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Dear Delegates,

On the behalf of my entire staff, I would like to welcome you to NYUMUNCVIII.

My name is Marvin Passi, and I am tremendously excited to be your chair in the . Currently, I am a Master’s student at the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences here at NYU studying International Relations with a concentration in International Law and Finance. Having participated in many MUN committees with my French travel team, I’m looking forward to providing you with a well-managed committee.

Your crisis director, Maevyn Davis-Rackerby, is a freshman in the College of Arts and Sciences hoping to study International Relations. She loves both history and international politics, and is thrilled to put both her passions to use in providing interesting and exciting crises for you during the conference.

History has always played an important role in international politics. As a student in international relations, I can say that all current international conflicts and issues have roots in their country’s respective history, as they all result, on some level, from how their societies were formed and constructed. Currently, France is at a crucial historical point. On one hand, it is a leader in the European Union because of its ethnic diversity and its long history of attempted domination over the rest of Europe and the Middle East. On the other hand, the multiplicity of political, cultural and economic factors make the French situation complex to understand and the issues hard to resolve. Both Maevyn and I hope that trying to solve some medieval French conflicts will help you understand how challenging and complicated the actual situation is.

In this committee, you will deal with issues and crises within the Kingdom of France, including the fact that every , and religious leader has a different position on every crisis and topic that we give to you. My staff, Maevyn and I had been passionate about this topic, and we hope that by the end of this committee you will be as well.

If you have any questions or concerns, feel free to reach out to us. Have a great time researching, and we are looking forward to meet you in April.

Best,

Marvin Passi Maevyn Davis-Rackerby Chair Crisis Director NYUMUNCVIII NYUMUNCVIII [email protected] [email protected]

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of his reign fighting either “robber History barons” who disregarded the King and disrupted civil life through excessive and illegal taxation in Paris or the Norman kings of England over control of . Despite of this, Louis VI managed to strengthen his power, and became a strong king. In 1109 Louis VI went to war with over the castle at , an important fortress on the right bank of the Epte river, which had control over the road between Paris and However, after the first few years of the war, several French barons aligned with Henry, which left a difficult battle against the English monarch. In March 1113, Henry I was recognized as suzerain of Brittany and After the death of his father in 1060, Maine after the threat of losing Gisors Philip I was crowned king at age seven, forced Louis VI to sign a treaty. The officially beginning his rule in 1066. In peace lasted three years until hostilities 1077, after years of conflict with renewed in April of 1116. William the Conqueror over the Duchy By 1119, after several victories of Brittany, Philip gave up his attempt and the English capture of Les at conquering and made peace. In Andelys, Louis felt ready to end the 1082, Philip I annexed the , and war. That August The Battle of in 1100 he took control of . Bremule broke out, in which Louis’ following his excommunication by the troops broke, abandoned the royal pope in 1094 for repudiating his wife banner, and fled back to Les Andelys.. and marrying another woman. The A failed counter-attack to try and take year after, in 1095, the Crusade was Breteuil pushed Louis to negotiate for launched which had little participation peace again. With the Pope Calixtus II, from Philip but heavy involvement who met with Henry at Gisors in from not allowed to participate in, November of 1120, more peace was Hugh of Vermandois. negotiated. Eventually, Louis conceded Pope Urban II initially launched Gisors. the Crusade in response the Byzantine Emperor, Alexios I Komnenos, calling In 1127, , the for western help in fighting the , was killed in St. invasion of the Seljuk Turks from Donatian's Cathedral at . The Anatolia. However, the Christian count had no heir, which led to conquest of the sacred city of secession crisis. Louis had William Jerusalem and the Holy Land, as well Clito in mind as a candidate, and as the freeing of the Eastern Christians moved into Flanders and advised the from Muslim rule, quickly became the barons to choose himleading to his Crusade’s main goal. election by the counsel. To further secure Clito’s position in Flanders, Louis VI, or Louis the Fat, Louis captured Charles the Good’s succeeded Philip to establish a murderers and ousted the rival centralized royal power: he spent most claimants. Before he left for France,

