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Public Disclosure Authorized Kenya KE Conflict and Violence Risk Mitigation Final Report . April 2020 . Public Disclosure Authorized SOC

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Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized

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Kenya Accountable Devolution Program CONFLICT AND VIOLENCE RISK MITIGATION FINAL REPORT © 2020 The World Bank 1818 H Street NW, Washington DC 20433 202-473-1000 | www.worldbank.org

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Cover photo credits (left to right): (1) Andrea Albini | Creative Commons 3.0; (2) Ministry of Tourism, County Government of Kisumu; (3) World Bank; (4) Kennedy Mkutu | World Bank.

Design and copy editing: Laura C. Johnson Contents

Acronyms ...... iv

1 Introduction ...... 1 1.1 Guiding Theory of Change ...... 3 2 Context and Background ...... 6 2.1 Conflict, Crime, and Violence in Kenya ...... 6 2.2 Institutional Architecture ...... 11 2.3 Addressing underdevelopment in peripheral regions ...... 15 3 Conflict and Violence Prevention Activities ...... 17 3.1 National and County-level Mapping of Conflict and Violence ...... 17 3.2 County-level Mapping of Conflict and Violence in Isiolo ...... 18 3.3 Strengthening Capacity of the Frontier Counties Development Council ...... 19 3.4 County Training on Violence Prevention ...... 22 3.5 Summary of Common Drivers and Implications for Action at the County Level . . . 26 4 The Way Forward ...... 28 4.1 Strengthening FCDC as Regional Bloc for Development and Peacebuilding . . . .29 4.2 Mainstreaming Violence Prevention in KADP III ...... 30 4.3 Contributing to Conflict and Violence Prevention Across the World Bank Portfolio . 30 References ...... 32

Boxes 2.1 Establishment of Frontier Counties Development Council ...... 16 3.1 Experiences of CVPT Alumnae ...... 24 3.2 Key Findings of Rapid Assessments on Violence and Conflict in Isiolo, Mombasa, Kisumu, and Narok ...... 25 Figures 1.1 Theory of Change for KADP Violence Prevention Work ...... 5 2.1 Fatalities Due to Armed Conflict in East Africa ...... 7 Maps 2.1 Conflict Fatalities by County in Kenya, 1997–2016 ...... 8 2.2 Regional Forms of Violence by County (1997–2016) ...... 9

iii Acronyms

CPA County Policing Authority

CPC community policing committee

CPTED crime prevention through environmental design

CVPT Crime and Violence Prevention Training

DFID Department for International Development (United Kingdom)

FCDC Frontier Counties Development Council

KADP Kenya Accountable Devolution Program

KISIP Kenya Informal Settlements Improvement Project

NCRC National Crime Research Center

NEDI North and North Eastern Development Initiative

USAID United States Agency for International Development

iv Photo: Kennedy Mkutu | World Bank 1. Introduction

Globally, it is well recognized that crime, and the risk of their escalation, prompted the violence, and conflict can hinder investments government to request World Bank Group and economic development, and the cost of support in this area. investing in conflict prevention vastly out- weighs the cost of inaction (UN and World In this context, at the request of the Kenyan Bank 2018). Countries affected by major government and following the April 2015 violence lag behind in terms of poverty attacks on Garissa University by the extrem- reduction and development indicators (World ist group Al-Shabaab, an increased focus on Bank 2011a: 4). Kenya has tended to be more conflict mitigation was taken up within the peaceful than many of its neighbors. The World Bank’s broader agenda to support the Global Competitiveness Report for 2019 ranks devolution process in Kenya. This approach Kenya 109th out of 141 countries in terms of fits within the Bank’s focus on conflict and security indicators for a conducive business violence prevention as key impediments to environment—is a higher ranking than Uganda the twin goals of poverty reduction and shared and Ethiopia but lower than Rwanda, Burundi, prosperity, which culminates in the Strategy for and Tanzania (World Economic Forum 2019).1 Fragility, Conflict and Violence 2020–25 (World Still, varying forms of conflict and violence, Bank 2020b).

1. South Sudan and Somalia were not included in the list.

1. INTRODUCTION | 1 Kenya has a complicated history of underin- control of expansive budgets and responsibili- vestment in peripheral regions dating back to ties. However, devolution can also mitigate the colonial times layered with a legacy of ethnic risk of conflict if local capacity to manage it is divisions that have pitted groups against each developed. other. These structural factors have fueled intergroup grievances as well as distrust and In this context, capacity building, especially for resentment toward the state. The existence of the new county-level institutions, was seen as grievances based on group-based exclusion a critical need in Kenya (Mkutu, Marani, and is a powerful driver of conflict. Thus, mitigat- Ruteere 2014). Security is a national gov- ing these risks is essential to both promoting ernment function in Kenya, but counties are stability and furthering development progress engaged in conflict prevention efforts, par- (UN and World Bank 2018). ticularly in terms of development. Devolution creates an opportunity to examine locally The devolution process plays out in this relevant conflict prevention interventions that complicated environment. Devolution has follow international best practices. mitigated some risks of conflict and violence in Kenya while potentially exacerbating others. Devolution was one of three pillars in Kenya’s At the national level, the devolution of power Country Partnership Strategy (2014–18), and resources has the potential to diffuse risks providing a clear entry point for further by decreasing financial incentives. However, engagement. The World Bank has supported the influx of resources to newly formed insti- the devolution process through the Kenya tutions at the county level creates new risks Accountable Devolution Program (KADP), a there. In this context, the devolution of deci- multidonor trust fund that mobilizes donor sion making and funding often leads to local support for financial and technical capacity political and ethnic competition—and even building with the aim of strengthening institu- conflict—as new majorities and minorities tions, improving service delivery, and enhanc- seek to control and benefit from funding and ing citizen engagement with governance.2 decisions (Abdille and Abdi 2016). Some also Since its inception, KADP has worked to build argue that devolution reinforces the politics of capacity for devolved functions, such as finan- ethnicity, intensifies questions about “belong- cial management, revenue generation, per- ing” (Mkutu, Marani, and Ruteere 2014), and formance management, and human resource even contributes to conflicts among clans for management, as well as measures to enhance political power (World Bank 2020a). public participation.

The creation of new institutions as part of the The activities reviewed here represent a devolution process can also contribute to risks subtask focused on conflict mitigation within of conflict if those institutions are not able to KADP with the objective of building critical effectively manage the competing interests of different groups. As Menkhaus (2015) noted, 2. KADP is a multidonor trust fund with funding from devolution can enable a political environment DFID, USAID, DANIDA, the European Union, the Embassy of Finland and the Embassy of Sweden. It is designed as a of uncertain, nascent, and contested authority multiyear platform that assists counties and national gov- that lacks established “rules of the game” for ernment in enhancing citizen engagement and devolved local politics, and one with generally weak and service delivery. It achieves this by providing analysis, technical assistance, capacity development and support- inexperienced county administrators assuming ing knowledge sharing.

2 | Kenya Accountable Devolution Program—Conflict and Violence Risk Mitigation: Final Report capacity in county institutions for dealing with countries and to increase citizen participation the risks of conflict and violence that accom- in development initiatives; and (3) four rapid pany the devolution of resources and power. assessments on crime and violence in the The activities, which are described in greater Kenyan counties of Isiolo, Kisumu, Mombasa, detail below, took as their point of depar- and Narok (World Bank 2019a, b, c; 2020) to ture the experiences of county governments, contextualize learning events conducted by working to integrate a contextual under- the Crime and Violence Prevention Training standing of conflict dynamics into just-in-time Program. technical assistance while simultaneously improving coordination across multiple levels 1.1. Guiding Theory of Change of government. Key outcomes of the subtask on conflict and KADP also supported the formation of a violence risk mitigation are: regional bloc of counties in the north and northeastern regions to address common • A conflict-sensitive county integrated dynamics of conflict and development chal- development plan based on a violence lenges through collective action and regional mapping and assessment of the peace- integration. This region was targeted because building infrastructure in Isiolo. of the historic underinvestment in it as well as its higher incidence of conflict. • The establishment and ongoing key role of FCDC as a bloc for regional integra- The next section of this report provides an tion to facilitate development operations, overview of the context and background of including the North and North Eastern conflict and violence as well as Kenya’s expe- Development Initiative (NEDI). rience with devolution. Implemented activities and linkages to operations are then described, • A tested methodology to develop coun- including recommendations for moving for- ty-level capacity on crime and violence ward in terms of dissemination, knowledge prevention through rapid assessments, cus- sharing, and capacity building. Next, lessons tomized training, and peer-to-peer learn- are drawn and implications for the way forward ing, applied in four counties and informing are presented. county-level policymaking.

