The First Book of Urizen, Copy B, Plate 20, Object 20, Keynes 19 61 See the Appendix, The First Book of Urizen, Copy B, Plate 25, Object 25, Keynes 25
35 children. Their bodies or limbs are distinguished from worms only with a proper focus and attention. Erdman promptly considers the design to be a “can-of-worms picture” (Erdman
207), which also supports the desperateness and anxiety of the expressions of Urizen’s children.
Moreover, the dark threads rise as soon as the Worm develops into a Serpent, which “is merely the more dangerous form of the Worm” (Erdman 207). On the account of Worm and Serpent symbolism, D. J. Sloss and J. P. R. Wallis conclude that “Blake’s embryology probably aims at marking a low valuation of the new mode. Its emergence marks the completion of the severance of Urizen’s world62 from Eternity.” (Sloss, Wallis
98). Furthermore, the Serpent in Enitharmon’s womb does not seem to be as passive as the
Worm, contrastingly, it grows and manifests its presence:
Coil’d within Enitharmon’s womb
The Serpent grew, casting its scales;
With sharp pangs the hissing began
To change to a grating cry – (Blake FBU 79).
The imagery here, once again, full of negative connotations suggests that the Serpent is not a desired and positive occurrence. Moreover, when considering the original Christian creation myth, one may associate the serpent with the Serpent from the Bible, the tempter and the cause of expulsion of Adam and Eve from Eden. The Serpent is the original cause of their disobedience and their temptation to and lust for the knowledge which was hidden in the tree of knowledge of good and evil. Likewise, Blake’s mythology uses the symbol
62 Urizen’s world is often associated with darkness in The First Book of Urizen as will be demonstrated in the following chapters of the thesis.
36 of the poisonous Serpent which stands for temptation and lust. The Serpent, similarly to the Worm, is not pictorially represented in reference to Enitharmon’s child or foetus in her womb.
Instead, it is pictorialized, together with worms, in the mentioned plate 25B63 but probably the most striking depiction of serpents could be found in the plate 7B64. Erdman presents two possible interpretations of the designs of serpents. The first one deals with the interpretation in which “the illumination depicts a Satanic host defeated by a war in heaven (…), a Satan “falling headlong wound round by the tail of the serpent” (Erdman
188). The second interpretation deals with the notion of “a Messiah crucified [head downwards], prophetic of resurrection” (Erdman 188). Erdman further develops the latter interpretation and concludes that “the youthfulness of the central figure encourages us to see not Urizen (…) but Los or Orc constricted by the serpent which Urizen’s thought engenders in Eternity” (Erdman 188). Nevertheless, the gestures and expressions of anguish are present, making it possible to find a link between anguish in plate 7B and the reference to the Serpent in Enitharmon’s womb, being dangerous, tempting and sinister.
Furthermore, it seems necessary to mention that the Serpent is not the final stage of
Enitharmon’s foetus. The readers learn that:
Many sorrows and dismal throes,
Many forms of fish, bird, and beast
Brought forth an Infant form
Where was a Worm before (Blake, FBU 79).
63 See the Appendix, The First Book of Urizen, Copy B, Plate 25, Object 25, Keynes 25. 64 See the Appendix, The First Book of Urizen, Copy B, Plate 7, Object 7, Keynes 6.
37
Finally, Blake’s mythical embryology appears to be completed, at least in terms of the prenatal stage of the development. Subsequently, “an Infant form” or “a Man-Child” is introduced to the readers in reference to the new phase of the postnatal development.
However, Eternity is once again horrified:
Alarm’d with these gloomy visions,
When Enitharmon, groaning,
Produc’d a Man-Child to the light.
A shriek ran thro’ Eternity,
And a paralytic stroke,
At the birth of the Human Shadow (Blake, FBU 79).
Further references to darkness are mentioned, even though the foetus develops to a humanized form. The first reference could be the label which the child immediately receives: “the Human Shadow” and what is more, the moment of giving birth (which is painful – similarly to biblical Eve giving birth after being cast out of Eden) is accompanied by “paralytic stroke”, which suggests not only paralysis but also the shock and stillness of the Eternals, whose visions are gloomy.
Finally, to provide for the complete image of Los, Enitharmon, and primarily their child named Orc in reference to darkness, an observation of the corresponding design
23B65 may be helpful. The plate shows Orc with their parents, Enitharmon and Los. After
Orc is developed (from the Worm, through the Serpent to many forms of animals), he is depicted not as an infant or suckling but as a child who “has grown rapidly” (Erdman 203) because he was “Fed with milk of Enitharmon” (Blake FBU 80). What may be interesting
65 See the Appendix, The First Book of Urizen, Copy B, Plate 23, Object 23, Keynes 21.
38 here is Blake’s use of colours which result in a noticeable difference. It is because Orc who is hugging or reaching for Enitharmon, and Enitharmon herself, are pictorially represented in light colours and various shades of white, blue, light pink or orange. The eventual effect of the use of the colours results in striking contrast to Los, who is pictorialized in red colours with dark shades, again holding his hammer and anvil and, what is more important, with a chain hanging around him. The chain is formed of Los’s jealousy since he is jealous of Enitharmon because of Orc. That is why Los decides to chain Orc to the mountain. David Erdman points out the similarity of such theme to “the actions of Abraham towards Isaac and Jupiter towards Prometheus” (Erdman 203).
Moreover, it is possible to observe a dark background behind Los (contrasting with the bright Sun behind Enitharmon and Orc). Nevertheless, the colours used for the design may not reveal only the perspective of the myths mentioned: Stereotypically darker figures as the symbolic expression of their sinister deeds or ideas; light colours to suggest modesty or good intentions.
Furthermore, these differences in colour (which correspond to characteristics and attributes) may not serve only to distinguish between Los’s male essence and
Enitharmon’s female essence together with Orc’s childhood, even though it could be the perspective of one of the interpretations. However, in reference to the concept of darkness, it would be also interesting to provide for another interpretation, which presumes that the differences in colour could also represent the distinction between innocence and experience. The concept of innocence and experience seems to be important for William
Blake within his works, taking into account Blake’s poems included in Blake’s Songs of
Innocence and Songs of Experience66. These were produced between 1789 and 1794 and
66 See Blake, William. Songs of Innocence and Experience. London: R. Brimley Johnson, 1901. Project Gutenberg. Web. 10 October 2015.
39 the interest in the two concepts is obvious from the titles and therefore it is used as the example67.
As this text tries to point out, The First Book of Urizen bears also elements of
Blake’s concepts of innocence and experience and these elements will be demonstrated using the examples found in the mentioned plate B23 in relation to the darkness. First and foremost, it is necessary to mention, what innocence and experience represents in Blake’s perspective. With regard to the Blake’s concept of experience, Northrop Frye concludes that “the world of experience is the world that adults live in while they are awake. It is a very big world, and lots of it seems to be dead but still it makes its own kind of sense”
(Frye, MB 190). Nevertheless, the world of experience does not necessarily need to be associated with adults, what is more important is that experience is also a “quality in the world that reassures us [and] we call [it] law” (Frye, MB 190). It is possible to conclude then that law, representing for example institutional legal system, is of a great importance for society. “This society consists of individuals who apparently have agreed to put certain restrains on themselves. (…) Law then is the basis both of reason and of society” (Frye,
MB 190). Significantly, as it will be further discussed in detail, experience is perceived as undesirable state of mind, which is often associated with Fallen68 worlds or minds.
Contrastingly, the concept of innocence may be understood as “childhood happiness [which] seem[s] to be based, not on law and reason but on love, protection, and peace” (Frye, MB 190). At the same time, Erdman later clarifies that such innocence is not perceived as a mere guiltlessness or chastity and he explains that in Blake’s perspective, a child is “actually a little bundle of anarchic will, whose desires take no account of either
67 However, Blake’s views on innocence and experience may be found in other Blake’s works as well but a longer list of the titles would not be useful for the purpose of the thesis and besides, other Blake’s works which do not have the innocence and experience in the title might question the concepts of innocence and experience which could be considered only a result of interpretation. 68 Fallen, in Blake’s perspective and works usually refers to adult experience, life under moral law or death.
40 the social or the natural order” (Frye, MB 190). Of course, as children grow up, they meet the conditions of the world of law and their “illegal desires can no longer be tolerated even by [themselves], and so they are driven underground into the world of the dream69” (Frye,
MB 191). One may thus conclude that children are not only innocent in the right sense of the word but they are primarily innocent from experience.
Northrop Frye in his Collected Works of Northrop Frye: Northrop Frye on Milton and Blake provides his readers with quite a helpful diagram, which is provided here for further reference to the concepts of innocence and experience in the reference to the characters of The First Book of Urizen, namely Orc, Urizen and Los.
Figure 1 70
This brief introduction to Blake’s concepts of innocence and experience may be a very important means of analysis and it can provide for the necessary understanding of
Los and Orc and the link to darkness. To return to plate 23B71 and the differences in
69 Frye’s interpretation of dreams seems to be derived from Freudian interpretations of dreams associated with suppressed desires. For further reference, see Freud, Sigmund, and Joyce Crick. The Interpretation of Dreams. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1999. Print. However, it seems necessary to mention that Frye’s interpretation here seems to be in contrast to the interpretation of dreams as visions. For further reference, see Ann Marie Plane. and Leslie Tuttle. and Anthony F. C. Wallace. Dreams, Dreamers, and Visions: The Early Modern Atlantic World. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2013. Project MUSE. Web. 28 Nov. 70 Frye, Northrop. Collected Works of Northrop Frye: Northrop Frye on Milton and Blake. Vol. 16. p.n. 357. Toronto: U of Toronto, 2005. Print. 71 See the Appendix, The First Book of Urizen, Copy B, Plate 23, Object 23, Keynes 21.
41 colours, light colours and shades of white may be interpreted72 in reference to the concept of innocence. However, for the purpose of the thesis, the innocence of Orc or Enitharmon
(see Frye’s diagram on p. 41) is only contrastive to the concept of experience, which is associated with darkness, and thus it is of the main importance for the thesis. Therefore, the primarily attention is turned to the character Los and his depiction. As mentioned before, Los is pictorially represented in dark colours, which possibly symbolize the experience. Despite the fact that Frye’s diagram places Los into an unfallen state, Fry later admits that Los plays “a more reactionary and sinister role than Urizen himself’ (Frye, MB
357), which gives him the Urizenic qualities of a fallen prophet. After all, Los is the one to be jealous, to seize Enitharmon, to limit Urizen, and to chain his son Orc to a mountain.
Moreover, as David Erdman points out, the plate 21B depicts “Los’s beard [which] shows how Urizenic or mortal he has become” (Erdman 203). The darkness of the image is also accented by Los appearing seemingly older - therefore Erdman’s reference to mortality and Blake’s reference to Enitharmon as “A female form trembling and pale / Waves before his [Los’s] deathy face” (Blake, FBU 78). Thus, Los and his image of a dark blacksmith are only intensified in darkness by adding the Urizenic aspect of experience to
Los73.
72 This interpretation deals with the presupposition that white colour symbolizes innocence while black or dark colours refer to experience. The example could be the poem The Chimney Sweeper, where the speaker, one of the chimney sweeps talks about Tom Dacre, an angelic-like chimney sweeper who is compared to lamb – symbols of innocence associated with white colour. In contrast to this, coffins which symbolize the experience, are black, and also one of the chimney sweepers, dying, is referred to as “a little black thing among the snow” (Blake; 1901: 45), the blackness not associated only with death but also to misery, suffering and social injustice which are the results of the fallen world of experience. This interpretation is based on study of Blake’s Songs of Innocence and Songs of Experience (Blake, William. Songs of Innocence and Experience. London: R. Brimley Johnson, 1901. Project Gutenberg. Web. 10 October 2015). 73 For analysis of Urizen and aspects of experience and darkness associated with his character, see the relevant chapters – Senses (p. 71) and Law (p. 83) of this thesis.