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Louis witnessed the execution of said the archbishopric of Bourges caused killers. This victory showed how far the conflict with the Pope when he and the French Crown had come under Louis king suggested different candidates. VI’s leadership, but it was a short The king supported the chancellor triumph. The new, young Count Cadurc and the Pope supported Pierre William imposed heavy handed feudal de la Chatre. In response to this taxes, a move that didn’t go well with disagreement, the Pope imposed an several provinces. interdict on Louis VII. The tensions between Henry I Louis then allowed Raoul I of and Louis VI increased in November of Vermandois to renounce his wife and 1120, when Henry's heir, William marry Petronilla of Aquitaine instead, Adelin, was one of the nobles who died resulting in a war with Theobald II of during the sinking the on Champagne, the uncle of Roul’s his way to England from Normandy. denounced wife. As a result, Theobald This incident put Henry’s position and II allied with the Pope and sided with the future of this in jeopardy. him in the dispute over the Three years later, Louis was involved archbishopric of Bourges in a war that with a coalition between Norman and started in 1142 and lasted two years. French nobles opposing King Henry. When the royal army moved to occupy Their plan was to remove the English Champagne, the town of Vitry-le- King and replace him with William François was burned to the ground. Clito--however, Henry defeated them More than a thousand people died in and convinced Henry V, Holy Roman the town’s church, which also burned Emperor and his son-in-law, to invade in the fire. After this tragedy Louis France. Henry V had plans for the admitted defeat and ordered his armies coastal region of the , to leave Champagne. He also officially and invading Northern France would recognized Pierre de la Chatre as help his chances. So in 1124, Henry V archbishop, shunning Raoul and his prepared an army to march on Rheims. new wife, Petronilla. He felt However, he had failed to predict that responsible for the attack on the town, the French barons would support their more specifically the casualties from King and so the proposed invasion was the fire. He declared his intention of abandoned. The next year, Henry V mounting what would become known died. as the Second Crusade on December 25th, 1145 at Bourges to atone for his In 1128, Henry I married his sins. daughter, the , to the Count of , Geoffrey Plantagenet. In 1144, while this was This turned out to be a dangerous happening, the Count of Anjou, alliance for the French, which became Geoffrey V conquered Normandy, in an evident during the reign of Louis VII, action that would cause tension for Lous VI’s successor. Like his father, some time. In exchange for being Louis VII strove for a centralized recognised by Louis as Duke of government. Right before his death his Normandy, Geoffrey gave him half of father married him to Eleanor of the Vexin region, which was crucial to Aquitaine, an incredibly wealthy and Norman security. powerful woman. Eleanor gave Louis In June 1147, Louis VII and the vast as a dowry, Eleanor set out from the Basilica of St. which extended the French lands to the Denis and headed towards Syria. Pyrenees.

During his reign, a vacancy in 2

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crown, he was the head of all Government other officers, the highest

commander of the French army, The rule of the Capetian kings of France was long, but lacking in power. and considered second in The main fault of the earlier kings was command to the King. a lack appropriate resources or will to ● Chancelier: He oversaw the control their . To fix this Louis judicial system. VI introduced an aggressive policy, ● Seneschal: An administrative demanding that his vassals be officer in charge matters obedient, and was backed by military pertaining to the household, force. His son Louis VII furthered his power by marrying Eleanor of including domestic Aquitaine, which stretched the Crown’s arrangements and influence to southern France. administration of servants. ● Amiral de France : Commander Conseil du Roi (King’s Council) of the French Navy. The King of France took advice ● Maréchal de France: An honor from his council before making bestowed upon the most important decisions. The council was a exceptional generals. The body composed of trusted advisors to the King that looked over matters Maréchal general des camps et concerning the government and royal armées du roi (Marshal General administration, both during war and of Camps and Armies of the peace. King) was superior to the Marshal of France and held Composition of the Council: authoritative power over all ● Dauphin (The crown ) French armies. ● The “Grands” (Powerful people ● Grand Chambrier de France: of the Church and nobility) Manager of the Royal Treasury, ● Queen (Consort or mother) – with assistance from the Grand However, the queen began to Bouteiller (Grand Butler). The lose political control and did not Grand Chamberman signed often attend council. important letters and charters. ● The King’s close relations (Sons, ● Grand Chambellan de France : grandsons, of the He was initially in charge of the bloodline) – Because of their King’s wardrobe, having a political ambition, these particularly important role members were often suspected during coronation cérémonies. of plotting against the king. He later was additionally

The Great Officers of the Crown responsible for signing royal of France: documents, charters, assisting The most important positions in during peer trials, recording the the King’s council were held by the oath of homage to the Crown, Great Officers of the Crown of France. etc. He additionally had keys to the royal apartments. ● Connétable de France: Also

