CEU eTD Collection KYRGYZSTANI POLICIES LANGUAGE EDUCATION ANDHIGHER In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the ofrequirements the fulfillment partial In SOCIALIN TRANSITION: REPRODUCTION Advisor: Professor Mária Kovács Mária Professor Advisor: Nationalism Studies Program Studies Nationalism Central European University European Central Budapest, Hungary Budapest, Courtney Kelner Courtney Master of Master Arts Submitted to to Submitted 2012 By degree of degree CEU eTD Collection cleavages. Kyrgyzstanl along stratification social exacerbate reproductionreform they evoke, relapse and mult of state capacity, low Beca cleavages. rural/urban and address to are this capital of distribution the con are education explored through lens conceptual the reform educational in Kyrgyzstan's con transitional projectsoutco and formulations policy language and approach critical takes a paper This t assessing to formulations. cross-cutentire the project nation-building ex and many balance interrelat simultaneously to struggled coherent s nationally inclusive institutionally and from transition to in attempt toolkits, Unio Soviet approaches, institutional from pulling ass the both Central the Kyrgyzstan 1991, of Asianstate Since h ABSTRACT

2 strained by the upheaval of transition, of transition, by upheaval the strained n membership, to an independent, independent, an to membership, n tatehood. While state policies have have state policies While tatehood. ercise its symbolic power on all policy ercisepolicy all on power symbolic its he interplay between nation-building nation-building between heinterplay imilationist and multiculturalist multiculturalist and imilationist inguistic, class, and regional regional and class, inguistic, as chosen a variety of legal and and legal variety of a chosen as text, linguistic divisions at all level of of all level at divisions text,linguistic ilingual educational policies in in policies educational ilingual of linguistic capital. Policies seeking seeking Policies capital. linguistic of use of these obstacles and the social social the and these obstacles of use ed goals, language continues to to continues edgoals, language mes. Focusing on the obstacles to to obstacles the on Focusing mes. CEU eTD Collection and empower me to share my voice. Solidarity is our is Solidarity my voice. to me share empower and and colleagues many the grateful to especially Iam atth department Studies ofNationalism the faculty of t production throughoutthe support and guidance advisor, my thank to like IK would Mária Professor ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 3 e Central European University. European Central e comrades, near and far, near comrades, inspire who his thesis. his thanks the to Additional ovács, for her compassionate compassionate her for ovács, s. CEU eTD Collection BIBLIOGRAPHY...... CONCLUSION...... CHAPTER 3: Linguistic Capital in Education...... in Capital 3: Linguistic CHAPTER CHAPTER 2: CHAPTER TransitionalChallenges...... CHAPTER 1: Historical Background...... 1: Historical CHAPTER INTRODUCTION...... TABLE OF CONTENTS 2.2. Educational Educational 2.2. Transformation...... 3.2. Maintenance of Elite Dominance...... of Maintenance 3.2. 3.1. Linguistic Divisions...... Linguistic 3.1. 2.1. Language in in Language 2.1. Transition...... 1.1. Soviet Union...... 1.1. 2.2.1. Institutionally Institutionally ...... 2.2.1. 3.2.1. Funding Funding 3.2.1...... Institutions...... Education Higher 3.1.2. 3.2.2. 3.2.2. Testingan as Point...... Access 2.2.2. Content...... 2.2.2. 2.2.3. Educational Reform Reform Educational 2.2.3. Theoretical Tools...... 3.1.1. Primary and Secondary Schools...... Secondary and Primary 3.1.1. 2.1.3. Key points of departure from neighboring sta neighboring from departure of points Key 2.1.3. 2.1.2. Mimicking of Civic Discourse...... Mimicking 2.1.2. 2.1.1. Out-migration...... 2.1.1. 1.1.1. Nationalities Policies...... Nationalities 1.1.1. 1.1.2. Language Policies...... Language 1.1.2. 2.2.1.1. Key Key 2.2.1.1. and Stakeholders...... Actors 3.1.2.1. Specialized Specialized 3.1.2.1. Terminology...... 3.2.1.1. Corruption...... 3.2.1.1. 2.2.1.2. Rural Challenges...... Rural 2.2.1.2. 2.2.3.1. Bourdieu's Social Reproduction...... Social Bourdieu's 2.2.3.1. 2.1.3.2. State Capacity...... State 2.1.3.2. 2.1.3.1. Population Compositions...... Population 2.1.3.1. 1.1.2.3. Language Policy Policy Language Theoretical 1.1.2.3. Tools...... 1.1.1.2. 'Affirmative 1.1.1.2. Koreni through Empire' Action 1.1.1.1. Territorially Nations ...... Defined 1.1.2.2. Bilingual Education Policies...... Education Bilingual 1.1.2.2. Kyrgyz the of Language...... Promotion 1.1.2.1. 1.1.1.3.4. Critical Theories of Language Policy Critical Policy of Language 1.1.1.3.4. Theories Ana 1.1.2.3.3. Trends Policy in Analysis...... Rights-based 1.1.2.3.2. Approaches...... Dive Language on Discourses the Locating 1.1.2.3.1. 1.1.2.2.2. Kyrgyz 1.1.2.2.2. Law...... Language and Cooperation.. of Friendship Language 1.1.2.2.1...... 4 ...... 44 ...... 26 tes...... 34 ...... 23 ...... 24 ...... 22 ...... 19 zatsiia ...... 17zatsiia lysis...... 27 ...... 21 rsity...... 23 ...... 60 ...... 13 ...... 63 ...... 5 ...... 41 ...... 53 ...... 48 ...... 38 ...... 30 ...... 31 ...... 13 ...... 19 ...... 37 ...... 55 ...... 36 ...... 30 ...... 13 ...... 55 ...... 53 ...... 40 ...... 50 ...... 47 ....33 ...48 ..52 ..13 ..20 ..35 38 42 CEU eTD Collection complex resonance. complex a targete within obstacles those contextualize will and realities through transitional post-Soviet the obstacles and interrelated discrete face societies produ missteps the are where stratification, social multi If context. Kyrgyzstan,its linguistic within how, who, will examine essay this privilegi and why INTRODUCTION 1 Bilaniuk, Bilaniuk, 1 discrimination that is justified by an ideology tha an ideology by is that justified discrimination continues of other privileging the and groups some longer no is generally background or class regional of Kyrgyzstan'spol language state analysis nuanced for tone sets policies. the language dialectic This rec the understand also to we have nation-building, t understand to this relationship closer at look we i to express language on relies certainly building, The fate of the nation, or at least as the concept as atthe least or ofnation, the Thefate Essentially,bas the on discrimination “whileovert « "Thefate the of is the language fate of the nation Тилдин Contested Tongues Contested

тагдыры - элдин ,23.

тагдыры .» - 5 Кыргыз under the present conditions, particularly particularly present the conditions, under the critique to follow and allows for a for and allows follow to critique the the domain of educational reform. Here I Here reform. of educational domain the lingual policies are intended to reduce reduce to intended are policies lingual t naturalizes a linguistic standard.” linguistic a naturalizes t he acute role of language policies in in language policies of acute role he If mechanisms. challenges, and aims, ts ced? In other words, multilingual multilingual words, In other ced? d theoretical framework to explain their their explain to framework theoretical d iprocal role of nation-building in nation-building of role iprocal acceptable [...], the marginalizing the of acceptable [...], on the basis of language, a of language, basis the on icies in education. education. in icies ." - Kyrgyzproverb

