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Cambridge University Press 0521789478 - Insect Diversity Conservation Michael J. Samways Index More information

Index

abundance alien patches, and edge as keystone species 41 fluctuations in butterfly effects 68 in rainforest 42 194 alien pines, effects of 68 and range retraction 170 of moths over time 148 alien plants 114--16 in restoration 238, 239 Acacia mearnsii, as an alien and dragonflies 83 restoration of 238 83 and urban Australian and roadsides 72 accumulation curve, of butterflies 70 species richness and area species 169, 170, 188 alien vertebrates 118--19 210 Acraea encedon 94 aliens (see also invasive surviving deforestation 75 adaptations, conservation of aliens) 114--23 in undisturbed forest 77 165 Allee effect 51 Aonidiella aurantii 10, 126 adaptive management 223, allopatric isolation 42 Aphaenogaster longiceps 41 224 allopatric speciation, and Aphantopus hyperantus 221 adaptive radiation 176 rarity 50 Aphelinus spp. 132 Adonis blue butterfly 220 Aloeides clarki 259 aphids afforestation Aloeides dentatis 70, 221 and ecomorphs 24 impact of 65--8 alternative value system 7 and ethics 36 and indigenous species 68 Ambrosia beetle 24 and global climate change reducing insect diversity amensalism 41 141 68 American burying beetle Aphytis africanus 126 Aflexia rubranura 95 99 Aphytis melinus 10, 126 Africa 30 angiosperm plants 19, 21 Apis mellifera 122 African savanna, and Angraecum ‘longicalar’ 45 Apollo butterfly grasshoppers 46 Angraecum sesquipedale 45 and ethics 36 aggression, in invasive ants animal surrogates 173, flight behaviour 22 121 174--5 and patches 92 agricultural landscape, Anoplolepis gracilipes 119, 120 and pollution 62 importance of ant, invasive alien impact Aptera fusca 80, 81 heterogeneity 212 120 aquatic agriculture Anthocharis cardamines 140 diversity, and alien pines conversion to 65 anthropovicariance 107 ecotones 83--4 impact of 65--8 ants insects, and canalization agri-environment schemes as ecological engineers 41 72--3 257 and forest clearance in systems, deterioration of Agrius convolvuli 45 Cameroon 75 80--4 air pollution 61--2 forest disturbance and Arctia caja 148 aircraft stowaways 119 energy recycling 76 area of occupancy 182--5 alien ants 119--22 impact of disturbance on Argentine ant alien fish predation 83 102 and aggression 121 alien insects 119--23 impacts of roads on 71 and genetic engineering and global climate change as indicators 201 134 140 invasive alien 119--22 invasiveness of 120--21

316

Index 317

and trophic relationships baculoviruses, genetic surveys, necessity for 80 modification 129 including insects 175 and urbanization 73 Banana skipper 127 biogeographic crossroads Argynnis adippe 256 barriers, to dispersal in 162 Aricia agestis 145 butterfly 219 bioindicators 199--200 Asclepias curassavica 131 baseline study 203 functions of 200 Aspen blotch leaf-miner Basking malachite 12 testing of 199 173 bats, and cave insect and time scales 203 Assisi interfaith conference survival 86 biological control (see also 13 bauplan 22--3 biocontrol) asymptote 169 bee condos 245 agents, screening of 126 atlas, of dragonfly bee nesting sites 245 agent, specificity of 126--8 geographical ranges 182 bees, as indicators of genetic as an insect service 9, 10 atlassing engineering 133 of insects, risks 124--5 importance of fine scale beetle loss, with forest positive effects 126 182 fragmentation 102 risk of over-regulation 126 practicalities 182 beetles risk/benefit analysis 126--8 atrazine 65 in boreal forest 190 risks of 124--8 Atrophaneura luchti 254 and canalization 73 biomass attrition effect of invasive alien consumed by mice 118 of landscape 91 plants on 115 of insects 42 of patch 217 and forest clearance in plants and animals 46 Australia Cameroon 75 of weeds, and genetic conserving urban and forest disturbance 75 engineering 132 butterflies 70 impacts of roads on 71 biome changes, in South prickly pear in 125 and pesticides 65 Africa 161 Austrophasma rawsonvillensis and the Quaternary 30 Biosphere 2, 121 160 saproxylic 31 biotic contamination 124 awareness and size 29 BioTracktm 34 of insect conservation 261 Bemisia tabaci 142 bird decline, with insect raising 36 Bessa remota 124 decline 42 trail, for dragonflies 258 beta diversity 162, 163 birds trails 257 Big-headed ant 119 in comparison with insect bioaccumulation 63 turnover 210 Bacillus thuringiensis BIOCLIM 186 and insect recovery plans and genetic engineering biocontrol (see also biological 247 131 control) as surrogates 174 israelensis 129 agents, and disease 51 birdwing butterflies 254 as a risk factor 127, 129 risk indices of 128 and CITES 253 toxins on soil organisms specificity 124 park networks for 207 133 biodiversity and trade 261 in transgenic crops 130, bioindicators 200 Biston betularia 61 132 compositional 52, 53 black box approach 25 bacteria, as insect pathogens functional 52, 53 black box conservation 28 127 maintaining current levels relative to landscape bacterium, Wolbachia 51 of 165 complexity 52

318 Index

Black hairstreak 101 bumblebees first appearance of 141 black market, in insects 262 impacts of roads on 71 as flagships 178 Black rat, eating insects 118 and landscape flight period of 141 Bolivia, and transition zones heterogeneity 212 flight response to 162 burnets, and traffic 72 landscape features 94 Boloria aquilonaris 250 burning (see also fire) fluctuation in abundance borders, of farmland for and ant biogeographical 194 bumblebees 226 groups 227 and forest clearance in boundaries and ant functional groups Cameroon 75 for bumblebees 212 226 and forest management forest 102 and grassland 78 75 insect reaction to 216 prairie 210 and forest patches 211 of reserves and patches bush crickets, impacts of forest spatial 211 roads on 71 heterogeneity of 76 responses of butterflies to butterflies and genetic engineering 93 adaptive management of 131, 133 boundary 224 geographical range between game park and and afforestation 68 changes of 149 farms 244 in African corridors 227 and global climate change of park for insects 209 atlassing in Britain 182 140 of parks 208 and birds as surrogates heliconiine 29 of patches 219 together 174 as indicators of boundary type 92 and boundaries 93 fragmentation 201 Brazilian rainforest 42 and bracken management as indicators of genetic breeding insects 260 224 engineering 133 breeding stock 246 and British farmland 257 intermediate mobility 68 bridges, effects of 13, 71 captively bred 263 isolated populations 43 Britain change in geographical and landscape edges 92 and fossil beetles 30 range 147 and landscape scale and insect extinctions 33 CITES-listed 254 measures 190 and interglacial 30 in cities 70 loss of wetland species 82 national recording and conservation managing for Borneo scheme 182 headlands 225 butterflies 224 and Neolithic landscape deadstock of 263 managing prairie 31 declining fast at fine scale specialists 223 British climate, Neolithic 31 182 moving along corridors British Large copper 86 different habitats of 228 Broad-bodied chaser subpopulations 211 patch quality for 219, 220, dragonfly 183 dispersal and habitat 43 222 Brown argus butterfly in display houses 259--61 perception of 36 145 diversity on maps 191 and pesticides 64 Brown locust 46, 129 and dragonflies, as icons population change and brownfield sites 231 257 mobility 69 Buchnera 51 emigration from patches population change in Buddhist 13 95, 96 Britain 69 Bufo marinus 118 family surrogates for 164 in prairie 223