known as the First Officer of the

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The council was only General and the Parlements. The constitutional – the final decision was States General was a legislative the King’s. The king often did not assembly constituting three estates follow through with the decisions of (classes) of French subjects that the the council. In the council, the King King would consult for issues such as would sign treaties, receive fiscal policy and the presentation of ambassadors, appoint administrators, petitions. The Parlements acted as the and elaborate on ordannances (laws of court of the judicial system, comprising the realm). of over a dozen judges. They had great power over legislation, specifically Court of Finances regarding taxation. Laws issued by the The King had to survive on the King were not finalized unless they revenue made from lands that he received the approval of the directly owned. If necessary, the taille Parlement. The members of the (an exceptional tax) was imposed, Parlement were aristocrats (“nobles of usually during times of war. Initially, the robe”) that were independent of the the King’s council handled all financial Crown and received their posts responsibility, but by the 12th century, through inheritance. the finances were entrusted with the “Knights Templar” in Paris. They were a Catholic military order, endorsed by Economy the Roman Catholic church. The Trade soldiers who were non-combatant After the invasions of the 9th during the Crusade oversaw the and 10th centuries (mostly by Vikings), economic structure of France, and the Kingdom of France was left alone innovated new banking methods. to recover and begin expanding again. By the end of the 11th century the Prévots Rhine valley connected France to Prévots were judges that England, Flanders and Brabant. Ports governed the scattered regions of the increased trade over the water, and royal domain. They implemented royal trade increased over the longer power locally, which encompassed distance between Byzantine and collecting the Crown’s domain-based Venice. The Norman conquests, revenues, taxes, and duties owed. precursors to the Crusade, occurred Prévosts also took on the responsibility late 11th century and thus of military defense, which included strengthened the trade routes with raising contingents locally for royal Italy, England, and Sicily. In the 12th armies. Provosts also carried out century, as the population grew and judicial procedures, altough to a farming technology advanced, the somewhat limited extent. Over time, agricultural industry also grew. This provost positions became hereditary, was accompanied by massive land and therefore more difficult for the clearance by nobles, which also helped King to Control. The King arranged for to promote the agricultural industry. one of his great officers (the Great Thus, agriculture became the main Seneschal) to supervise them. economic industry. Finally, the Crusade not only strengthened trade along its path, but opened the Other Institutions Mediterranean for trade, solidifying The country was also governed even more trade routes and expanding by other institutions, like the States the geographic area of commerce for

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nyumunc viii the Kingdom of France. distrustful of a new coinage, afraid that After recovering from the it might destroy what little wealth they invasions and establishing a strong had and allow lords to cheat them out trade system, the French economy was of money. Thus, the transition from the able to expand beyond agriculture. The unstable denier to a standard royal port cities opened up a wide range of currency was a slow one, and the 12th exports, including limestone, which century was a transition time to the was exported to England for use in royal currency that would eventually building cathedrals. One of the main become the most important currency exports, mainly through Flanders, in France. As the coin stabilized, so did became finished fabrics--heavier wools the economy, until the economy was for England, lighter wools to Spain and very coinage-based. Italy, and linens and mixed cloths to Germany, using wool imported from Taxation England. The invention of the The Kingdom of France was, at horizontal loom in the 11th century first, expected to be somewhat self allowed for the industrialization of sufficient--that is, the king should gain weaving, and a profitable textile income from his lands and possessions industry sprung up. Factories opened instead of a direct and increasing (with mostly male workers), and the taxation from his subjects. However, in goal of weaving became more exports Europe overall, the 12th century was than domestic uses. Other notable the beginning of a transition to new imports included wine from the taxing systems as the King needed Rhinelands. more money to support military and bureaucratic expansion. as well as due The Denier to an increase in war costs. the gradual The gold coin was a standard in shift from compulsory military service the Kingdom of France up until the to payments known as “shield eighth century, when it disappeared. payments” or scutage. Eventually, Efforts to revive it and reinstitute a these taxes shifted even further to gold system failed. With the allow the people to vote on their taxes, disappearance of the gold coin, the a so called “consensual tax” system. silver denier (introduced by In the years leading up to 1147, in the seventh century) however, France was just beginning became the main currency in the this transition. The King’s revenue, Kingdom of France, replacing the last although beginning to slowly shift, was of the gold trientes. While the denier still rooted in the feudal system and was minted across the kingdom, it's the income from crown lands. worth varied from mint to mint, and therefore so did the amount of money Socioeconomic and Feudal in a pound. From major city to major System city the currency could change, The Kingdom of France had a meaning that in every transaction, the strong class system. The upper-class denier had to be converted to its local bourgeoisie, or bourgs, came from equivalent. This caused significant mercantile communities built up right instability which, by the 11th century, outside the large fortified areas who. became an issue, especially with the pursued independent urban increasing geographic spread and development and government. High or sheer amount of trade and commerce. noble birth was also very important in However, even with the push for a socioeconomic status, and often more stable currency people were 5