42
3.2 Depths
This chapter tries to point out and subsequently demonstrate that various kinds and forms of depths are frequently represented in The First Book of Urizen and it tries to analyse their significance in association to the notion of darkness in all the forms available, including the textual, metaphorical, and visual level as well as imagery. The main aim of this chapter is to focus particularly on depths in terms of the abyss, secrets, sleep and death. These categories will be analysed in corresponding subchapters, which will try to explain, how the darkness is used in these categories and its significance will be subsequently emphasised.
3.2.1 Abyss
Abysses are frequently associated with depths, and depths are often associated with darkness. There are two possible reasons for this analogy. The first reason might be the notion of the absence of natural sources of light that would illuminate abysses. Secondly, the association with darkness may be seen in terms of metaphors suggesting that dark depths of abysses were not possible to be explored properly in the past; these days, with all the modern conveniences, science and technology the exploration is more effective but still abysses are often used as the symbols connected to depths and darkness.
The First Book of Urizen also alludes to abysses, both at a textual and metaphorical level. The link to depths and darkness is intensified by Blake’s own perspectives that result in distinctive metaphors and imagery. How is the effect of darkness within abysses created in The First Book of Urizen, what forms does it take and what problems do they
43 comment on? To answer this question, it is necessary to observe direct references to abysses in Blake’s The First Book of Urizen.
First and foremost, the poem alludes to Urizen and his solitude when he is expelled from Eternity. He is described as “Brooding, shut in the deep; all avoid / The petrific, abominable Chaos” (Blake, FBU 71). Depths bear the elements of darkness in terms of petrifying experience and this is not only the perspective of the Eternals. Later in chapter
II of the The First Book of Urizen, Urizen also admits that he started his fight “From the depths of dark solitude, from / The Eternal abide in [his] Holiness” (Blake, FBU 71). He also explains his fight when he clarifies that
“‘First I fought with the fire, consum’d
Inwards into a deep world within,
A Void immense, wild, dark and deep,
Where nothing was – Nature’s wide womb” (Blake, FBU 72).
The depths of Urizen’s abode are significant owing to the notion of darkness. However,
Urizen struggles to define both himself and his world so far. He is surrounded by “a deep world” and he perceives the void as deep and dark. The corresponding plate 4B74 depicts
Urizen clutching his head surrounded by darkness, black predominately noticeable below
Urizen’s naked body, probably to allude to “the deep world” or “A Void immense, wild, dark and deep” (Blake, FBU 72). This supposition may be supported by David Erdman’s view of Urizen sitting “on fluctuating ground more liquid than solid” (Erdman 186). The
74 See the Appendix, The First Book of Urizen, Copy B, Plate 4, Object 4, Keynes 4.
44 significance of darkness and depths of Urizen’s dwelling are emphasised to a considerable extent.
However, it is not until the seven ages of dismal woe, where the readers of The
First Book of Urizen learn that a transformation of Urizen occurred. The transformation takes the form of the change of Urizen’s formerly eternal spirit into a material form, or as
Paul A. Cantor suggests in his Creature and Creator: Myth-Making and English
Romanticism75, it is “the human spirit into fixed form”. Blake comes closest to the mode of gnostic myth in this section, showing the spirit of a man imprisoned in the material world” (Cantor 46). Here, the notion of darkness seems to be mainly in imagery:
“From the caverns of his jointed Spine
Down sunk with fright a red
Round Globe, hot, burning, deep,
Deep down into the Abyss” (Blake, FBU 75).
The Abyss may refer to the depths of a human body which undergoes the transformation.
What is important here is the supposition that such transformation is a hideous sight, which seems to be fulfilling the former gloomy visions of the Eternals. Thus, it needs to be emphasised that such gloomy and dark visions are the point of view of Eternity only because as Paul Cantor clarifies, “Blake was no Gnostic reviler of the flesh, and one should not interpret The Book of Urizen as expressing his disgust for the human form”
(Cantor 46). The gloomy visions of the Eternals are probably pictorially represented in plate 4B76, where one can observe Los “creating, not man’s body but the way man
75 Cantor, Paul A. Creature and Creator: Myth-Making and English Romanticism. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1984. Print. 76 See the Appendix, The First Book of Urizen, Copy B, Plate 4, Object 4, Keynes 4.
45 perceives his body” (Cantor 46). Los’s expression reminds one of the textual level and the notion of “state of dismal woe” (Blake, FBU 76). He is still holding his hammer and as
Erdman explains, there are also other credentials of the blacksmith’s “as builder of cities are present in a Roman dome (…) and a leaning tower like Pisa’s that is surely falling77.
(Erdman 193). Dark red and orange flames are noticeable behind Los, and Erdman therefore concludes that “Urizen is now really in the smithy” (Erdman 193). Urizen is sitting next to Los and the initial stages of his transformations are recognisable: a skeleton- like appearance reveals his skull and spine and the signs of flesh begin to appear in his body78. It is possible to conclude then that this agonizing imagery of the dark Urizenic transformation alludes to the abyss in order to suggest the deep changes in the materialistic form of Urizen (the Eternal mind is given a human body).
However, this is not the only opportunity to encounter an abyss in The First Book of Urizen. The next reference seems to be less metaphorical. It describes the Abyss79 of
Los which was created when he was divided by Pity and Enitharmon emanated as the result:
The Abyss of Los stretch’d immense;
And now seen, now obscur’d, to the eyes
Of Eternals the visions remote
Of the dark separation appear’d:
77 Here again, the notion of Blake’s concept of the Fall referred to earlier in the thesis may be taken into account. 78 Compare for example with the plate 11B (see the Appendix, The First Book of Urizen, Copy B, Plate 11, Object 11, Keynes 8), where the imagery is comparable in terms of darkness because “These were the changes of Urizen” (Blake; 1982: 74). Urizen’s skeleton here is not given so much flesh so far, Urizen is surrounded by darkness which may also refer to the abyss which could be also interpreted as “the abyss (…), a womb for Urizen to grow human in” (Erdman; 1974: 190). 79 The Abys is capitalised here in order to refer the specific Abyss from The First Book of Urizen.
46
As glasses discover Worlds
In the endless Abyss of space (Blake, FBU 78).
The Abyss, as the readers of The First Book of Urizen learn, comes into existence “In a winterly night beneath” (Blake, FBU 78). Once again, the process takes place during night, which represents lowered visibility and darkness. It is pictorially represented in plates 14B80 and 16B81. The former depicts a naked woman dividing the clouds in the sky, which could be seen as the process of separation (possibly resulting in creation of the abyss), the latter plate depicts Los observing “the endless Abyss of space” (Blake, FBU
78) but it also depicts the Eternals who observe “the visions remote / Of the dark separation appear’d” (Blake, FBU 78). Characteristically, the black colour is primarily dominant in plate 14B. On the contrary, plate 16B does not seem to allude to darkness to a considerable extent but it is necessary to point out that the majority of the image deals with Los and the Eternals, who might be interpreted as the consciousness and, in this respect, they are not associated with darkness. The attention should therefore be focused on the bottom of the plate, where a black and dark brown area appears, possibly representing the dark Abyss.
However, Blake’s Abyss and its aspects of darkness are further intensified when
Urizen becomes interested in the Abyss after his transformation is complete. He is woken up by crying Orc (chained to the rock) and begins to “Explor[e] his dens around” (Blake,
FBU 80). Urizen apparently feels the need to examine the Abyss and to delimitate it:
He form’d a line & a plummet
80 See the Appendix, The First Book of Urizen, Copy B, Plate 14, Object 14, Keynes 13. 81 See the Appendix, The First Book of Urizen, Copy B, Plate 16, Object 16, Keynes 15.
47
To divide the Abyss beneath.
He form’d a dividing rule:
He formed scales to weigh;
He formed massy weights;
He formed a brazen quadrant;
He formed golden compasses
And began to explore the Abyss (Blake, FBU 80-81).
When exploring Blake’s work, the extract may remind one of another Blake’s design called The Ancient of Days82. In 1794, it was originally published as a frontispiece of
Europe a Prophecy83 (one of Blake’s prophetic writings referred to in the introductory part of the thesis). In spite of the fact that the design is not a part of The First Book of Urizen, it is necessary to remember the introductory part of the thesis, which points out that Blake’s prophetic writings often employ the same characters. And thus plate The Ancient of Days may provide for a better understanding of the situation represented in the extract above.
The plate shows Urizen “in his finest hour, in solitude” (Erdman 156). His exploration has started because he holds a quadrant or possibly a compass, as Erdman84 suggests.
Nevertheless, the text of The First Book of Urizen refers to both the tools in “He formed a brazen quadrant; / He formed golden compasses” (Blake, FBU 80-81). Thus the exploration of the Abyss began; and if it is possible to perceive Los’s work (including
Enitharmon and Orc) in terms of corporality and therefore also temporality, Urizen and his
82 See Appendix, The Ancient of Days, Europe a Prophecy, Plate 1, Object 1, Keynes 1 83 See for example Blake, William. Europe a Prophecy. Boissia, Clairvaux: Published by the Trianon for the William Blake Trust, London, 1969. Print. 84 In Erdman (156).
48 dividing hand could be interpreted in terms of a spatial aspect, which Urizen brings and introduces to his fallen world.
At this point, yet another reference seems to be essential. This time it is the reference to Blake’s Newton85 who is depicted as sitting at the bottom of the sea. The tool he is using for his work reminds one of the tool Urizen uses “To divide the Abyss beneath” (Blake; 1982: 80), the tools differ only in size (Urizen’s tool is bigger).
Moreover, Newton’s position is similar to the position of Urizen, both of them are crouching in order to be able to perform their tasks. Urizen does his best to divide the
Abyss, and as the text tries to demonstrate, the abyss is the symbol of darkness. Darkness seems to surround also Newton who is sitting possibly in a trench which is deep and dark at the bottom of the sea86. These are the similarities in Blake’s depiction of Urizen and his
Newton. What does the darkness in both the depictions reflect?
Further consideration may lead to Blake’s views in Lacoön87 in which Blake assumes that “Art is the Tree of Life / Science is the Tree of Death” (Blake, FBU 273).
However, neither Urizen nor Newton seem to be interested in art as such. Their contemplations and work seem to be based on the positivistic perspective and a reductionistic view that determines things in terms of their measurability. Thus, darkness surrounds both Newton and Urizen in order to suggest their inability to see or perceive in other ways than by means of measurability. This may open a discussion about the
Enlightenment, which, for Blake, is not rooted in the positivistic scientific perspective.
85 See the Appendix, Blake, William. Newton. Tate Collection. The William Blake Archive. Ed. Morris Eaves, Robert N. Essick, and Joseph Viscomi. 2004. Web. Accessed 1 November 2015. 86 Peter Ackroyd points out that “Newton seems to be sitting within a cave, like that of Plato’s in which only shadows of the ideal world can be seen; in that darkness the senses are narrowed, and perception itself a form of darkness” (Ackroyd 199). For further reference to senses and darkness, see Senses, p. 62 of this thesis. 87 Refers to the annotated print Laocoön by William Blake, for further reference, see the Appendix, Blake, William. Laocoön,, Plate 1. Digital Image. The William Blake Archive. Ed. Morris Eaves, Robert N. Essick, and Joseph Viscomi. 1998. Web. 20 October 2015
49
Newton’s Optiks88 could be considered a model example of Blake’s notions of vision in terms of a vegetative eye:
All that we see is Vision
From Generated Organs gone as soon as come
Permanent in the Imagination; Considerd
As Nothing by the
Natural Man. (Blake, Lacöon n.p.).