ng occurred in post-Soviet post-Soviet occurred in ng макал fits into transitional nation- transitional into fits is of race, ethnicity, is and - лакап 1 This CEU eTD Collection differinggeographies. of official l progression the assess systematically language policy development of Kazakhstan. development policy language and succe lens, postcolonial a taking while state,' is Dave Bhavna Kazakhstan. about written been have com most the pertinent, are language dynamics these Soviet identity. Soviet those strivin and groups, linguistic inventing even between tensions the addresses who Grenoble, Lenore pre analysis, the in upon be drawn will backgrounds chronology, policy dynamics, interrelat various and comprehensive. comprehensive. DeYoungAlan pro colleagues have and where Kyrgyzstan where today. stands LiteratureReview 5 Dave, Dave, 5 Kellner-Heinkele, and Landau 4 Silver, and “Equality, Anderson Efficiency, Po and 3 Grenoble, 2 Russian languages as a part of their nation-buildin of their a part languages as Russian a policy of state continuation the address Heinkele the into of these studies evolution the to greatly Broad comparative analyses of post-Soviet successor of post-Soviet analyses comparative Broad Much has been written on Soviet language policies, language Soviet on written been has Much Works less Kyrgyzstan on are specifically focusing Kazakhstan. Language Policy in the Soviet Union. Soviet inthe Policy Language 2 Empirical data from within the Soviet Union has alhas Union Soviet the within from data Empirical 3 These tensions still linger into the present langu present the into linger tensions still These Politics of Language in the ex-Soviet Muslim States Muslim ex-Soviet the in ofLanguage Politics 6 5 litics in Soviet Bilingual Education Policy.” Education Bilingual in Soviet litics present contexts. Landau and Kellner- and Landau presentcontexts. anguage policies over time and in time over anguage policies eds in outlining the paradoxical paradoxical the outlining in eds g to maintain an all-encompassing an all-encompassing maintain to g g processes. g nd practice utilizing both titular and titular both utilizing practice nd ed political events. events. edpolitical These historical miere among them the work ofthe them among miere pelling and critical academic texts texts academic critical pellingand able to explore the 'nationalizing 'nationalizing the explore ableto policies aimed at furthering and atfurthering aimed policies duced substantial ethnographic substantial duced frequent and less and less frequent addressing the ethnolinguistic ethnolinguistic the addressing states have contributed contributed have states 4 Of all the cases where where cases the all Of so been used to used been so age policy reality reality policy age . CEU eTD Collection transition. and students administrators, teachers, particularly that rural areas in schooling secondary on studies 7 Korth, Korth, 7 DeYoung, and Valyayeva,Reeves, 6 policies and education in Kyrgyzstan. educationin and policies critical theori applies Dave and of Bhavna approach society. multilingual Theoretically,this essay der repro the on focusing to commitment in its distinct and re mobility social addressing key for the holds and highe secondary on micro-analyses sophisticated and politics gap between the bridge few but nature, Kyrgyzstani the heavi in are context issue language language use and quality of instruction. quality of and use language un multiple in Kyrgyz Russianlanguages between and Britta by Korth. university level atthe conducted Kyrgyzst on of knowledge breadth to the contributed country. the throughout experiences Yeteth another prima disaggregated the showing by access education Methodologically,aforemention the bridge to I seek Language Attitudes towards KyrgyzAttitudes Russian. Language and 6 These cases studies provide credible background to background credible provide studies Thesecases Surviving the Transition?the Surviving 7 The several other works dedicated to this to this dedicated works several other The 7 ives inspiration from the postcolonial postcolonial the from inspiration ives , are navigating the post-Soviet post-Soviet the navigating are , She seeks to capture the dynamics dynamics the capture seeks to She illuminate how individual actors, actors, individual how illuminate production. Furthermore, this essay is this essay Furthermore, production. duction of obstacles to inclusivity in a in inclusivity to of obstacles duction the sociology of language. sociology the ly sociolinguistic or political in or political lysociolinguistic nographic study, nographic has which es to the interaction of language interaction the esto an's education system, was system, education an's r education, as this intersection this intersection as education, r ry and secondary educational ryand secondary iversities, focusing primarily on primarily focusing iversities, ed gap between these these gap between ed my analysis of higher of higher analysis my CEU eTD Collection policy and social stratification to be mutually con be mutually to stratification and social policy people, and that these differentiated forms have be these differentiated and that have forms people, this paper, of purposes the for diff as “systematic soc instigated by is instigatesand policy language Kyrgyzstanisphere. public and ethnically-f symbols, Kyrgyzcultural language, pr parallel, sometimes the, refersKyrgyzization to Kyrgyzstani the in publ actors) external Russophone pressure and political symbols, cultural language, or atremoving policies aimed of deployment the to this dialectica on Kyrgyzization rely and similarly level analysis of the interconnected and interdepen interconnected the of analysis level educational r in of neutrality any guise discourse, Us system. education pervasivethe in and are exist s that is this analysis of assumption an Therefore, Theoretical Tools 0Barber, 10 Cooper, 9 in Policy Bilingual in Relapse and “Reform Ciscel, 8 11 Foucault, “The Discourse on Language.” Roth, “Of “Of Roth, Language.” on Discourse “The Foucault, 11 conceptual dialectic between reform and relapse. reform between dialectic conceptual “The Study of Inequality.”of Study “The Also, derived from critical language policy analysi policy critical language from Also,derived This paper will employ a critical theory of languag of theory a critical will employ Thispaper Social Stratification, Social Language Planning and Social Change. Social and Planning Language 1-3. 8 Moldova.” What Help Is He?” and McDonough and Fann, Fann, and McDonough and He?” Is Help What 8 erences between certain institutions or institutions certain between erences eform is eliminated to allow for field- for allow to is eliminated eform ocial stratification and inequalities do and inequalities stratification ocial stituitive of one another. of one stituitive The dual processes of de-Russification of de-Russification processes dual The ial stratification, which is to be be defined, to is which stratification, ial l relationship. De-Russification refers De-Russification relationship. l (from the Russian Federation or other or RussianFederation the (from ocess of promoting the influence of influence the of promoting ocess en ranked in status or prestige.” status in ranked en dent inequalities of education. inequalities dent ing Foucault's theories on hidden hidden on theories Foucault's ing reducing the influence of Russian of reducinginfluence the ramed political autonomy in the autonomy political ramed ic sphere, especially education. especially icsphere, s, this paper considers language language considers paper this s, e policy analysis, utilizing a a utilizing analysis, policy e 9 Thus, 11 10