Index 319

in primary Bornean forest Cameroon, and butterflies caterpillar, and its 77 68 parasitoids 25 reaction to landscape Canada 37 caterpillar rearing 35 structures 44 canalization 72--3 cattle grazing, impacts on and small calcareous effects of 80--3 insects 78--80 grassland patches 217 Cane toad 118 cave cricket 86 stepping stone dispersal Cape bluet damselfly 33 cavernicolous species 85 213 Cape Floristic Region 49, 80, caves and tallgrass prairie 173 158 in Table Mountain 83 threatened in Europe 223 and climate change 161 threats to 85--6 threats from captive breeding 248--9 Centinelan extinctions 53 overcollecting 87 carabid beetles Cercyonis sthenele 73 and tracking global and brownfield sites 231 Ceres stream damsel 193 climatic change 144 inter-habitat movement of Ceroplastes brevicauda 12 and traffic 72 96 Chaetocnema ectypa 142 and the United States island colonization 101 Chalk-hill butterfly 107 Endangered Species Act large-bodied specialists 67 chanelization (see also 87 as poor biodiversity canalization) 72--3 in urban areas 231 surrogates 175 change, inevitability of 52, butterfly and restoration 241 157 farming 262--3, 264 stepping stone dispersal in chaos 28 flight paths 228 214 charismatic taxa, in reserve gardening 244--6, 261 in urban context 70 selection 165 houses 259--61 carbon dioxide chemical resistance 64 houses, and public atmospheric 138, 140 Chequered skipper butterfly awareness 259 effects of changes in 161 144 industry 262 elevated levels and insects Chestnut heath butterfly 223 long-distance gene flow in 142 children, and insect icons 43 production by termites 41 257 range margins, and carbon sequestering 138 Chilocorus nigritus 23, 126 climate change 144, 145, Carboniferous China, and fighting crickets 148 airspace and insects 22 36 ranges, and global dragonfly 22 Chlorolestes apricans 12 warming 144 and insect radiation 18 Chlorolestes conspicuus 80, 81 recovery plans 247 Carduus nutans 124 Chlorolestes fasciatus 186 reserve, and intermediate Carterocephalus palaemon Chorthippus spp. 247 disturbance 70 144 Christian 14 reserve, dedicated 259 Carulaspis minima 126 Christmas island 119 Butterfly Conservation cascade effect, in food web Chromolaena odorata 129 256 99 Chrysoperla carnea 132 cascade effects, through loss Chrysoritis aureus 211 Cactoblastis cactorum 125 of parasitoids 49 Cinnabar moth 32 calcareous grasslands 223 catastrophic regime shift (see Cirsium arvense 27 California 80 also discontinuity) 55 Cirsium thistle 125 Calluna vulgaris 223 Categories of threat, global CITES 253, 262 Calopteryx splendens 71 IUCN 197 CITES-listed beetle 262

320 Index

CITES-listed butterflies 254 Coega copper butterfly decrease in area of cities 259 occupancy of 101 and insect management Coenagrion mercuriale 214 importance of sampling 231--2 Coenonympha glycerion 223 173 and threats to insects Coenonympha tullia 221 Common wasp 123 68--73 co-evolution, of host and community structure 40 Citrus wax scale 12 parasite 50, 51 competition 40--1 Cladosporium oxysporum 129 coffee plantations, and complementarity classical biological control insects 68 among reserves 162 (see also biocontrol and Coleoptera lack of between taxa 164 biological control) 124, development over wide geographical 126, 127 polymorphism in 21 areas 162 climate, and the Quaternary and Neolithic impacts 31 complementary areas, for 30 radiation of 21 richness and endemism climate change (see also collaborative national 176 global climate change) conservation 256 complementary measures and European butterflies collecting 176 149 of Colophon 253 complexity integrated conservation commercial 263 ecosystems and insect strategy 158 na¨ıve 187 diversity 52 prehistorical 29--30 as a threat 86--7 temporal and spatial 40 synergistic with habitat for trade 253, 256 compositional biodiversity loss 146 Collembola 52, 53 climate models 137 densities 42 Compsilura concinnata 124 climatic oscillations 30 as indicators of genetic concordance, lack of 175 Clossiana euphrosyne 256 engineering 133 conduits (see movement coarse filter and pesticides 64 corridors) complementary with fine colonization (see also connectance filter 25, 177, 181, 190 movement, dispersal) ecological 53--4 in conservation planning of islands by carabids 101 maintaining ecological 54 167--73 of patches by bush cricket connectedness, in nature 14 and long-term 97 connectivity (see also conservation 45 of remote locations 43 corridors, linkages) and management 221 Colophon primosi 262 among reserve networks necessity of fine filter as Colophon species 150, 253, 163 well 224 255, 261 between forest patches and plant surrogates 173 Comma butterfly 144 214 and prairie conservation commercial collecting, in of habitats 226--31 174 Papua New Guinea 263 of urban forest patches Coccinella septempunctata 127 commercial trade 253 232 cockroach Commidendrum robustum 126 conservancies 165 as food for threatened common blue butterfly 240 conservation headlands bird 42 common names, importance as a conservation measure giant flightless 80, 81 of 257 64, 225, 229 and perceptions 35 common species and genetic engineering in undisturbed forest 77 decline of 66 131, 133

Index 321

conservation planning 176--8 for butterfly movement and insect--plant and inventorying 186 228 associations 21 and rare moths 189 and butterfly response 93 and plant radiation 21 taxonomic underpinning for carabid movement 228 criteria, IUCN 197 of 187 connecting seral stages Critically Endangered (CR) and threatened organisms 213 197 177 for conservation of crop plants, and pollinators in urban areas 232 evolutionary lineages 46 conservation strategy maps 230 Cry toxins 127 246 and differential filter 228 cultivated landscape, in Conspicuous malachite edges of 228 Switzerland 67 damselfly 81 functions 226 culture, as a evolutionary consumer rarity hypothesis as habitats 227--30 path 157 62 having positive effect on current extinctions 32--3 contact zones 162 moths 228 cutworm species 130 contamination, for insect diversity environmental 61--3 conservation 226--31 DNA 36 contemporary evolution 192 and long-term survival damselflies and global climate change 229 Hawaiian 42, 83 144 in management 231 in Seychelles 43 and management 225 movement 228 damselfly context, of landscape 211--12 network of habitat for and bridges 71 contrast, of landscape 92, 97 leafminer 228 narrow endemic 80 Convention on Biological networks of 256 Danaus plexippus Diversity 253 planting for fig-wasps 227 and genetic engineering Convention on International remnant 6 131 Trade in Endangered riparian 228 and migration 23 Species (see also CITES) spatial scale of 230--1 and road deaths 72 253 sunny 212--13 Data Deficient (DD) 197 conventions, and insect in urban areas 232 databases 185 diversity conservation Corsican swallowtail 254 DDT 64 124, 253--6 Costa Rica, butterfly farms dead wood 77 Convolvulus hawkmoth 45 in 261 deadstock, butterflies 263 Copsychus sechellarum 42 Cotesia marginiventris 132 deadstock trade 261--2 Corn-rootworm beetles 78 countryside stewardship Decticus verrucivorus corridor 257 captive breeding of 248 functions 229 countryside-wide extinction frequency of movement 92 conservation, in reserves 99 quality of, for butterflies in Karoo 257 as a flagship 36 227 management 215--17 and patch size 98 width 228 and butterflies 229 as a pest 37 corridors Cranberry fritillary 250 re-introduction of 248 and bush cricket Crazy ant, as a threat 119, deep ecology 7 movement 228 121 deforestation for butterflies 208 Cretaceous and biodiversity 75 and butterfly flight 228 extinction 22 effect on bees 102

322 Index

deforestation (cont.) distances in British functional 25 and termites 75 dragonflies 50 structural 25 as a threat 37, 73--7 to found new populations Dociostaurus maroccanus 37 Deinacrida sp. 247 101 dot maps 182, 183 deleterious alleles 108 in Glanville fritillary 219 dragonflies deltamethrin 64 importance over long and butterflies, as icons Dendroctonus frontalis 142 term 229 257 Denmark, Maculinea alcon in in insects 22--3, 42--5 and canalization 73 43 and like seral stages 213 dispersal 49 Dermolepida albohirtum limited in stream faunas effects of pollution on 62 118 83 as flagships 178 detector species 202 and management of giant Carboniferous 22 detritivores, and damselfly 214 impacts on 83 canalization 73 in marginal populations and landscape developmental 199 heterogeneity 212 polymorphism 11, 21, 24 of moths along corridors national Red Listing of 199 Diabrotica 78 228 and reservoirs 73 Diacheila arctica 31 powers of relative to richness and island area Diacheila polita 31 fragmentation 67 218 Diamondback moth, and relative to management threatening processes to resistance 130 action 213 83 differential filter relative to structures 68 and trout 83, 118 corridor as a 228 saproxylic insects 77 and urbanization 70 and global climate change and stepping stones 94 dragonfly 144 and successional habitats diversity, Seychelles 50 the landscape as a 44 213 ranges, and global and urbanization 70 in urban environment 70 warming 144 digital images 34 dispersal ability, relative to trail 257, 258 digital technology 34 conservation 43 drainage, for agriculture 84 Diloba caeruleocephala 148 display trade 261--2 Drosophila Diptera dissection, of landscape 91 species, and transfer genes developmental disturbance 29 polymorphism in 21 forest 76 on temperature regimes radiation of 21 increasing some species 68 142 discontinuity (see also and loss of insects 100 Drosophila melanogaster 10 catastrophic regime from megaherbivores 224 dry forests 77 shift) 53 natural 208 Dryococelus australis 118, 196 disease and insects 50--2 and restoration 235 dung beetles disease organisms, and severity on ants 102 and forest edges 211 stress 51 in streams 82 as indicators 202 dispersal and tropical forests 75 mapping of 185 in butterflies 213 disturbed habitat and pesticides 64 in Comma butterfly 217 ability to colonize 211 and recovery from and differential extinction colonization of 211 insecticide 65 68 diversity surviving deforestation 75 diffusive 43 compositional 25 Dysauxes ancilla 228, 230