nyumunc viii determined eligibility for certain the most experienced body of the army orders. The lower classes were regarding warfare, and likewise, its ostracized or ended up as vassals under loyalty to the king was the greatest. feudal tenures. The general militia, however, was Emerging in the 11th century the consisted of drafted men. These were Kingdom of France also functioned only available for a short period of time under a strong feudal system, in which and did not feel the same loyalty to the many vassals work land and cultivate king. agriculture belonging to a lord. Vassals Medieval warfare was therefore owed their lord “aid and service.”; essentially defined by the strategical mostly as military service, but also any use of the cavalry. The strength and the type of tax or payment paid by a speed of this “elite” foce would settle to their lord. It was through this the outcome of a battle. Once it was system that lords gained most of their over, the rest of the ost was in charge income, and, before the of sieging the captured city, which was industrialization that resulted from their official military directive. In the increasing trade rates and the cease of early Middle Age, the military invasions, it was the source of their technology could not allow the armies agriculture. to break the walls and other defenses of a well-fortified city, but when the city would finally surrender, the King Military could choose to plunder the city in Through the centuries, the order to reward its troops or ask for its Kingdom of France was defined by a loyalty in order to gain more vassals. quasi-constant state of war. Those Other than this overall military recurring conflicts influenced the structure, it has been hard for evolution of the military structure. historians to find documentation that Until the 12th century the ost, would give an accurate number the “the Royal Army”, was regarding the size of the armies. predominantly made of cavalrymen and officers of the court whom were The Navy chosen to be part of the “Military The royal territory was not House of the King”, later to become the bordered by water until the territorial “Bodyguard”. Their mission was to extensions of the late 12th century. ensure the security of the King from his Hence there was no proper royal navy rivals or isolated threats, with the King until the end of the 13th century, which possessing no standing army. meant that all of the conflicts In order to increase the size of (including the Crusade) was on land. his ost, the King turned to his vassals. The Crusades Each Lord who had promised loyalty to The Crusade was the first the King would contribute to the Royal attempt to capture the Holy Land, Army by providing knights and foot called by Pope Urban II in 1095. This soldiers. crusade was launched by the Christians At first, under the Carolingian in response to the Turks blocking dynasty, the foot soldiers obeyed to a access to Jerusalem. Although the king military draft that lasted the time of a could not participate, several lords did. military campaign. But during the 12th At least 14 different duchies and century, the length of this military counties led by Knights responded to draft was reduced to 40 days, which the call of the Pope and left Europe to became the norm for the vassals. At conquer Jerusalem in 1096. that point, the calvary was considered This call also unwillingly 6

nyumunc viii launched the “People’s Crusade,” when over 15,000 pilgrims led by Peter the Territorial Disputes Hermit left Europe to the Byzantine The Kingdom of France was one Empire. Over 25,000 arrived at their of the largest kingdoms in Medieval first destination. However, due to a Europe, with an estimated population lack of military experience, they were of six million in the year 1000 (for quickly killed by the Turks. Only 3,000 comparison, England at that point only remained to later join the actual measured two million). These six Crusade. This prelude was million people were spread amongst characterized by its lack of duchies, sovereign territories governed coordination with other authorities of by and fairly independent, but Europe and the rising of anti-semitism. still vassals of the king. Such lords and dukes often caused problems and often As already noted the French became nearly as powerful as the king royal power was fragile, especially at himself. Although England was smaller the time of the Crusade. There was a in population. Throughout the 12th daily struggle between the King and century, there was continuing conflict the various lords, barons, and other with England and the Kingdom of nobles to actually have the royal power France over land disputes and recognized. The King’s power exchanges throughout the region. In depended more on compromise than fact, of the five major duchies of the coercive force. time, nearly all of them were involved A lack of political and military in some kind of dispute or tension hierarchy allowed for the Crusade to around the early to late 1140s. fragment significantly. Four main Lords from different regions of Europe Duchy of Aquitaine led their armies in order to conquer. The Duchy of Aquitaine, Combining all their forces together, originally under Charlemagne control, approximately 35,000 crusaders took had separated into a sovereign state via part in the Crusade. a string of Poitiers dukes, at one point The relationship between the even being classified as a kingdom in Byzantine Empire and the crusaders its own right. These dukes, especially quickly became complex. Initially, they the Williams, also continually were supposed to defend Byzantine expanded Aquitaine,adding Gascony from Turkish invasion, turned their and Toulouse,until it was incredibly attention to conquering new territories large and powerful territory, albeit one for themselves. that fluctuated in exact area several One of the main leaders of this times over the century. In 1137, the expedition was Godfrey of Bouillon, current duke William X died, leaving who finally succeeded in conquering his vast amount of lands to his 15-year- Jerusalem but refused to be crowned old daughter, Eleanor. She was placed King of the city out of respect for Jesus under the care of king Louis VI of Christ. France and, within the same year, was In the Kingdom of France, the married to his son Louis VII. A few King was perceived as weak at the end months after that Louis VI died, of the 11th century, but the in the 12th leaving and Louis century, Louis VI rose and VII the crown king and queen of the significantly increased France’s power Kingdom of France. Thus, the lands of and strength. Aquitaine officially became a part of the Kingdom of France. Over the next decade leading to 1147, Eleanor bore