CEU eTD Collection will be the primary theoretical approach of this an of approach theoretical be primary the will of conceptualization inequalities, Bourdieu's these congruence between an ethnicity and the state that that state the and an ethnicity between congruence with of'national caveats. Whencombined exposition self-identify ethnically to propensity individuals' obligator their on such as categorized ascriptively Kyrgyzof ethnic accounts Nonetheless, citizenship. 'ethnicity prefer otherwiseI but (USSR), Republics polici discussing when 'nationality' term preferred nationality of titular notions to address necessary 13 Bourdieu, Bourdieu, 13 Passerson, and Bourdieu 12 thus, capital. thus, r an unforeseen that generates included, linguistic re an implicit produce nation-building transitional nationality at points of access to education. to access of atpoints nationality p gains symbolically that skill-set sociolinguistic crucial as a identified capitalis linguistic where specific to increasingly theory Bourdieu's applying as converted and exchanged are manifestations, its In order to more accurately describe the interplay interplay the describe more accurately to Inorder In order to further clarify the methodology and con methodology the clarify further to Inorder 'Titular' requires that Soviet term another yet is Reproduction in EducationReproduction in Reproduction in education, society and culture. and society in education, Reproduction , 80. , 13 9 However, of post-Soviet tensions the component of elite reproduction. It is this is It reproduction. of elite component differently. redominance over ethnicity or over ethnicity redominance and language. I will use the Soviet- the use I will and language. edistribution of societal values and,values of societal edistribution y identity documents, despite some some despite documents, yidentity configuration of all the capitals, capitals, the of all configuration alysis. es of the Union of Soviet Socialist Socialist of Soviet ofUnion the es both as tools of social reproduction reproduction social as tools of both circumstances, we arrive at a point ata arrive we circumstances, is owned by it. 'Titular it. ownedby is language' ,' for the sake of distinguishing it from it distinguishing of for sake the ,' they reproduce elite dominance. In dominance. elite reproduce they or ethnic Russians refer only to those those to refer only Russians or ethnic ity,' territorial anthere implied is careful consideration and the and the carefulconsideration 12 of language and education in in and education oflanguage Large amounts of capital, in all all of in Largecapital, amounts ceptual terms of this paper, of this terms ceptual is it CEU eTD Collection of Soviet nationalities and language policies. policies. and language nationalities ofSoviet Also ideol circumstances, historical the contextualizing for a different, analysis. for forth-coming rem Kyrgyzstan,this question Southern in conflicts Because consideration. extensive without undertaken inter fundamental and other language, Uzbek claims, nations as concrete collectivities.” as concrete nations cu institutionalized as nationality and “nationhood borrowin 'nation-building,' conceptualize to intend ar reforms educational and linguistic, ideological, Methodology assessed. thi when conclusion, untilthe of this term use the efforts. to avoid In order nation-building civic to reif 'titular' is way the that problem part of asa as such. term the problematize promptsto me which time this congruence, of assumptions further evokes 14 Brubaker, “Nationhood and the national question i question national the and Brubaker, “Nationhood 14 with dynamic aims and mechanisms often characterize mechanisms and aims dynamic with Ab background historical comprehensive, yet brief, As an important caveat, the omission of the role the of of omission the caveat, an As important For further elucidation, 'nation-building' is oft r oft is 'nation-building' elucidation, further For 14 Furthermore, nation-building isactio a processual nation-building Furthermore, 10 n the Soviet Union and post-Soviet Eurasia,” 48. Eurasia,” post-Soviet and Union nSoviet the ies group boundaries and fuels opposition opposition and fuels boundaries group ies methodological nationalism, I will avoid avoid I will nationalism, methodological s problem will by cumulatively willcumulatively by sproblem e portrayed as tools of this project. I of this project. as tools portrayed e in this section, language policy language section, this in chronology and underpinnings, ogical ltural and political forms, not about not political forms, and ltural g from Rogers Brubaker, Rogers from g with ains pertinent, but shall be reserved shall be but pertinent, ains between a language and an ethnicity, and an a language between A be inquiry explored to conceptual ethnic discourses was not was not discourses ethnic of recent, ethnically-framed ethnically-framed recent, of d by their fluctuations. fluctuations. their by d eferred to in this essay, in to this eferred where ethnic Uzbek minority-rights minority-rights Uzbek ethnic egins this paper by broadly broadly by this paper egins n CEU eTD Collection dominance are explored, including funding, corrupti includingfunding, explored, are dominance empirica and several described educationare higher capital. linguistic Thelinguist highlighting while are presented. are tools theoretical primary the this section, in Also its into is divided transition. transformation This capacity.education to moves the analysis the Then, issues general on first focusing transition, Soviet policy and critical reviewed tools are theoretical Kyrgyzstan's transitional context, linguistic divis linguistic context, Kyrgyzstan's transitional lin to obstacles the on Focusing policies. language stratification. outcomes to opposition in stand they as identified to educationa intrinsic obstacles the explorations, e school secondary of obligatory content linguistic premise the on explored are speculations additional hig and of secondary dynamics and the outcomes, and 'titular merged atlarger are of probe to questions The third chapter approaches the interrelated field interrelated the approaches chapter Thethird Finally,o analyses the conclusion, essay's this in The second chapter is entirely dedicated to the cha the to dedicated entirely is chapter Thesecond This paper chiefly assesses the interplay between n between interplay the chiefly assesses Thispaper 11 institutional and content-related aspects. and content-related institutional to out-migration, discourse, and and discourse, out-migration, to ' language, the gap between policy aims policy between gap the language, ' for understanding educational reform educational reform for understanding analysis is explicitly outlined. explicitlyoutlined. is analysis ions at all levels of education are are of education levels all ionsat ic divisions in primary, in divisions ic secondary, and l reform in the transitional context are context transitional the in reform l guistic and educational reform in reform educational guisticand characterized by reduced social social reduced by characterized xit-exams. these intertwined xit-exams. Through al transformation undertaken during during undertaken altransformation of current proposed reforms to the the to reforms proposed of current l details of the maintenance of elite elite of ofmaintenance the details l on, and testing. and on, her education institutions. Some Some institutions. education her f policy, f and education language, s of education in Kyrgyzstan, education sof llenges posed by the post- the by posed llenges ation-building projects and and projects ation-building CEU eTD Collection cleavages. stratificatio social Kyrgyzstanexacerbate continue of mult and relapse reform evoke, they reproduction capacity,of the Because cleavages. and rural/urban the constrained by are this capital of distribution linguistic of lens conceptual the through explored 12 upheaval of transition, low state state low transition, upheaval of capital. Policies seeking to address the the address to seeking Policies capital. n along linguistic, class, and regional and class, linguistic, along n se obstacles and the social social and the obstacles se ilingual educational policies in policies educational ilingual CEU eTD Collection framework for understanding their production and pr production and their understanding for framework rel and these reforms maps categories. chapter This a and reified as actors and relapse of reform waves nationalitie preeminent. of Soviet is Theevolution str and aggravate integration to as obstacles stand a supremely progressive policy. progressive supremely a national self-determination, however national consc national however self-determination, national CHAPTER 1: Historical BackgroundHistorical 1: CHAPTER 15 Hirsch, “Toward an Empire of Nations,” 202. “Toward Nations,” of Hirsch, Empire an 15 Nations Territorially 1.1.1.1. Defined 1.1.1. PoliciesNationalities 1.1.UnionSoviet attitudes and policies is also addressed here. addressed also is and policies attitudes post- the on these policies union. influence of The currently kno territory the that (1919-1991) period the of policies and linguistic nationalities the in legacy.following the sec over to estimated, Not be Kyrgyzstanipower, state nonetheless this space but If this paper is to adequately address ideological ideological address to is adequately paper Ifthis Soviet ethnographers took care to present their nat present their care to took Sovietethnographers f space a new created 1991 in December Independence 15 The rhetoric used was predominantly focused on on focused predominantly was used Therhetoric 13 Soviet Union (USSR) during the time time the during (USSR) Soviet Union atification, historical contextualization contextualization historical atification, independence and present-day language language present-day and independence s and linguistic policies underwent underwent policies and linguistic s wn as Kyrgyzstan was part of the Kyrgyzstan of as wn was part tion explores some key developments developments some key explores tion dapted both new and existing and existing new both dapted carried the great burden of the Soviet the of great burden carriedthe apses and then offers and then a apses theoretical iousness was more accurately was more iousness ocesses. and policy-related factors that that factors andpolicy-related ional-territorial delimitation as as delimitation ional-territorial or the enactment of of enactment the or CEU eTD Collection in policy making. policy in loca of Kyrgyz and nationhood, language development and motiva imposition ethnographic Soviet by fueled Kyrgyz by defined were who for those territory asa an previously (SSR), Rus the Oblast with Autonomous language to make their claims on the government. the on their make claims to language the in living system, people within the nationality development. ha makers policy the quickly as as And was territory and the categories, neighboring some policies sought to develop it through linguistic an linguistic through it develop to sought policies authorities the where In cases suppressed. actively ev was nationalism much too where In cases possess. tha of nationalism amount ideal of an notion the by nationalities Soviet self-determined. than imposed 18 Smith, “The “The Tenacity Smith, 109. Forms,” of 18 216. Ibid., 17 211. “Toward Nations,” of Hirsch, Empire and 16 adapting nationality policies must be highlighted. must policies nationality adapting th therefore, of any republic, people the to happen as opposed to diffuse it. asopposed and state to of nation concept the tied Stalin, and lang and to territory to directly tied nations with 'Kyrgyz' was declared a distinct nationality, 'Kyrgyz'a distinct was declared with Insummary, as a fed be conceptualized can USSR the 18 Under these pretenses, the Kyrgyz the Socialist these pretenses, Soviet Under 14 uage. Soviet leadership, including Lenin Lenin including Soviet leadership, uage. wanted to harness the power of 'nation' of 'nation' power the harness to wanted d cultural production. cultural d different republics began to use this to different use began republics 17 e local contribution to reifying and reifying to econtribution local observed less nationalism, their their nationalism, less observed policies in the republics were inspired inspired were republics the in policies t a group of people are supposed to to supposed peopleare a of group t therefore subject to increased national national subject increased to therefore Nation-building did not passively passively not did Nation-building language and culture. culture. language and Thereafter ted to carve their own role in the in role own their to carve ted d embedded the language of language the embedded d ident, these movements were were these movements ident, sian SSR, was established in 1936 in was established SSR, sian l elites initiated their involvement involvement their elites initiated l a lower-level of nationalism than lower-level than nationalism a of eral multi-national state, state, multi-national eral 16 Republic Republic CEU eTD Collection recognition of unitary, recognition gro bounded and ascriptive, the recognition, state excluded from explicitly not in actually were groups whose those on implications her on be speculated not will which of implications spectacular effort ofUSSR’s the spectacular make sense to mosa in in 1932 passports internal introduced first USSR Soviet nation with which mechanisms the for context altogether. categ and which related groups, or neighboring with official on included censusli be would ethnicities engineeri social blatant as conceive now many which 1.1.1.2. 1.1.1.2. Categorization Ethnic Ascriptive 21 Ibid., 1069. Ibid., 21 Policy Toolbox,”Soviet the “Inheriting Simonsen, 20 a as Work-in-Progress,” Union Soviet “The Hirsch, 19 implications is often referred to as the fifth poin asfifth the to referred often is implications ethnicity. ascribed to mobility ethnicit Ascriptive federat the where level, republican atthe relevant of practices. evolution i categorization Ascriptive mainte boundary and where how consider to important birth date/place. birth fol passport Soviet internal the on listed category If the documents were of a social engineering natur engineering social of a were Ifdocuments the Before moving any further in the analysis, it is crit is analysis, the in further any moving Before 20 While this practice blatantly excluded and favored excluded and blatantly this While practice 21 More than merely a point on a document, an individ an document, a point on merely a than More 15 1070. 255. t ( t y and the controversy surrounding its ysurrounding controversy and the lowing surname, name, patronymic, and name, patronymic, surname, lowing n Soviet passports was particularly was Soviet passports n ion’s social linked states constitutive sts, which groups were to be merged to were groups sts,which individual members were only allowed allowed only were members individual piati punkt piati upness. what Francine Hirsch described as “a as “a described Hirsch Francine what e, codification also had wider also codification e, ories should be eliminated eliminated should be ories cluded. were these groups Though ic of peoples.” icof ng, served to determine which which to served determine ng, alities policies were supported. supported. were Thepolicies alities nance was used throughout the the throughout used was nance itical to provide additional additional provide to itical e at their inception, it is is it inception, attheir e ) as it is the fifth ascriptive ascriptive is )fifth as the it some categories, the categories, some 19 This process, of of Thisprocess, ual’s passport CEU eTD Collection maintenance. regard inaccurate, fundamentally was identification cases.” det evidently is affiliation ethnic passport the in respondent the of self-definition the by determined further, system the criticized c the conducting “in education and employment within the borders of thei borders within the and employment education pe certain favor to used a tool legal was ethnicity 3Kozlov, 23 i Question National the and Brubaker, “Nationhood 22 reality and was unable to capture processes like in like processes capture unableto and was reality categ of ethnic this method that noted example, for Sovi Even renowned level. individual the on reality self-identification ethnic with interact constantly 24 Anderson and Silver, and “Equality, Anderson Efficiency, P and 24 evolution of its practices. of its evolution main boundary reify sought to themselves who elites state’s the to attached access increased ascriptive pervasive preconception in present-day Kyrgyzstan, present-day in preconception pervasive pres was tongue mother and nationality between link Soviet nationa to adhere to forced were who ofmany 24 Despite its inaccuracy, its Despite c became concepts these two Divisiveness would be minimal if such ascriptive pa ascriptive such if minimal be Divisivenesswould For Kozlov as a social scientist, state categoriz scientist, state as a Kozlov social For The Peoples of the Soviet Union,Soviet the of Peoples The 191. 16 olitics in Soviet Bilingual Education Policy,” Education 464 Bilingual in Soviet olitics n the Soviet Union and Post-Soviet Eurasia,” 53. Eurasia,” Post-Soviet and Union Soviet the n ermining in the predominant majority of predominant the in ermining , which is perceived as much closer to closer much as perceived is which , categories helped to create localized create helpedto categories oples over others in access to higher to access in others over oples ensuses of population, nationality is is nationality population, of ensuses tegration and re-identification. and tegration , but the influence of the inscription of ofinscription the influence the but , orization distorted and obscured and obscured distorted orization less of its political role in boundary boundary role in of its political less et ethnographers, like like etViktorethnographers, Kozlov where 70 and 61 percent, of percent, 61 and 70 where tenance and divisions throughout the the throughout and divisions tenance umed and continues to be a to and continues umed rrepublic. lities policies. policies. lities Additionally,direct a ation’sself- over dominance ognitively linked in the minds minds the in linked ognitively ssport categorization did not not did categorization ssport 22 The social privilege and privilege social The 23 He CEU eTD Collection and, in doing so, makes room for more nuanced analy nuanced for more room makes so, in doing and, characteri to refuses affirmative She based action. Rossiiskoi Federatsii Rossiiskoi definition of nationality and a territorial one” as one” territorial and a of nationality definition embraceof “simultaneous its in USSR the describes description the it earning subsequently rebellions, and sough relations of core-periphery act balancing populations. non-Russian Thi toward action positive were which ascriptivedemarcations, aforementioned, 1.1.1.2. 'Affirmative Action Empire' through Koreni through 'Affirmative 1.1.1.2. Empire' Action Kyrgyz Russianrespe self-identified and ethnically 25 Orusbaev, Mustajoki, and Protassova, “Multilingua Protassova, Orusbaev, and Mustajoki, 25 the nature of Soviet rule, but in reviewing the arc the reviewing in Soviet rule, but of nature the more determinant for the present analysis. present the for determinant more natio of Soviet implications the population, ofthe wi correlation in close is considered language When certain national developments over others. developments national certain Soviet in content,' socialist form, in 'nationalist 27 Hirsch, “Toward an Empire of Nations,” 202. “Toward Nations,” of Hirsch, Empire an 27 Martin, 26 Kyrgyzstan,” 220. Kyrgyzstan,” The multinational character of the Soviet Union was Union ofSoviet the character Themultinational This unique characteristic of Soviet nation-buildin characteristicof Thisunique Affirmative Empire, Action 72Affirmative ), Hirsch aptly identifies the motives and mechanis motives the identifies aptly ),Hirsch 17 lism, Russian Language and Education in in Education and Language Russian lism, leaders developed policies to promote promote to policies developed leaders the unique dilemma. unique the hival material ( material hival of ‘affirmative empire.’ action of Martin nalities policies become wider and wider become policies nalities ze Soviet rule as 'divide and conquer,' 'divide rule as Soviet ze ctively,this belief. hold residents t to undermine many potential potential many undermine to t th nationality by such large such by nationality segments th s process characterized the regimes regimes the characterized process s both an extraterritorial personal personal extraterritorial bothan often used as tools to justify to justify as tools often used tical scholarship. tical g causes much confusion about about confusion much causes g zatsiia zatsiia marked by the the by marked Gosudarstvennyi arkhiv arkhiv Gosudarstvennyi 26 In its attempt to be be to In its attempt 27 ms of nationality- ms Here is where it it is Here where 25