The complementary documentation for this • County assessments on crime and violence report consists of: (1) an assessment of the to inform the design of World Bank oper- institutional architecture of conflict mitigation ations. The Mombasa and Kisumu rapid in Isiolo (Boru and Mkutu 2019); (2) a final assessments, for example, were helpful report on KADP’s support to the Frontier in designing the menu of interventions Counties Development Council (FCDC) that on violence prevention for the Kenya describes the key supported activities such Informal Settlement Improvement Project II as strengthening institutions, enhancing the (P167814). And the Isiolo assessment pro- capacity and governance systems of FCDC vided inputs for the design of a grant for counties for improved service delivery, devel- the Global Facility for Disaster Reduction oping a comprehensive plan to accelerate and Recovery to address the intersections the socioeconomic development of FCDC between conflict and climate change. The

1. INTRODUCTION | 3 grant is expected to generate method- Activities also had a geographical concentra- ological tools that will be scaled up by the tion in the north and northeastern counties, upcoming Financing Locally-Led Climate which have experienced a history of mar- Change Action Program (P173065). ginalization and/or are affected by various forms of conflict. The north and northeastern The guiding theory of change for this work region of Kenya is historically underserved is that a multisectoral, integrated approach and performs below the national average on to conflict mitigation will help address the development indicators: the 68 percent pov- complex and interrelated drivers of violence in erty level is higher than the national average Kenya, by developing a comprehensive under- of 36 percent, the few road networks that exist standing of drivers and risk factors (WHO, are of poor quality, and the electricity access UNODC, and UNDP 2014) and by building rate is only 14 percent. Only 57 percent of capacity at the local and regional levels to households in this region have access to safe coordinate prevention activities. This theory water and 34 percent to improved sanitation, of change also applies to the establishment compared with national averages of 72 and of regional blocs to accelerate socioeconomic 59 percent, respectively. Primary school atten- development in marginalized and conflict-af- dance in the north and northeast is on average fected areas. 55 percent compared with a national average of 82 percent. Secondary school attendance is The work was firmly positioned in the devel- 19 percent versus 37 percent nationally. Thirty- opment response to conflict and violence four percent of births are assisted by a skilled and in partnership with other development provider compared with the national average actors. While security and law enforcement of 71 percent. The average literacy rate among actors play an important role in responding women is 41 percent compared with 89 per- to conflict and violence and in facilitating law cent for the entire country. and order generally, development actors also have a key function in addressing the under- The primary counterparts for the work were lying drivers and triggers of conflict. The work county-level actors, including county govern- was also substantially informed by an under- ment officials and administrators, as well as standing of the political economy surrounding other county-level nongovernmental actors, the devolution process, further discussed in including civil society organizations. section 2.

4 | Kenya Accountable Devolution Program—Conflict and Violence Risk Mitigation: Final Report FIgure 1.1. Theory of Change for KADP Violence Prevention Work

Activities Outputs Outcomes Impact

• Violence mapping • Assessment of the • Expanded understanding • Strengthening of and assessment of institutional architecture of county-level dynamics county-level capacity county capacity for for conflict prevention and drivers of violence to address conflict violence prevention and peacebuilding in and violence and peacebuilding Isiolo, including a • World Bank operations methodology applicable informed by analysis • Technical assistance to to similar contexts FCDC • County integrated • Establishment of development plan • County-level crime FCDC secretariat includes conflict and violence prevention mitigation measures training • Socioeconomic blueprint for the • Strengthening of northern Kenya region, FCDC’s capacity as including conflict a regional block mitigation • FCDC as interlocutor • Design of a mechanism for the North and to deploy technical North Eastern assistance to county Development Initiative members • Development of • Support to citizen county-level training engagement in FCDC program on crime and counties violence prevention

• County-level curriculum • Analysis-informed on crime and violence World Bank operations prevention • Network of local • Implementation of crime and violence training of trainers prevention practitioners

• Rapid assessments on crime and violence in four counties

• Training of 120 local stakeholders

• County crime and violence prevention manual

FCDC = Frontier Counties Development Council; KADP = Kenya Accountable Devolution Program.

1. INTRODUCTION | 5 Ministry of Tourism, County Government of Kisumu

2. Context and Background

2.1. Conflict, Crime, and crime-related matters. The NCRC has the legal Violence in Kenya mandate to solicit data from all government departments, which it then analyzes in regu- Kenya experiences various forms of violence lar advisory reports on security issues for the that tend to concentrate in particular geo- National Security Council. These briefs are not graphic regions and among different pop- public. Police data on individual crimes are ulations. These forms range from political available by county on the website, however violence, usually occurring around elections, this has not been regularly updated—the cur- to communal violence in border areas, to rent listings are from 2016. urban gang violence and organized crime, to activities by violent extremist groups. Efforts have been underway to establish a national crime data repository within the It is difficult to assess the full scale of violence NCRC that would provide a common platform in Kenya without the reliable and consistent for the collection and sharing of information, collection of data. Despite public commit- including data from law enforcement and ments to improving data systems, current primary data collected via county-level rapid efforts give only a partial picture. The National assessment surveys. Only a handful of these Crime Research Center (NCRC), established were available on the website as of early in 1997, constitutes the Kenyan govern- 2019. In addition, the NCRC collects data via ment’s data collection and management on

6 Figure 2.1. Fatalities Due to Armed Conflict in East Africa

45

40

35 2010–19 2015–19 30 2018–19

25

20

15

10 Number of fatalities (thousands) 5

0 Somalia South Sudan Ethiopia Kenya Burundi Uganda Tanzania Rwanda Sudan

Source: Armed Conflict Location Event Data.

a mobile phone application through which forms of violence and their concentration in citizens can submit information on crimes.3 different regions. The analysis was informed by inputs from international experts and validated In 2015, given these data constraints, the through consultations with experts in Kenya.4 World Bank conducted a violence mapping More details are provided in the section 3). to categorize the various manifestations of violence in Kenya, identify trends and inter- The mapping revealed a complex interplay connections between the forms, and inform of multiple forms of violence. It is clear that the ongoing policy dialogue regarding an certain forms of violence tend to concentrate appropriate response. The mapping relied in specific regions. For example, as discussed on official sources, including police data and further below, incidence of criminal and gang the ACLED international conflict database violence tends to cluster in urban areas, while and geospatial technology, to locate different violence around natural resources, such as cat- tle rustling, tends to occur in northern regions, and extremist violence along the coast. 3. According to an interview with NCRC management, the data from the mobile phone monitoring were shared with police in cases where it could be useful for law enforce- ment efforts, and stored in the data repository. Currently, 4. For a full list of the organizations and individuals con- there is no mechanism for the state to respond to a citizen sulted within Kenya and outside of Kenya as part of the submitting information via the mobile phone application. development of the mapping, see World Bank (2015).

2. CONTEXT AND BACKGROUND | 7 In terms of political violence, Kenya compares these trends may be shifting. Turkana County, relatively favorably to neighboring countries, while highest overall in the 1997–2016 period, several of which have experienced civil wars or is showing more recent declines in violence, large-scale conflicts (figure 2.1). There has not especially since 2011. been a full-scale civil war or interstate conflict in Kenya, with the notable exception of a spike Manifestations of violence vary substantially in violence following the 2007 elections. across Kenya, including livestock rustling, crim- inal networks and organized crime, commu- The World Bank mapping looked at political nal conflicts over natural resources and land, violence at the subnational level, demon- ethnopolitical clashes, interpersonal violence, strating that levels of fatalities from political and—more recently—violent extremism5 in the violence have been higher in in the northeast north and northeastern counties. These forms and northwest counties as well as in urban of violence tend to be geographically concen- hotspots (map 2.1). trated and are fueled by distinct drivers.

Turkana has experienced the highest levels of fatalities (1,444 conflict-related deaths 5. The World Bank Group has developed a working defi- since 1997), followed by Nairobi (988), and nition of violent extremism as: “the use of violence, driven the northern counties of Mandera (844) and by ideology, in order to advance socioeconomic and polit- ical objectives, and which results in sustained, destabiliz- Marsabit (637). However, there is evidence that ing economic and social impact” (World Bank 2015b.)