Index 323

Earth ethic 156--8 edges in Spanish dung beetles Easter Island 55 and butterfly behaviour 185 ecological 93 in Vietnam butterflies 208 bioindicators 200 of corridors 228 endophagous insects 49 connectance 53 of farmland for Enemy Release Hypothesis engineers, generating bumblebees 226 127 diversity 42 insect reaction to 216 energy transfer, in integrity, and keystone and natural enemies 92 grasshoppers 46 species 40 of parks 208 English Nature 256 integrity, conservation of preferences for in moth entomopathogenic fungus 8, 9 230 129 integrity, restoration of receding, of forests 217 Entry Level 235, 240, 244 of reserves and patches Agri-Environment landscaping 236, 237 211 Scheme 257 relaxation, and forest responses to 92 environmental patches 76 soft 97 bioindicators 200 relaxation, and parks 207 education conditions, adverse (see relaxation, and synergistic educational exposure to also weather, El Niño) impacts 66 weedy species in urban 221 transition areas 162 areas 232 contamination 61--3 ecomorphs 23, 24 and ponds 232 gradients, conservation of ecophilosophy (ecosophy) 7, educational perspective 13 165, 176 8 El Niño surrogate measures 164, ecoregions, global 158--62 effects of 199 165 ecosystem diversity effects on reserves 208 ephemeral habitats, and relative to insect diversity and savanna streams 83 butterflies 211 52 elaiosomes 49 Epirrita autumnata 61 as a surrogate for insect elevational gradients 163 Erionata thrax 127 diversity 52 emigration, from patches Eriophora pustulosa 122 ecosystem, and keystone 219 Erynnis comyntas 127 species 40 Empoasca 142 establishment, reasons for ecosystem engineers 41--2 enclosures, for success 246 ecotones, aquatic 83--4 re-introduction 247 ESU (see also evolutionarily ecotourism 261 Endangered (EN) 197 significant units) 11, 23, Ectemnorhinus 118 endemic hotspots 162 28, 33, 43, 197 ectoparasites 50 endemics ethical issues, and edge in caves 85 biocontrol 124 landscape 90 concentrations of 159 ethics 4--9 permeability of 92 in global hotspots 158 eucalypt remnants 221 edge effect in grasshoppers 78 Eulophus pennicornis 132 and butterflies 93, 94 in Mediterranean-type Euphydryas aurinia 246, 256 and changing trophic ecosystems 80 Europe relationships 80 for prioritizing areas 176 loss of species in 67 and parasitism 98 refugium in city 81 and Quaternary insects 30 wind mediated 227 relative to contact zones eutrophication edge impacts 216 162 evaluation, for Red List 197

324 Index

evolution from climate change and from synergism of global active areas of 162 habitat loss 146 climate change and from extinction events close to and habitat fragmentation 145 118 variance 211 and time delays 99 rapid 144 declaration of 32 and urbanization 73 evolutionarily potent insect deterministic 99 extinction debt 99, 207 diversity 53 even in large patches 53, extinction rates evolutionarily significant 250 current 32 units following population reduction as a goal 156 and anthropovicariance crash 37 extinction risk, in hotspots 107 in forests 32 158 and global insect species of froghoppers in patches extinctions richness 28 218 cascades of 54 and historically isolated in the future 99 current 32--3 lineages 176 and greenhouse effect 139 role of natural enemies in and movement 43 of insects following plants 126 and polymorphism 23, 28 49 time delays and 54 and Red Listing 197 local 98--100 extirpation 37 and the taxonomic local at range margins 107 challenge 33 local in butterflies 53, 250 families, as surrogates 164 uniqueness of 11 local in a grasshopper 43 family turnover 19 evolutionary change local in bush cricket 217 family-level diversity, over from stress 117 local in froghopper in time 19, 20 stress-induced 116 patches 217 Farm Scale Evaluations 131 evolutionary component, of and loss of heterozygosity farming, of butterflies biodiversity 175 108 262--3, 264 evolutionary potential 8 national 33 farming insects 253 conservation of 176 natural 98 farmland, and British evolutionary processes 106 from overcollecting 86 butterflies 257 evolutionary success 21 and phylogenetic Fender’s blue butterfly Evolutionary-Ecological Land measures 175 249 Ethic 6 population 32 Field cricket 248 ex situ conservation 248 of populations 68 field margins, and extent of occurrence 182--5 probability of 109 parasitism 98 Extinct (EX) 32, 196, 197 reducing by farming 263 fighting crickets 36 Extinct in the Wild (EW) 32, regional 33, 101 Figure of eight moth 148 33, 197 regional in a bush cricket Fiji, and biocontrol 124 extinction 92 fine filter avoidance of by focused relative to habitat complementary with management 225 destruction 100 coarse filter 27, 177, avoiding local 228 risk in Fender’s blue 250 181, 190 avoiding on islands 84 risks in different taxa 211 in conservation planning avoiding using flight 43 Satyr butterfly 73 167--73 of British Large copper 84, in small patches 92 and habitat management 87 of specialists 101 221 Centinelan 53 and stress events 118 having priority 224

Index 325

and insect icons 257 food chains, and genetic and gene flow 108 and plant surrogates 174 engineering 132, 134 geometry of 103 and Red Listing 195 food web and global climate change fire depiction of 190 144, 145 and ant biogeographical and keystone species 40 of habitats 66, 67, 68 groups 227 of Nothofagus forest 85 of landscape 67, 91 and ant functional groups food webs and species loss 103 226 change of in New Zealand and species--area and Australian ants 225 85 relationship 105, 106 and grassland 78 complexity of 49 fragments, value of small importance of patch connectance in 53 210 burning 223 insects and vertebrates 42 France 31 and prairie butterflies and insects morphs 25 Frankliniella 142 223 mediating interactions 54 frass, and nutrient turnover simulating natural 223 as a sampling protocol 189 41, 46, 79 Fire ant 121 foraging 22--3 fugitive radiation 84 fire regimes, in urban forest (see also primary fugitive species 43 context 70 forest) functional fish, as predators of insects clearance, Neolithic 31 biodiversity 52, 53 42 disturbance, and energy correlations, of species fish, impacts of 83 recycling 76 202 flagship species 176, 177--8 edge (see also edge and diversity, gardening for fleas, and extinction of host primary forest) 68 246 50 fires 74 groups, and restoration flight floor 73 238, 239, 240, 241--2 and insect success 22--3 function 74 groups, comparative in Meadow brown 213 gap 102 indicators of 203 origin 22 loss (see also deforestation, surrogates 175 flight behaviour habitat loss and types, in urban context 71 of butterfly 214 fragmentation) 73--7 functionally dominant effect of bridges on 71 Forest Stewardship Council species 173 flight constraints 22 256 fungi, as insect pathogens flight period, changes in Forest tent caterpillar 102, 127 butterflies 141 126 Funnel ant 41 flight response, of butterflies Formica exsecta 170 fuzzy edges (see also halos 94 fossil beetles and boundaries) 90 floodplain gravel bars 73 in Britain 31 fynbos flowers and Quaternary 30 and ant invasive 120 and insect evolution 21 fossil insect diversity 18 and insect endemism 80 and pollinators 45 fossil insects and stem borers 223 and specialized in Britain 31 pollinators 45 diversity of 20 Gaia 157 fluctuations, in fragmentation galling insects 49 environmental beneficial to some species gambling, with insects 36 conditions 43 104 Gambusia species 118 flying insects 22--3 of forests 102 garden status, of parks 208