CEU eTD Collection national elites. national majorities, staffed elites.majorities, national by oftterritories, of national formation the promoted this rea For indigenous. appear power Soviet making of and habits customs, life, way the of understood his contempo and Stalin nations. constituent USSR's became leaders Soviet later liberation, like goals region, in particular, region, extensive its is in notable Moscow,within autonomy limited Kyrgyz the had SSR within within referred to as to as referred and periphery, core the both me peripheral the with 1920’s, the in that clear is project of Soviet the 30 Dave, Dave, 30 Ibid. 29 Martin, 28 Despite its vast distance from the Soviet center, Soviet the distancefrom vast its Despite a , 12-13. , korenizatsiia While Lenin used his rhetoric of national self-dete of national rhetoric his used Lenin While By looking at this elite entitlement, Bhavna Dave h Dave Bhavna atentitlement, this elite Bylooking intermediaries between their native ethnic constitu ethnic native their between intermediaries and claim[ing] subalternity a of posture retaining] [ materialwell-being. of a promise through loyalty soci the subverted eventually strata, which [elite] th within and privileges for positions entitlements state’s TheSoviet and parity progress of promotion Kazakhstan, 161. Kazakhstan, Affirmative Empire, Action 10.Affirmative korenizatsiia 28

. . , primarily focused on promoting national languages national promoting on focused primarily , 29 18 intervention, by appointing only those those only appointing by intervention, nation-building was being undertaken in undertaken was being nation-building entrenched in the instrumentality of the in instrumentality the entrenched pproximately 3,000 kilometers from from kilometers 3,000 pproximately en for minorities as opposed to to as opposed for minorities en the local population,” as the key to askey the population,” local the chanism emerging chanism process into a raries saw “native cadres, who who cadres, saw “native raries son, the central power systematically systematically power central the son, the USSR. USSR. the TheCentral Asian aliststate’s their attaining to aim eir own republic among the the among republic own eir symbolic legitimacy as legitimacy symbolic rmination to advocate for lofty for lofty to advocate rmination encies and Moscow. enciesand All this while simultaneously simultaneously this while All ighlights the contradictions contradictions the ighlights inculcated a sense of a sense inculcated 30 and and

CEU eTD Collection 34 Ibid., 67. Ibid., 34 Kazakhstan. inha people nomadic the among (0.8%) rates literacy nation. the earlier, as discussed action' quite decisively were and compulsory school attendance introduced in 1930 in introduced attendance school compulsory and Kyrgyz the grammar of l with 1926, in opened school and 2000s. and as nation-building relevant increasingly became and c However,were intermediaries above the referenced in Ky positions the highest the hold to Moscow from 33 Korth, Korth, 33 32 130.State?,” the of Reach “Shrinking Dave, 31 Language Kyrgyz the of Promotion 1.1.2.1. 1.1.2. Language Policies attitudes. influen had a strong interventions these that noted played a prominent role in nation-building efforts. nation-building in role a prominent played area, the formalizing in presence imperial Russian were there Because nationalities. Soviet the among its de for language distinct its advance to needed DeYoung, and Valyayeva,Reeves, An 1897 survey conducted by Russian imperial repres imperial Russian by surveyconducted 1897 An of Kyrgyz and promotion preservation the Callsfor Language Attitudes towards KyrgyzAttitudes Russian Language and 31 Withinpolic nationalities of Soviet framework the 34 Kyrgyz language development was pursued partly in in partly was pursued Kyrgyz language development Surviving the Transition?the Surviving 19 based on primordial understandings of understandings primordial on based velopment into its presumed place presumed into its velopment , 133. , ce on people's linguistic uses and uses linguistic people's on ce 32 education filled a vacuum that easily easily that vacuum a educationfilled Kyrgyz Thefirst instruction language virtually no public schools before the the before schools public no virtually took on a new meaning in the 1990s 1990s the in new meaning took a on rgyz SSR governmental bodies. bodies. governmental rgyzSSR biting present day Kyrgyzstan day and present biting ritical in the process of process the in ritical , 3. , anguage published first in 1927, 1927, in first published anguage . 33 Even this early on, it can be can it on, this early Even language, via 'affirmative via language, entatives, revealed low revealedlow entatives, y,Kyrgyz the nation aneffort increase to korenizatsiia korenizatsiia CEU eTD Collection institutionalization of bilingualism in the Kyrgyz the in of bilingualism institutionalization citizens in their native language, via via language, in native their citizens 121, Article away from its initial from away Latin through script, Arabic was un beforehand, orally transferred primarily was 39 Ibid., 85. Ibid., 39 dictionary in 1944. dictionary publishin and the 1938, in subject school mandatory in script of Kyrgyz into Cyrillic transfer writing thes Foremostamong language. ofRussian the status i with several concomitantly implemented was policy literacy. 36 Grenoble, Grenoble, 36 126.State?,” the of Reach “Shrinking Dave, 35 PoliciesEducation Bilingual 1.1.2.2. were up to eighty percent in urban areas and just b and areas urban in percent eighty to up were parti but Union, the rising throughout was literacy supply the republics with to sufficient e republics the resources supply centra the promotions, and literature publications, exception. Kyrgyzstanno as aforemen the from Aside 38 Korth, Korth, 38 59. Ibid., 37 'second mother tongue mother 'second By the time Krushchev took the helm of the USSR, hi USSR, of the helm the took Krushchev Bytime the guara to was amended Constitution USSR the In1936, Both language planning and literature of the writte of the and literature planning language Both Language Attitudes towards KyrgyzAttitudes Russian Language and Language Policy in the Soviet Union, Soviet inthe Policy Language 38 These parallel developments mark the first steps t steps first the mark developments Theseparallel 39 had already taken hold in many of the republics, w republics, the of many in taken hold already had 156. 20 1937, Russian language's status as a as a status Russianlanguage's 1937, chapter 2, section 1. section 2, chapter and then finally Cyrillic. finally andthen , 133. , SSR. nact effective educational nact bilingual l authorities in Moscow were unable to unableto were Moscow in authorities l cularly in the Kyrgyz the cularlyin rates where SSR elow seventy percent rurally. percent seventy elow dertaken by Soviet language planners, planners, Soviet language by dertaken g of the first Russian-Kyrgyz first the g of e policy developments were the the were developments epolicy mportant policies focused on the the on focused policies mportant tioned script changes, dictionary dictionary changes, script tioned n Kyrgyz which n language, s notion of Russian as a as a notion of Russian s ntee schooling to all all to schooling ntee 37 owards the the owards ThisUnion-wide 35 By 1939, 1939, By ith ith 36