Map 2.1. Conflict Fatalities by County in Kenya, 1997–2016

8 | Kenya Accountable Devolution Program—Conflict and Violence Risk Mitigation: Final Report Sexual and gender-based violence is high in experiences of physical and sexual violence some parts of the country. According to the prior to age 18. Sixty-six percent of women Demographic and Health Survey, 14 percent and 73 percent of men reported having of women and 6 percent of men in Kenya experienced physical violence; and 32 percent have been victimized by sexual violence of girls and 18 percent of boys in Kenya had (DHS Kenya 2014). A 2016 mapping exer- experienced sexual violence. Family members cise estimated a higher lifetime prevalence were the most common perpetrators. Notably, of gender-based violence in the west of the teachers and police were common perpetra- country and some urban areas compared with tors of violence against boys (UNICEF 2012). the east of the country (World Bank 2016). Furthermore, sexual violence is often repeated Political and election-related violence tends to (World Bank 2011b). A key challenge with this be most pronounced in urban areas and in the type of violence is the tendency for survivors former Rift Valley province. This type of vio- not to report for fear of retaliation by perpe- lence tends to be driven by unrest surrounding trators (DIGNITY 2018). elections or other political processes as well as by efforts of political entrepreneurs to manip- Violence against children affects about one ulate political grievances. At various points in third of Kenyans. The most recent survey Kenya’s history, urban gangs and rural militias on violence against children, conducted in have been mobilized for violence on behalf 2012, asked women and men about their of political actors. ACLED data for 2008–19

Map 2.2. Regional Forms of Violence by County (1997–2016)

2. CONTEXT AND BACKGROUND | 9 demonstrate peaks of riots and protests in Cattle rustling tends to be concentrated the postelection periods of 2007 and 2017, along the border regions in Turkana, Tana with high levels of violence against civilians in River, Marsabit, Mandera, and Isiolo. Cross- urban settings. border rustling includes Uganda, Ethiopia, and—to some extent—Somalia. This kind of Violence perpetrated by gangs and orga- activity has its roots in long-standing mecha- nized crime has been on the increase since nisms for balancing power and wealth across the 1990s in major cities such as Nairobi, communities but in recent years has become Mombasa, and Kisumu. A national survey on entrenched with organized crime groups. In organized crime by the NCRC identified 46 2019, 30 people were killed in Kenya’s West groups operating in Kenya in 2012 (NCRC Pokot and Elgeyo-Marawet counties alone 2012). A subsequent survey in 2017 included (Omondi Gumba 2020). surveys in informal settlements, where resi- dents identified a total of 125 different orga- Communal violence is often related to dis- nized criminal groups in their neighborhoods putes over the use of natural resources, (NCRC 2017). While it is difficult to document including land and water, by owners, farmers, empirically, media reports suggest that crim- or pastoralists. The KADP crime and violence inal groups are increasing as militias used in assessments for Isiolo and Narok counties election-related violence diversify into other reveal resource-based conflict dynamics, criminal activities, particularly in informal set- including tensions between pastoralists and tlements (Mukinda 2010). other land users around land ownership, cattle raids, and intercounty border conflicts (World Most organized crime groups primarily oper- Bank 2019a, 2020a). Climate change, particu- ate in specific geographical areas, where they larly desertification, has exacerbated this form engage in basic criminal activities such as pro- of violence in recent years as people compete tection rackets. This type of crime is driven by for more limited resources. In addition, the the presence of international trafficking net- presence of large infrastructure projects is an works, particularly for wildlife and illegal drugs. important driver, increasing hostilities related A number of West African trafficking networks to land ownership and restrictions of pastoral are reportedly operating in Kenya, and the mobility. country is allegedly a transit point for cocaine and heroin as they make their way to Europe Violent extremist activity has historically and North America (Felbab-Brown 2018). been focused on the northeastern counties bordering Somalia as well as on the coast. Common crime is a challenge for urban areas. The January 17, 2019, attack by Al-Shabaab The rapid assessments carried out under on the Dusit Hotel in Nairobi revealed that the Kenya Accountable Devolution Program the threat of this violence remains real. This (KADP) in Kisumu and Mombasa found certain came after several years of declining attacks types of crime and violence to be common by the group—the last significant attack was in Kenya’s urban centers, including robberies on Garissa University in 2015—and just as the and assaults involving public transportation African Union Mission in Somalia (AMISOM) vehicles, routes, and stands, as well as youth was beginning to draw down troops in neigh- violence manifest in criminal gangs and politi- boring Somalia (ACLED 2018). While in the cal militias (World Bank 2019b, c). past, extremist groups mainly hailed from

10 | Kenya Accountable Devolution Program—Conflict and Violence Risk Mitigation: Final Report neighboring Somalia,6 extremist groups have muscular security responses are among the steadily gained a stronger local presence in strongest push factors for radicalization (UNDP Kenya (Botha 2013). Media reports suggest 2017). the 6 attackers and 12 suspects in court for the recent terror attack on Nairobi’s Dusit Forms of violence are not static; they may hotel complex are mostly Kenyans, primar- morph from one into another type with chang- ily from counties like Isiolo, Nyeri, Kiambu, ing contextual conditions. Political violence, Mombasa, and Machakos, all of which are far for example, can spill over into communal from the Somali border (ISS 2019). The activity violence. Following the 2007 general elections, of extremist groups is concentrated in certain tensions around political conflicts erupted into areas, particularly in areas close to the border communal violence in urban and rural areas, with Somalia, the Coastal region in the south- eventually taking more than 1,000 lives and east, and in Nairobi. displacing over half a million people. Likewise, urban criminal violence has increased as polit- While violent extremist attacks are geo- ical militias have been converted into urban graphically concentrated, their impacts reach gangs (Mukinda 2010). across Kenya. Between 2011 and the end of May 2016, there were 163 recorded violent 2.2. Institutional Architecture extremist attacks in the country, resulting in 596 casualties. The attacks included ones in The approval of a new constitution in 2010 the Westgate Mall in Nairobi, those in Lamu resulted in the establishment of 47 new county and Mandera, and the 2015 attack on Garissa. governments and systems of devolution that University (World Bank 2016). The January assign powers and development functions to 2019 attack on Dusit hotel alone killed 21 county governments. Recognizing the his- people. The heavy-handed security tactics toric inequalities in development investment, of Kenyan security forces—most prominently particularly the underinvestment in the north Kenya’s Operation Linda Nchi and the sub- and northeastern region, Kenya adopted a sequent involvement of the African Union highly redistributive county revenue allocation Mission in Somalia as well as the operations of formula. Furthermore, the constitution created the Anti-Terror Police Unit—have not helped an equalization fund comprising 0.5 percent matters. Empirical work shows that these of all revenues collected by the national tactics have contributed to the polarization government. These funds are allocated to and radicalization of the minority Muslim marginalized areas to finance the delivery population in Kenya and, in many cases, have of services for roads, water, electricity, and been counterproductive to strategies to win health, presenting an unique opportunity to over the hearts and minds of youth through foster sustained security and development in countering violent extremism programs (USIP the region. However, this mechanism is not 2016). This is in line with the global evidence yet fully implemented, increasing tensions and on violent extremism, which highlights that frustrations.

6. For example, the 1998 attack on the U.S. embassy Devolution has also had the effect of intro- in Nairobi was carried out by foreign operatives, with ducing a range of new stakeholders to man- Kenyans playing a small role as facilitators. By 2011, the age local-level conflict. While this has helped frequency and scale of attacks in Kenya began intensifying as Al-Shabaab increased its presence in Kenya. diversify the response to conflict dynamics,