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Louis no sons. However, the territory themselves, including the Kingdom of of Aquitaine was tied to her name. France, who longed to have Brittany Thus, despite tension for lack of an back in its control again. heir, their marriage--and the royal control of Aquitaine--remained intact. Duchy of Burgundy Stemming from the original Kingdom of Burgundy, the duchy of In the late 10th century, the Burgundy had grown to an impressive Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte was size by the time France gained control struck between West Francia and the of it, through succession, in 1002. vikings to create the sovereign Duchy Duke Henry I died, leaving the land to of Normandy. Though independent his nephew Robert the Pious, King of and under the control of dukes, it was France. However, this upset his still a part of the Kingdom of France stepson, the Roman Otto-William, who though the beginnings of the Capetian was the intended heir. In 1003 Robert dynasty. Thus began Normandy’s invaded Burgundy, with the help of tumultuous history regarding French Richard II of Normandy. This led to an and English control. In 1035, after extended conflict between France and William the Conqueror's Norman the Roman Empire over Burgundy. conquest of England, it fell under the Eventually, Rome backed out of the control of Norman dukes. After several clash, and although Burgundy failed attempts on the part of King remained technically imperial it also Louis IV to regain it (a failed invasion maintained strong French connections. in 1119), it was finally fully captured by Eventually, France managed to take it Geoffrey Plantagenet of Anjou in 1145, back fully into Capetian control, the during his six-year conquest of broken off piece of Auxerre going Normandy.Although Geoffrey straight into complete royal control. Plantagenet was French, Normandy Although in 1147 Burgundy was a fairly was more sovereign than it was royal stable part of France, this battle and lands. In the years that followed dispute is etched into their history. tensions remained high, as King Louis kept his sights on regaining the Disagreement over Gisors territory. Gisors, an incredibly strategically important piece of land and castle between England and Unlike the other duchies, France, was also frequently disputed. Brittany’s past was solidly Gaelic. In 1119, King Louis claimed Gisors for Creating a cultural separation. Brittany his own. Henry retaliated quickly and made its way out of Viking control to swiftly, and a conflict began. French control before breaking off Eventually Louis backed down and nearly entirely. For much of the 10th signed a treaty conceding control of century it was ruled by Alan Gisors over to Henry and England. Barbetorte, who went so far as to call This didn’t last long, however, before himself a king. After Alan’s death in King Louis violated the peace treaty 952, however, Brittany had a secession and marched on a nearby English crisis and fell victim to all its town. Thus resumed the fairly violent surrounding territories. For centuries conflictuntil the pope met with the two after that, including the 12th, Brittany kings at Gisors to negotiate peace in had no strong ruler. The duke payed 1120. All lands taken were to be homage to Normandy, but all the returned, all prisoners to be released. surrounding states still wanted it for Gisors returned to its neutral, pre- 8

nyumunc viii conflict state. Although also not an interpretation of Islam. active conflict, the territorial dispute here was a historical event, and both was states still, in 1147, have their eye on called upon to combat heresy by claiming Gisors for themselves. Pope Eugene III, one of his disciples. In 1145 he travelled to Southern France to strengthen the Religion support against heresy. Because of his work, the Henrician and During the Middle Ages, the Petrobrusians faiths began to die Arab-Islamic spread led to out by the end of the year. significant changes along the Mediterranean. Many of the Muslim On May 8th, 1147 a mob Commented [JC1]: " troops during the Islamic spread attacked the Jews on the second day originated in Berber, and also that of Shavuot (Pentecost) in Rameru, there were Muslim communities in France. Rabbenu Tam was one of Nimes, practicing alongside the the mob's victims. After being Christians. stabbed five times, to match the five wounds of Jesus, he was saved by a In 1143, 150 Jews were passing knight. His house was murdered in Ham, France. In the town ransacked, however, and a Torah of Carentan the Jews defended scroll was destroyed. He was one of themselves, but in the end were the most renowned Ashkenazi defeated too. A year later, Louis VIII Jewish rabbis, a leading halakhic condemned falsely converted Jews to authority in his generation, and one die. Regardless, the general position of of Rashi’s grandsons (Rashi was a tolerance towards Judaism in France widely respected medieval French still continues, with not all Jews were rabbi). Ashkenazi Jews were a affected by the King’s decree. Jewish diaspora population in the Peter the Venerable, Abbot of Holy Roman Empire at the time. Cluny, urged Louis VII to hate the Rabbenu Tam was known for his Jews but not kill them, instead to communal enactments improving punish them in a more fitting way family life, education, and women's than death. He was a part of many status in the Jewish community. His significant religious councils of his death, understandably, upset many. time, like the Council of Pisa (1134) and the Council of (1147), and defended the French theologian The English Anarchy Peter Abelard after his Trinitarian In 1120, the sinking of the White interpretation was condemned by Ship led to the sudden death of King the Council of Sens. He managed to Henry I of England’s only legitimate mitigate the sentence of the council son and heir, William. Five years later, and reconcile Abelard with St. in 1125, Henry V of the Roman Empire Bernard of Clairvaux, his hardest died as well, leaving behind a widowed critic. Peter also participated in a Matilda--Henry I’s only other translation project that included the legitimate child. After some first-ever translation into Latin of deliberation and a marriage to the Qur'an, and thanks to this Geoffrey of Anjou, Henry decided that translation the West had its first Matilda would be the heir to his instrument to study Islam, dwith throne, and would succeed him as ruler his negative but tolerant of England. He went so far as to, in