CEU eTD Collection 43 Grenoble, Grenoble, 43 44 Dave, Dave, 44 42 Korth, Korth, 42 41 Bilaniuk, Bilaniuk, 41 subliminal Russification tendencies always carry im carry always tendencies Russification subliminal one pa with in didset not "Russification that note pr sufficient by fulfill backed to not is resources Kyrgyzstan, educationin of bilingual critics among the Russian language in Kyrgyzstan reached a point Kyrgyzstan a in point reached language Russian the the towards particularly relevant were connotations languages, like Kyrgyz, like low. were languages, an a Diglossiais as served Russian where of diglossia, type specific cooperation of the peoples ofUSSR.' the peoples the of cooperation languages of the republics, including Kyrgyz. including republics, of the languages littleto with faced were Russian-speakers franca, language schools. language languageincr by Russian the status of the promoted However, opportunities. educ Union-wide Krushchev's 40 Korth, Korth, 40 and Cooperation Friendship of Language 1.1.2.2.1. center as a means of expanding literacy and ideolog literacy of expanding a means as center and is still seen as a mere ruse to conceal Russifi conceal to ruse as a mere is seen still and In 1979, the Russian language was proclaimed the 'l the proclaimed language was Russian the In1979, In some contexts, using the Ukrainian example, advo example, Ukrainian the using contexts, Insome Kazakhstan, Language Attitudes towards KyrgyzAttitudes Russian Language and Language Attitudes towards KyrgyzAttitudes Russian Language and Contested Tongue Contested Language Policy of the Soviet Union, Soviet ofthe Policy Language 40 101. These schools quickly became sites of high investm of high sites became quickly schools These , 9. , 43 With asofficially the declaredlingua Russian 88. 21 44 This declaration further contributed to the the to contributed further Thisdeclaration omises of bilingualism. It is important to important is It of bilingualism. omises cation. , 69. , , 91. , rticular event or person, but that but event or person, rticular no incentive for learning the official learningthe for incentive no the high language and the republic and the language high the important sociolinguistic concept concept sociolinguistic important end of the Soviet rule, as the role of rule, asrole the Soviet the end of especially in the cases where rhetoric rhetoric where cases in the especially easing the number of Russian- number the easing y . perialconnotations." of heightened contestation. ofheightened ational reforms of 1958-59 of 1958-59 reforms ational 41 This view is also common is common also Thisview anguage of friendship and and of friendship anguage cating for bilingualism was was bilingualism for cating ent from the the entfrom 42 imperial These CEU eTD Collection country underwent significant shifts in leadership, shifts in significant underwent country purporte these satisfied have law could this ornot logical, and better able to express complex ideas. complex to better express able and logical, is (H) language high the while situations, informal differences marked status. in with side by side The bilingu from distinct developments describe to used 47 Orusbaev, Mustajoki, and Protassova, “Multilingua Protassova, Orusbaev, and Mustajoki, 47 Bilaniuk, 46 348. 233, “Diglossia,” Ferguson, 45 Law Language Kyrgyz 1.1.2.2.2. language policies. language that reality social ofstratified the understanding USSR as a product of of product as a USSR au the optimism about of amount a certain reflected institutionalized their local languages, like that that like languages, local their institutionalized le by prompted was declaration this reactionary but offic a de facto as it acted course, Of 1990. April communicative needs, resolving (self-) contradictio (self-) resolving needs, communicative sho it and that development, of cultural degree the people's and a and unity solidarity of ethnic means Kyrgyzstan,” 211. Kyrgyzstan,” Enacted just shortly before independence, the Kyrgy the independence, before just shortly Enacted official the declared langua was not Still,Russian Contested Tongues, Contested perestroika 93. . Many of the ruling elite believed in "Kyrgyz[as] in believed elite ofruling the Many . 22 lism, Russian Language, and Education in Education and Language, Russian lism, of the 1989 Kyrgyz of1989 the Law. Language instigates and is instigated by state state instigated by and is instigates ial language for many years before that, that, before years many for language ial 45 d needs remains unknown as the unknown remains needs d ideology, development national and uld completely satisfy people's people's satisfy completely uld considered more beautiful, more beautiful, more considered This concept is important here for the important here is concept This common national property, national common reflecting low language (L) is most often used in used most often is (L) language low gislation in the republics that that gislationrepublics the in ns and aiding sovereignty." and aiding ns tonomy emerging throughout the the emergingtonomy throughout alism, where two languages are used used are languages two alism,where ge of the Soviet Union until until Union ofSoviet the ge z Language Law of 1989 1989 of Law Language z 47 Whether 46 a CEU eTD Collection in order to compare different cert compare of reaching to order ways in matter, which ways in atthe looks analysis policy others. than more these goals reaching for methods society’s athow look they that in approaches goal situ are approaches analysis policy hand, other the ‘upstream’ located polic language how in evaluating to approaches theory political normative that notes before approaches delineate seeks Grin to Francois crit the identifying on reliant impacts is societal framework. analy policy practical, more combine, to seeks Grin libera influential, of his aspects asserts Kymlicka 1.1.2.3.1. Locating the Discourses on Language Dive on Language Discourses the Locating 1.1.2.3.1. Tools Theoretical Policy Language 1.1.2.3. however,Soviet lega the of influence extensive the and nationality from available were choices broader power-sharing. of negotiations and uneasy tensions nation-buil forced which 1991, in independence upon 48 Kymlicka and Grin, “Assessing the Politics of Div of Politics the “Assessing Grin, and Kymlicka 48 This exploration of Kyrgyzstani policies linguistic Thisexploration 23 ersity in Transition Countries,” 16.in Transitionersity Countries,” ical points at which approaches intersect. approaches which icalat points l multiculturalist model, with which which with model, multiculturalist l ated ‘downstream from’ ated‘downstream other policies increase or decrease ‘welfare’ or decrease increase policies can be reached, valuing different valuing be reached, can language diversity in society are are society in diversity language ain goals. ain cy. Abstaining from any judgment on the the judgmenton any from Abstaining sis to develop an integrated an to develop sis allowing for their compatibility. their for allowing He At this point, most fundamentally, this point, At language policy toolkits amidst, toolkits policy language y and use should be in society. should ybe and use On ding efforts remarkable ding face to and their corresponding corresponding and their 48 rsity In that same volume, same volume, In that Will CEU eTD Collection critiques in order to explicate the evolution of la evolution the explicate to order in critiques b discourses, rights-based of problematizing stance among political theorists on the issue of language of language issue the on theorists political among state language. state t of hands the in lie privileges subsequent the and gaining tool isfor a language state neutral act, a lan singular include: approaches of LHR assumptions (LHR) in consideration of issues like language ecol like issues of consideration in (LHR) emergence the in of these resulted like frameworks 1.1.2.3.2. Rights-based Rights-based Approaches1.1.2.3.2. 52 Skutnabb-Kangas and Phillipson, Phillipson, and Skutnabb-Kangas 52 De Varennes, 51 Div of Politics the “Assessing Grin, and Kymlicka 50 Patten, and Kymlicka 49 diverse citizenries get to achieving equality of li achievingequality to get citizenries diverse polit economic, be in used to and space recognition foster a more egalitarian society. egalitarian a more foster t in great utility even finding to extends approach and unity of national in or terms even economically mono state myth the that undermine proponents These articula the rights and of human sub-set as a right Prominent in the field of LHR is the specific the conte is of LHR field the in Prominent Kymlicka, together with together Kymlicka, to contribute Patten, Alan Debates on LHR revolve around three related, yet di yet related, around three revolve LHR on Debates 51 Language, Minorities and Human Rights. Human and Minorities Language, LHR scholars link this privilege to fundamental hu fundamental to this privilege link scholars LHR Language Rights and Political Theory. Political and Rights Language Linguistic Human Rights.Human Linguistic 52 Following this logic, the more languages given sta languages given more the this logic, Following 24 ersity in Transition Countries,” 18.in Transitionersity Countries,” access to state resources and services, and services, resources state to access nguistic opportunity. nguistic nguage policy analysis. policy nguage he ability of minority languages to to languages of minority heability tion of related, universalizing principles. principles. universalizing of related, tion hose whose primary language is the is language primary whose hose rights. ut will continue to outline some some outline to will continue ut ical, and social activities, the closer closer the activities, social ical,and ogy and migration trends. and migration ogy a field of Linguistic Human Rights Rights Human of Linguistic afield territorial integrity. territorial rights-based This guage imposition by the state is not is state the by imposition guage lingualism is beneficial for society is beneficial lingualism 49 atintegrated Attempts xtualization of linguistic human human linguistic of xtualization the ongoing normative debate debate normative ongoing the stinct, points of departure: of departure: stinct,points man rights. I take a I take rights. man 50 Implicit Implicit te CEU eTD Collection unquestioningly link language and identity inidentity order and link language unquestioningly in scholar LHR be found can Essentialism time. over ro as an overly characterized languages is minority predominantly instrumental should not be considered not should instrumental predominantly uncontested and inevitable. uncontested heg the of presumption the avoid to analyses ofLHR H scholarship. within LHR frameworks contextualized analys a diachronic suggesting by LHR of weaknesses historical inevitability, historical and mobilit essentialism, 57 Ibid., 323-324. Ibid., 57 May,320. rights,” “Language 56 Phillipson, and Skutnabb-Kangas 55 Rights.” Language “Contextualizing Edwards, 54 May, rights.”“Language 53 direction of the majority world languages. world ofmajority the direction ling arguments advocate who those realist the by of based claims.” based diff contexts, highlighting by political and social poli multiculturalist atall directed often also is identifier.par a remains essentialism Furthermore, of individuals phenomena variant and the hybridity language use, of patterns situational highlighting arguingwithout abject the unimportanc for Critics, identity markers. identity Stephen May takes on these ahistorical and narrowly and ahistorical these takes on May Stephen 56 Languages, then, are somehow perceived as fixed in as perceived fixed somehow are then, Languages, 57 Furthermore, for him, the notion of dominantlangu of him, notion the for Furthermore, Linguistic Human Rights, 326. Rights, Human Linguistic 54 Here, LHR advocacy for the maintenance of maintenance for the advocacy LHR Here, 25 cies, in that they “unnecessarily destabilize destabilize “unnecessarily they that cies,in y . erence, and promoting differential and promoting rights- erence, including notable incidences of incidences of includingnotable 53 t of the general critique of LHR, which which LHR, of critique general the of t e of language, question this link by question this language, eof mantic project, which will be fruitless be fruitless will project, which mantic Inevitability is most often critiqued critiqued most often is Inevitability to justify claims to linguistic rights. linguistic to justify claims to uistic modernization, usually in the the in usually modernization, uistic not using language as a primary self- primary as a language notusing s who putatively and putatively who s emony of the dominant language as dominantlanguage the of emony as inevitable or unchanging, or unchanging, as inevitable is to promote historically historically promote to is e further articulates the necessity articulates necessity the efurther interpreted political identity political identity interpreted time and fixed as time and ages as ages 55