Finally, to further comment on darkness, it may be important to mention that darkness of
Urizen’s world, which he had measured and delimitated, develops to a monstrous extent.
In the corresponding plate 24B89 Urizen starts for his journey to further explore his world, carrying “a globe of fire lightning his journey / a fearful journey, annoy’d / By cruel enormities” (Blake, FBU 81). Nevertheless, the globe of fire does not seem to produce light. On the contrary, as Erdman points out, it seems to be – rather ironically – “issuing bloody-smoky rays” (Erdman 205). As Erdman further points out, it may be apparent that
Urizen “can hardly see where he is going and has to grope with his left hand” (Erdman
205).
Thus, once again, Urizen finds himself in darkness. He measured the darkness of the
Abyss but his world remains dark, with darkness and chaos resulting in woes. Foster S.
Damons argues that it is because “Urizen could not create light nor darkness, for there had always been light, and he himself was darkness. (Damon, PS 352). Taking into consideration Damon’s supposition, Urizen’s aspect of darkness seems to be invincible
88 Refers to Optiks by Isaac Newton published in 1704 analysing light and its refractions. 89 See the Appendix, The First Book of Urizen, Copy B, Plate 24, Object 24, Keynes 23.
50 and the Abyss which he measured subsequently transforms into the fallen world of Urizen buried in darkness.
3.2.2 Sleep
In The First Book of Urizen William Blake also works with the theme of sleep. The text will observe the aspects of sleep, its nature and characteristic in order to demonstrate the relation of sleep and darkness. First and foremost, it is necessary to point out that sleep is primarily associated with Urizen. What is actually the cause of Urizen’s sleep? To answer this question, the general context providing the explanation of the process needs to be focused on:
Los, round the dark globe of Urizen,
Kept watch for Eternals to confine,
The obscure separation alone;
For Eternity stood wide apart,
As the stars are apart from the earth. (Blake, FBU 73).
Los, contributing to the temporal aspect, is sent to monitor Urizen and his work only to find out that Urizen is separated from Eternity. Urizen’s conditions as well as his environment are perceived as dark and dreadful from Los’s perspective. Therefore:
51
Lost wept, howling around the dark Demon:90
And cursing his lot; for in anguish,
Urizen was rent from his side;
And a fathomless void for his feet;
And intense fires for his dwelling. (Blake, FBU 73-74).
Los then begins to pity Urizen and he realizes that “Urizen laid in a stony sleep /
Unorganiz’d, rent from Eternity” (Blake, FBU 74). This is the very first reference to the notion of sleep within The First Book of Urizen. Urizen is observed while in “a stony sleep” (Blake, FBU 74). This may suggests that he is in a deep and heavy sleep, expressed by the stony quality of sleep. It may also suggest the rigidity which is observable both in
Urizen’s work as well as in his passivity. At this point, one learns that the transformation of Urizen is about to begin. Urizen is compared to “a clod of clay” (Blake, FBU 74), which may suggest that the temporal aspect of Los has its effects on Urizen: his fallen state is ascribed to the notions of material form of his body, which is to be further transformed.
Los still pities Urizen, and the dark separation of Urizen from Eternity but he is not able to control Urizen’s separation completely, despite his attempts:
Los howl’d in a dismal stupor,
Groaning! gnashing! groaning!
Till the wrenching apart heal’d
But the wrenching of Urizen heal’d not (Blake, FBU 74)
90 Dark Demon refers to Urizen, emphasising his fallen state. As soon as he is separated from Eternity, it is not possible to perceive him as one of the Eternals, thus he is perceived as the dark demon.
52
Urizen’s wrenching seems almost to paralyse him and although Urizen is described as sleeping, his sleep is far too deep and restless to have beneficial effects on Urizen.
Therefore he appears to be:
Cold, featureless, flesh or clay,
Rifted with direful changes
He lay in a dreamless night (Blake, FBU 74).
It may be not very surprising that Urizen’s sleep is dreamless – taking into account his fallen state, it is necessary to point out that Urizen stands for reason, laws and dividing rules, as it was possible to observe when he attempted to measure the Abyss. Considering retrospectively Northrop Frye’s diagram back on page number thirty-three of the thesis, it is possible to verify that Urizen is the symbol of adult experience. Urizen’s nature is in a striking contrast to Orc who stands for frustrated desires. Orc is also the symbol of childhood which is innocent (from experience).
The notion of difference between Urizen and Orc here is purposeful: to understand why Urizen’s night is dreamless, it seems necessary to explain the connection between dreams and the concepts of innocence and experience. Considering The First Book of
Urizen, Northrop Frye suggests that a “dream is descended from the child’s lost vision”
(Frye, MB 192). However, it seems impossible for Urizen, for he is the symbol of reason.
It is not possible for him to dream, in other words, it is not possible for Urizen to approach his lost childhood (innocent) visions. Further consideration of Frye’s conclusion that dreams stand for “revolting against experience and creating another world, usually one we
53 like better” (Frye, MB 192), Urizen’s night is sleepless, he cannot revolt against experience and thus against himself.
Urizen remains in stony sleep while “Ages and ages roll’d over him” (Blake, FBU
74). However, when the first age passes over, Urizen’s paralyzing sleep seems to change from dreamless to dreamful. This may provide one with an impression of inconsistency.
Nevertheless, Urizen’s dreamful slumber may not refer to the actual sleep and dreams.
Instead, it may be referring to Urizen’s dark phantasies and passions:
And Urizen (so his eternal name)
His prolific delight obscur’d more and more,
In dark secrecy hiding in surging
Sulphureous fluid his phantasies. (Blake, FBU 75).
The Eternals perceive Urizen’s hidden passions and phantasies as dark secrets which are sulphureous. As Damon points out, “Sulphur in alchemy, represents a derivative fire.”
(Damon, PS 353). Damon adds that Blake’s use of Sulphur91 is used to “symbolize the torments of Intellect” (Damon, PS 353), which corresponds to Urizen’s obsession with measuring and defining, which Urizen provisionally cannot execute because he is paralysed in his stony sleep. His dark phantasies may be considered a “fallen wisdom” or
“the anti-intellectual reason”, as Northrop Frye suggests in Northrop Frye on Milton and
Blake. (Frye, MB 355), which may be found in the following figure that is provided to clarify Frye’s concept:
91 At the same time, sulphur as well as fire might be the allusion to hell.
54
Figure 2 92
Finally, the last notion of Urizen’s sleep occurs only after his transformation is finished.
However, the end of the transformation is, somewhat surprisingly, not the trigger of
Urizen’s awakening. In fact, it is Orc who wakes up Urizen. The turning point might be
Los’s decision to chain Orc to a mountain because Los is jealous of Enitharmon. Both parents “took Orc to the top of a mountain” and “They chain’d his young limbs to the
Rock / With the Chain of Jealousy” (Blake, FBU 80). The corresponding plate 22B93 does not depict Orc chained to a mountain, instead, it depicts Orc in his youth and freedom surrounded by yellow and red flames, which brighten up Urizen’s darkness. This is probably the depiction of Orc’s nature in general. However, his fate is to be deprived of his freedom and innocence. Chained to the mountain, his voice echoes and thus Urizen
“beg[ins] to awake from sleep” (Blake, FBU 80).
Overall, it is possible to conclude that the employment of sleep is linked to darkness. The two forms of sleep described in The First Book of Urizen, both dreamless
92 Frye, Northrop. Collected Works of Northrop Frye: Northrop Frye on Milton and Blake. Vol. 16. p.n. 355. Toronto: U of Toronto, 2005. Print. 93 See the Appendix, The First Book of Urizen, Copy B, Plate 22, Object 22, Keynes 20.
55 and dreamful, are associated with darkness, either in terms of dark nights, paralysis of sulphurous and dark secrets.
3.2.3 Death
This chapter focuses on the notion of death. It immediately follows the subchapter
Sleep purposively since it tries to clarify that one of the aspects of death is associated with sleep and vice versa, which, together with the notion of temporariness, form another aspect of death that is terminal.
First allusion to death occurs when the speaker of The First Book of Urizen announces that “Death was not but Eternal life sprung” (Blake, FBU 71). This state does not last because soon, Urizen separates himself from Eternity. This separation “for
Eternals is the beginning of death” (Sloss, Wallis 82). In this perspective, Eternity considers Urizen the one to blame for death. Furthermore, Urizen himself is the first one who actually experiences death.
When Urizen stiffens in his “stony sleep” (dealt with in the previous chapter), the
Eternals pose an interesting question: “The Eternals said: ‘What is this? Death? / Urizen is a clod of clay!’” (Blake, FBU 74). Here, once again and somewhat characteristically of
The First Book of Urizen, it is possible to encounter two perspectives. From one perspective, Urizen’s paralysis appears to be sleep but the Eternals, from their point of view, label it as death. Is it sleep or death then? The truth seems to be somewhere in the middle and both the perspectives are partially correct. Significantly, Urizen had been the part of Eternity before he decided to define himself and his world. Thus, the paralytic state is somewhere between death and sleep. D. J. Sloss and J. P. R. Wallis marks this state of
56
Urizen as “the beginning of a new mode of existence, the not-Eternal” (Sloss, Wallis 83), which exactly characterises Urizen’s paralysis. Death as such would probably be a terminal stage but as it had been suggested in the previous chapter, Urizen is finally woken up by Orc. However, the attitude of the Eternals to death, which highlights the impermanence of flesh, creates imagery of darkness based on the perspective of the
Eternals. This perspective is grounded in the original conditions in which death had been absent, death simply had not existed before Urizen’s establishment of his dark world.
Thus, death is an inexperienced state, referred to as “the formless, unmeasurable Death”
(Blake, FBU 74). It is new and unexplored and therefore it is associated with dark (so far not recognised and not clarified), petrifying state.
On the other hand, D. J. Sloss and J. P. R. Wallis remind the readers of The First
Book of Urizen that death “is not quiescence, for changes appear in Urizen” (Sloss, Wallis
83). Indeed, the changes of Urizen play a very important role because they cause his transformation in terms of the material form. However, Urizen is not quite responsible for the changes. It is Los who brings the aspects of time and temporality:
The Eternal Prophet94 heavd the dark bellows,
And turn’d restless the tongs; and the hammer
Incessant beat; forging chains new & new,
Numb’ring with links. hous, days, & years. (Blake, FBU 75).
Thus, during the seven dreadful ages that pass over Urizen, Urizen’s mind is bound and it is gradually given a material form95. He receives skeleton, flesh, and organs, which is the
94 The Eternal Prophet refers to Los.
57 process described as “a state of dismal woe” (Blake, FBU 75). In this respect, Urizen’s transformation is not a state of deadly sleep, ironically, it seems to be a rebirth. However, the form Urizen receives after his rebirth is chained by the products of Los’s hard work -
“hours, days & years” (Blake, FBU 75), and this notion, as D. J. Sloss and J. P. R. Wallis point out, might be “intended to state Blake’s conviction that the new form of existence was not indefinitely to endure” (Sloss, Wallis 83). Urizen’s newly reborn form thus experiences the aspects of mortality. These aspects are emphasised in plate 11B96, where
Urizen crouches in a foetal position with his body consisting of bones only. One thus gets the image of Urizen’s skeleton, surrounded by darkness (black and shades of dark blue used in background), somewhat ironically suggesting both the initial form of his re-birth and the deadly aspects of his future mortal body, or the beginning of the end in the figurative meaning.
Nevertheless, at this point, Urizen is still “bound in a deadly sleep” (Blake, FBU
77), and Los, realizing the effects of his work with the forging hammer, petrified: “In terrors Los shrunk from his task: / His great hammer fell from his hand” (Blake, FBU 77).
He begins to pity Urizen but at the same time he realizes that his mind is bound as well and it becomes clear that “now his Eternal life / Like a dream was Obliterated” (Blake,
FBU 77), too. This notion binds also Los:
Shrudd’ring, the Eternal Prophet smote
With a stroke, from his north to south region.