326 Index

Garden tiger moth 148 and management insect species richness gardening, of insects 244--6 activities 133 28--9 gardens, as refugia for and non-targets 131--3 mean temperatures 137 wildlife 231 and pesticide use 130 precipitation, changes in gene flow and pollinators 132--3 137 and anthropovicariance risks of 130--4 sea-level 30 107 similarities with warming 137, 147 in contemporary evolution biocontrol 134 global carbon fluxes 41 193 as weed management global climate change and genetic engineering regimes 131 and butterfly phenology 133 heterogeneity, reduction 140 importance of 108--10 of 107 and community changes long-distance 43 mixing, Quaternary 30 138 within populations 108 similarity, in Argentine and contemporary gene transfer 29 ant nests 121 evolution 144 genes, incorporation into variance, and stress 117 direct effect on insects crop plants 127 variation, and 138--40 genetic polymorphisms 23--4 effects of flooding 147 adaptation, to captive variation, in Fender’s blue effects on plants 138 environments 249 250 and elevational range 145, bottleneck, of Argentine variety, importance of 148 ant 120 conserving 165 and European butterflies bottlenecks, and islands viability, of mainland 149 86 populations 110, 111 and flight times 140 change, in biocontrol genetically modified and geographical range agents 126 organisms 130--4 changes 143--5 changes, and the genotype-phenotype and habitat loss 146 landscape mosaic symbiosis 11 and hotspots 158 107--10 geographical range and insect diversity divergence, in isolated changes in British conservation 136--51 populations 107 butterflies 147 and medical insects 143 diversity changes, and European on moths 146 across geographical butterflies 149 and mountain specialists range 107 and extent of occurrence 150 active zones of 162 183 and pollution 62 maintenance in and genetic diversity 107 and range changes 142--3 captivity 249 and mapping 181 and range margins 145, maintenance of 176 mapping of 183 148 engineering Germany, and canalization and Red Listing 145 and development of 73 and sea levels 147 resistance 130 glaciation, and insect range synergistic with habitat ecological risk of 130 changes 30, 31 change 144 and large-scale Glanville fritillary 95, 108, and trophic interactions experiments 131--2 109, 218, 219, 220 140--3 and loss of rainforest global Globe skimmer 44 132 hotspots 159 GMOs 130--4

Index 327

goals, conservation 4, of European grasslands loss, and species-area 157 223 relationship 105, 106 Gonimbrasia belina 5 impact on trophic guilds loss, synergistic with Gough Island 79 climate change 146 global change on 138 intensity of 225 loss, versus fragmentation and insect, invasions 85 management of for 66 introduction on 119 grasshoppers 224 network, protecting (see grasshoppers and succession 225 also patches) 250 consuming grass 46 variety of 225 persistence, and as ecosystem engineers 41 green areas, in cities 231 macroptery 43 endemism 78 green lanes, and quality (see also patch impacts of roads on 71 bumblebees 71 quality) 217--21 as indicators 201 green nodes 70 quality, for bush cricket 99 inside and outside parks greenhouse effect, and quality, for Fender’s blue 208 community change 250 and invasive alien plants (see also global climate quality, importance of 219 116 change) 139 quality, relative to local extinction in 43 greenhouse gas isolation and non-targets of pathogens concentrations 137 metapopulation 221 129 Green-veined white 141 tolerance, in rare butterfly in partially logged forest Greenways (see also corridors) 223 77 226--31 tolerance, of threatened and pine patches 211 Gross Domestic Product 61 butterflies 211, 223 recycling nutrients 41, 46, Gryllus campestris 248 HadCM2 model 161 79 Guam, invasion of 85 Halobates sp. 18 restoration of 243 guilds halos, of high species grassland Middle Jurassic 21 diversity 68 from clearance of and restoration 243 Hamadryas februa 92 wildwood 101 Gypsy moth 23 Hawaii condition, monitoring and biological control 126 using grasshoppers 201 habitat (see patch, and damselflies in 42 island reserves 80 landscape) invasion of 85 loss 78 destruction, and species and moth extinctions 49 remnants, for Japanese dynamics 100 heat island effect 70 insects 210 fragmentation 66, 67, Heath fritillary 84, 247, 256 swards, improvement of 68 heathland carabids 247 fragments, and Argentine hedgerow transformation 78--80 ant 121 and bumblebees 71 grasslands heterogeneity (see also insects, and pesticides 64 ant indicators of 201 landscape matrix of 227 conversion 37 heterogeneity) 210, and parasitism 98 impact of afforestation on 212--15 heliconiine butterflies 29 68 heterogeneity, in quarries Helius 19 and rare species 78 71 Hemicordulia tau 118 Grayling butterfly 99 loss, and global climate herbicides, impact on grazing change 145 insects 65

328 Index

herbivore diversity High brown fritillary 256 indicator species 199--200 and plants 104 Hindu 14 indicators and predators 104 Hipparchia semele 99 choosing for task in hand herbivores historical data 185, 198 201 and developmental history of insects 18--22 of disturbance (butterfly polymorphism 25 Holly leaf-miner 92 guilds) 201 and elevated levels and honeybees functions of 200 carbon dioxide 142 and genetic engineering or responders? 199 and feedback loops 47 133 and time scales 203 and global climate change as invasives 122 indigenous vegetation, 140, 141 providing services 5, 9 establishing in urban insect 46--9 host areas 232 and parasitism 25 insect 40 individuals, rights of 11 on plant surrogates 173 insects 40, 49--50 industrial melanism 61 and pollution 62 plant quality 92 IndVal 202 and pressure on plants plants, importance for insect 21 butterflies 231 gardening 244--6 in urban context 71 plants, importance of 92 herbivores 46--9 Hesperia comma 96, 217 specificity 49 houses 259--61 heterogeneity switching 49 mariners 18 and environmental hotspots pathogens, risks of surrogates 164 of butterfly rarity and 127--30 landscape (see also threat 190 plant relationships (see landscape heterogeneity global 158 also herbivores, insect and habitat location of 185 herbivores and insect heterogeneity) 25, and taxonomy 175 plant interactions) 21 212--15 human genome 6 pollinators 45--6 of landscape 167 human impact, early 30--2 prey 42 maintaining in urban human value systems 4--9 radiation 18--22 areas 231 hummingbird hawkmoths rearing 259--61 management for 246 rights 11 maximum 215--17 Hurricane Andrew 261 services 9 managing for landscape hydrologic drought 73 utility 9--11 223 Hydromedion sparsutum 115 insect decline, and birds patch 210 Hydropsyche tobiasi 61 42 patch for bush cricket Hymenoptera 21 insect diversity 215 Hyperaspis pantherina 126 conservation, and plant patch quality and 222 conservation 46 of stream habitats 168 Icaricia icarioides 249 and plant diversity 41 Heteropan dolens 124 iconic species 36 relative to ecosystem heterozygosity iconization, of insects 258 diversity 52 loss of 108 icons, butterflies and and rise of plant diversity maintenance in captivity dragonflies 257 19 249 Inachis io 144 insect--plant interactions, heuristic value, of insects inbreeding 108 herbivory 46--9 10 depression 108 insect--plant relationship 21