CEU eTD Collection 60 Grin, Grin, 60 applications of LHRs, including the policy makers a policy makers includingthe LHRs, of applications power dynamics. dynamics. power sufficient understa to context without particularly 59 Grin, Grin, 59 May,333. rights,” “Language 58 Trends1.1.2.3.3. Policy in Analysis particular reference to sociolinguistics and cost-e sociolinguistics to reference particular Grin’spolic and practical normative of integration economic, demographic, historical, and cultural con and cultural historical, demographic, economic, However,consider merely to simple enough not it is t like approaches, of interdisciplinary development approaches like LHR. LHR. like approaches when c and critical nuanced emergedas increasingly ‘downstream’p results-based identify to approaches dem that analysts policy criticisms prominent these minority languages) may result in actual ‘ghettoiza in result may languages) minority the and propagating others; than instrumental more languages Some mobility tool. as a social perceived post-Soviet the in instances for most the resonates Leontiev, “Linguistic Human Rights and Educational Educational and Rights Leontiev, Human “Linguistic The final critique of LHR’s Thecritique final actu address ability to The first place ‘downstream’ place Thefirst schol is where look to Language Policy Evaluation and the European Charter the and Evaluation Policy Language Language Policy Evaluation and the European Charter the and Evaluation Policy Language 26 Policy in Russia.” inRussia.” Policy ffectiveness, nd their sociolinguistic and symbolic sociolinguistic their nd space where Russian language is often is Russianlanguage where space y consideration contributes, with ywith contributes, consideration hose to be utilized in this paper. in be utilized to hose tion’speakers.of their and integration of their more of integration and use of some languages (usually languages (usually some of use (usually majority languages) are languages) majority (usually straints on the conditions under conditions the on straints olicy recommendations that have have that olicyrecommendations nd the discourse around them. around discourse the nd legal, international, political, international, legal, ompared to dogmatic normative tonormative dogmatic ompared for Regional or Minority Languages. Minority or Regional for for Regional or Minority Languages; Languages; Minority or Regional for al language mobility and use use mobility and language al arship identifies practical practical identifies arship 60 toward the wider the toward 58 It is lightof in It 59

and and CEU eTD Collection which language policies are developed and implement and policies developed are language which 3Tollefson, 63 Wee, Policy.”Language in “Neutrality 62 Div of Politics the “Assessing Grin, and Kymlicka 61 Policy Language of Ana Theories Critical 1.1.1.3.4. promote the interests of dominant social groups." social of dominant interests the promote in of social forms various create and sustain often critical theories, by influenced to those approach aw move can analysis policy that nuances relational t following immediately years the during neutrality nation-bui their balance to pressure under all were bureaucr opposition, elite, governing stakeholders, neutrality,to order gen in or stance, of substance langua of differentexample, For role stakeholders. a disciplinary ofparticular the aspects hidden and transitioning society requires flexibility. requires society transitioning Ciscel policy and relapse. evolutionof reform The between educati realm the of on analysis policy his focuses soc influence they as and evidence models education S lenses. theory or critical historical-structural, Critical theories of language policy analysis tend tend analysis policy of theories language Critical An important consideration that cross-cuts the abov the cross-cuts that consideration important An Planning Language, Planning Inequality, Planning Language, Planning 27 ersity in Transition Countries,” 19.in Transitionersity Countries,” ocial change scholars focus on bilingual bilingual focus on scholars change ocial 42. acknowledges that policy itself can itself policy that acknowledges erate popular support. popular erate 63 addressing the way in which "policies "policies which in way the addressing pproaches must be considered. must be pproaches equality,usually makers policy and that lding goals with perceived policy perceived with ldinggoals on using a conceptual dialectic using aon conceptual ats, and prominent literary figures, literary and prominent ats, ge policies are often masked in often masked are gepolicies he post-Soviet transition. It is It these in transition. hepost-Soviet ay from a purely neo-classical neo-classical a purely ayfrom developments in a changing, a changing, in developments iety. for example, Ciscel, Matthew ed. to take on social change, change, social on totake 61 The cross-cutting, relational, relational, cross-cutting, The e-mentioned constraints is the is the constraints e-mentioned lysis 62 important As CEU eTD Collection remain stagnant over time, while the application ca application time, the while over stagnant remain 5Cooper, 65 Policy Bilingual in Relapse and “Reform Ciscel, 64 and change are derived. derived. are change and in this on Based interdependent. are stratification which way the in identify instead multilingualism, arguments elaborate will research n this Therefore, social to stratification policy the language links within which they are to be implemented. to are they which within specificities into investigation further encourages way,as changes atpolicy of looking is critical he signs of dialectically reforming and relapsing, alb and relapsing, reforming of dialectically signs polic revealedthat analysis this Here, discourses. more are that implementation and development policy and d interconnectivies the locates hand, other the o qualities productive ofmultiple the omission and over-reliance their ide including: on shortcomings, but campaigns, advocacy in useful be absolutely can this conte within considered tools were theoretical of ideology, spheres the in communism, Soviet polic both a product and a contributor to social change. social to and a contributor a product both Insummary, Kyrgyzstan's histoutlined this chapter The other way in which language policy relates dire relates policy language which in Theother way Language Planning and Social Change. Social and Planning Language 28 inMoldova.” it both instigates and is instigated by. instigated and is instigates itboth terdependence, limits on social mobility limits social on terdependence, inevitable social changes and changes social inevitable ies under the Soviet rule also showed showed rule also Soviet the under ies of the environment and social reality and social ofenvironment the 65 eit influenced by a distinct Soviet a Soviet by distinct influenced eit issects the power dynamics behind dynamics power the issects xtualization. Rights-based discourses discourses Rights-based xtualization. ntity politics, neo-colonial imposition, neo-colonial ntitypolitics, either for nor against state state against nor eitherfor fpower. on analysis, policy Critical language policy and social social and policy language constitution mutual conceptually This n be dynamic and vice versa. and be dynamic n suffer from several conceptual suffer conceptual several from y, discourses. Then and rights-based often over-looked by rights-based often rights-based over-looked by orical developments, under under developments, orical ctly to transition is how it is it how is is to transition ctly 64 In this In CEU eTD Collection postcolonial, critical policy analysis lens. analysis critical policy postcolonial, therefore,n the context, Kyrgyzstan's transitional ideology. Wepatterned, similarly yet see distinct, 29 ext chapter also takes care to utilize a utilize to takes care also chapter ext policies pointedly emerge pointedly policies in CEU eTD Collection linguistic diversity has posed [a] myriad [of] poli [of] myriad [a] posed has diversity linguistic iden national a reflect policies which language and stratificati and social of language interdependence CHAPTER 2: Transitional 2: CHAPTER Challenges 67 Kuzio, “Transition in Post-Communist States,” 168 States,” “Transitionin Post-Communist Kuzio, 67 Mey, and languag of limits McHoul, the “ Luke, On 66 Language2.1. in Transition democratization, and the distinct development of 3) development distinct and the democratization, transition' 'quadruple Kuzio's components. primary plu and linguistic cultural extensive and statehood transitions, post-Soviet world, ofparts the other to contrast In transitions. of quadruple republics, ch Kyrgyzstan with in a presented 1991 Independence reproduction. betwe interplay the to assess utilized is framework of such key case as a to is pointed stratification, Subsequently, examples. transformation, educational Kyrgyzstani explicated the and then is case broadly chapter, In this regionallines. and post-Sovie the social exacerbated to factors contributing most the other compo among of nation-building reformulations The challenges posed by Kyrgyzstan's post-Soviet tr Kyrgyzstan's by posed post-Soviet Thechallenges Kyrgyzstan's transition from communism is a key sit is communism Kyrgyzstan'stransitionfrom 30 -169. e planning,” 26. planning,” e an obstacle and a Bourdieuian theoretical and a Bourdieuian an obstacle faced with short histories of a priori priori of a histories with short faced other post-authoritarian transitions in transitions post-authoritarian other t transition is first considered more more considered first transitionis t tical and social problems." and social tical ralism, are theorized to have four have to theorized are ralism, on, as "the establishment of educational of establishment as "the on, stratification along linguistic, class linguistic, along stratification en language and education in social social in and education enlanguage tity in the midst of cultural and of cultural midst the tityin where divergent from neighboring divergent where from nationhood and 4) stateness. and nationhood concept refers to 1) marketization, 2) 1) marketization, refers to concept and its associated social social and its associated nents, are presented in this paper as this paper in presented are nents, allenge, faced by all of the former the of all facedby allenge, ansition, hinged on on hinged ansition, e to identify the the identify eto 66

67 CEU eTD Collection teaching methodology remained unchanged." remained methodology teaching la into the][while division a Kyrgyz ideology with planners language and "education initially Although linguist educational and in cogent particularly are played a largerole in Kyrgyzstan's post-Soviet tra which on discourse and policy formulations is explo formulations and discourse policy on which stratificatio for widening was blamed Russification constituative. or mutually competing were processes and Kyrgyzization. Russification analysis Then,the conceptualized better are transition during reforms nati of direct alignment assumes as it the element, 69 Bilaniuk, Bilaniuk, 69 Kyrg in division linguistic and “Education Korth, 68 2.1.1. Out-migration approximately four out of twenty-five million, are are twenty-five million, of four out approximately leave did who residents or German Slavic those Even re Union former the from Russians ethnic 'stranded' official as its language,” republic lang the of[...] declaration was the independence The development of nationhood and stateness, in as and stateness, of nationhood Thedevelopment Predictions concerning the potential out-migration out-migration potential the concerning Predictions of ea moves legislative first the of “one Although, Contested Tongues, Contested 93. 69 it is critical to problematize this nation-buildin this to problematize critical it is 31 yzstan,” 103.yzstan,” 68 Reform, and its Reform, rhetoric, and accompanying still nsition. ic institutionalization and planning. and planning. icinstitutionalization uage bearing the same name as the the same namethe as bearing uage on and state. Educational and linguistic and linguistic Educational state. and on using two parallel processes, de- processes, parallel two using now considered economically economically considered now nguage tracks […] and the language language and the […] tracks nguage n and out-migration, the influence of influence the and out-migration, n can identify how and when these when these and how identify can publics were mostly exaggerated. exaggerated. mostly were publics simply replaced Soviet ideology ideology replacedSoviet simply red below. red During transition, rapid de- transition, During the republics in the early 1990s, early the in republics the ch republic toward toward chrepublic and repatriation of the USSR's USSR's of the andrepatriation much as they are interrelated, interrelated, are as they much g g CEU eTD Collection 4Ibid.,140. 74 138-139.State?,” the of Reach “Shrinking Dave, 73 Centra Post-Soviet in Abazov,Migration “Economic 72 Dave, 71 motivated out-migration and these had begun long be long had begun and these out-migration motivated causallyconnected. There be putatively not should Cent new the from Russianspeakers Slavic of exodus people who departed Kyrgyzstan between 1989 and 199 1989 Kyrgyzstan departed who between people constitutionality,2000. in passing finally before Const the in eventime spent and houses legislative official to language Russian status. bill spent The const a to through 2000 push to 1994 from attempted K In response, had expected. as some asdrastically the and spurred population country's the of percent motivated migrants and not categorized as repatriat categorized and not migrants motivated 0Tishkov, and Vitkovstkaya,“Migr Zayinchkovskaya, 70 is where de-Russificiation and Kyrgyzization were v andwere Kyrgyzization de-Russificiation where is language status to Russian would further undermine undermine further would to Russian status language Kyrgyz in written to by officialbe were documents imple fully language was state the law on untilthe Oruzbaeva, Bubuina Toktosunincluding Akmatov,and second official language, whi a was already Russian 2, 12.2, Nonetheless, the rapid Russophone out-migration tha out-migration Russophone rapid the Nonetheless, While this process was in limbo, official limbo, in leaders, was this While process Kazakhstan , 103. , 32 l 237. Asia,” ation in the countries of the former Soviet Union,” Soviet former the of countries in the ation 73 years bouncing from lower to upper upper lower to from bouncing years mented - according to the 1993 law all law 1993 the to - according mented fear that out-migration could continue continue could out-migration that fear itutional Court to assess its its assess Court to itutional es. yrgyzstan's President moderate Akaev were many complex factors that that factors complex many were the year 2000 - granting official - granting 2000 year the le some prominent Kyrgyz lesome scholars, iewed as competing processes. In processes. as competing iewed the work to promote Kyrgyz." to promote work the itutional amendment elevating the the elevating amendment itutional fore independence. fore ral but coincided, states Asian 70 Language legislation and the the and legislation Language Kachynba Kachynba “argued Artykbaev that 4, including Akaev, if acted as 72 was more than thirteen thirteen was more than t did t occur, 590,000 the in as 71 74 Here Here