2. CONTEXT AND BACKGROUND | 11 it has also brought increased challenges in For example, the National Police Service terms of coordination and accountability. Commission develops and oversees policies Tensions between national and county gov- on police recruitment, promotions, transfers, ernments have slowed the implementation of and discipline; and the independent policing new violence prevention structures, and some oversight authority deals with public com- of the new county-level institutions have faced plaints regarding the police. delays in becoming operational. The reconfig- uration of community institutions occurring at Other ministries carry out prevention activities the same time that former civil society bod- through various sectors. The Ministry of Land, ies were being institutionalized into county Housing, and Urban Development focuses government structures (such as district peace on urban and slum upgrading the Ministry committees) has also disrupted power dynam- of Health plays a key role in improving the ics. Challenges in reconciling local efforts to policy environment for addressing sexual foster community engagement for conflict and gender-based violence; and the Ministry prevention with the top-down national-level of Education runs school-based prevention structures continue to hamper prevention programs. efforts in Kenya. Given the concern over youth involvement in conflict and violence, in 2018, the Ministry of National level Public Service, Youth, and Gender has for- There is no national overarching policy on con- mulated a national youth policy. Vulnerability flict and violence prevention in Kenya. However, to violence is noted in the policy, and elimi- elements of prevention are incorporated in nating all forms of violence against youth is other national planning documents. For exam- listed as a guiding value (section 3.7). Crime, ple, Vision 2030 includes a pillar on security security, and peacebuilding is considered peacebuilding and conflict management a priority area, with a number of initiatives primarily on policing and surveillance. Within listed to address youth’s involvement in the law enforcement sector, national policies crime, especially increasing participation of on policing and community policing have been youth in peacebuilding, improving livelihood drafted, but implementation has stalled. opportunities, and school-based prevention. The Kenyan government undertakes a myr- Most traditional security functions remain iad of training and employment programs concentrated at the national level, although for youth: The National Youth Service, the the devolution process has resulted in some Youth Enterprise Development Fund, and the restructuring of the different bodies and lines Women Enterprise Fund. In addition to these of accountability between county and national government initiatives, hundreds of projects levels. With the 2010 constitution, the National related to youth empowerment and employ- Security Council was established to oversee ment are delivered by nongovernmental the Kenyan Defense Forces, the National organizations, faith-based groups, and com- Intelligence Services, and the National Police munity-based organizations, mainly funded by Service. The police service is headed by an international donors. Most of these are small independent inspector general to decrease in scale, often limited to settlements or neigh- the potential for political interference. borhoods within a city. The private sector also Oversight mechanisms were also put in place. directs some youth-focused programs.

12 | Kenya Accountable Devolution Program—Conflict and Violence Risk Mitigation: Final Report Coordination between the national and county of youth violence prevention. Many counties levels is a serious challenge to the effective have received funding for countering violent engagement of youth for the prevention of extremism officers, who sit in the county gov- conflict and violence. The Ministry of Public ernment. Likewise, sexual and gender-based Service, Youth, and Gender works through violence has received an increased focus by youth development officers appointed at the county governments as well, often with donor national level, who are tasked with outreach- support. For example, the Nakuru County ing to youth and working through offices set government established and equipped a full up in the county capitals that are separate wing for handling such cases at the provincial from the county administration. Other pro- hospital to provide treatment and counsel- grams, such as technical and vocational edu- ing services for survivors of sexual and gen- cation training, work directly through county der-based violence (DIGNITY 2018). governments. Many counties had established Peace Much of the criminal justice system, includ- Directorates and District Peace Committees, ing prisons, is regulated and enforced at the which were instrumental in preventing further national level, but it relies on local-level staff violence during the period after the 2007 for implementation. Prisons are regulated by election (Agade and Halakhe 2018). These the national government, but probation offi- were heavily supported by donors immedi- cers who work on the rehabilitation and reen- ately following the 2007 election; since then try of offenders sit in the county government. however support has waned, and many are no This often means that national and county longer functional. programs operate in parallel, with many dupli- cated efforts and confusion at the local level. National policy on security and crime pre- vention is coordinated at the county level by county commissioners. The commissioners are County level career public servants, appointed by the pres- County governments do not have a formal ident, who represent the national government security role, but county governors do play at the county level through their position as a role in issues that have a bearing on secu- chairs of the county security committees. They rity. Traditional security provision—police also oversee the duties of the deputy county and intelligence services—remain under the commissioner, assistant county commissioner, purview of the national government. That said, chiefs, and ward administrators in a structure county governors control prevention-related that replicates the hierarchy under the previ- areas, such as the control of illicit drugs, the ous provincial administrations. regulation of alcohol sales, control over com- mon nuisances, basic infrastructure±such as County commissioners and governors are street lighting and parks, and some aspects of meant to coordinate with one another to align employment policy (such as through technical national and county-level policies and initia- and vocational education training). With the tives on security and crime prevention. The increase of donor interest in countering violent extent to which this happens varies consider- extremism over recent years, some counties ably from county to county. have developed county action plans to com- bat extremism, incorporating many aspects

2. CONTEXT AND BACKGROUND | 13 One of the most challenging areas for coor- monitoring progress and achievements; over- dination between the national and county seeing and promoting community policing levels has been law enforcement. The Kenyan initiatives; facilitating public participation; and National Police are responsible for enforcing providing financial oversight for the budget county laws, but they formally report to the for policing. To date, most counties have not national level. This can cause problems if established CPAs. county objectives are at odds with national ones. For example, some rural and border Below the CPAs, the legal framework provides region counties have struggled to engage for the establishment of community policing police in addressing communal conflicts or committees (CPCs) to represent various levels cattle rustling (Burbidge 2017). (sublocational, area, and subcounty CPCs). The CPCs comprise representatives from the Legislation and frameworks have been devel- community, resident associations, communi- oped to institute community policing, but ty-based organizations, faith-based organiza- implementation has been limited. The push tions, the private sector, and law enforcement for community policing has its roots in pre- agencies. Each CPC is supposed have its own devolution, with efforts by bilateral partners written constitution, including the demarca- (DFID and USAID) in the 1990s to push for tion of the cluster area, membership, codes of security reforms toward more accountability conduct, rules for elections procedures for res- and citizen engagement. Official policy on olution of conflicts, and conduct of meetings. community policing was drafted in 2003 as part of the Governance, Justice, Law and More detailed guidance for community polic- Order Sector (GJLOS) Programme, which ing is being developed by the National Task resulted in pilots of community policing Force on Community Policing, established programs in Isiolo, Ruai, Kikuyu, Kajiado, in 2013 in the wake of the Westgate attack Kimlilii, and Sotik (Government of Kenya and (CHRIPS 2017). According to the Centre for Saferworld 2009). The postelection violence Human Rights and Policy Studies, the draft of 2007–08 accelerated the momentum, and policy has not been approved or adopted in 2010, a national task force on police reform by the Kenyan government. In addition, the was established to oversee a move toward committees are not yet operational in most community policing. counties due to various administrative delays (Agade and Halakhe 2018). Counties are meant to oversee community policing bodies through the new County Further confusion has been created by the Policing Authorities (CPAs), planned to be establishment of the Nyumba Kumi (Ten established under the 2011 National Police Homes) committees in 2013, an initiative Service Act. The CPAs are to be headed by the meant to anchor community policing at the governor of each county, bringing together household level (Andhoga and Mavole 2017). 13 representatives from county, national, Nyumba Kumi committees include the heads and local community security interests, six of of 10 households in a neighborhood who whom are lay members. CPAs are responsible closely monitor the security in their location. for monitoring trends and patterns of crime; While the community policing committees developing proposals on priorities, objec- are established by the police and fall under tives, and targets for police performance; their leadership, Nyumba Kumi fall under

14 | Kenya Accountable Devolution Program—Conflict and Violence Risk Mitigation: Final Report leadership of chiefs working in the national the proliferation of community-level actors, government administration office, a body that including faith-based organizations, com- under the formal provincial administration was munity-based organizations, and more tradi- tasked with coordinating local security but was tional forums—such as elders. For example, restructured under devolution. The efforts of the Nakuru CSO Network currently has more the CPCs and Nyumba Kumi are meant to be than 30 members working throughout the 11 coordinated by the Ministry of Interior and subcounties. These tend to be small in scale Coordination of National Government, but this and fragmented, often limited to particular has been weak and, in many cases, there is neighborhoods. Many were or are dependent competition between the two (CHRIPS 2017). on external support.

The experience of Isiolo is an instructive case. Community level The institutional mapping identified several At the community level, the devolution pro- important developments in terms of how cess has given rise to many new actors and structures have changed with devolution. For reconfigured existing ones. There remains a example, security functions previously carried large gap between the national commitments out by chiefs and militias were now under the to devolve many prevention functions and the purview of local police. However, the police myriad efforts at community engagement at force remained thin and poorly resourced, the microlevel. which hindered efforts to respond to threats of violence and crime, especially in the more For example, district peace committees had remote areas. The assessment also highlighted been an integral part of grassroots conflict the important role played by informal actors, mitigation. Many were vital in calming the such as village chiefs and faith-based organi- 2007 election-related violence in Kenya. zations, in mediating conflicts and recovering However, the loss of direct funding for them stolen cattle after raids. It also uncovered gaps from the national government creates a con- in coordination among other informal actors, siderable gap in county-level peacebuilding such as community-based organizations and architecture. These structures must now apply government bodies, as well as a duplication to the counties for funding; many have ceased of efforts in cross-cutting challenges such as to exist. Some have transitioned into peace or gender and youth empowerment. cohesion departments within county govern- ment, but they are at early stages and lack 2.3. Addressing underdevelop- capacity. In some cases, counties have formed ment in peripheral regions county peace forums, with former members of the district peace committees incorporated In the challenging political economy of devo- into them. However, with limited resources lution, the creation of the Frontier Counties and charges of political interference in many Development Council (FCDC), which includes cases, these forums have struggled to gain Garissa, Isiolo, Lamu, Mandera, Marsabit, credibility and exercise their functions. Tana River, Samburu, Turkana, Wajir, and West Pokot, offered a strategic entry point for The devolution of resources, and an increase supporting the Kenyan government with con- in donor funding, particularly for counter- flict mitigation and regional socioeconomic ing violent extremism initiatives, has fed transformation.