The bellows & hammer are silent now
A nervless silence, his prophetic voice
Seiz’d; a cold solitude & dark void
96 See the Appendix, The First Book of Urizen, Copy B, Plate 11, Object 11, Keynes 8.
58
The Eternal Prophet 97& Urizen clos’d. (Blake, FBU 77).
The deadly aspects are a result of both Los’s and Urizen’s labour, both of them are partially responsible for the aspects temporality. This may be the reason for depicting
Urizen’s as well as Los’s labour (to demonstrate it also at the visual level of The First
Book of Urizen) in a similar way. Plate 9B98 symbolically depicts Urizen’s labour when
Urizen is “a self-contemplating shadow, / in enormous labours occupied” (Blake, FBU
71), attempting to define both himself and his world. Blake depicts Urizen with his eyes closed, surrounded by rocks, which make Urizen crawl under the weight of stone. The whole image gives a depressing impression (which may also allude to Urizen’s stony sleep discussed earlier).
Similarly, Los’s labour, pictorially represented in plate 9B99, also employs imagery of stones and rocks (that is why Los may be easily mistaken for Urizen in 9B because “at first glance this may seem a view from behind of Urizen labouring” (Erdman 192) but the body is “more youthful” (Erdman 192). Erdman further argues that Los is engaged in his work100, “going at the rock with his hands, causing gaps to open between the rocks”, so that he could “either remove the stone or push his head through it” (Erdman 192), in order to reach Urizen. Simultaneously, the the pictorial representation of Los may provide also for quite an opposite interpretation: the image may be also interpreted as suggesting that
Los is actually growing into the rocks. This could be also the allusion to the fact that after his terrible labour, which binds Urizen in terms of time, Los becomes bound as well.
97 Here again, Los being referred to as The Eternal Prophet. 98 See the Appendix, The First Book of Urizen, Copy B, Plate 9, Object 9, Keynes 10. 99 See the Appendix, The First Book of Urizen, Copy B, Plate 15, Object 15, Keynes 9. 100 Compare to Los in 3B (see the Appendix, The First Book of Urizen, Copy B, Plate 3, Object 3, Keynes 3), the position of his body is nearly the same as in 9B but there, Los is not bound, vital in eternity, whilst “Urizen or Death hides in darkness (Erdman, FBU 185).
59
Urizen remains a “deathful Shadow” (Blake, FBU 80) and he appears “deadly black” (Blake, FBU 77) even during Los’s separation that results in his Emanation
Enitharmon, which occurs “before the death image of Urizen” (Blake, FBU 78). It is only after Orc is chained to a mountain “Beneath Urizen’s deathful shadow101” (Blake, FBU
80), when “The dead heard the voice of the child, / And began to awake from sleep”
(Blake, FBU 80). It is possible to conclude then that Urizen’s paralytic state is caused both by Urizen’s and Los’s labour but it cannot be properly defined as it may appear as death from one perspective and sleep from the other perspective. Thus, here, once again, D. J.
Sloss’s and J. P. R. Wallis’s label “Not-Eternal” may be acceptable as the mediator between death and sleep.
Furthermore, it is necessary to point out that The First Book of Urizen also encounters terminal death but as it had been suggested above, it is definitely not the case of Urizen himself. Instead, it involves his descendants. Urizen begins his journey to explore his world and to see his descendants but he is soon terrified because he realizes that “Life liv’d upon Death” (Blake, FBU 81). Observing his world, Urizen has bitter experience, when he learns about his descendants because he finds that
They lived a period of years
Then left a noisom body
To the jaws of devouring darkness
And their children wept, & built
Tombs in the desolate places (Blake, FBU 83).
101 Note that darkness is mentioned in connection to death directly at the textual level, employing black colour and the reference to a shadow associated with deadly image.
60
Imagery of darkness of the textual level employs the symbolism of tombs, desolate places, mortal bodies and weeping, all shrouded in darkness. Finally, it is necessary to demonstrate that death is associated with darkness since it is directly referred to as “the jaws of devouring darkness” (Blake, FBU 83), referring to the terminal and this time (as opposed to Urizen’s sleep or “Not-Eternal” specific paralysis) irreversible death.
3.3 Perception
The First Book of Urizen deals with the references to perception to a considerable extent.
It mainly focuses on questions of perception as well as the problems resulting from perception. For the purpose of this thesis, the way William Blake uses darkness (again at the textual, visual, metaphorical level and imagery) is significant in order to understand the problems associated with and resulting from perception. For Blake, it is mainly the question of senses and subsequent perception which allows one not only to perceive but also to interpret the world and various phenomena in different ways. It allows Blake to introduce a problem which is seen from different perspectives – once again it will thus be possible to encounter the perspectives of the Eternals, Urizen or Los. With regard to The
First Book of Urizen, relativism102 and perspectivism103 seem to play an important role –
Blake uses the concepts to comment on various social constructs and also religion. The main aim of this chapter is the attempt to analyse aspects of darkness in order to comment on possible perspectives which were, for the purpose of the thesis, divided into two categories: senses, and law.
102 Relativism refers to philosophical concepts which emphasise that the truth or value are concepts which are relative and also subjective in terms of one’s perception and rooted attitudes. 103 Perpectivism refers to philosophy and the theory of Friedrich Nietzsche based on the supposition that all ideations are based on different perspectives which influences one’s views of the truth or value.
61
3.3.1 Senses
The very first allusion to senses in The First Book of Urizen refers to Urizen’s senses. Blake explains that at the beginning:
Earth was not: nor globes of attraction
The will of the Immortal expanded
Or contracted his all flexible senses.
Death was not but eternal life sprung (Blake, FBU 35).
From the extract above, it is possible to learn the initial conditions of Urizen’s nature.
Apart from the absence of death, one also learns that originally, Urizen’s senses were “all- flexible” and Urizen was also able to expand or contract them in accordance with his own needs.
However, these conditions change when Urizen is “rifted with direful changes”
(Blake, FBU 74), or in other words, when his transformation begins. Once again, it is necessary to return to plate 11B104, which depicts the initial point of Urizen’s rebirth into
Urizen’s mortal form. When Los notices Urizen’s mortal aspects of his rebirth in the form of Urizen’s skeleton, he is “smitten with astonishment / Frightend at the hurtling bones”
(Blake, FBU 74). It is necessary to remember that Los is the eternal prophet and from the point of view of Eternity, these changes were considered “the dark changes” (Blake, FBU
104 See the Appendix, The First Book of Urizen, Copy B, Plate 11, Object 11, Keynes 8.
62
74). Reference to darkness here marks the sinister transformation of Urizen into the material form which will develop even further.
The development of Urizen’s senses takes seven ages. Here, seven may be an important number because it can be interpreted as an allusion to the Christian creation myth from Genesis in which God created the world for six days and he rested the seventh day. What happens during the seven days of the dark changes of Urizen? The answer to this question is indicated before the actual description of the dark changes of Urizen:
Restless turnd the Immortal, enchain’d
Heaving dolorous! anguishd! unbearable!
Till a roof shaggy wild, inclos’d
In an orb, his fountain of thought (Blake, FBU 75).
Blake indicates that Urizen’s “fountain of thought” will be supressed as soon as his transformation is complete. In order to understand the transformation and its significance in terms of the senses, it is necessary to observe each of the seven ages of Urizen’s transformation.
Blake introduces the changes of the first age in following manner:
In a horrible, dreamful slumber;
Like the linked infernal chain;
A vast Spine writh’d in torment
Upon the winds; shooting pain’d
Ribs, like a bending cavern
And bones of solidness, froze
63
Over all his nerves of joy.
And a first Age passed over,
And a state of dismal woe (Blake, FBU 75)
The whole extract employs imagery of a dark atmosphere resulting from pain and it makes the impression of Urizen being subjected to cruel torture, rather than the experience of rebirth. His spine is formed and it contributes to imagery of darkness because of its comparison to “infernal chain” indicating the transformation is devilish (at least from the perspective of the Eternals who observe Urizen’s changes and who describe them). This appearance of Urizen is probably suggested in the formerly mentioned plate 11B105 emphasising Urizen’s skeleton in contrast to the dark background. Later, Urizen’s “nerves of joy” are to be hidden under his breastbone and ribs. This could symbolize the cage to imprison the “nerves of joy”.
The second age and its changes follow. As well as the first age, it is described as “a state of dismal woe” (Blake, FBU 75). During the second age, Urizen receives flesh to cover his bones. Plate 12B106 might be helpful because it shows Urizen in flames which are suggesting his torment, with his bones more or less covered in flesh (still lacking the skin). The flames seem to burn or blacken his flesh partially (shades of black, green or blue) or at least to cast dark shadows over his body. The first two mentioned ages are mainly responsible for Urizen’s bodily construction and may be interpreted as the allusion to touch.
During the third age, Urizen’s eyes are completed:
105 See the Appendix, The First Book of Urizen, Copy B, Plate 11, Object 11, Keynes 8. 106 See the Appendix, The First Book of Urizen, Copy B, Plate 12, Object 12, Keynes 11.
64
His nervous brain shot branches
Round the branches of his heart.
On high into two little orbs,
And fixed in two little caves,
Hiding carefully from the wind,
His Eyes beheld the deep,
And a third Age passed over:
And a state of dismal woe (Blake, FBU 76).
The changes of the third age are responsible for his two eyes alluding to the sense of sight which also leads to the question of vision. The notion of vision and its meaning might be rather complicated for Blake, as it had been suggested earlier in relation to Blake’s Newton and Newton’s Optics107. Kathleen Raine also points out (using the example of art) Blake’s
Platonic view108 emphasising the dangers of what Blake understood as “mortal eyes” and in this perspective, Raine explains that “the greatest art of the world […] depicts not what is seen by the ‘mortal eye’ but an imagined perfection” (Raine 9).
Nevertheless, Blake explains that after the development of Urizen’s sight “His
Eyes beheld the deep” and as it had been clarified in chapter Abyss, the depths of the abyss might be interpreted in terms of darkness. It is possible to conclude then that
Urizen’s eyes are confronted with the darkness for the first time. A paradoxical situation occurs: Urizen is given the organs of vision, his eyes allow him to see but at the same time, the first thing Urizen beholds is the darkness of the abyss. Thus, for the first time, he
107 For further information on Newton and the problems of vision, see the chapter Abyss. 108 Refering to the Greek philosopher Plato. For further information, see footnote 109.
65 is not able to see because of the darkness, even though he is endowed with eyes, the organs of sight of a mortal man.
The following age of woe is tormenting and painful, too:
The pangs of hope began,
In heavy pain striving, struggling.
Two Ears in close volutions.
From beneath his orbs of vision
Shot spiring out and petrified
As they grew (Blake, FBU 76).
The extract above explains that during the fourth age, Urizen is given ears which provide for the auditory system resulting in Urizens ability to hear.
The fifth age brings the nose for Urizen to be able to smell:
In ghastly torment sick;
Hanging upon the wind;
Two Nostrils bent down to the deep (Blake, FBU 76)
The fifth age is likewise tormenting. This change of Urizen, which is responsible for the organ of smell, affects Urizen’s material body not only on the surface but it reaches the depths of Urizen’s mortal body, which is accompanied by a ghastly torment.
However, Urizen’s transformation is still not complete. The sixth age of Urizen’s transformation agonizes Urizen even further:
66
In ghastly torment sick;
Within his ribs bloated round,
A craving Hungry Cavern;
Thence arose his channeld Throat,
And like a red flame a Tongue
Of thirst & of hunger appeard.
And a sixth Age passed over:
And a state of dismal woe (Blake, FBU 76).