Index 329

insects alien vertebrates 118--19 prioritization for 163 and angiosperms 19--22 alien wasp 122 as refugia 163 food for other animal 42 aliens, control strategies risks of biocontrol agents and vertebrates 42 115 124 insolation aliens, impact on and species--area for dragonflies 83 Nothofagus forest 85 relationship 167 in forests 77 aliens, threats from and stochastic events 167 for insect species richness 114--23 vertebrate impacts on 212 plants, and nectar for rare 118 reduced effect on species 246 isolation, of patches and dragonflies 116 invasiveness occupancy 220 instrumental value 5 characters of 122 IUCN intelligent tinkering 157 of insects 123 categories of threat, interaction strengths, inventorying 186--90 global 197 ecological 40, 41 methods and approaches categories, regional or Interglacial 30 187 national 198 intermediate disturbance irreplaceability 165, 186 criteria, global 197 in forests 76 irreplaceable insect diversity Red List of Threatened Species generating diversity 100 53 195, 196 in urban context 70 irreplaceable lineages 176 ivermectin 64, 65 intrinsic value, and the Red Island Biogeography Theory, List 195 and island dragonflies Jewish 14 introductions, on islands 119 50, 217 Juniperus bermudiana 126 invasion, of islands 85 island populations, and Junonia coenia 227 invasion biology, of natural gene flow 108 Jurassic 18, 21 enemy 127 islands invasion process, model of area and species richness Karkloof blue 259 123 218 Karner blue butterfly 247 invasive carabid movement Karoo 46, 79 alien ants 119--22 between 101 Key Centre for Biodiversity alien aquatic plants 116 colonization by and Bioresources 34 alien insects 119--23 dragonflies in Seychelles keys alien plants 114--16 217 taxonomic 34 alien plants, and insect colonizing 23 user-friendly 35 diversity 115 and genetic viability 111 keystone alien plants, cost of and global climate change organisms 40--1 control 115 142 role 40 alien plants, increasing importance of small ones species 40--1 common insects 116 163 and connectance 54 alien plants, species and invasive ants 119 parasitoids as 49 sensitivity to 116 isolation of 99 and pollination 46 alien plants, stress on for maintaining regional Krakatau natural systems 116 set of species 163 arrival of arthropods on alien psylla 125 and metapopulation reassembly of pollinators alien trees, shading out dynamics 218 on 52 dragonflies 116 oceanic 84--5 Kubusi stream damsel 193

330 Index

Lacanobia oleracea 132 land-use intensity, impacts livestock Lackey moth 148 on bees 69 and grasshoppers 224 ladybirds Lantana camara 246 simulating game 78 foraging in 23 Large blue butterfly 247 lobbying, for insect and global climate change Large copper 84, 86, 247 conservation 262 143 Large heath butterfly local extinction 217 as regulators 49 221 local processes, importance lag period, of invasive aliens large-scale spatial of 101 116 considerations 212 Locustana pardalina 46, 129 land mosaics, evolutionarily Larinus planus 125 log-normal distribution, of significant 53 late successional stages, species 188 landscape importance of 222 log-normal statistical attrition 90 Least Concern (LC) 197 distribution, of species changes and fluxes 52 legal restrictions 254 188 complexity, and Lepidoptera 21 logging parasitism 98 and air pollution 61 and collateral damage 74 conservation 28 in display houses 259--61 relative to reserve areas 74 context 211--12 larvae, in partially logged as a threat 73--7 contrast, in urban areas forest 77 Lopinga achine 213 231 Neolithic grassland 32 Lord Howe Island stick descriptors of 96 as non-targets of insect 118, 196 as a differential filter pathogens 129 Lulworth skipper 220 44 road kills 72 Lycaeides melissa samuelis 247 dissection 90 and traffic deaths 72 Lycaena dispar batavus 247 features of 96 urban gall-inhabiting 70 Lycaena dispar dispar 84, 86 fragmentation 90 Lepidosaphes newsteadi 126 Lycaena helle 211 heterogeneity (see also Lepidota frenchi 118 Lycaena phlaeas 101 habitat heterogeneity) Leprous grasshopper 12 Lymantria dispar 23 25, 167, 212--15 Leptidea sinapsis 227 measurable parameters of Lestes barbarus 68 Mabuya 42 216 Levuana iridescens 124 Macrocentris cingulum 132 mosaic 90 Libellula depressa 183 macroptery 43 dynamics of 216 liberation thinning 75 Maculinea alcon 43 management of 215--17 lice, and extinction of host Maculinea arion 247 natural changes and 50 mainland populations 108 insect diversity 52--3 linear strips 226--31 mainlands, and genetic perforation 90 Linepithema humile 73, 80, viability 110 perforation, and beetles 120--1, 134 maize, and genetic 102 linkages (see also corridors) engineering 130 planning 208 226--31 Malacosoma disstria 102, 126 transformation 90 for butterflies 208 Malacosoma neustria 148 transformation, and and butterfly response malaria, and global climate adaptively equipped 93 change 143 insects 53 in food webs 54 management variegated 52 remnant 6 adaptive 223, 224 landscape-scale study 66 Listronotus bonariensis 124 of African grassland 224

Index 331

and bioindicators 199 and insect diversity Melipona bees 102 for butterfly recovery 247 conservation 181--5 Melitaea cinxia 95, 108, 109, and contemporary overcoming biases in 203 218, 219, 220 evolution 225 and phylogeny 185 Mellicta athalia 84, 247, 256 and deep time 225 significance of scale 182 Metacnemis angusta 193 focused for rare species using presence/absence Metacnemis valida 193 225 records 186 metals, in food 62, 63 and higher trophic groups marginal metapopulation 224 populations 108 on an archipelago 99 involving corridors 231 species 198 break up of 98 involving some colonizing wide range as a conceptual tool for disturbance 221 of habitats 199 interactions 43 and monitoring 192 marginality 198 of Cranberry fritillary 250 multiple approaches 221 margins, around fields with dispersal in 213 outside reserves 221 genetically modified Fender’s blue 250 practical crops 131 and genetic load 108 recommendations for Marion Island 118 illustration of models 216 226 Marsh fritillary 246, 256 and intermediate mobility of prairie butterflies 223 marshland 83--4 68 to prevent succession 211 mass extinction 18 and island effects 218 for a range of species 224 matrix and isolation and habitat and the Red List 195 around patches 211 quality 221 regulation of 224--6 importance of quality 217 and landscape mosaic 215 and restoration of influence on patch 96 in large patches 219 particular species 247 landscape 215 and long-term survival rotational 224 quality of 214 250 and selection of reserves quality of, for butterfly models of 213 162 218 and movement 32 sensitivity to different Mayotte, dragonflies 62, 116 and movement between species 210 Meadow brown butterfly islands 96 of succession 222 213, 214 and pioneers 217 in urban areas 231--2 Mediterranean, and and population cohesion using burning for ants Neolithic impact 31 96 226, 227 Mediterranean islands, and population viability using grazed mosaic 225 threats to 116, 118 analysis 250 of wider countryside 216 Mediterranean-type and regional perspectives managing, for successional ecosystems 80 101 habitats 213 meek inheritors, definition and stepping stone Maniola jurtina 213, 214 of 36 dispersal 213 Mantophasmatodea 158, 160 meek inheritors, and food with respect to oceanic mapping web connectance 54 islands 86 butterfly diversity 191 Megalagrion 119 Metarhizium anisopliae 127, complementing with Meganeura 22 129 reference sites 203 Meganeura monyi 22 methane 41 of dragonflies in Britain Melanagromyza geneoventris 27 Metrioptera bicolor 92, 97, 98, 183 Melanoplus spretus 37 215, 217

332 Index

Metrioptera roeseli 199, 228 of species accumulation mortality, from traffic 71, 72 Metropolitan Open Space curves 170 mosquito fishes 118 Systems 231 of species surrogates 171 moth pollinator 45 mice, impact on insects modelling moths 118 of Fender’s blue 250 in agricultural habitats 67 Microctonus aethiopoides 124 global climate change and and air pollution 61 microlepidoptera, in the range changes 143--5 change in abundance over Netherlands 145 invasiveness 123 time 148 Microplitis rufiventris 132 models and forest disturbance 75 microsporidian 129 of gene flow 108 and forest patches 211 Microtylopteryx hebardi 102 and genetic engineering importance of sampling migrants 134 common species 170 and genetic viability 110, for geographic patterns as indicators 203 111 185 island colonization 101 in reserve selection 164 of global climate change North American forest 188 migration (see also and fragmentation 145 recent decline in 146 movement and of movement in corridors Mountain malachite mobility) 43 228 damselfly 186 and gene flow 108 of range retraction 170 mouthparts 21 and successional habitats of species accumulation movement 213 curves 169 between habitats (see also migrations 23 of species loss 103--4 mobility) 95--8 minimum population Monarch butterfly between patches 95--8 growth 250 and genetic engineering of carabids on islands 101 mining, restoration from 131 impact of structures on 71 239, 240, 241 and migration 23 impacts of roads on 71 mobility overwintering sites 261 in insects (see also differential in insects and road deaths 72 migration and mobility) 42--5 roosts 76 42--5, 92 at edges 92 monitoring 192--5 movement corridors 228 relative to ecosystem aims 192 multispecies plans 247 diversity 52 approaches 192--5 Mus musculus 118 and species decline 68 coarse filter 194 museum specimens 34 model genetic changes 192 Muslim 14 BIOCLIM-type 186 surrogates 193 mutualism, aphids and climate change and threats to Red Listed endosymbionts 51 species loss 146 species 194 mutualisms, plant and of extinction probability water quality using insect 46 109 insects 201 mycoinsecticide 129 HadCM2 161 monkey beetles 79 Myrmecophilus sp. 120 of invasion process 123 Mopane ‘worm’ 5 Myzus persicae 132 Pressure-State-Response moral guidelines 4--9 193 moral tools 157 names of regional conservation Moroccan locust 37 common 257 planning 172 morphospecies 34, 175 scientific 33 of restoration 236 morphs 11, 23 narrow endemics 80