2. CONTEXT AND BACKGROUND | 15 Box 2.1. Establishment of Frontier Counties Development Council

In 2016, the seven northern frontier counties of Garissa, Isiolo, Lamu, Mandera, Marsabit, Tana River, and Wajir, which share similar experiences of historical political and economic marginalization in addition to security challenges, united to create the Frontier Counties Development Council (FCDC) economic bloc. The FCDC has since been joined by the Samburu, Turkana, and West Pokot counties. FCDC counties expect to gain a greater voice in negotiations with the national government and other stakeholders, to create a larger eco- nomic area that attracts increased investments, and to engage in collective action to address common development challenges.

The FCDC is a relatively new player in the persistent inequality with respect to other institutional landscape. It was created to regions in Kenya. Consequently, the coun- serve as a coordination body to assist mem- ties confront the highest rates of poverty, ber counties in the context of national efforts vulnerability to disasters, limited access to to address underdevelopment in peripheral and use of basic services such as health and regions. By developing mechanisms to share education, and low levels of infrastructure and lessons and build institutional infrastructure, investment. the FCDC was meant to support the member counties as they worked together on common In this context, it was not realistic to simply challenges. Some of those common chal- scale up investment. Starting from a low base, lenges included climate change, infrastructure marginalized counties have weaker institutions investment, and conflict mitigation. and face unique challenges. They face chal- lenges attracting and retaining skilled per- While devolution increased fiscal space to sonnel to take up management and technical address major infrastructure and service gaps, positions in government and private enter- FCDC counties were starting from a situation prises. These conditions make it harder for of very low capacity, and serious development them to effectively program, deliver develop- challenges. FCDC counties have a shared ment services, and access performance-based history of protracted marginalization and funding.

16 | Kenya Accountable Devolution Program—Conflict and Violence Risk Mitigation: Final Report Photo: Kennedy Mkutu | World Bank 3. Conflict and Violence Prevention Activities

3.1. National and County- The mapping formed the basis for discussion level Mapping of Conflict and during a series of consultations held in Nairobi Violence during November 2015. Over 30 organizations and government agencies were consulted.7 As an initial step, a joint team from the During the consultations, key stakeholders Fragility, Conflict and Violence Cross-Cutting identified specific risks related to violence that Solutions Area and social development need to be mitigated, including: the risk of developed a national mapping of conflict and increased violence, especially at the county violence in Kenya, supported by the country level, ahead of the 2017 elections; increasing management unit. The mapping drew on frustration and potential for violence among existing data sources to develop a typology youth, especially in urban areas; and growing of violence, a geospatial mapping of different conflict over land and natural resources. forms of violence, a literature review on broad drivers of violence, and identification of entry points for addressing violence through World 7. See World Bank 2015a for a full list of those consulted Bank Group engagement in Kenya. for the mapping.

17 In response to a request by the office of the Impact of Isiolo mapping president, visualizations of the national vio- The Isiolo mapping and institutional assess- lence mapping were shared with the govern- ment, with its detailed recommendations, ment. It was also disseminated with World were taken up by several actors as valuable Bank task team, particularly infrastructure, tools to understand the unique dynamics education, and health, to illustrate risks of underlying conflict in Isiolo, and the institu- conflict and violence associated with devel- tional environment. Both were widely dissem- opment projects. The national mapping also inated among local and national stakeholders produced a mapping methodology that could working on violence prevention as a way to be applied to the county level and was piloted support dialogue and collaboration among in Isiolo. the institutions responsible for peace and conflict mitigation. 3.2. County-level Mapping of Conflict and Violence in Isiolo The mapping had measurable influence on county government capacity and dialogue. A Drawing on the methodology developed for key follow-up activity to the Isiolo mapping the national mapping, a county-level version was a series of participatory consultations with was designed and piloted in Isiolo County key stakeholders that was led by the county under KAPD’s support. The objective of this government in coordination with Frontier mapping was to assess the dynamics of vio- Counties Development Council (FCDC). The lence and conflict as well as the prevention consultations drew on the mapping as a basis and peacebuilding capacity at the county level for discussion and were aimed at generating a to support county-level capacity building. basic consensus on the prioritization of capac- ity-building needs, including timelines, areas, The mapping exercise in Isiolo included the and target groups. following components: (1) a compilation of existing data on the incidence and locations In March 2018, with further KADP support, the of various forms of violence; (2) the identifica- mapping’s recommendations were taken up tion of key conflict dynamics, including those in the county integrated development plan related to devolution; (3) an understanding of through several specific measures designed how historical conflict dynamics in the county to address key risk factors for violence and are interacting with emerging dynamics; conflict identified in the mapping: (4) the identification of risks and protective factors across time, geography, and specific • Construction of educational and vocational target groups; and (5) an assessment of the training centers, and staff recruitment for institutional architecture for conflict mitiga- training programs. An emphasis on vul- tion in Isiolo. The Isiolo conflict mapping was nerable groups resulted in the inclusion of finalized and disseminated in 2019 (World increased physical access measures and Bank 2019a). It included a set of recommenda- recruitment of staff trained in special needs tions for various levels, from the Isiolo county education. government to national ministries and agen- cies, as well as for local and international civil • Construction of new sports facilities, along society organizations and donors. with recruitment of staff for programs.

18 | Kenya Accountable Devolution Program—Conflict and Violence Risk Mitigation: Final Report • New advocacy efforts to raise awareness technical systematic and customized technical about gender-based violence, one of the assistance in underserved and marginalized most pervasive forms of violence identified areas affected by conflict and violence. The by the mapping. specific activities supported by the subtask are described below. • Measures to enhance inclusion, aimed at promoting greater social cohesion and Establishing the FCDC secretariat reducing violence, such as the creation of new by-laws for a 30 percent access to gov- KADP collaborated closely with FCDC to ernment procurement for youth, women, build its foundational structure and operating and people with disabilities. procedures. This included a strategic plan that set the long-term mandate, vision, mission, • Measures to increase enforcement of the and branding of FCDC as a corporate entity county’s child protection policies, includ- through an operational manual, a resource ing parenting support, data collection to mobilization plan, and a communications identify needs and monitor response, and strategy. This initial support allowed for the outreach programs for vulnerable children, establishment of a functional unit and a more especially those living on the street. structured engagement among counties, government stakeholders, and development The impact of the Isiolo mapping has partners. These outputs contributed to the extended to other counties. Samburu has development of the FCDC’s capacity to coor- adopted similar tools and FCDC is planning dinate development initiatives in its member to support all counties to mainstream conflict counties effectively and efficiently, including prevention across their county integrated procurement, financial management and con- development plans. The Isiolo mapping has flict prevention. FCDC is currently implement- been taken up in World Bank projects that ing initiatives supported by several donors, will operate in Isiolo. For example, analysis on including DFID and USAID, and with Swiss risks of conflict and violence were considered cooperation. in the operationalization of the North and North Eastern Development Initiative (NEDI) As initial step, KADP conducted a compre- initiative. hensive review of existing resources, includ- ing analytical and institutional assessments 3.3. Strengthening Capacity in north and northern Kenya. Fieldwork was of the Frontier Counties carried out in consultation with counties at Development Council various stages to collect data on skills and capacity gaps as well as to examine develop- This subtask contributed to establish the ment challenges, with specific attention to the FCDC and build its capacity to convene, barriers and bottlenecks related to the region’s coordinate, and implement development development. Building capacity also entailed initiatives across the counties of Garissa, staffing the FCDC secretariat, including a Isiolo, Lamu, Mandera, Marsabit, Tana River, project coordination team and an advisory Samburu, Turkana, Wajir, and West Pokot. The committee. creation of the FCDC secretariat was critical to support a coordinated effort to provide