CEU eTD Collection multiculturalism and multilingualism among the new new the among multilingualism and multiculturalism school the in through changes fostered integration, suspic tensions and "past that misconception actual langua future country's the about optimistic overly way. instrumental purely a transiti during In fact, she refers to to refers she th terms she that nation-building post-Soviet elite illuminates the acute tension of language policies language tension of acute the illuminates proce oppositional seemingly these which way in The 2.1.2. Mimickingof Civic Discourse project. building situation, linguistic cult supporters and his Akaev and poli intellectual staunch the overcome to order 76 Orusbaev, Mustajoki, and Protassova, “Multilingua Protassova, Orusbaev, and Mustajoki, 76 Dave, 75 optimism, it seems that language policy was taken f taken was language policy that it seems optimism, Kyrgyzstan,” 204-205. Kyrgyzstan,” Critical to the understanding of this mimicking is is mimicking of this understanding to the Critical Dave, although in reference to neighboring Kazakhst neighboring to reference in Dave,although internationalism, prevails in public and political and public in prevails internationalism, rhet neo-Soviet and a patronage ethnic by sustained [...] and symbolic. declaratory but de informal, An and democ to civic ascommitment asthe well state, and 'multi-ethnic' 'international', on emphasis the Kazakhstan , 136. , 33 lism, Russian Language and Education in in Education and Language Russian lism, on, many government initiatives were were initiatives government many on, ivated a civic discourse for nation- their discourse a ivated civic e 'mimicking of civic discourse.' Here Here discourse.' of civic e'mimicking in the context of transition. context the in ge policies and they operated under the operated and they gepolicies curriculum and the emphasis on on emphasis the and curriculum tical competition over the country's over country's the competition tical ions [could] be overcome through through overcome [could] be ions or granted as a contributor to social social to a contributor as granted or 'Kyrgyzstani'generation." sses sustained each other each other sustained sses spheres. 'civic' orientation ofnew the orientation 'civic' to note that it was not utilized in in not utilized that was toit note facto ethnic hierarchy, ethnic facto oric of multi-ethnicity and and of multi-ethnicity oric ratic norms have remained remained have norms ratic an, identifies a pattern in in a pattern an,identifies 75

76 In their CEU eTD Collection Figure 1: Regional Map Figure1: Regional 2.1.3. Key points departureof neighboringfrom sta degrees, nationaliz their with concurrently multiculturalism policies. policies. required ofmechanisms the consideration dedicated o a product role as dual noting its without change, 78 Landau and Kellner-Heinkele, Kellner-Heinkele, and Landau 78 Intelligence Central Agency, U.S. and “Caucasus 77 multiculturalism. Neighboring states of the former offormer the states Neighboring multiculturalism. Kyrgyzstan. of'Kyrgyzstan message the used Akaev All six post-Soviet, predominantly Muslim states pr states Muslim predominantly post-Soviet, Allsix 78 but the proclamation was explicitly pronounced und pronounced was explicitly proclamation the but 77 Politics of Language in the ex-Soviet Muslim States Muslim ex-Soviet the in ofLanguage Politics 34 Central 1995.” Central Map Political Asia f social change as well and without well as change f social ing language policies, to various policies,various to language ing USSR coped with their linguistic linguistic their with coped USSR for actually carrying out multilingual out carrying foractually for for desired the All'evoke to oclaimed commitments to to commitments oclaimed er President President er Askar Akaev’s tes .

CEU eTD Collection hold of Russians on the institutions of power." of institutions the on of Russians hold power,way as a “elites non-Russian mobility of and they that in space, in post-Soviet the development Turkmenistan. contra stark in compromises multilingual on settled formu policy the influenced Russianlanguage ofthe because of significant Russification of […] urban e of […] Russification significant of because large of their because per Russifiedrepublics most 2.1.3.1. Population Compositions Population 2.1.3.1. and th leadership, state of responses compositions, based of nation-building a component as challenges 82 Ibid., 126. Ibid., 82 121. Ibid., 81 121. Ibid., 80 122. State?,” the of Reach Shrinking “The Dave, 79 among non-Russian populations in other Central other Central in populations non-Russian among Asia 1989 in language in Russian the fluency claimed who Kaza ethnic of percent 65 the including linguistic, forth initially upon independence, were conceptuali were independence, upon initially forth Nonetheless, there remains a common, critical compo critical a common, remains there Nonetheless, Among the Central Central the Among and "Kazakhstan republics, Asian 35 82 Linguistic policies, especially those put put those especially policies, Linguistic khs and 35 percent of ethnic Kyrgyz of ethnic percent 35 and khs intended to promote the autonomy, the promote to intended centages of Slavic inhabitants and inhabitants of Slavic centages eir vast gap of resources. gap eir vast lites." st to neighboring Uzbekistan or Uzbekistan neighboring to st zed in this oppositional way. this oppositional in zed to counteract the actual or perceived actual the to counteract lations as both countries eventually eventually countries as both lations primarily on their variant population population variant their on primarily n republics. n percentages the exceeds far which , 80

By Russification, much was much Russification, By nent of language policy policy of language nent Kyrgyzstan were the two Kyrgyzstantwo the were 81 This strong presence presence Thisstrong 79 CEU eTD Collection select inputs, where the state is forced to cover t cover to is forced state the where inputs, select lo remain too and budgets local Regional education. and decentralization by exacerbated were education other sources of humanitarian aid. of humanitarian sources other orde in exportation and resourceexcavation mineral an opportunistically other hand, the on Kazakhstan, neighbor neighbor Tajikistan. like struggles disastrous power avoiding factions, Initially,a broker able to Kyrgyzstani were elites a power of state consolidation the by characterized Legitimacy and resources. both to legitimacy refers one of the poorest countries in the post-Soviet spa post-Soviet the in countries ofpoorest the one 2.1.3.2. State Capacity State 2.1.3.2. 83 Collins, C Collins, 83 neighboring, autocratic Uzbekistan, for example. for Uzbekistan, autocratic neighboring, Kyrgyzstani arguably upheaval, elite less maintain t Because 2010. of and of 2005 revolutions violent, demands on linguistic and education reform. Kyrgyzs reform. and education linguistic on demands 84 According to to According 84 86 Dave, Dave, 86 Central in Particu with “Education Asia Mertaugh, 85 percent, while while Tajikistansligh percent, have Kyrgyzstan and pover the below living population its of percentage State capacity to enact language policies directed directed policies language capacity enact State to In terms of the resources necessary to support lang support to necessary ofresources the Interms Kazakhstan: Ethnicity, language and Ethnicity, power,and language Kazakhstan: lan Politics and Regime Transition Regime inAsia Central and Politics lan World Bank 83 However, durin acute instability was of threat the data on “Poverty and Equity”: The post-Soviet state post-Soviet Equity”: The and “Poverty on data 86 This prosperity also somehow mitigates the interna the mitigates somehow also Thisprosperity 36 lar Reference to the Kyrgyz Republic,” 158-159. KyrgyzRepublic,” to the Reference lar ty line (of $2 per day PPP) is Georgia, with 32.2 32.2 with Georgia, is PPP) day per (of $2 line ty tly lower percentages of 27.7 and 21.7 respectively 21.7 and 27.7 of percentages lower tly 163. he majority of educational costs. of educational majority he uniquely consociational balance of clan balance consociational uniquely ce. that of the civil war in its southern southern in war its civil the thatof nd the maintenance of stability. of maintenance the nd legitimacy than the elite of elite the than legitimacy his subdued, yet constant threat of threat constant yet hissubdued, during transition can be best be transitioncan during d justifiably developed oil and oil developed justifiably d w and are only able to cover a few to cover able only wand are r to reduce dependence on Russia and Russia and on dependence reduce rto diversification of financing for of financing diversification 84 tan, in contrast, opened up quickly quickly up opened contrast, in tan, , 125-131. , Inequalities of income and of income Inequalities at the nation-building project project nation-building atthe uage policies, Kyrgyzstan is Kyrgyzstan policies, is uage with the highest highest the with g the brief, yet yet brief, the g 85