It is possible to conclude that during the sixth age a “hungry Cavern109” appears and it is responsible for thirst and hunger, as well as throat and tongue appear.
The seventh day ironizes the seventh day in Genesis: “And on the seventh day
God ended his work which he had made; and he rested on the seventh day from all his work which he had made” (The Holy Bible; 2004: 1). Ironically, Urizen seems to rest, too.
The transformation and his acquisition of senses is complete, and because he is “Enraged
& stifled with torment, he stretches his new body and “in trembling & howling & dismay”, his “Feet stampd the nether Abyss” (Blake, FBU 76). At this point, Urizen experiences the darkness of the abyss also in terms of his other senses, besides the sight.
Subsequently, it may be necessary to observe what kinds of changes happen to appear after Urizen introduces his laws and religion110 to the inhabitants of his world. In
109 Blake often uses the simile of either cavern or cave when explaining the process of Urizen’s transformation. This tendency might not be coincidental. The cavern or the cave might be interpreted in relation to the Greek philosopher Plato and his Allegory of the Cave in his Republic, explaining the effects of perception – Being separated from the world, existing only within a cave, facing a blank wall with a fire behind one’s back, the fire cast shadows on the wall. All the shadows are perceived as real things. To come out of the cave to see the real world (which is the next step of the pilgrimage towards knowledge and cognition) might be difficult as it might be demanding to realize and understand that what one had perceived in the cave before were only the shadows of objects existing in the real world surrounding the cave. 110 Law as well as religion will be further discussed in detail in the following chapter Law.
67
Blake’s view, both the law and institutionalised religion apparently affect senses in a negative way:
Then the Inhabitants of those Cities:
Felt their Nerves change into Marrow
And hardening Bones began
In swift diseases and torments,
In throbbings & shootings & grindings
Thro’ all the coasts; till weaken’d
The Senses inward rush’, shrinking (Blake, FBU 82).
The senses of inhabitants of Urizen’s world are shrinking, the ability to perceive generally decreases. Their narrowing perceptions limit the inhabitants of Urizen’s world and Blake further elaborates on the process of degradation of their senses:
Till the shrunken eyes, clouded over,
Discern’d not the woven Hypocrisy;
But the streaky slime in their heavens,
Brought together by narrowing perceptions,
Appear’d transparent air; for their eyes
Grew small like the eyes of a man (Blake, FBU 83).
Urizen’s rules and laws darken and obscure his world. Institutionalised reason guides and tempts people to become hypocrites. People become selfish, egoistic and convinced of their own relative and subjective truth and values, and they became intolerant:
68
For the ears of the inhabitants,
Were wither’d, & deafen’d, & cold:
And their eyes could not discern,
Their brethren of other cities. (Blake, FBU 83).
The eyes seem to be of a great importance here, and as it had been suggested, the eye is the organ of sight on the one hand but on the other hand it may fail to see in darkness.
Blake follows the traditional Christian creation myth again to comment on the development of the senses of the inhabitants of Urizen’s world. However, in Blake’s perspective, it is actually not the question of development because, as Peter Ackroyd clarifies, for Blake, “the dimensions of material existence are a prison from which we must escape” (Ackroyd 181). Thus, it is possible to conclude that the senses and their development might be understood as decline in quality rather than development:
Six days they shrunk up from existence,
And on the seventh day they rested
And they bless’d the seventh day, in sick hope:
And forgot their Eternal life (Blake, FBU 83).
Another allusion to the Bible and Genesis emerges and it emphasises the notion of 7 days of the Creation. Similarly to the seven ages passing over Urizen, the symbolism of number seven is also significant for the inhabitants of Urizen’s world. This time, it is not the case of the seven ages, instead, Blake uses directly the seven days to describe the degradation
69 of human senses. Similarly to the Bible which describes the six days of work and one day of the rest, Blake turns the process of creation into the process of degradation within the six days, the seventh day he reserves for the rest. However, the rest is relativized here – while the inhabitants of Urizen’s world perceive it as the rest and they bless the day, Blake suggests the rest here actually stands for the process in which the Eternal life is forgotten completely. At this point, Peter Ackroyd concludes that “the human senses are a degraded and pitiful residue of eternal powers” (Ackroyd 181). Thus, given the senses which are responsible for “their narrowing perceptions” (Blake, FBU 83), people tend to perceive the world subjectively, as well as in terms of rules and establishment, taking into account both spatial and temporal dimensions, and therefore they are not only able to transgress the abilities of their senses but they also “misinterpret […] ‘the infinite’ (D. J. Sloss, J. P. R.
Wallis 82). As D. J. Sloss and J. P. R. Wallis further argue, “this appears to mean that man, no longer an ‘infinite’ being, makes the distinction of the self and the not-self from which proceed the misconceptions of nature of man and the Divine, the errors in ethics and metaphysics” (D. J. Sloss, J. P. R. Wallis; 1926; 82). With regard to Genesis, “God created man in his own image” (The Holy Bible 1)111. Blake follows this model and he projects Urizen, his degraded senses and his narrowed perception, into the inhabitants of his world. This means that if there had ever been Divine (Eternal) attributes in people, they are to be forgotten in the name of Urizen.
111 The Holy Bible: King James Version. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2004. Print. (Genesis 1: 27).
70
3.3.2 Law
The preceding chapter promised references to the institutionalised forms of law and religion in relation to darkness to be further explained in this chapter. First and foremost, it may be necessary to mention that in The First Book of Urizen, Blake relates the law to Urizen only. In the beginning of The First Book of Urizen, Blake claims that
Urizen is “in confliction with shapes” (Blake, FBU 70). The Eternals consider his actions to be “an activity unknown and horrible” (Blake, FBU 71), when they observe “his cold horrors” and from their perspective, he is perceived as “silent, dark Urizen” (Blake, FBU
71). Urizen does not perceive himself as dark but he indicates that he experiences darkness:
From the depths of dark solitude. From
The eternal abode in my holiness,
Hidden set apart in my stern counsels
Reserv'd for the days of futurity,
I have sought for a joy without pain,
For a solid without fluctuation (Blake, FBU 71)
However, Urizen is convinced that his fight to define himself and his world is meaningful and he indicates that from his point of view, his intentions are honourable, as he wants to find and define “a joy without pain” (Blake, FBU 71). In addition, Urizen attempts to explain his motivation and he clarifies that in his fight he encountered sins:
By fightings and conflicts dire,
71
With terrible monsters Sin-bred:
Which the bosoms of all inhabit;
Seven deadly Sins of the soul. (Blake, FBU 72).
Seven deadly sins112 are often associated with the Christian ethics and morals and according to the Christian tradition, seven deadly sins are usually used to refer to pride, avarice, lust, envy, wrath, sloth and gluttony.
Significantly, Urizen claims to encounter sinners. However, his claim may be questionable. Apparently, Urizen represents the reason, rules and judgements from the very beginning of The First Book of Urizen. And what is more, before Urizen, it was not necessary to distinguish between vices and virtues, life and death or good and evil. Before
Urizen’s actions, these categories were irrelevant and Eternity did not need them.
However, Urizen is not satisfied with the original establishment of Eternity and he announces:
Here alone I in books formd of metals
Have written the secrets of wisdom
The secrets of dark contemplation (Blake, FBU 72)
This seems to be a very important turning point for two main reasons.
The first reason is that Urizen is engaged in contemplation (interestingly, Urizen himself considers his contemplation to be dark) which results in Urizen’s own codex.
112 In Blake’s works, seven deadly sins are often referred to as diseases. In Jerusalem, Blake explains that: “I saw disease forming a Body of Death around the Lamb / Of God, to destroy Jerusalem” (Blake, JEGA 152). In addition, Blake clarifies that “The seven diseases of the earth are carved terrible” (Blake, JEGA 156).
72
Urizen argues that the codex consists of “books formd of metals” (Blake, FBU 72) and he is about to introduce them also as “the Book[s] of eternal brass” (Blake, FBU 72). The reference to his codex in association with metals and eternal brass seem to highlight the rigidity of Urizen’s codex because the association with stone and eternal brass may also indicate Urizen’s supposition that his codex should be permanent, resistant, invariable and persisting (which may be considered to be qualities that are similar to the supposed qualities the metals). At the same time, Urizen emphasises that his codex results from “the secrets of wisdom” (Blake, FBU 72) but what is important here is that the wisdom is the result of Urizen’s dark contemplation only. Urizen apparently believes that his subjective realization and cognition of the world is wisdom. It is possible to conclude then that
Urizen uses his personal views and attitudes to make judgements about the world. D. J.
Sloss and J. P. R. Wallis suggest that Urizen thus introduces “knowledge as results of the operations of restrictive morality” (Sloss, Wallis 84). This means Urizen’s knowledge and his idea of morality is based on his subjective judgements of the world and its phenomena.
Urizen thus directly claims his primacy over the world but the primacy is only Urizen’s self-acclamation, which he justifies in terms of his subjective ideas of morality.
Plate 1B113 shows “Urizen writing his own book with his left hand (…) and illustrating it with the other” (Erdman 283). Significantly, Urizen’s eyes are closed and he uses his toes to orient himself in the book. Erdman further describes that Urizen “is writing secrets and commandments but the copy book is enrooting; the closed books on which he is transcribing may be seen a single coffin-lid” (Erdman 183). Urizen’s law soon becomes enrooted in his world but at the same time, it gradually proves to be harmful (as further demonstrated in this chapter). In addition, it may be necessary to mention that in the visual image of Urizen and his book, Erdman emphasises “tablets at [Urzen’s] back
113 See the Appendix, The First Book of Urizen, Copy B, Plate 1, Object 1, Keynes 1.
73
(…) [which] suggest a double tomb-stone” (Erdman 183) of law, which suggests that
Urizen’s laws are associated with death.
The second reason is that Urizen’s self-acclaimed primacy seems to allow him to define sins. The seven deadly sins are then only Urizen’s construct, the category he develops, based on his ideas, and restrictive morality he presents within his “Books of eternal brass” (Blake, FBU 72). In Urizen’s own perspective, the secrets of his wisdom114 legitimise him to categorize his world as well as its inhabitants, and he develops his primacy in order to determine sinners, which results in accusations of sins. Northrop
Frye’s diagrams provided earlier present Urizen as the symbol of adult experience as well as the symbol of fallen wisdom115. Frye also highlights Urizen as the symbol of “life under law (Frye, MB 349):
Figure 3116
The Eternals do not seem to agree with Urizen’s self-acclamation and his primacy.
The Eternals demonstrate their anger by means of “the flames of Eternal fury” (Blake,
114 The secrets of Urizen’s wisdom may be again interpreted in relation to darkness. Urizen’s wisdom and intentions are unseen and hidden from the Eternals, they stand for intentions which are originally not clarified and thus the Eternals perceive them as dark (both in terms of unexplored and sinister). 115 For adult experience, see the Northrop Frye’s diagram provided in this thesis: Figure 1, page 41 of the thesis, and for fallen wisdom, see the Figure 2, page 55 of the thesis. 116 Frye, Northrop. Collected Works of Northrop Frye: Northrop Frye on Milton and Blake. Vol. 16. p.n. 357. Toronto: U of Toronto, 2005. Print.
74
FBU 73). However, Urizen seems to be concussively convinced that he is authorised to command his world to obey his law. Furthermore, he still convincingly claims that his tendencies are justifiable and that his intentions are good:
Lo! I unfold my darkness: and on
This rock, place with strong hand the Book
Of eternal brass, written in my solitude.
Laws of peace, of love, of unity:
Of pity, compassion, forgiveness. (Blake, FBU 72).