Index 333

national Nodding thistle 124 overgrazing conservation issues 256--7 non-target and insect population mapping schemes 182 impacts, around prickly dynamics 78 Red Listing 198--9 pear 125 effects on insects in natural conditions, lepidopteran 129 Argentina 79 simulating 222--6 moth 124 and pollinators 79 natural disturbance 208 non-targets 124 stimulating locust from megaherbivores 224 Nosema locusteae 127 increase 37 natural enemies Nosema sp. 129 ozone depletion 138 and genetic engineering Nothofagus 68, 85, 123 132 nutrient cycling 46, 47 palaeodiversity, in host range 127 and frass 41, 46, 79 Switzerland 67 number of insect host 40 and primary productivity Panaxia quadripunctaria 78 and pesticides 64 47 Pantala flavescens 44 pools of 9 nutrients, for plants 41 Papaipema eryngii 95 release from 127 Papilio aristodemus ponceanus risk indices of 128 oceanic islands 84--5 261 risks of introducing 124--8 Oedipoda caerulescens 43 Papilio dardanus 94 screening of 127 oilseed-rape 132 Papilio homerus 261 in urban context 71 Okavango 83 Papilio hospiton 254 natural habitat, importance old-growth forest (see Papua New Guinea of 105--6 primary forest) and Banana skipper 127 Near Threatened (NT) 197 for longicorn beetles 208 butterfly farming in 263 nectar Ooencyrtus erionotae 127 Pararge aegeria 228 importance of Operophtera brumata 129, 141 parasites, as impacting on configuration of 92 Opuntia maxima 116 biodiversity 50 provision, by invasive Opuntia species 125 parasitism alien plants 246 Orachrysops ariadne 259 as an opportunistic way of sources, restoration of 241 Orachrysops species 225 life 49 sufficiency of 96 Orange tip butterfly 140, 141 and pollution 61 nematodes, as insect orchid 45 parasitoid, as a service pathogens 127 Ornithoptera ‘allottei’ 261 provider 10 Neolithic human impact 31 Ornithoptera alexandrae 253 parasitoids 49--50 Neophilaenus albipennis 217, Ornithoptera meridionalis 261 as biocontrol agents 124 219, 241 Ornithoptera richmondia 36 as cryptic species 33 Neoptera 22 Ornithoptera victoria regis 254 and genetic engineering nesting blocks 245 Orthezia insignis 126 132 New Zealand Orthoptera, as pests and and global climate change invasion of 85 conservation subjects 37 140 and invasive alien ragwort Orthosia gothica 140 and habitat destruction 115 Osmia lignaria 245 102 wasp in 123 Osmoderma eremita 177, 247 isolation in urban context weed biocontrol risks outbreaks, from overgrazing 71 Niche Opportunity 78 number attacking Hypothesis 127 overcollecting 86--7 caterpillars 25 Nicrophorus americanus 99 of Large copper 86 and patch quality 96

334 Index

parasitoids (cont.) relative to patch quality in a conservation context prone to extinction 49 217--21 23 and spatial scale 126 relative to quality 66, 96 insect species as a 23 parataxonomists 34 patch-matrix, reducing insects 36--7 Paratrechina longicornis 121 contrast 217 management, and genetic Pareuchaetes 129 patch-scale study 66 engineering 131 park boundary, and patches pesticides grasshoppers 209 colonization by bush effect on insect parks 207--12 cricket 97 populations 64 effectiveness of 207--8 heterogeneity of 212 effects of 63--5 vegetation change in 207 and the landscape mosaic and food chains 63 Parnassius apollo 67, 216 hazards of 63 flight behaviour of 22 and the matrix 211 increase in usage 65 and patches 92 mosaic of for and natural enemies 64 and pollution 62 grasshoppers 224 quantities used 63 Passenger pigeon of primary habitat 216 reduced input 64 phenomenon 37 remnant 102, 207--12 reducing fitness 64 patch area small 94 reducing grasshopper and extinction rate 218 small, certain value of 217 populations 64 and islands 99 with host plants 102 synergistic impacts 64, 65 patch pathogens 50--2 and urban context 63 attrition 101 commercial 129 Pheidole megacephala 119 connectivity 99 and global climate change philosophy, environmental fragments, becoming 140 4--9 depauperate 102 non-targets effects of 129 Phragmatobia fuliginosa 146, heterogeneity 210 past impacts 129--30 148 isolation 98 risks of 127--30 Phyllonorycter salicifoliella 173 isolation, and occupancy Peacock butterfly 144 phylogenetic 220 Pearl-bordered fritillary diversity measures 175--6 quality 256 species concept 28 for bush cricket 99 peat bogs 211 Phymateus leprosus 12 importance of 66, 96, Pectinophora gossypiella 142 Phytomyza ilicus 92 210, 219, 220 pentachlorophenol 65 Pieris napi 141 relative to patch size Peppered moth 61 pines 217--21 perception challenge and dragonflies 83 remaining 102 magnitude of 35--6 reducing grasshoppers 116 response to 102--3 overcoming the 257--9 place, sense of 25 and special attributes perforation, of landscape 91 plague 36 98 permanent monitoring sites planning process, and in urban areas 231 182 consultation 157 selection 92--5 permeability plant architecture (see also size 210--11 of edges 92 plant structure and as a critical factor 98 of landscape 92 vegetation structure) 21 and host plant 92 Permian 18 plant assemblages, and importance of 96 pest insects 173 and pollinators 211 definition of 36 plant diversity

Index 335

conservation, and insects and developmental population 103 polymorphism 25 change, from stress 117 increasing relative to fig wasps 52 crashes 36--7 herbivore pressure 21 and genetic engineering viability analysis 249--50 and insect diversity 104 132--3 populations plant species, as maintaining indigenous at edge of range 199 determinant of insect plants 9 importance of conserving diversity 103 monkey beetles 79 a variety of 165 plant species richness in parks 208 prairie and dragonfly species and plant diversity 21 butterflies, management richness 173 and restoration 240 for 210 plant stress, and disease 51 as service providers 9 fragments 78 plant structure (see also pollution 61--3 and insect specialists 174 vegetation structure) and disruption of insects, management for and insect diversity 49, ecological processes 63 210 116 gaseous 63 loss of 78 plant surrogates, for insects and global climate change management of 223 173--4, 201 62 quality of patches 222 plant--animal associations, gradients, and insect remnants 210 framework for 48 diversity 62 and sedentary species 95 plant--insect interactions lack of negative effect 62 type and quality 221 25--7 levels, in water 61 pre-agricultural impacts plantation trees, and long-term effects of 62, 29--30 biodiversity 256 63 precautionary approach, planthoppers, dispersal in and predators 62 and the Red List 195 43 pulsing of 62 precautionary principle plants as a synergistic factor in and ethics 11 insects feeding on 46 streams 83 and landscape triage 53 as predictors of insects in soil 62, 63 and maintaining 173 tolerance of 62 heterogeneity 215 Plasmodium falciparum 143 Polygonia c-album 144 and primary forest 76 Platycleis fedtshenkoi 92 polymorphisms precipitation, global Platypus cylindrus 24 abundance in insect world changes in 137 Pleistocene, and southern 11, 23--5, 28, 43 predation, by alien fish 83 hemisphere 78 developmental 11, 21, 24 predators Plutella xylostella 130 relative to ecosystem and genetic engineering poaching 253 diversity 52 132 poeciliid fish, as predators and sense of place 25 and global climate change 42 and the taxonomic 140 poleward shift in challenge 33 insect 49--50 geographical ranges 144 Polyommatus bellargus 220 isolation in urban context pollination, and weed set Polyommatus coridon 107 71 being affected 211 Polyommatus icarus 240 and the landscape 49 pollinator, specialist 45 ponds large home range of 62 pollinator effectiveness 46 educational value 232 risks of in biocontrol pollinators 45--6 and spatial scale 212 127