3. CONFLICT AND VIOLENCE PREVENTION ACTIVITIES | 19 Enhancing the capacity and blueprint provides a roadmap for identifying governance systems of the FCDC and prioritizing policies and development ini- counties for improved service delivery tiatives for implementation by the FCDC coun- ties over the 2018–30 period. The strategy KADP supported the development of a utilizes an analytical approach that combines mechanism to deploy technical support on an interplay of economic geography, market project design and delivery to FCDC member forces, and government policies to promote counties. The program mobilized experts from economic integration and development. It multiple teams to address the multisectoral recommends addressing regional develop- nature of the technical assistance provided to ment challenges by building institutions, FCDC. A surge capacity team of experts with improving connectivity, and addressing social diverse specialties was put in place and made and cultural barriers through appropriate available to counties to address technical and interventions and incentives. The blueprint, professional gaps. developed through an extensive consultation process with local and national stakeholders, This mechanism also involved dissemination has been used by several development part- of existing policy and program guidelines to ners, including DFID and USAID, in the design enhance the capacity for planning and ser- of their operations, and has also informed the vice delivery in FCDC counties. For example, implementation of the NEDI initiative. KADP supported the adaptation and dissem- ination of national guidelines to county-spe- cific dynamics, including the Rapid Results Increasing citizen participation Approach; affirmative action in the recruitment KADP also supported the revision and adapta- of women, youth, and people with disabilities; tion of county guidelines to enhance commu- and addressing conflict and violence preven- nity participation and accountability in FCDC tion in county-planning tools. counties during project design and imple- mentation. Marsabit has already adopted the Developing a comprehensive plan revised guidelines. The guidelines, produced to accelerate the socioeconomic by the Ministry of Devolution and Planning development of FCDC counties in coordination with the governors of FCDC counties, were intended to sensitize citizens The “Socioeconomic Blueprint for the Frontier regarding their role in holding county gov- Counties Development Council: Towards a ernment officials accountable for their use of Regional and Territorial Approach for Local public resources. With FCDC, a civic education Development” was a strategic output from program and training materials were devel- KADP. It recognizes that underdevelopment in oped and presented to stakeholders during the region is attributed to low density in terms workshops that rolled out the guidelines. of economic and population concentration; Information obtained in a pretraining survey poor infrastructure, which leads to costly and that examined the status of civic education long distances to the markets for the goods in FCDC counties were then used to improve and services from the region; and major social the training program. The civic education divisions arising from insecurity, conflicts, training familiarized county officers with the and harmful social and cultural practices. The

20 | Kenya Accountable Devolution Program—Conflict and Violence Risk Mitigation: Final Report legal provisions governing county-level public and the private sector to finance capacity participation and civic education and provided building and sectoral development issues in tools to include minority and marginalized the region. groups, including youth and women. Over the last three years, FCDC developed an organizational structure capable of managing Impact of support to FCDC and mobilizing resources and technical assis- The support to FCDC has generated demon- tance for its members. FCDC currently has a strable impact. FCDC is currently operating database of experts who can be mobilized as an efficient, reliable, and fully operational on demand and at short notice to undertake regional bloc for the north and northeastern specific tasks to support, mentor, and assist region. KADP was in a unique position to the FCDC counties. This involves several areas provide systematic and specialized support to such as: (1) procurement; (2) financial manage- help FCDC transiting from its conceptualiza- ment; (3) engineering supervision; (4) delivery tion stage to concrete actions. KADP’s support of basic services; (5) development of strategic was also instrumental in understanding and plans and county integrated development responding to the implications of conflict and plans; (6) project management, monitoring, violence for frontier counties’ investments, evaluation, and reporting of development services, and planning processes, as well as initiatives; (7) performance management sys- for intercounty cooperation to respond to and tems; and (7) conflict-sensitive programming— prevent risks of conflict. all of this underpinned by accountability and transparency. This technical assistance played FCDC has made important gains in estab- an important role in accessing new projects lishing itself as a credible coordinating body. and resources. For example, urban planners First and foremost, it is facilitating a dialogue identified by FCDC assisted counties in pre- between the World Bank and FCDC counties paring grant applications for the DFID-funded regarding NEDI, which integrates a package Sustainable Urban Economic Development of crucial infrastructure investments in energy, Programme. As a result, the municipalities transport, and water to connect traditionally of Mandera, Lamu, and Isiolo were awarded marginalized and conflict-affected areas in grants. the north and northeastern region to national markets. The infrastructure investments are Furthermore, FCDC has played a key role in complemented by operations to improve managing community/clan dynamics asso- health outcomes; expand support to the most ciated with infrastructure projects, such as vulnerable households through regular cash the North Eastern Transport Improvement transfers; and enable sustainable livelihoods Project and the Kenya Development Response with targeted support to farmers, pastoral- to Displacement Impacts Project. Overall, ists, and communities with large influxes of the visibility of FCDC and its achievements displaced populations. In addition, FCDC has has encouraged the Kenyan government to passed the FCDC Bill in 5 out of the 10 FCDC develop policies and legislation that would counties and mobilized resources from the guide the formation of regional blocs. national government, development partners,

3. CONFLICT AND VIOLENCE PREVENTION ACTIVITIES | 21 3.4. County Training on Violence program. Urban areas tend to confront chal- Prevention lenges such as poor urban planning, informal settlements, and youth gangs; rural areas tend KADP supported the Crime and Violence to struggle with land and resource-based con- Prevention Training (CVPT) program, con- flicts. Four activities were undertaken under ducted in collaboration with the Kenya CVPT, described below. School of Government, the United States International University, and the National Research Crime Center (NCRC). The CVPT Updating and reviewing was designed to support county governments CVPT curriculum in understanding the dynamics and drivers The KADP supported a curriculum review in of violence and to improve the institutional the early stage of this initiative to ensure that capacity for violence prevention and peace- it was in line with evidence-based approaches building at the county level. on violence prevention. New insights provided by the World Bank and other national and The CVPT in Kenya convenes representa- international experts were incorporated into tives from the government, civil society, and the training and the training of trainers. The academia to learn about crime prevention. curriculum is now available for future CVPT It seeks to: (1) promote policy and public phases and key partners. The Kenya School discourse on crime and violence prevention of Government is expected to incorporate and safety; (2) explore strategies, tools, and the revised curriculum into other training methods of crime and violence prevention programs targeted at public administrators. A in Kenya; (3) facilitate the emergence of a training manual based on the course content multisector group of public, private, and civil is under preparation. society actors who are engaged in crime and violence prevention in Kenya; and (4) equip stakeholders of crime and violence prevention Implementing the training-of-trainers with adequate skills to conceptualize, design, program implement, and monitor crime and violence Alumni of previous CVPTs were recruited prevention programs and interventions at the to participate in a five-day residential train- national and county level. ing-of-trainers course conducted May 18–23, 2018, with the primary goal of equipping local The rolling out of CVPT received KADP sup- practitioners to deliver high-quality violence port in four counties: Isiolo, Mombasa, Narok, prevention programs, facilitate the exchange and Kisumu, involving 120 participants from of good practices among counties, and multiple sectors, including key policy makers promote cost-effective solutions. An invest- and civil society organizations. Part of the ment in the creation of a local pool of spe- rationale for the selection was that the World cialists sought to reduce intervention costs by Bank already had a presence in those counties decreasing the need for outsourced support and that the CVPT could harmonize and add and external consultants. Participants became value to existing initiatives, including in FCDC key resources for training activities conducted counties. In addition, the CVPT team wanted in counties supported by the KADP. to introduce an urban-rural balance to the

22 | Kenya Accountable Devolution Program—Conflict and Violence Risk Mitigation: Final Report Performing rapid assessments of Conducting the CVPT at the county-level crime and violence county level