Urizen attempts to further justify and clarify his intentions. He defines the categories of seven deadly sins and he marks sinners who are consequently accused of the sins. He subsequently introduces his law in order to instruct the sinners since he wants to make them obey his own rules. Urizen believes that his law would contribute to peace, love, forgiveness, and compassion but at the same time, he still remains highly authoritative and inflexible, and he thoroughly particularizes his rules:
One command, one joy, one desire,
One curse, one weight, one measure
One King, one God, one Law. (Blake, FBU 72)
Urizen thus presents also the ideas of the institutionalised law in terms of establishment, religion and legislation. However, the Eternals rage because they witness Urizen and his law:
75
Emerge from the darkness; his hand
On the rock of eternity unclasping
The Book of brass. Rage siez'd the strong (Blake, FBU 72)
The Eternals associate Urizen’s doctrines with darkness rather than with beneficial enlightenment. David Erdman points out that the Eternals perceive “Urizen’s world as a black heart from which pour rivets of blood” (Erdman 187), which may indicate the presentiment of the Eternals who seem to be suspicious of Urizen’s law.
Blake’s The Songs of Innocence and The Songs of Experience117, may clarify
Blake’s view on the institutionalised forms of the establishment, religion and legislation.
Blake’s poem The Chimney Sweeper from The Songs of Innocence and The Songs of
Experience will be referred to in order to clarify the problems and impacts of the mentioned institutionalised forms. Blake’s chimney sweeper is a child of innocence.
However, he experiences injustice and harm which result from generally accepted law.
Asked about his parents, the dying chimney sweeper tries to explain:
They think they have done me no injury,
And are gone to praise God and His priest and king,
Who made up a heaven of our misery (Blake, SI&E 45).
Blake suggests that the institutionalised establishment and religion may result in social injustice, chaos, inequality and misery for individuals and he expresses his rejection of hypocrisy originating from the attempts to justify the harm in either God’s, King’s or
117 Blake, William. Songs of Innocence and Experience. London: R. Brimley Johnson, 1901. Project Gutenberg. Web. 10 October 2015.
76
Priest’s name. A strikingly similar perspective may be observed in The First Book of
Urizen. Urizen introduces his subjective morality and he associates “Laws of peace, of love, of unity” with “One King, one God, one Law” (Blake, FBU 72). However, Peter
Ackroyd argues that “at a further level of interpretation, the plight of the chimney sweep becomes the plight of all humankind trapped in their mortal bodies and longing to be free”
(Ackroyd 125). In conclusion, it is possible to observe that the Eternals rage and they associate Urizen and his laws with darkness in order to demonstrate their rejection of
Urizen’s hypocritical subjective morality, and his material world which inclines to death.
The corresponding plate 6B118 portrays Urizen introducing his “book of brass”
(Blake, FBU 72), again surrounded by darkness, which was originally emphasised by the voice of the Eternals. A circle of light emerges around Urizen’s head, probably symbolizing a halo. The halo may refer to Urizen and his self-proclaimed holiness, which he claims during his contemplations.
Nevertheless, Urizen is destined to realize that although his intentions are good
(which is the reason why he insists on his law), his rules only provoke destruction and injustice. He begins
A fearful journey, annoy'd
By cruel enormities: forms
Of life on his forsaken mountains (Blake; 1982: 81)
And he soon learns that the inhabitants of his world do not obey his rules and that “they swam mischevous / Dread terrors! delighting in blood” (Blake, FBU 81). This realization
118 See the Appendix, The First Book of Urizen, Copy B, Plate 6, Object 6, Keynes 5.
77 is terrible for Urizen. He continues his journey, as it is possible to observe in plate 24B119, presenting a gloomy image of Urizen who explores the dark mountains:
He in darkness clos'd, view'd all his race,
And his soul sicken'd! he curs'd
Both sons & daughters; for he saw
That no flesh nor spirit could keep
His iron laws one moment. (Blake, FBU 81).
In plate 25B, the decay and corruption is presented. It manifests that Urizen’s laws only contribute to decay of morality. David Erdman suggests that the image shows the results of Urizen’s “darkness, the brood of monsters and worms120” (Erdman 207). At this point,
Urizen begins to experience pity and sorrow:
Cold he wander'd on high, over their cities
In weeping & pain & woe!
And where-ever he wanderd in sorrows
Upon the aged heavens
A cold shadow follow'd behind him
Like a spiders web, moist, cold, & dim
Drawing out from his sorrowing soul (Blake, FBU 82)
119 See the Appendix, The First Book of Urizen, Copy B, Plate 24, Object 24, Keynes 23. 120 For the symbolism of worms, see the chapter Embryology.
78
Exploring his creations, Urizen feels pity (similarly to Los and his pity resulting in his
Emanation Enitharmon mentioned in the previous chapters). His sorrow and pity have an important consequence – his pity results in
Web dark & cold, throughout all
The tormented element stretch'd
From the sorrows of Urizens soul
(…)
None could break the Web, no wings of fire.
8. So twisted the cords, & so knotted
The meshes: twisted like to the human brain (Blake, FBU 82)
Urizen calls his web “The Net of Religion” (Blake, FBU 82) and it seems that it is one of his last attempts to command the world to obey his rules. However, darkness is one of the main attributes of Urizen’s web and as The First Book of Urizen suggests, it is only another of Urizen’s unsuccessful attempts to define and govern his dark world. The religion, in its form institutionalised by Urizen, seems to spread further hypocrisy while also limiting the ability to perceive. Urizen’s religion is thus considered “the dark net of infection” (Blake, FBU 82).
At this point, further clarification of Blake’s views on religion and his poetic expressions dealing with religion needs to be provided. It seems necessary to mention that
Blake in his Jerusalem, The Emmanation of The Giant Albion121 suggests that religion is necessary and important for people: “Man must & will have Some Religion” (Blake,
121 Blake, William. "Jerusalem, The Emmanation of The Giant Albion" The Complete Poetry and Prose of William Blake. Ed. David V. Erdman and Harold Bloom. Berkeley: U of California, 1982. 144-260. Print.
79
JEGA 212). However, Blake distinguishes between the religion of Jesus and Natural religion and further clarifies that “if [one] has not the Religion of Jesus, he will have the
Religion of Satan, & will erect the Synagogue of Satan. calling the Prince of this World,
God; and destroying all who do not worship Satan under the Name of God.” (Blake, JEGA
212). In other words, Blake understands the Religion of Jesus as “Forgiveness of Sin”
(Blake, JEGA 212) and he suggests that the Religion of Jesus “can never be the cause of a
War nor of a single Martyrdom” (Blake, JEGA 212).
Contrastingly, Blake considers “Every Religion that Preaches Vengeance for Sins the Religion of the Enemy & Avenger; and not the Forgiver of Sin, and their God is
Satan” (Blake, JEGA 212) to be a form of Natural religion, which he understands as harmful and hypocritical. As Northrop Frye concludes, for Blake “a certain amount of natural religion exists in all Christian Churches” (Frye, FS 59). Blake’s attitudes to his concept of natural religion may be observed also in The First Book of Urizen, where it has negative connotations and results in hypocrisy and degradation of the senses and perception.
Urizen’s religion, which results in “The Senses inward rush'd shrinking122” (Blake,
FBU 82). Furthermore, the inhabitants of Urizen’s world misinterpret their world and the laws of Urizen’s religion “And form […] Laws of prudence, and call'd them / The eternal laws of God” (Blake, FBU 83). The situation culminates when
The remaining sons of Urizen
Beheld their brethren shrink together
Beneath the Net of Urizen;
Perswasion was in vain;
122 For the further reference to narrowing perceptions, see the chapter Senses.
80
For the ears of the inhabitants,
Were wither'd, & deafen'd, & cold:
And their eyes could not discern,
Their brethren of other cities. (Blake, FBU 83)
Thus it is possible to conclude that Urizen’s attempts to establish various institutionalised forms of law, including religion, establishment and legislation, are a considerable failure, which only results in hypocrisy, carnage and degradation of senses, as well as in lowered ability to perceive. Urizen’s children are so dissatisfied that they decide to leave Urizen’s dark world, which they call Egypt123.
123 Reference to the Bible and Exodus. In Blake’s mythology, as D. J. Sloss and J. P. R. Wallis suggest, Urozen’s children “depart from the earth to prepare for the attempt to overthrow Urizen which is the theme of The Book of Ahania and they consider The Book of Ahania to be “the Second Book of Urizen” (D. J. Sloss, J. P. R. Wallis 104).
81
4 Conclusion
The main aim of the conclusion is to synthesise the findings and the outcomes of the analysis of various aspects of darkness observed in William Blake’s The First Book of
Urizen. First and foremost it is necessary to mention that the main purpose of this thesis was to examine the aspects of darkness in terms of detailed observation with respect to the textual level of the poem together with the visual and the metaphorical level and imagery.
The thesis came into conclusion that Blake’s darkness appears to have many aspects but all the analysed aspects appear to have primarily negative connotations.
The first chapter of the analytical part of the thesis is devoted to the theme of birth.
Birth is generally considered to be the start of a new life. In contrast to the general perception of birth, Blake conceptualizes birth as a sinister and gloomy phenomenon. He further attempts to comment on the significance of a womb and a sexual act, and he also further elaborates on the process of the development of a new life, all in relation to darkness.
It allows Blake to introduce his mythological system as well as his introduction to his idiosyncratic cosmology and cosmogony. In Blake’s creation myth, death came into existence as a result of Urizen’s attempts to define himself, his world and subsequently the categories of time and space. Urizen is considered to be a “primeval Priest” (Blake, FBU
70), and he fights against “Nature’s wide womb” (Blake, FBU 72) which is perceived as dark and rigorous. However, after Urizen creates his fallen world which results in the occurrence of time and space, the symbolism of the womb is further associated with nature and it is mainly used in the form of simile in order to provide the perspectives of the
Eternals who consider the womb not only the beginning of a new life but also the first stage of process in which beings approach death. It is possible to conclude then that a
82 womb is used to signify the beginning of the end in terms of the figurative meaning which allows Blake to comment on various perspectives on birth and a new life.
Secondly, the The First Book of Urizen also uses references to a womb as an actual organ. This time, it is associated with the first female called Enitharmon who emanates from the eternal prophet Los as a result of his pity. Enitharmon’s womb is fertile and she bears Los’s child but Enitharmon’s pregnancy is associated with sickness and the child in her womb is further associated with nights. The nights are not the only links to darkness, the Eternals are shocked and the attempt to surround Los, Enitharmon, and their child by veils of darkness in order to prevent themselves from seeing both Los and pregnant
Enitharmon.
Los’s and Enitharmon’s sexual act occurs in front of Urizen whose image is dark and deadly. Two possible interpretations of the sexual intercourse result from the analysis. The first interpretation is based on Camille Paglia’s notion of perversity that might be observed in the description of the sexual intercourse. Imagery of darkness here is created by Los forcing Enitharmon into the sexual intercourse. Enitharmon’s response is ambiguous, she rejects Los but at the same time she experiences cruel joy. Imagery of darkness of the sexual intercourse might be thus interpreted in association with the libertine sexuality, emphasising sadistic tendencies and perversity of Enitharmon.
The second interpretation of Los’s and Enitharmon’s sexual relation further elaborates on the notion of perversity but this time it takes into account the similarity of
Los and Enitharmon to the biblical Adam and Eve in order to question their sexual intercourse and its morality. In this perspective, the sexual intercourse may be interpreted as incestuous. The attempts of the Eternals to hide Los and Enitharmon in darkness may refer to the question of morality and it is possible to conclude that Blake uses darkness as the representation of the taboo on incestuous sexual relationships.