336 Index

predators (cont.) Proischnura polychromatica 33 rare species susceptibility to pesticides Prokelisia 43 and habitat tolerance 211 64 Prosopis glandulosa 115 in late successional stages vertebrate 42 protected areas, and 223 predicting alien invasions off-reserve areas 165 and restoration 238, 240 115 protoctistans, as insect special consideration of prehistorical times 29--32 pathogens 127 224 presence/absence data 185 Pseudaletia unipunctata 98 rarity, and parasitism 50 Pressure-State-Response public rat fleas 36 model 192, 193 and flagships 178 Rattus rattus 118 prickly pear cacti 125 perception, of insects 257 reaction-diffusion models primary forest (see also understanding, of 92 forest, patch quality, keystone species 41 rearing, of insects 32, 248--9 patches, remnant, viewing of insects 260 Recent 18 reserves and wilderness) Pycnoscelus indicus 42 recolonization, of patches by 101 bush cricket 217 and ants and termites quality control, of sampling recovery, of species 246--7 and butterflies 76, 77 175 recruitment, as a limiting importance for ants 210 quality habitat (see also factor 101 importance of 75, 76 habitat quality and Red admiral 140, 141 for longicorn beetles 208 patch quality) 212, 219, Red imported fire ant 119, representation of 76 220, 221 121 and saproxylic insects 77 quality Red List as source area 98, 211, 238 of habitat for bush cricket Authorities 196 for specialists 76 99 Categories 195--7, 198--9 for Vietnam butterflies of patch 220 criteria, at the regional 208 quarries, and butterflies 71 level 198--9 primary production, and Quaternary 29, 30 and fine filter 27 intensity of phytophagy its value 195 47 radiation, of insect families and overexploitation 9 primary productivity, and 21 species verification on nutrient cycling 47 Ragwort 115 187 prioritization rainbow trout 83 and uncertainty 196 global 158--62 rainfall, global changes in Red Listed and inventorying 186 137 butterflies 254 need for 163 rainforest (see primary species, correlation with of reserve areas 166, 174 forest, reserves and indicators 174 taxonomic 34 wilderness) Red Listing 195--7 processes, conservation of RAMAS software 196 and global climate change 176 ranching insects 253 145 processes, valuing 8 ranges, small 103 process 196--7 Proclossiana eunomia 96, 230 rapid species assessment 200 Red scale 10 Proctolaelaps regalis 29 rare insects 173 re-establishment productivity non-inclusion of 173 of ants 238, 239 and food webs 54 trade in 253 of moths 240, 241 and ponds 212 rare moths 189 reference sites 203

Index 337

regional vegetation change in 207 of saproxylic biota 215 categories 198 wildlife 235, 243 and severe disturbance 241 conservation planning, reservoirs, impacts on insect and specialist species 239 model of 172 diversity conservation of streams 243 pool 212 73 and synergistic impacts 247 processes, in temperate resilience, of stream faunas and trajectories 240 areas 101 82 triage 235--7 Red Listing 198--9 resistance, to invasive and trophic levels 239 species richness 101 species 54 while maintaining regionally threatened 24 Resource Conservation Ethic successional processes regreening 236, 238 5, 6 238 rehabilitation 236, 237 resources, consumption of and wildflower swards re-introduction 246--7 global 61 241--2 breeding for 260 restoration Réunion island 124 of British butterflies 246 of African savanna 243 Rhine 61 of British Lepidoptera 246 ants as indicators of 238, Rhinocyllus conicus 124 of crickets 248 239 Rhizobius lophanthae 126 importance of habitat and appropriate food Rhopalosiphum padi 132 quality 246 plants 240 Rhus 126 using multiple genetic for bees 242 Richmond birdwing lines 249 of birds and insects 247 butterfly 36 relational spatial databases of breeding conditions 245 rides, and forests 212, 227 185 of calcareous grasslands Ringlet butterfly 221 religion 15 241 riparian corridors 228 remnant and the coarse filter 240--4 woodland, restoration of forest, importance for ants and constraints 239 238 210 countryside-wide scale 243 risk indices, of biocontrol patch size 210--11 and degraded systems 239 agents 128 patches 207--12 and ecological dynamics risks of natural enemies woodland 94 239, 240 126--8 representation, of of ecological integrity 235, river systems, biodiversity 176 240, 244 contamination of 61 reserve and the fine filter 240--4 road kills, of Lepidoptera 72 boundary, and of functional groups 238, roads grasshoppers 209 239, 241--2 and collecting 86 for butterfly 259 in game reserve 243 impacts of 71--2 networks 162, 163 of grasshoppers 244 road-zone effect 72 selection 144, 162--3, 166, and guilds 243 Rocky Mountain 174 of insect diversity 234--50 grasshopper 37 reserves 207--12 model of 236 Romantic-Transcendental effectiveness of 207--8 and moths 240, 241 Preservation Ethic 5 importance of for and multispecies plans rotational dragonflies 208 247 grazing 224 important for weevils 208 of nectar sources 241 logging 76 important qualities of 211 and park boundaries 244 management 224 for particular species 259 of pollinators 240 Ruby tiger moth 146, 148

338 Index

sampling seed production 46 social factors, in urban efficiency 167--9 seedling recruitment, conservation 232 food webs 189 impact of insects 49 socio-economic role of historical factors 190 seeds, ant burial of 47 flagships 177 and home ranges 189 selection procedures, for soft edges 217 intensity 188 reserves 165 soil erosion, Neolithic 31 and inventorying 187 selective logging 76 soil fauna protocol 189 Senecio jacobaea 115 and ecological engineers protocols for monitoring sense of place 7 41 194 seral stages (see also and successional stages representative 189 succession) 222--3 213 subsets 189 management 213 soil fertility, and for threatened species 190 services, ecological 9 grasshoppers 79 a wide range of taxonomic sex, as a means of avoiding soil modifiers 41--2 and functional groups disease 51 Solenopsis geminata 121 189 sexual morphism 24 Solenopsis invicta 119, 121 saproxylic Seychelles source area, for restoration beetles dragonflies 50, 116 238 Neolithic 31 fugitive damselflies in 43 source habitats Norwegian Red-Listed and invasive ant 119 provided by unlogged 174 magpie robin 42 forest 98 biota, restoration of 215 shading out, of dragonfly reserves as 211 insects, as a functional habitat 116 various types 216 group 77 sheep, distributing source population invertebrates, combining grasshoppers 241 South Africa sampling approaches shelter, and quality habitat alteration of insect 175 217 diversity by alien plants species, and importance of shelter belts 227 115 late succession 222 ship stowaways 119 and Brown locust 46 saturniid moths, as silk moths, sustainable invasive alien plants 116 non-targets 125 utilization of 87 and soil nutrients 41 Satyr butterfly 73 silk products 10 South Asian Invertebrates Satyrium pruni 101 Silver-spotted skipper 96, Specialist Group 196 Scarab beetles 162 217 South Georgia 115 Scarabaeidae 79 simulation, of natural Southern African scarcity, and parasitism 51 conditions 225 Invertebrates Specialist Schaus swallowtail 261 Simulium 73 Group 196 secondary sink population 32 Southern pine beetle 142 pest problems 125 Sites of Special Scientific sowing plants, for bees 242 pest resurgence 64 Interest 86, 257 Spain, hotspots within 185 succession (see also Sitona discoideus 124 spatial heterogeneity succession) 47 skink 42 of butterflies in primary sedentary species, and Small copper 101 forest 76 movement 95 small worlds 54 in tropical forest 75 sedimentation of rivers, smelter pollution 61 spatial resolution 185 Neolithic 31 snow, decrease in 138 spatial scale(s) 25, 44, 101--2