In order to contextualize the CVPT training, The training courses, which took place rapid assessments were conducted of each April 16–May 18, 2018, and June 2–28, 2019, county. brought together over 100 crime prevention practitioners from across Kenya, including The rapid assessments on crime and violence key national and county government officials were crucial to customizing the training to from a variety of ministries and departments, the specific challenges faced by the counties. such as those related to internal security, the They provided common ground for discus- judiciary, the national police service, youth, sion among participants and those for whom gender, planning, monitoring and evaluation, the training might be a useful investment, children, and welfare, in addition to nonstate and they addressed questions regarding the actors from the private sector, religious organi- identification of the county’s main challenges zations, community groups, nongovernmental regarding crime and violence; the visible organizations, academia, and the media. risk factors or drivers, enabling factors, and protective factors; and the existing players, The training program used a variety of teach- strategies, and partnerships for mitigation and ing and learning methods, including lectures, prevention activities. case studies, plenary group discussions, focus groups, videos, and field trips; it also made The methodology that CVPT had previously use of local and international facilitators. Field used for assessments during earlier iterations visits included walkabouts to conduct safety of the training was refined as part of this audits in public spaces in Nairobi, a tour of a exercise. The KADP supported expert consul- one-stop facility for gender-based violence in tations and an extensive peer review exercise Nakuru, and a visit to an informal settlement in to help the CVPT team improve the methodol- Dandora. ogy for the county-specific assessments. Impact of CVPT rapid assessments The five-day assessments primarily consisted and training of qualitative research as well as a quantitative component (a questionnaire) in one county The CVPT training activities have generated and in-depth desk-based research. Focus impact in several areas. First, the convening group discussions were held with various of actors across governmental, nongov- members of the community and other sectors. ernmental, and civil society institutions has Secondary data were sourced from civil society improved awareness of crime and violence and donor reports, academic papers, official and helped foster greater trust and collab- records, and reports by national and county oration. The CVPT has expanded violence governments. However, efforts to engage prevention awareness among decision makers quantitative methodologies, such as conduct- and enhanced the capacity of nonstate and ing a representative survey, were limited by state actors to design, implement, and man- time, logistical, and budgetary constraints. age integrated violence prevention programs. While security management has traditionally

3. CONFLICT AND VIOLENCE PREVENTION ACTIVITIES | 23 Box 3.1. Experiences of CVPT Alumnae

Walter Kurtis, chair of Mombasa County Peace Committee Mr. Kurtis’ experiences with the Crime and Violence Prevention Training (CVPT) field trip to Dandora and with the rapid assessment of Mombasa inspired his peace committee to con- duct their own research and outreach interventions into youth gangs, attracting the attention of international donor-funded organizations interested in carrying out further research.

Adan Haro, ward administrator for Isiolo County Mr. Haro worked with stakeholders to mainstream crime and violence prevention measures into the county’s 2018–22 integrated development plan. The meetings enhanced cooperation and coordination among national and county governments; and the relationship between the community and security agencies has been greatly improved. Structures have been created or strengthened through the Nyumba Kumi initiative to allow for alternative dispute resolu- tion mechanisms and community policing.

Amos Leuta, chair of Sponsored Arts for Education (SAFE), a civil society organization in Narok Mr. Leuta recognized that the knowledge and partnership resources facilitated by CVPT would be useful in leading a peaceful dialogue on illegal mining in Loita, Narok South sub- county, which involved a foreign company as well as a local politician. Efforts to strengthen community dialogue and consultations on mining activities have been successful.

remained a preserve of the national gov- new skills to the development of crime and ernment, and a relationship of mistrust has violence prevention interventions, and some existed between members of civil society have conducted workplace trainings. and Kenya’s law enforcement agencies, CVPT has promoted understanding and partner- The assessments of individual counties have ships among the actors, many of whom have been taken up in local policy dialogue as well remained in contact with one another. as World Bank operations in those geographic areas, such as the Kenya Informal Settlement Second, the CVPT support had impact in Improvement Project KISIP II (P167814), building the professional capacity of Kenyans which included Crime Prevention through working on conflict prevention. The training Environmental Design activities in their menu was expected to directly impact the work and of interventions that considered the local careers of its participants, and this has proven dynamics of crime and violence. Box 3.2 true in many cases (see box 3.1). Some have summarizes the key findings of the county been promoted into roles where their new assessments. skills can be used; some have applied their

24 | Kenya Accountable Devolution Program—Conflict and Violence Risk Mitigation: Final Report Box 3.2. Key Findings of Rapid Assessments on Violence and Conflict in Isiolo, Mombasa, Kisumu, and Narok

Isiolo is a multiethnic county, where pastoralism is the predominant livelihood. There is a long history of resource-based and ethnopolitical conflict there; and conflict is ongoing on the Isiolo– Meru border, exacerbated by devolution and speculation over the introduction of mega-in- frastructure projects, particularly the Lamu-Port-South-Sudan-Ethiopia Transport (LAPSSET) corridor and resort city. Radicalization is a problem: several youths have disappeared from local schools, presumably to join Al-Shabaab in Somalia. Isiolo is an arms trade hub, with guns smuggled in from northern neighbors being used for defense and for the raiding of livestock. The report highlights that land issues must be addressed with laws and frameworks that protect community land ownership and strengthen community policing initiatives and local structures, such as community and peace groups, interfaith organizations, and traditional institutions.

Mombasa, a metropolitan county situated on Kenya’s tourism-attracting coast, suffers from a history of land-related conflicts and the subjugation of its indigenous peoples, which has spawned secessionist agitation and which contributes to the county’s significant radicalization problem. The dynamics of urban crime and violence, especially youth gangs, are extremely visible. Mombasa’s geographic position on the coast makes it vulnerable to the drug trade, and substance abuse poses severe challenges to law and order. Many youths are using a wide range of illegally traded pharmaceutical drugs, increasing the prevalence of criminal acts. Recommended measures to mitigate the risks of violence include strengthening the county’s capacity for enforcing regulations aimed at controlling substance abuse; supporting commu- nity-based programs that target at-risk youth to help them avoid radicalization; and facili- tating coordination among nongovernmental organizations and civil society organizations working in the county.

Kisumu is home to Kenya’s third largest city as well as to rural subcounties. Its majority Luo population perceive themselves as politically and economically marginalized since the country’s independence. A major problem in its urban areas is the creation of politically sponsored gangs during the election season. Once the elections are over, these gangs no longer receive support, leading many to become involved in criminal activities. The county’s transport sector experiences a high rate of crime and violence, especially among motorcycle taxi operators who are vulnerable to attack and theft and among those who use the vehicles to commit crimes. Kisumu’s rural communities face challenges such as cattle raiding and a border conflict with Nandi County. Kisumu’s location near the border of Uganda makes it the receiving ground for the importation of illegal alcohol products. Interclan tensions affect rural and urban areas alike, manifesting in political struggles and conflicts over land. Key sug- gested interventions to address the risk factors for violence include applying crime preven- tion through environmental design (CPTED) in urban development projects, supporting youth employment initiatives, and conducting an in-depth analysis of the intersections between youth and political violence.

(continued)

3. CONFLICT AND VIOLENCE PREVENTION ACTIVITIES | 25 Box 3.2. Continued

Narok is a largely rural county, historically home to a majority of Maasai pastoralists but more recently the receiver of an influx of non-Masai agriculturalists. Protected areas, such as the Maasai Mara National Reserve, the Mau Forest reserve, and several conservancies, are located there. Land-related conflict is a major theme in Narok. There are problems associated with the subdivision of community land, which has enriched a few pastoralists at the expense of many others. There is extensive settlement and clearance of valuable forest, which disrupts water catchment areas and leads to conflicts between pastoralists and farmers. Northern Narok is planning to host a dry port at the terminus of the new standard gauge railway, and the accompanying loss of land that will be compulsorily acquired may cause severe impacts to local pastoralist communities. Cattle rustling is a concern, especially near the Tanzania border and in the Transmural area bordering Kuria County. The assessment’s key findings sug- gest the need to focus on promoting intercommunal peacebuilding interventions, addressing land conflicts, and strengthening the capacity of county authorities to manage the risks of conflict and violence associated with development projects.