83
The following chapter Embryology further elaborates on Enitharmon’s pregnancy with the primary focus on the foetus within Enitharmon’s womb. Here, Blake conceptualizes the foetus as a dehumanised parasitic organism, which initially takes the form of a worm. It is possible to compare the worm in Enitharmon’s womb with the worm in his poem The Sick Rose in order to clarify Blake’s symbolism of the worm, which is associated with his concept of experience as well as with darkness and decay. The worm further develops into a more dangerous form which is a serpent. The serpent in
Enitharmon’s womb is poisonous and it manifests itself to a considerable extent. Blake uses the symbol of the serpent to point out the notion of the biblical tempter which is about to ruin the lives of the first people because the tempter in the form of serpent may be seen as indirectly responsible for their expulsion from eternity. The references to worms and serpents in Enitharmon’s womb are textual only. The subsequent comparison of these references to visual depictions of worms and serpents in The First Book of Urizen confirms Blake’s dark symbolism connected to worms and serpents.
The prenatal development of the foetus results in Enitharmon giving birth to Los’s child named Orc. Here, it allows Blake to employ selected aspects of perspectivism and relativism: In a striking contrast to the perspective of the Eternals who perceive Orc as
“human Shadow” (Blake, FBU 79), the visual aspects of Orc’s appearance do not associate him with darkness. Blake’s decision to portray Orc as a child with fair hair and fair skin is in accordance with Blake’s concepts of innocence and experience. These two concepts may be significant for The First Book of Urizen also in terms of colour symbolism. It is possible to conclude that innocence is primarily associated with light colours, while experience is mainly associated with darkness or black.
Furthermore, it is possible to conclude that experience, primarily associated with darkness, is predominately associated with Urizen. Blake further develops darkness in the
84 connection to Urizen, his environment and creations. Here, Blake uses the symbol of an abyss to clarify Urizen’s (and also Los’s) “dark separation” (Blake, FBU 78) from the
Eternals. The First Book of Urizen introduces the abyss as the result of Los’s attempt to control Urizen which results in the conception of time responsible for mortality. Blake emphasises that the abyss is deep and dark, it is not possible to explore it entirely and it prevents both Urizen and Los to return to the Eternals which reflects their lost ability to approach eternity.
With the occurrence of time and space, Urizen yields to corporality and temporality.
This allows Blake to comment on the problems connected to the material form of a human body which is subjected to time. Blake demonstrates his views on mortality on the example of Urizen who is given a material body during seven ages of terrible pain and torture. It is possible to conclude that Blake uses the seven ages in reference to the seven days of creation, in order to ironize the traditional Christian creation myth. In connection to darkness, Blake also employs the themes of sleep and death in order to provide for the imagery of darkness.
Sleep appears to be a multi-purpose theme in The First Book of Urizen. It is associated with nights and darkness but at the same time, it stands for Urizen’s paralysis and passivity. In addition, it is possible to conclude that Blake also associates Urizen’s sleep with the attributes of death. In Urizen’s case, death is not terminal and it stands for his rebirth into the material form of his mortal body. However, Blake also emphasises that mortals perceive death differently because for them, it is unknowable and dark.
Finally, it is necessary to mention that perception plays a significant role in The First
Book of Urizen. In conclusion, Blake conceptualizes perception as problematic. He introduces Urizen obsessed with measurement, categorisation and institutionalisation.
Urizen symbolizes reason and he introduces his law to the inhabitants of his own world.
85
However, the inhabitants of Urizen’s world disobey his laws. Moreover, the introduction of Urizen’s law results only in the degradation of the human senses. Blake employs darkness here to emphasise the decrease in the ability to perceive. The seven days of creation in Genesis are ironized once again as Blake uses the symbolism of the seven days of creation in order to emphasise the contrast to his seven days of degradation of the senses resulting in the inability to perceive. Furthermore, Urizen’s introduction of his religion renders his world almost blind and it is possible to conclude that Blake uses darkness in order to emphasise his views on hypocrisy and limitations of human mind and perception as the results of law and religion.
Finally, it seems necessary to mention that William Blake’s attempt to provide a different perspective on the creation myths is based on gnostic concepts: Blake employs
Urizen who is the symbol of reason and the personification of the demiurge124. Urizen creates his dark world which he wants to measure, delimit and govern. He introduces laws and religion and he operates on the principles of restricted morality. In general, as the thesis tries to point out, Blake uses various aspects of darkness to criticise outcomes and impacts of the Christian ethos based on an institutionalised form religion. At the same time, Blake uses darkness and its various forms and aspects in order to criticise the concepts of love, peace and unity which are enforced by institutions of religion, legislation or establishment. Blake conceptualises the institutions as social constructs and he associates them with darkness in order to emphasise their negative impacts on individuals as well as society.
124 The term refers to the creator of the material world (Gnosticism).
86
5 Works Cited
Primary Sources:
Blake, William. "The [First] Book of Urizen." The Complete Poetry and Prose of William
Blake. Ed. David V. Erdman and Harold Bloom. Berkeley: U of California, 1982.
70-83. Print.
Blake, William. The [First] Book of Urizen, copy B, Plates 1 - 28. Digital Images.
The William Blake Archive. Ed. Morris Eaves, Robert N. Essick, and Joseph
Viscomi. 2003. Web. 20 October 2015.
Secondary Sources:
Ackroyd, Peter. Blake. London: Vintage, 1999. Print
Blackwell, Wiley. The Blackwell Guide to Ethical Theory. Ed. Hugh LaFollette and
Ingmar Persson. 2nd ed. Chichester: Blackwell, 2013. Print.
Blake, William, and Alfred Kazin. The Portable Blake. New York: Viking, 1946. Print.
Blake, William, David V. Erdman, and Harold Bloom. "Annotations to An Apology for
the Bible by R. Watson, Bishop of Landaff." The Complete Poetry and Prose of
William Blake. Berkeley: U of California, 1982. 611-20. Print.
87
Blake, William, Europe a Prophecy, copy B, Plate 1. The Ancient of Days Digital Image.
The William Blake Archive. Ed. Morris Eaves, Robert N. Essick, and Joseph
Viscomi. 1998. Web. 20 October 2015
Blake, William. "Jerusalem, The Emmanation of The Giant Albion" The Complete Poetry
and Prose of William Blake. Ed. David V. Erdman and Harold Bloom. Berkeley:
U of California, 1982. 144-260. Print.
Blake, William. Laocoön,, Plate 1. Digital Image. The William Blake Archive. Ed. Morris
Eaves, Robert N. Essick, and Joseph Viscomi. 1998. Web. 20 October 2015
Blake, William. Newton. Digital Image. Tate Collection. The William Blake Archive. Ed.
Morris Eaves, Robert N. Essick, and Joseph Viscomi. 2004. Web. Accessed
1 November 2015.
Blake, William. Songs of Innocence and Experience. London: R. Brimley Johnson, 1901.
Project Gutenberg. Web. 10 October 2015.
Blake, William. Songs of Innocence and of Experience, copy B, Plate 16. The Chimney
Sweeper. Digital Image. The William Blake Archive. Ed. Morris Eaves, Robert N.
Essick, and Joseph Viscomi. 1999. Web. 20 October 2015
Blake, William. Songs of Innocence and of Experience, copy E, Plate 43. The Sick Rose.
Digital Image. The William Blake Archive. Ed. Morris Eaves, Robert N. Essick, and
Joseph Viscomi. 2011. Web. 20 October 2015
Blake, William. The Marriage of Heaven and Hell. Boston: John W. Luce and Company,
1906. Project Gutenberg. Web. 8 October 2015.
88
Cantor, Paul A. Creature and Creator: Myth-Making and English Romanticism.
Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1984. Print.
D. J. Sloss and J. P. R. Wallis "The Book of Urizen." The Prophetic Writings of William
Blake. Ed. Vol. 1. Oxford: Clarendon, 1926. 80-104. Print.
Damon, S. Foster, and Morris Eaves. A Blake Dictionary: The Ideas and Symbols of
William Blake. Hanover, NH: Dartmouth College, 2013. Print.
Damon, S. Foster. William Blake: His Philosophy and Symbols. London: Constable, 1924.
Print.
Eaves, Morris, Robert N. Essick, and Joseph Viscomi, eds. The William Blake Archive.
1996-2015. Web. Accessed 20 October 2015.
Erdman, David V. The Illuminated Blake. Garden City, NY: Anchor/Doubleday, 1974.
Print.
Frye, Northrop, and Nicholas Halmi. Fearful Symmetry: A Study of William Blake.
Toronto: U of Toronto, 2004. Print.
Frye, Northrop. Collected Works of Northrop Frye: Northrop Frye on Milton and Blake.
Vol. 16. Toronto: U of Toronto, 2005. Print.
Gilchrist, Alexander. The Life of William Blake. Ed. Walford Graham Robertson. London:
John Lane, 1929. Print.
89
Gourlay, Alexander. An Emergency Online Glossary OF Terms, Names, and Concepts in
Blake. The William Blake Archive. Ed. Morris Eaves, Robert N. Essick, and Joseph
Viscomi. 2015. Web. 8 October 2015
Hazlitt, William. Hazlitt on English Literature; An Introduction to the Appreciation of
Literature. Ed. Jacob Zeitlin. New York: Oxford UP, 1913. Print.
Lawrence, D. H. Late Essays and Articles. Ed. James T. Boulton. Cambridge, UK:
Cambridge UP, 2004. Print.
Paglia, Camille. "Sex Bound and Unbound. Blake". Sexual Personae. New York:
Vintage, 1991. 270–299.
Raine, Kathleen. William Blake. London: Thames & Hudson, 1996. Print.
Schock, Peter A. Romantic Satanism: Myth and the Historical Moment in Blake,
Shelley, and Byron. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan,
2003
The Holy Bible: King James Version. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2004. Print.
90
6 List of Abbreviations:
AAB - Annotations to An Apology for the Bible by R. Watson, Bishop of Landaff
BD - A Blake Dictionary: The Ideas and Symbols of William Blake
FBU – The First Book of Urizen
FS - Fearful Symmetry: A Study of William Blake
JEGA - Jerusalem, The Emmanation of The Giant Albion
MB - Collected Works of Northrop Frye: Northrop Frye on Milton and Blake.
MHH – The Marriage of Heaven and Hell
PS - William Blake: His Philosophy and Symbols
SI&I - Songs of Innocence and Experience
91
7 Resumé (English)
The thesis focuses on the aspects of darkness in William Blake’s The First Book of
Urizen, which survived in nine known copies. For the purpose of this thesis, copy B of
The First Book of Urizen was chosen for the analysis. The thesis analyses not only selected aspects of darkness but also the way Blake uses the theme of darkness in The
First Book of Urizen. The analysis takes into consideration the textual, visual and also metaphorical level of The First Book of Urizen. As the thesis tries to emphasise, the textual and the visual level are equally important in terms of the complexity of Blake’s poetic imagination and expression and both the levels are interconnected to a considerable extent. In his The First Book of Urizen, Blake presents a mythological narrative of a creation myth using the central character Urizen.
The thesis identifies eight basic categories, which are associated with selected aspects of darkness: womb, sex, embryology, abyss, sleep, death, senses and law. Consequently, it is possible to integrate these categories into superordinate categories of birth, depth and perception. The mentioned categories represent important thematic areas which provide for the analysis of relevant aspects of darkness. Blake’s The First Book of Urizen cannot be understood only in terms of literary fiction but also as Blake’s articulation of his attitudes and his idiosyncratic philosophies. The specific use of various aspects of darkness reflect Blake’s perception of (and attitudes to) the material world, society, institutions and authorities. The thesis thus also partially comments on Blake’s philosophy, which is rooted in cosmology and cosmogony of his own version of the creation myth.