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1127, 1128, and 1131, force barons in lack of strong leadership. His England and Normandy to take an mercenaries followed no laws and he oath promising to accept her as relentlessly tried to build a party monarch. This was, however, not around himself, actions which only popular. Matilda’s womanhood made further alienated the barons. The her an unpopular choice, and her recruitment of Flemish mercenaries French husband (no matter how rocky started around 1137, unlike Henry I’s the marriage) made the English wary choice of French and British of being ruled by a foreigner. mercenaries during the first crusade. Henry’s sudden death in 1135 This choice caused tension in the destroyed all chances of one of Norman army and mass dropouts, Matilda’s sons becoming heir instead-- which only hindered Stephen’s rule although she had two, they were both and campaign. much too young. The oaths were broken or invalidated, Matilda had just This opened the door for been recovering from a possibly Robert, Earl of Gloucester and deathly illness, and she made no move Matilda’s half-brother, to come to her to return to England and seize her aid. In 1138 he went to war with crown. All of this opened up the Stephen to defend his sister, and at kingdom to a civil war. Later to be first Stephen seemed to be winning. referred to as The Anarchy, the civil However, when he arrested a bishop, war was fought in both England and he lost both the support and power of Normandy (which at this point was still the church. Matilda herself finally saw solidly under English control, much to her chance at action and launched a the dismay of King Louis VI), and counterattack in 1139, managing to lasted through the 1140s. amass nearly half of England in a short period of time. In 1141 Stephen was Stephen of Blois captured by the Angevins, but a protest Stephen of Blois was the in London allowed for his release in grandson of William the Conqueror, exchange for Gloucester. From then on nephew of King Henry I, and cousin to a civil war between Matilda and Matilda. After the tragic death of his Stephen raged on. father, count of Blois in the crusade, Stephen was sent to the English court Status in 1147 and raised mostly by his uncle, In 1143, there was a stalemate although he still retained French between the two sides after Stephen nobility. was defeated by Robert. While there was still fighting, there was also time to After his uncle’s death in 1135, pursue other interests for a few years. Stephen crossed back across the However, in October of 1147 Robert of English Channel to take the English Gloucester, one of Matilda’s most avid crown. Although it had been pledged to supporters, died. In 1147 fighting was Matilda, her lack of action combined beginning to slow down, but The with support from various bishops and Anarchy was still raging on. lords made it easy for Stephen to declare himself the new king. Importance to the Kingdom of France Stephen’s Regime and the Civil For much of this time, King War Louis VI of France tried—and failed-- Stephen’s main fault was in his to regain Normandy, and established

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nyumunc viii himself as a main enemy of King Henry I. He had already placed an ally as the count of Flanders with -- Sanitary something that led to tensions rising in the first place, due to the now joint Environment & opposition of England by both Louis Diseases and William. Not only was Stephen In the Middle Ages, the source from France and heir to Blois, an of most diseases came from the lack of important piece of Northern France, hygiene, mostly caused by poor his appearance as King of England medical knowledge of the time. From pushed back the Angevin kings-- the 11th to the 12th century, the increase something Louis was desperately of population in Europe led the trying to do. Stephen in power not only peasants to move from the countryside fought back the Angevins, but it to the cities. The garbage and human stopped the English territory from waste were piled up in the streets or expanding and encroaching upon the thrown into the rivers, which spread northern parts of France, such as Blois. bacteria and disease and contaminated To Louis, this was the best that could the water. In the early-to-mid 12th have happened. In fact, in 1136, King century the streets were not paved, and Louis VI wrote a testimonial for there were no sewers. To clean the Stephen of Blois, recommending him detritus, the pigs who were living in the for the role of king. From then until the streets would eat the garbage, further king’s death in 1137, there was a strong spreading diseases through animals. agreement between Blois-, The access to water was also a Normandy, and Paris. Count Theobald, crucial aspect for a sanitary another prominent Northern French environment, one that was somewhat nobleman, also wrote a letter in restricted in the Kingdom of France. In support of Stephen of Blois and his rise Paris, the Church was in charge of to the crown. This action brought building aqueducts to supply the Theobald and Louis closer together, population with clean water. This led ending their conflict. to very few public fountains being By 1141 the civil war was in full available (less than 18 in the whole of swing, and the new King Louis VII was the city). Undernourishment and lack watching it carefully and making his of hygiene during those days own decisions. There was a new contributed significantly to the spread alliance between Angers and Paris, of epidemics. There were several main possibly because Geoffrey of Anjou diseases that spread and caused (who, at that point, was conquering problems in the Kingdom of France. Normandy) had offered him the Vexin, a powerful piece of Normandy that the French crown had been wanting back Early Plagues for as long as they had no longer The plague was a disease that owned it. By 1145, however, the spread widely, and for a long time, Angevins were moving towards during the medieval period and middle reclaiming Normandy, with a special ages. This infectious disease was very interest in the Vexin. Wanting to do easily transmitted through human anything to preserve it, Louis contact or water and food temporarily distracted the Count of contamination, and could also be Meulan by giving him Gournay-sur- carried by animals. It first appeared th Marne, then continued to watch the during the 6 century as the Plague of Angevins with unease. Justinian. The Plague of Justinian was