3.5. Summary of Common Many of the deeper drivers of conflict and Drivers and Implications for violence stem from historic marginalization Action at the County Level of peripheral regions. The north and north- eastern region of Kenya has historically been The individual county assessments were underserved and continues to lag in develop- undertaken with the objective of contextualiz- ment progress. While there have been import- ing the ToT exercise. Due to time and budget- ant efforts to address regional disparities, ary constraints, they were rapid assessments, especially over the past 10 years, these con- and their findings are therefore limited in ditions change slowly over time, and percep- scope. With such caveats in mind, a few cross- tions of unfair treatment by the state persist. county lessons can be drawn from the assess- Grievances around these regional disparities ments, which have fed into policy dialogue feed into mobilization tactics by violent entre- with local governments, including FCDC. preneurs, including violent extremist groups or political actors who mobilize urban gangs Overall, the reports illustrate that understand- during elections cycles in the various counties. ing local dynamics of conflict and violence is essential for development investments. The Other drivers have to do with an increase assessment of risks and mitigation measures of investment in the NEDI region. Since the should be community-driven and involve a 2000s, the country’s development plan—as wide range of local, regional, and national articulated in its Vision 2030 blueprint—has stakeholders. County-led analytical work emphasized infrastructure and energy as key is also important to frame mitigation mea- components of economic growth. Several sures based on existing community and local county assessments note that the presence of resources to sustainably respond to violence. large infrastructure projects can exacerbate

26 | Kenya Accountable Devolution Program—Conflict and Violence Risk Mitigation: Final Report historical grievances and deepen tensions, Political manipulation of local youth gangs particularly around land ownership and com- constitutes another risk factor in several petition over natural resources by pastoralist counties. These gangs are mobilized during communities. This points to the need for election cycles; during other times they prey strengthening land ownership mechanisms on transport workers and commit common and spaces for intergroup dialogue. crimes. Those on the coast are vulnerable to interference by larger trafficking and orga- As previously mentioned, some development nized crime operations; others are suscepti- efforts can inadvertently contribute to conflict ble to violent extremist groups. Measures to dynamics by creating new perceived winners address these problems include coordinating and losers and by increasing competition for programs for youth engagement as alterna- resources (Menkhaus 2015). Community land tives. Initiatives to decrease political manipu- and water sources are under threat, which is of lation of these gangs is a deeper and highly particular concern in arid and semiarid areas politically charged issue. occupied by pastoralist groups (Boro and Mkutu and Boru 2019: 10). Furthermore, delays Finally, the existence of common drivers and in registration of community land and the lack response challenges underscores the need of protection has caused significant conflict in for regional platforms to share lessons and the north, especially in Isiolo. build on common infrastructure and coordi- nation mechanisms. The FCDC is critical in this regard, and is now seen as an example for other regions.

3. CONFLICT AND VIOLENCE PREVENTION ACTIVITIES | 27 SAFE advocacy activities with women in Entasekera | World Bank

4. The Way Forward

The devolution process in Kenya provides As an initial step in supporting county-level a singular opportunity to build robust and capacity building, this project offers important resilient at county-level systems that foster lessons. The process of supporting a regional inclusion and equity, social cohesion, and pov- body and new institutions as they emerged erty reduction. Such systems are equally vital was not linear, requiring much learning-by-do- to mitigating the risk of conflict and violence. ing. Key lessons include: The Kenya Accountable Devolution Program (KADP) has been instrumental in informing • Activities must be anchored in a thorough the World Bank’s support to violence pre- understanding of the realities of the vention and conflict mitigation in Kenya, with county. In this respect, the institutional a particular focus on marginalized counties. analyses and conflict and participatory Its approach of combining county-level violence mappings were key. It was also analysis, technical assistance, and capacity critical to involve a wide range of stake- building on violence prevention and conflict holders in developing these assessments, mitigation is based on an understanding that both to enrich the analysis as well as to targeted, sustained, and customized support generate greater buy-in and build trust to local systems and stakeholders is essential between the new county institutions and to addressing the development challenges their constituents. related to conflict and violence.

28 • Providing technical assistance to emerg- • Integrating conflict and violence in ing blocs such as the Frontier Counties the country portfolio is critical for risk Development Council (FCDC) requires mitigation. The KADP approach of linking systematic, sustained, and flexible sup- context analysis, conflict-sensitive tools, port. As the implementation of the KADP and capacity-building activities to opera- grant progressed, some activities proved to tions provided practical and operational be complex, requiring more time than had resources to manage risks of violence been anticipated, such as the recommen- associated with projects, including large dation by World Bank experts to apply a infrastructure projects. The geographical territorial approach to development, which concentration of KADP’s conflict prevention necessitated additional guidance and activities in north and northeastern Kenya expertise. The project’s scope and delivera- was also critical to better understanding bles had to be reviewed in response to the how regional dynamics of violence impact changing needs and priorities. development outcomes and how to address risk factors in operations. • Supporting evidence-based policy dia- logue is key to ensuring the prioritization Looking forward, the KADP approach could of conflict and violence mitigation.The continue supporting violence prevention and project worked to provide analytical inputs conflict mitigation with key counterparts, by: to a dialogue that had often been primar- (1) developing FCDC capacity as a regional ily based on perceptions or experiences bloc to facilitate and implement develop- rather than on hard data. By focusing on ment investments, peacebuilding, and social uptake of the analysis in county integrated cohesion; (2) integrating violence prevention development plans, the project was able to and conflict mitigation across the program’s influence the conversations about county interventions, especially citizen engagement, priorities through planning and budgeting climate change, and social risk management; systems. Working within plans also contrib- and (3) contributing to conflict and violence utes to sustainability. prevention across the World Bank portfolio in Kenya. • Training local stakeholders in violence prevention can build trust and mobi- 4.1. Strengthening FCDC as lize new partnerships, including private Regional Bloc for Development sector and faith-based organizations. The and Peacebuilding trainings provided space for academics, government officials, and community lead- Support to FCDC is critical to ensuring its sus- ers to discuss conflict and violence dynam- tainability and its ability to continue operating ics with each other. This has the potential to as a regional interlocutor to mobilize, design, contribute to more collaborative initiatives and implement development interventions. with greater buy-in at multiple levels. Given the promising results of the support to FCDC and its link to ongoing World Bank operations under the North and North Eastern

4. THE WAY FORWARD | 29 Development Initiative (NEDI), KADP—which the upcoming Financing Locally-Led Climate is currently designing its third phase—should Action Program, are promising practices of sustain key areas of engagement, including: synergies and collaboration among KADP’s components. Similarly, violence prevention • Enhancing FCDC capacity on stakeholder can be integrated in activities aimed at build- coordination and intergovernmental rela- ing county capacity for social risk management tions, especially between FCDC county and citizen engagement, particularly those tar- governments and the national government, geting youth. Specific activities can be identify and ensure the incorporation of regional under KAPD III preparations. integration priorities into county integrated development plans for individual member KADP can continue supporting the integration counties; of violence prevention across the urban port- folio in Kenya, including the Kenya Informal • Operationalizing the socioeconomic Settlements Improvement Project (KISIP) II and blueprint, including the development of the Kenya Urban Support Program and the an investment plan in consultation with Kenya Urban Support Programme. KISIP II has development partners, the private sector, included conducting specific activities on com- and national government stakeholders; munity violence mapping, supporting counties and communities to develop crime preven- • Supporting the implementation of NEDI tion through environmental design (CPTED) projects in a coordinated and integrated interventions, and facilitating access of groups manner by building on existing capacity for at risk of violence, such as youth, to social citizen engagement and social risk man- protection and job opportunities. Additional agement; and activities for urban violence prevention could focus on specific forms of violence, such as • Developing a regional strategy on conflict school-based violence prevention activities or prevention, giving special attention to gender-based violence prevention. The proj- addressing the risks associated with the ect’s solid relationships with community and presence of large infrastructure projects, neighborhood-based organizations offer good such as land disputes, community violence, entry points. and ethnic conflicts. Finally, KADP III can facilitate dialogue and 4.2. Mainstreaming Violence collaboration with the Kenya School of Prevention in KADP III Government in coordination with the National Crime Research Centre and the National The analysis and mapping tools developed by Cohesion and Integration Commission to KADP I can contribute to the mainstreaming integrate the Crime and Violence Prevention of violence prevention across the program. Training (CVPT) curriculum and manual into For example, emerging efforts to address their programs. Furthermore, the CVPT man- the intersections between conflict and cli- ual and curriculum could serve as a resource mate change, including the Global Facility for for the leadership development program Disaster Reduction and Recovery grant and and the Diploma of Public Administration

30 | Kenya Accountable Devolution Program—Conflict and Violence Risk Mitigation: Final Report conducted by Kenya School of Government, Conflict and Violence framework for under- which also targets civil servants and stakehold- standing the drivers of conflict and violence ers working at the county level. play out in Kenya, particularly the mobilization of group-based grievances based on historic 4.3. Contributing to Conflict and marginalization. Violence Prevention Across the World Bank Portfolio The methodology used for the mapping and institutional assessments could prove espe- The experience of KADP in Kenya offers cially useful by assisting task teams working in lessons for the World Bank’s work on conflict other environments where conflict and vio- and violence prevention generally. This report lence are present. The team will continue to comes at an opportune time, as the Bank partner with the Fragility, Conflict and Violence has recently released its 2020–25 strategy group to ensure global knowledge on fragility, for Fragility, Conflict and Violence, intended conflict, and violence is brought to bear on to help streamline the Bank’s approach to operations across the World Bank portfolio in this key development challenge across client Kenya. countries. Many elements of the Fragility,

4. THE WAY FORWARD | 31 References

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