92
8 Resumé (Czech)
Text práce se zabývá tématem temnoty v díle Wiliama Blakea The [First] Book of
Urizen (Kniha Urizenova). Dílo tohoto anglického spisovatele, malíře, filozofa, mystika a kontroverzní osobnosti své doby se dochovalo v devíti kopiích. Pro analýzu byla, v rámci této práce, vybrána kopie B. Text si klade otázku, jakým způsobem William Blake ve svém díle zachází s tématem temnoty. Analýza temnoty v uvedeném díle Wiliama Blakea se zabývá textuální, vizuální i metaforickou rovinou, protože zejména textuální a vizuální stránka jeho díla jsou silně provázány a tvoří komplexní celek. Blakeovo zkoumané dílo předkládá mytologický narativ stvoření světa postavou, kterou Blake označuje jako Urizen.
Práce identifikuje osm základních kategorií, ke kterým se téma temnoty v tomto díle váže. Jedná se o kategorie: děloha, sex, embryologie, propast, spánek, smrt, smysly a zákon.
Tyto kategorie pak lze sjednotit do nadřazených kategorií: zrození, hloubky a percepce.
Uvedené kategorie představují důležité tematické celky, na kterých analýza ukazuje různé aspekty temnoty, které ve svém díle William Blake používá. Blakeovo dílo nelze chápat pouze jako literární fikci, ale i jako artikulaci jeho postojů a jeho specifické filozofie. To, jakým způsobem Blake v díle používá téma temnoty, odráží jeho vnímání a chápání materiálního světa, společnosti, institucí a autorit. Práce se tak dílčím způsobem vyjadřuje k Blakeově filozofii, která je zde ukotvena v kosmogonii a kosmologii vlastního mýtu o stvoření.
93
Appendix
94
Plate 1B
The First Book of Urizen, copy B, Object 1, Keynes 1
125
125 Blake, William. The [First] Book of Urizen, copy B, Plate 1. Digital Image. The William Blake Archive. Ed. Morris Eaves, Robert N. Essick, and Joseph Viscomi. 2003. Web. 20 October 2015
95
Plate 2B The First Book of Urizen, copy B, Object 2, Keynes 2
126
126 Blake, William. The [First] Book of Urizen, copy B, Plate 2. Digital Image. The William Blake Archive. Ed. Morris Eaves, Robert N. Essick, and Joseph Viscomi. 2003. Web. 20 October 2015
96
Plate 3B
The First Book of Urizen, copy B, Object 3, Keynes 3
127
127 Blake, William. The [First] Book of Urizen, copy B, Plate 3. Digital Image. The William Blake Archive. Ed. Morris Eaves, Robert N. Essick, and Joseph Viscomi. 2003. Web. 20 October 2015
97
Plate 4B
The First Book of Urizen, copy B, Object 4, Keynes 4
128
128 Blake, William. The [First] Book of Urizen, copy B, Plate 4. Digital Image. The William Blake Archive. Ed. Morris Eaves, Robert N. Essick, and Joseph Viscomi. 2003. Web. 20 October 2015
98
Plate 5B The First Book of Urizen, copy B, Object 5, Keynes 14
129
129 Blake, William. The [First] Book of Urizen, copy B, Plate 5. Digital Image. The William Blake Archive. Ed. Morris Eaves, Robert N. Essick, and Joseph Viscomi. 2003. Web. 20 October 2015
99
Plate 6B
The First Book of Urizen, copy B, Object 6, Keynes 5
130
130 Blake, William. The [First] Book of Urizen, copy B, Plate 6. Digital Image. The William Blake Archive. Ed. Morris Eaves, Robert N. Essick, and Joseph Viscomi. 2003. Web. 20 October 2015
100
Plate 7B
The First Book of Urizen, copy B, Object 7, Keynes 6
131
131 Blake, William. The [First] Book of Urizen, copy B, Plate 7. Digital Image. The William Blake Archive. Ed. Morris Eaves, Robert N. Essick, and Joseph Viscomi. 2003. Web. 20 October 2015
101
Plate 8B
The First Book of Urizen, copy B, Object 8, Keynes 7
132
132 Blake, William. The [First] Book of Urizen, copy B, Plate 8. Digital Image. The William Blake Archive. Ed. Morris Eaves, Robert N. Essick, and Joseph Viscomi. 2003. Web. 20 October 2015
102
Plate 9B
The First Book of Urizen, copy B, Object 9, Keynes 10
133
133 Blake, William. The [First] Book of Urizen, copy B, Plate 9. Digital Image. The William Blake Archive. Ed. Morris Eaves, Robert N. Essick, and Joseph Viscomi. 2003. Web. 20 October 2015
103
Plate 10B
The First Book of Urizen, copy B, Object 10, Keynes 12
134
134 Blake, William. The [First] Book of Urizen, copy B, Plate 10. Digital Image. The William Blake Archive. Ed. Morris Eaves, Robert N. Essick, and Joseph Viscomi. 2003. Web. 20 October 2015
104
Plate 11B
The First Book of Urizen, copy B, Object 11, Keynes 8
135
135 Blake, William. The [First] Book of Urizen, copy B, Plate 11. Digital Image. The William Blake Archive. Ed. Morris Eaves, Robert N. Essick, and Joseph Viscomi. 2003. Web. 20 October 2015
105
Plate 12B
The First Book of Urizen, copy B, Object 12, Keynes 11
136
136 Blake, William. The [First] Book of Urizen, copy B, Plate 12. Digital Image. The William Blake Archive. Ed. Morris Eaves, Robert N. Essick, and Joseph Viscomi. 2003. Web. 20 October 2015
106
Plate 13B
The First Book of Urizen, copy B, Object 13, Keynes 22
137
137 Blake, William. The [First] Book of Urizen, copy B, Plate 12. Digital Image. The William Blake Archive. Ed. Morris Eaves, Robert N. Essick, and Joseph Viscomi. 2003. Web. 20 October 2015
107
Plate 14B
The First Book of Urizen, copy B, Object 14, Keynes 13
138
138 Blake, William. The [First] Book of Urizen, copy B, Plate 14. Digital Image. The William Blake Archive. Ed. Morris Eaves, Robert N. Essick, and Joseph Viscomi. 2003. Web. 20 October 2015
108
Plate 15B
The First Book of Urizen, copy B, Object 15, Keynes 9
139
139 Blake, William. The [First] Book of Urizen, copy B, Plate 15. Digital Image. The William Blake Archive. Ed. Morris Eaves, Robert N. Essick, and Joseph Viscomi. 2003. Web. 20 October 2015
109
Plate 16B
The First Book of Urizen, copy B, Object 16, Keynes 15
140
140 Blake, William. The [First] Book of Urizen, copy B, Plate 16. Digital Image. The William Blake Archive. Ed. Morris Eaves, Robert N. Essick, and Joseph Viscomi. 2003. Web. 20 October 2015
110
Plate 17B
The First Book of Urizen, copy B, Object 17, Keynes 16
141
141 Blake, William. The [First] Book of Urizen, copy B, Plate 17. Digital Image. The William Blake Archive. Ed. Morris Eaves, Robert N. Essick, and Joseph Viscomi. 2003. Web. 20 October 2015
111
Plate 18B
The First Book of Urizen, copy B, Object 18, Keynes 18
142
142 Blake, William. The [First] Book of Urizen, copy B, Plate 18. Digital Image. The William Blake Archive. Ed. Morris Eaves, Robert N. Essick, and Joseph Viscomi. 2003. Web. 20 October 2015
112
Plate 19B
The First Book of Urizen, copy B, Object 19, Keynes 17
143
143 Blake, William. The [First] Book of Urizen, copy B, Plate 19. Digital Image. The William Blake Archive. Ed. Morris Eaves, Robert N. Essick, and Joseph Viscomi. 2003. Web. 20 October 2015
113
Plate 20B
The First Book of Urizen, copy B, Object 20, Keynes 19
144
144 Blake, William. The [First] Book of Urizen, copy B, Plate 20. Digital Image. The William Blake Archive. Ed. Morris Eaves, Robert N. Essick, and Joseph Viscomi. 2003. Web. 20 October 2015
114
Plate 21B
The First Book of Urizen, copy B, Object 21, Keynes 24
145
145 Blake, William. The [First] Book of Urizen, copy B, Plate 21. Digital Image. The William Blake Archive. Ed. Morris Eaves, Robert N. Essick, and Joseph Viscomi. 2003. Web. 20 October 2015
115
Plate 22B
The First Book of Urizen, copy B, Object 22, Keynes 20
146
146 Blake, William. The [First] Book of Urizen, copy B, Plate 22. Digital Image. The William Blake Archive. Ed. Morris Eaves, Robert N. Essick, and Joseph Viscomi. 2003. Web. 20 October 2015
116
Plate 23B
The First Book of Urizen, copy B, Object 23, Keynes 21
147
147 Blake, William. The [First] Book of Urizen, copy B, Plate 23. Digital Image. The William Blake Archive. Ed. Morris Eaves, Robert N. Essick, and Joseph Viscomi. 2003. Web. 20 October 2015
117
Plate 24B
The First Book of Urizen, copy B, Object 24, Keynes 23
148
148 Blake, William. The [First] Book of Urizen, copy B, Plate 24. Digital Image. The William Blake Archive. Ed. Morris Eaves, Robert N. Essick, and Joseph Viscomi. 2003. Web. 20 October 2015
118
Plate 25B
The First Book of Urizen, copy B, Object 25, Keynes 25
149
149 Blake, William. The [First] Book of Urizen, copy B, Plate 25. Digital Image. The William Blake Archive. Ed. Morris Eaves, Robert N. Essick, and Joseph Viscomi. 2003. Web. 20 October 2015
119
Plate 26B
The First Book of Urizen, copy B, Object 26, Keynes 26
150
150 Blake, William. The [First] Book of Urizen, copy B, Plate 26. Digital Image. The William Blake Archive. Ed. Morris Eaves, Robert N. Essick, and Joseph Viscomi. 2003. Web. 20 October 2015
120
Plate 27B
The First Book of Urizen, copy B, Object 27, Keynes 27
151
151 Blake, William. The [First] Book of Urizen, copy B, Plate 27. Digital Image. The William Blake Archive. Ed. Morris Eaves, Robert N. Essick, and Joseph Viscomi. 2003. Web. 20 October 2015
121
Plate 28B
The First Book of Urizen, copy B, Object 28, Keynes 28
152
152 Blake, William. The [First] Book of Urizen, copy B, Plate 28. Digital Image. The William Blake Archive. Ed. Morris Eaves, Robert N. Essick, and Joseph Viscomi. 2003. Web. 20 October 2015
122
Plate 1B The Ancient of Days, Europe a Prophecy, object 1, Keynes 1
153
153 Blake, William, Europe a Prophecy, copy B, Plate 1. The Ancient of Days Digital Image. The William Blake Archive. Ed. Morris Eaves, Robert N. Essick, and Joseph Viscomi. 1998. Web. 20 October 2015
123
Plate 43B The Sick Rose, Songs of Innocence and of Experience, object 43, Keynes 39
154
154 Blake, William. Songs of Innocence and of Experience, copy E, Plate 43. The Sick Rose. Digital Image. The William Blake Archive. Ed. Morris Eaves, Robert N. Essick, and Joseph Viscomi. 2011. Web. 20 October 2015
124
Plate 1B
The Chimney Sweeper, Songs of Innocence, object 16, Keynes 12
155
155 Blake, William. Songs of Innocence and of Experience, copy B, Plate 16. The Chimney Sweeper. Digital Image. The William Blake Archive. Ed. Morris Eaves, Robert N. Essick, and Joseph Viscomi. 1999. Web. 20 October 2015
125
Plate 1
Laocoön, object 1, Keynes 1
156
156 Blake, William. Laocoön,, Plate 1. Digital Image. The William Blake Archive. Ed. Morris Eaves, Robert N. Essick, and Joseph Viscomi. 1998. Web. 20 October 2015
126
Newton
157
157 Blake, William. Newton. Digital Image. The William Blake Archive. Ed. Morris Eaves, Robert N. Essick, and Joseph Viscomi. 2004. Web. 1 November 2015
127