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nyumunc viii a pandemic that spread through the parades and encouraged the Byzantine Empire, killing roughly 25 population to go on holy pilgrimages. million people from 531 to 580. These pilgrimages were successful, and the monks from the Order of Saint Leprosy Anthony became famous for them. The Leprosy was an ancient disease success of the pilgrimages actually that originated in many places, but the came from the fact that the pilgrims Christian crusade of the 11th century had to move away from the aided greatly to its spread. the lepers contaminated cereals, therefore became a distinctive class of the mitigating the symptoms of the disease society:Once suspected of leprosy, a on the short term. person was considered dead by the family and the Church, a fake funeral Dysentery was hosted, and the leper was forced to Dysentery became especially leave in complete isolation from the well spread across Europe after the rest of the society. Excluded and feared events of the Crusade. In 1098, the by everyone, the leper was forbidden to crusaders besieging the city of Antioch have any human contact or to share the were decimated by this disease. T after same water or food as the rest of the a lack of food and proper sanitation. people. This terrible disease did not discriminate. It spared no one, not Doctors even nobility. For instance, Raoul de In the Middle Ages, diseases Vermandois in the 12th century was a were considered the work of God, who victim of leprosy. sent them as punishment for sins, and healed those afflicted as soon as they Ergotism ceased the sinning. Because of this, Known as “Holy Fire” or “Saint there were very few doctors. Anthony’s Fire” during the Medieval There were, however, three Age, Ergotism is the long-term effect of distinguished professions of medicine ergot poisoning. It came from the in France that emerged in the 12th ingestion of a fungus that infects century: doctors, surgeons and cereals, and is often spread in the barbers. They were all trained at either summer when the new crop is Montpellier and Paris, the only two harvested. The symptoms of ergotism places in France who taught medicine. began with painful seizures, spasms, Even with the training available, the and diarrhea. Then the gangrene would number of doctors remained low. In attack the fingers and toes before fact, there were only about 80 licensed spreading to the rest of the body. The doctors in the entirety of the Kingdom disease was called “Holy Fire” because of France. the diseased would feel like their As expected, their primary bodies were burning from the inside, missions were to treat the plague and their skin falling away and their bones leprosy. Very few chirurgical breaking. procedures were made, and doctors did This epidemic disease strongly not oversee childbirth, leading to an hit France during the 11th and 12th extremely high number of maternal centuries in Champagne Limousin, deaths during and after childbirth. Lorraine , and Cambrai where 12,000 people died. The church took a holy stance in International its response to this disease. In order to fight it, the Church started religious Relations 12

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Byzantine Empire Europe, consisting primarily followers In 330 AD, the Roman Emperor of Roman Catholicism. After 962, the Constantine I chose Byzantium to hold largest and most prominent kingdom the new Roman Capital, one he named in the Holy Roman Empire was the Constantinople. It was ideal due to its Kingdom of Germany. Other location between Europe and Asia, prominent kingdoms were the making trade and transit easy. Once Kingdom of Burgundy, the Kingdom of Constantine died his Roman Empire Italy, and the Kingdom of Bohemia. split into east and west, and the The empire was first ruled by Frankish, Byzantine Empire was founded from then German kings. As the empire was the east. The members of the Byzantine so ethnically diverse, it was never as empire were proud of their Roman and politically unified as the Kingdom of Christian heritage, even calling France was. Instead, it was themselves Romaioi (Romans). Later, decentralized, consisting of hundreds because of Persians and Slav invasions, of duchies, counties, principalities, Muslim armies attacked the Byzantine Free Imperial Cities, etc. Empire through Syria. The Islamic During the Crusade, parts of the forces took over Syria, the Holy Land, Holy Roman Empire (e.g. Germany, Egypt, North Africa, and other Italy), alongside the Kingdom of territories. France, went to Byzantium to aid the The Crusade was a holy war Byzantine Empire in regaining their between Christians of the West against land from the Seljuk Turks. This was Muslims in the East. When the Seljuk part of their efforts to rid the region of Turks attacked Constantinople, Islam and promote Roman Emperor Alexius I looked for help from Catholicism. However, on defeating the the west, which lead to the the initial Turks and recovering Nicaea to declaration of holy war by Pope Urban Byzantium, the Byzantine army II at Clermont (France) that started the retreated, leaving the Holy Roman Crusade. When French, German and leaders with a sense of betrayal. Italian armies came to Byzantium to fight against the Turks, Alexius Seljuk Empire attempted to force the leaders of the The rise of the Seljuk Empire armies to swear loyalty to him and began with migrations during the 10th ensure that the Byzantine Empire century, including Turkish people from would get back the land taken away Central Asia and Southeast Russia. from them by the Turks. Once both the One nomadic tribe was lead by a man Western and the Byzantine armies named Seljuk. His people settled in the regained Nicaea from the Turks, lower portion of the Jaxartes River, Alexius made his army retreat, leading and years later converted to the Islamic to the rest of the crusaders accusing version of the Sunnite. With the help of him of betraying them. Seljuk’s grandsons, the Seljuk people The Byzantine territory was less formed an alliance with Persian forces prone to attacks because of its location. to acquire more land for their own Constantinople was located along a empire. The two grandsons, Chafri and strait and shared borders with a lot of Tugril, controlled a great deal of land-- Europe, making it hard to get past its including an empire which then defenses. included parts of western Iran and Mesopotamia. After their deaths, the Holy Roman Empire sultans Alp-Arslan and Malik-Shah The Holy Roman Empire was a extended the Seljuk empire over Iran, large group of territories in central Mesopotamia, Syria and Palestine. In 13