Index 339

and attributes 24 correlations between state, changes in ecological and bioindicators 200 functional groups 202 54 and corridors 230--1 correlations between Steinernema feltiae 127 large 212 insect taxa 201 steppes 78 and parasitism 27 estimation of 34, 188 stepping stone significance of small 211 in different insect taxa corridors 227 and species numbers 200 habitat 213--14 spatially explicit on Earth 29 patches 94, 102 heterogeneity 212 and island area 218 Stigmella 19 special conditions, for relative to area 210 stochastic environmental insects 173 turnover in moths 188 effects, and patches 221 Specialist Groups, IUCN/SSC rights of 11 stochasticity 196 surrogate measures 164, demographic 108 specialist, vulnerability of a 165 environmental 108 99 surrogates stonefly 22 specialists and accumulation stowaways, insect 119 ant 226 curves 170 stream faunas being lost most 67 various taxa 171 resilience of 82 carabid 101 weakness of 169 in USA 168 of forests 76 species accumulation stress as heralds in wetlands 84 curve(s) 169, 170, 188 and insect susceptibility impact of global change Species Information Service 102 on 145, 146 196 from invasive aliens 116 maintaining nodes for 106 Species Survival Commission structural biodiversity 52 managing for grasshopper 196 structural features, of 224 species’ response to landscape 68 most affected 104 landscape change 90 structures restoration of 239 species--area relationship impacts of 68--73 specialization hypothesis 105, 106, 167 and insect diversity 71 62 and species loss 103 of landscape 96 species species-scape 17 succession 212--13 concepts 29 species-specific recovery among plants 47 conservation, and the Red plans 246--7 and insect gardening 246 List 196 Speckled wood butterfly natural 222--3 cryptic 33 228 in quarries 71 data, and mapping 181 Speleiacris tabulae 86 and reservoirs 73 definition 28 spiders and restoration 238, 243 diversity, estimating 188 attacked by wasps 123 successional stages, dynamics, and habitat impact of ants on 119 maintenance of 76--7 destruction 100 perception of 36 Succulent Karoo extinction 11 and pesticides 65 and climate change 161 loss, and fragmentation in urban context 70 as a hotspot 158 103--4 spiritual awareness 11 sunlight (see insolation) modelling 170 spiritual conceptions 15 surrogate of particular habitats 164 Spodoptera littoralis 132 combinations 165 richness stability, in food webs 53, 54 data 164

340 Index

surrogate (cont.) and grassland 78 termite assemblage, measures of human population 66 restoration of 238 environmental 164, 165 involving biocontrol termites species 164, 165 agents 126 and deforestation 75 species, relative to on islands 84 as ecological engineers 41 landscape complexity 52 and prioritization 163 as gas producers 41 surrogates and restoration 247 and nutrient cycling 46 animal 173, 174--5 in streams 82 Quaternary 30 birds versus insects 210 in tropics 67 in rainforest 42 in conservation planning and urbanization 70, 73 Tertiary 30 163--5 with pollution 62 Tetranychus urticae 132 functional 175 systematic reserve selection Tetraphalerus 19 higher-level taxonomic 21 162--3, 166, 174 tettigoniids, impacts of insect taxa 200 systematics 33 roads on 71 and inventory data 190 Texas, and fire ant 119, 121 large-sized ants 175 Table Mountain, Cape Town threat category 23 monitoring 193 81 threatened plants for insects 201 Taiwan butterflies, and rare ones taxonomic 173, 174--5 butterfly sales in 261 190 threatened organisms as and butterfly tourists Lepidoptera, in grasslands 177--8 261 80 and umbrellas 177 Tamarixia dryi 124, 125 organisms, as surrogates using species Tasmania, threats to 177--8 accumulation curves indigenous bees 122 Orthoptera, in grasslands 169 taxa 80 surveys (see sampling) lack of concordance species sustainable use 11 between 175 and butterfly houses sustainable utilization, of one as a surrogate for 260 silk moths 87 another 164 and importance of Swallowtail butterflies taxonomic taxonomic expertees on display 260 challenge 33--5 187 and farming 262 distinctness 176 in caves 86 Swiss Alps, and snow season expertise, importance of increase in 32 138 34, 187 monitoring of 194 Switzerland, and landscape groups, comparative relative to pest status 37 change 67 indicators of 203 taxa, and species symbiotic organisms 41 impediment 33 surrogates 170 synergistic impacts indicator groups 177 tree 126 and disease 51 knowledge 29 threats, and multispecies and fragmentation 67 scale 21 plans 247 from alien vertebrates surrogates 173, 174--5 threats, and the Red List 118 taxonomy, importance of 34, 195--7 of genetic engineering 175 Thymelicus acteon 220 133, 134 temporal considerations, for timber extraction (see also and global climate management 212--13 deforestation) 75 changes 145 temporal scales 101--2 Tobias’ caddis-fly 61

Index 341

Tomato moth, and genetic Triassic 11, 18, 21 USA engineering 132 Trichilia 126 and butterfly road kills 72 topography Trioza erytraea 51, 124, 125 and grasshoppers 47 in habitat remnants 105 Trioza litseae 124 utilitarian value 5 importance of 163 trophic cascades, and global utilization, of insects 86 total species curve 188 climate change 140 UV-B 138 tourism 261 trophic diversity, gardening tourist impact, on moth 78 for 246 value tourists, collecting moths 86 trophic guilds, and grazing instrumental 5 tracking resources 43 impacts 79 utilitarian 5 Trade Fairs 256 trophic interactions, and values, diversity of 9 trade global climate change Vanessa atalanta 140, 141 in Colophon 253 140--3 variegated landscape 52 in dead specimens 261--2 trophic levels variegation model, of traditional agricultural and connectance 53 landscape 90 practices 222--6 depiction of 190 vector, of plant disease 51 traffic, impacts of 71--2 and genetic engineering vectors traffic impact, on 132, 134 and global climate change Lepidoptera 72 increase in with 143 trail, for dragonflies 257, vegetation structure 213 insect 50, 51 258 trophic relationships, vegetation change, in parks trails, awareness 257 change of 80 207 transformation, of grassland tropical forest (see primary vegetation changes, to 78--80 forest and reserves) climate 30 transgenes 130--4 trout, impact of 83, 118 vegetation structure transgenic crops 130--4 ‘tyranny of numbers’ 36 variation for dragonflies transition areas 162 Tyria jacobaea 32 212 translocation 246--7 variation for various of weta 247 umbrella species 163, 176--7 insects 212 transmission, of relative to landscape vertebrate impact, on endosymbionts in complexity 52 tenebrionids 118 aphids 51 umbrella taxon 36 vertebrates tree canopy umbrellas depending on insects 42 and dragonflies 83 caution when using 190 invasive alien 118--19 and great insect loss 80 plants as 173 as poor surrogates of and insect diversity (see United States, and Rocky insects 175 also primary forest) 73 Mountain grasshopper Vespula vulgaris 122, 123 tree diversity 41 37 vicariance 176 tree hollows 177, 247 United States Endangered Violet copper 211 tree-holes 76 Species Act 87 virgin patches (see primary triage urban area management forest) landscape 53 231--2 virtual reality, risks of 157 in restoration 235--7 urban disturbance, in viruses, as insect pathogens species 259 California 174 127 taxonomic 34 urbanization, impact of volunteer recorders 182, 185 Trialeurodes vaporariorum 142 68--73 Vulnerable (VU) 197

342 Index

Wart-biter bush cricket weather, catering for wildlife parks 207--12 captive breeding of 248 extremes of 214--15, 221 wildlife reserves 235, extinction of populations webmasters, ecological 36 243 of 99 weed biocontrol wildwood 181 as a flagship 36 and accidental wind currents 23 and patch size 98 introduction of wings, and origin of flight small changes in DNA of pathogens 129 22 37 risk-to-benefit ratio 125 Winter moth 129, 141 wasps risks of 125--6 Wolbachia 51 and estimates of insect weevil pests, and biocontrol Wood white butterfly 227 species richness 29 124 woodland, remnants of (see impact on spiders 122 West Africa 41 also forest, primary invasive 122 wetlands forest and patches) 101 predation on spiders loss of 82 world conservation strategy 123 threats to 83--4 10 water levels, changes in 83, wild areas, value of (see also world crisis 6 84 wilderness) 8--9, 243 water monitoring wild game, simulated by Xanthopan morgani praedicta programmes 61 cattle 208 45 waterholes, and insect wilderness, value of (see also conservation 78 wild areas) 207--8 Yucca moths 21