nyumunc viii the 11th century, the Seljuk empire won Persian-Arab soldiers, who seized a battle against the Byzantine army Muslim lands. Unlike the Umayyads, and took the Byzantine emperor who were based in Syria, the Abbasids Romanus IV Diogenes prisoner, giving made the executive decision to move an opening for Turkish tribes to settle the capital to Baghdad. Even though in Asia Minor. The Seljuk empire was the leaders of the Abbasids were Arab, known for its ability to restore Muslim the intellectual and cultural factors the unity under their Sunni caliphate, and influenced the caliphate were Persian. managed to instate a network of The empire's golden age came around colleges to give training to state the 9th and 10th century, when Baghdad administrators and religious scholars. to be the study hub of history, culture The last trace of the Seljuks were those and philosophy. Here concepts of basic who died on the battlefield in the early mathematics, algebra and geometry 12th century. were studied and written about. The During the Crusade the Seljuk work of Al Khwarizmi was later Empire was focused its attention on its translated into Persian, Hindu and fragmented states over defeating the Greek texts for easy spread in the crusaders, making it easy for the Muslim lands. His texts also proved to crusaders coming from Western influence Europe especially Greek Europe and the Byzantine Empire to thinkers like Aristotle. march into Seljuk territory to conquer To gain wealth and maintain a the city of Nicaea. After countless stable economy the Abbasid dynasty months of fighting, the Seljuks depended on taxes and military surrendered. The Crusade army took control, but by the 11th century their Nicaea and then made their way to fragmented political system proved too Jerusalem, but were stopped at the city weak to keep tribes from attacking. In of Antioch, which had been occupied 1055, the Abbasid dynasty lost control by the Seljuks since 1085. Antioch, a of Baghdad to the Seljuk tribe. Christian city, was blocking the Although the Seljuks took over power, crusaders’ way to Jerusalem. Both the Abbasids still ruled their dynasty sides fought a long and arduous battle under their control. While the Seljuks until the Seljuks were defeated. It took continued to expand toward the west years for the Muslim empires to and combat the Crusades, the Abbasid organize a retaliation against the political system weakened, which Christian opposition. The Seljuk army slowed the scientific and historical and empire was fragmented until Zengi enlightenment. become the chief and took the city of Aleppo without a problem. In the 12th Fatimid Caliphate century he focused his vision on the The Fatimid Caliphate was Christian city of Edessa, which was technically under the control Abbasid only lightly defended. He took the city Caliphate, and fought hard to be seen and was praised for his brave efforts as a powerful caliphate in its own right, against the First Crusade but was then as well as an important state in the assassinated, and his power was Mediterranean region. After years of handed down to his sons. submission to the Abbasid Caliphate Abbasid Caliphate and fighting their own civil war, the The history of the Seljuk Empire Fatimid Caliphate turned its attention and the Abbasid Caliphate go hand in to expanding across the Mediterranean hand as they fight for power and land. Sea. They started with Algeria, Tunisia, In the 8th century the dynasty of Morocco and Libya in order to threaten Umayyad was challenged by an army of the trade paths, then continued by 14

nyumunc viii engaging a war in Almeria, Spain. This Kingdom’s borders, attempting to stop effectively halted the trade of gold, the Fatimid army from directly food, and slaves between the European attacking. Additionally, due to the Empires and the African countries. muslim community arriving in the The Kingdom of France was Kingdom of France, the Kingdom also especially concerned with one war in had to be wary of the Fatimid particular, one the Fatimid Caliphate Caliphate trying to infiltrate the started against the Byzantine Empire, territory and attacking France from as it took place in Sicilia. The Duché de within. Bourgogne sent warriors to the

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