l l . CEU eTD Collection been used for educational reform efforts. reform educational for used been pow world influential many from aid humanitarian to 87 Orusbaev, Mustajoki, and Protassova, “Multilingua Protassova, Orusbaev, and Mustajoki, 87 2.2. EducationalTransformation ethnolinguistically-based upward mobility. ethnolinguistically-based targeting language puridiscourse a specific evoked disc successfully more somehow have elite Ukrainian this that threat or an actual is there that say to Ukraine the with states, post-Soviet other several 88 Bilaniuk, Bilaniuk, 88 language to be a threat to its national security or security national its threat to be a to language transformation. Kyrgyzstan partic to apart its set here in referred configur and political attitudes language including states. Soviet other numerous remain there Although formulati divergent the policy influence linguistic specialization and generic needs of a transitioning of a needs and generic specialization reorient the content, in and of Education, Ministry Both instit system. ofeducation the transformation Kyrgyzstan,” 202. Kyrgyzstan,” On the broader, the On d [...] “Kyrgyzstan level, symbolic Undoubtedly,post-Soviet of all challenge central a capaciand state compositions population Thevaried Contested Tongues Contested ,32-33. 88 37 lism, Russian Language and Education in in Education and Language Russian lism, threat is heightened in the Ukraine. Still, Ukraine. the in heightened is threat historical identity" historical ular context of linguistic and educational and educational linguistic of context ular as a prime example. is a example. prime not this as Though ons and outcomes among the former former the among outcomes and ons market economy, market this characterize ation of training to meet both the the both meet to of training ation ations, those primary differences primary those ations, utionally, a functioning of creation the ty towards furthering their their furthering towards ty specificities that play a role, a play role, that specificities ers and many of these funds have funds of these many ersand redited the Russian language and language Russian the redited oes not consider the Russian the consider not oes transitions is the the is transitions ties are key points that key that points are ties 87 as is the case with with case the as is CEU eTD Collection education. internationally, English) towards sh directly which a relian domestically and bilingualism extensive by Kyrgyzstan’s relations. linguistic lingui these And both market economy changing the that in language, comprise a system notable in its centralization and its centralization in notable a system comprise socia to in relation their be considered to all are P and the institutions, education higher of rectors a presidential the include making, policy education practice." and policy educational it l even as and demand, infrastructure educational paradoxically,nomadi transitionfrom country's the pr in nation-building the key role a play to poised fundamental challenge. fundamental 91 Dukenbaev, “Politics and Public Policy inPost-So Policy Dukenbaev,Public and “Politics 91 90 inCentral Parti with Education Asia, “ Mertaugh, 89 Key Stakeholders 2.2.1.1. and Actors 2.2.1. Institutionally integration and withdrawal of state power in educat in power of state withdrawal and integration DeYoung, and Valyayeva,Reeves, The key actors, wielding the aforementioned power, aforementioned the actors, wielding Thekey of accultura assites the institutions, Educational 89 These specialized and generic needs are directly t directly needs are and generic specialized These Surviving the Transition?the Surviving 90 This section seeks to outline this tension between this tension outline seeks to Thissection 38 cular Reference to the Kyrgyz Republic,” 154-155. KyrgyzRepublic,” tothe Reference cular viet Central Central viet Asia.” l stratification. stratification. l of these actors All arliament’s Education, on Committee ocess at transition. Somewhat Somewhat attransition. ocess stic market relations have been defined been defined have market relations stic essened local participation in in participation local essened politicization ape the implementation of higher of implementation the ape dministration, Ministry of Education, of Education, Ministry dministration, sm to socialism "created a modern modern a "created socialism to sm ce on Russian (and now trending trending now Russian(and on ce ion reform. ion reacts to and places demands on places to demands and reacts , 15. , tion and indoctrination, were were indoctrination, and tion who are directly involved in in involved directly are who 91 with also further further also with ied to ied

CEU eTD Collection investment in training and processes since these go since and processes training in investment ha and body decision-making a remains key Education Constitution. 2010 t the While by determined system inceptio the since and education language regarding 6DeYoung, and Valyayeva,Reeves, 96 their own explicit and implicit interests. and implicit explicit own their influence imposed by international actors. international by imposed influence 95 OSCE, “OSCE trains Kyrgyzstan's Parliament repres Parliament Kyrgyzstan's trains “OSCE OSCE, 95 w official KyrgyzRepublic, the of Government The 94 DeYoung, and Valyayeva,Reeves, 93 Educatio Higher of “Internationalization Merrill, 92 and methods. ideology and educational 'liberate' Kyrgyzstani to in social organ international independence, after Immediately made by people who have never taught in or administ in havetaught never peoplewho by made curriculu the about decisions decentralized, rarely scho secondary orareas with rural in experience no detachment from on-the-ground realities of realities stratifi on-the-ground from detachment position in 2010. in position the for capital the in worked who of Scienc Academy Sadyko Sciences Kanat and Education Minister of The control.” The presidential administration now has a r reduced has now administration Thepresidential Administrators at the Ministry-level are politicall are Ministry-level atthe Administrators 94 This Minister's recent decisions, to be explored l be explored to decisions, recent Minister's This 96 These interventions continue and maintain strong b strong and maintain continue Theseinterventions Surviving the Transition?the Surviving Surviving the Transition?,the Surviving 92

n in Kyrgyzstan.” nin 39 ebsite. http://www.gov.kg/?p=461#more-461 ebsite. entatives on legislative process and parliamentary parliamentary and process legislative on entatives institutions from the Soviet schooling Soviet schooling the from institutions m or administration in schools are often are schools in administration or m cation. vernmental reforms of 2010. reforms vernmental ols. "And, since school leadership is leadership since school "And, ols. n of the new pseudo-parliamentary new pseudo-parliamentary of the n izations and funding quickly stormed stormed quickly and funding izations he Parliament's Committee on on Committee heParliament's es before reaching his current his reaching esbefore , 4. , ered a public secondary school." secondary a public ered 4. s received increased foreign receivedincreased s v fits this description, as a urbanite as a urbanite this description, fits v y appointed and generally have have yand generally appointed ole in formulations of policy of policy formulations in ole ater, his reflect iases towards towards iases 95

93

CEU eTD Collection complicates the delivery of education and substanti of educationand delivery the complicates ofp the percent Sixty-five education. multilingual remain languages of particular and prestige stigma 2.2.1.2. Rural Challenges Rural 2.2.1.2. 98 Adelman, “The Relationship Between Urbanicity and Urbanicity Between Relationship “The Adelman, 98 136-137.State?,” the of Reach “Shrinking Dave, 97 addressed by policy in any country. in policy by addressed urba from to students comparable otherwise are they Fundamentally, divisions. l the are students “rural th cleavages, rural/urban embedded in and more more e mutually to be have not does language state other gap in educational outcomes. in educational gap of rural needs and livelihood infrastructure basic formulating an effective its imple or aiding an policy formulating language issue of the politicization sustained the rece Kyrgyz rural or or Russified and urban between however, divide, as we regional, isexclusively not more support to be tend northerners while language, hardlinefo take South the the from elites regional Public discourse on language is represented by a by st is represented language on Publicdiscourse Furthermore, poverty concentrated in rural areas an rural areas in concentrated poverty Furthermore, Across national contexts, educational outcomes are are outcomes contexts, educational Acrossnational 98 In Kyrgyzstan, state budget's fail to address even address Kyrgyzstan, to fail In budget's state 40 Educational Outcomes,” 15. Outcomes,” Educational and the weakness of the state in ofstate the weakness the and communities, let alone to address the the address alone to let communities, east likely to go to college, even when even when college, to to eastgo likely r the strengthening of the Kyrgyz of the strengthening the r mentation." opulation resides rurally, resides opulation which see “the exacerbation of the divide ofdivide the see “the exacerbation challenges in the provision of provision the in challenges xclusive, but as language becomes as language but xclusive, ally raises costs of reform and and of reform costs allyraises ive of the Russian language. ofRussian the This ive n areas” and this is never adequately is adequately never and this areas” n nt urban migrants has contributed to to contributed has urban migrants nt is exclusivity prevails. isexclusivity rong regional divide, where where divide, regional rong d psychological conceptions of of conceptions psychological d impacted by rural/urban rural/urban by impacted 97 Support for one or the the one or for Support the the CEU eTD Collection exceptionally large amount of higher educationinst large of higher exceptionally amount va quality that in here manifested limits are these scholarships." university for competing takers fortest scores superior and significant shows also educationentranc higher "New national performance. state's higher educationfunding. higher state's a receive who schools, of rural graduates including offer are and grants scholarships for consideration sustainable implementation. sustainable 101 Weidman et al, “Access to Education in Five New Five 101 in WeidmanEducation to “Access et al, DeYoung, 100 and Valyayeva, Reeves, inCentral Partic with “Education Asia, Mertaugh, 99 proctored further limit social mobility of rural st mobility of limit social further proctored 103 Mertaugh, “Education in Central inCentral Part with “Education Asia, Mertaugh, 103 scholarships. Bishk capital the takers in of test percent fifteen f funding awardedstate were and small towns areas, In 2011, inequities. of te percent ten top the only add of short fall they but similar provisions, make 102 Center for Educational and Educational Teachingfor Center Assessment 102 2.2.2. Content Admissions Test,”Admissions 27. Mongolia,” 190. Mongolia,” This gap in educational implementation contributes contributes educational implementation in Thisgap Education, as a powerful tool of social mobility, tool of social as a powerful Education, d 102 The inclusion of new content and the language with and the content of new Theinclusion 99 101 Surviving the Transition?,the Surviving The Kyrgyzstani Ministry of Education attempts to to attempts of Education TheKyrgyzstani Ministry 41 icular Reference to the Kyrgyz Republic,” 179. KyrgyzRepublic,” tothe Reference icular ular Reference to the Kyrgyz Republic,” 161. Kyrgyz Republic,” tothe Reference ular Methods, “Results of the Republican-wide Republican-wide the of “Results Methods, ly Independent States of Central Central of States and Asia Independent ly 100 ek achieved eligibility for grants and grants eligibility for achieved ek In neighboring Kazakhstan, preferential preferential Kazakhstan, In neighboring udents. st takers in villages, high-mountain rural rural high-mountain villages, takers in st ries so widely among Kyrgyzstan's so among widely ries urban as compared with rural test rural with compared urban as ressing regional and linguistic and linguistic regional ressing ed to several disadvantaged groups, several to disadvantaged ed pproximately thirty percent of the the of percent thirty pproximately itutions. or their higher education, while while education, higher ortheir e testing mechanism in Kyrgyzstan in etesting mechanism 5. oes have its limits, but oddly oddly limits, but its have oes to empirical gaps in in gaps empirical to 103 Because of this factors, factors, of this Because which the tests are tests the which CEU eTD Collection 106 Korth, “Education and linguistic division in Ky in division linguistic and “Education Korth, 106 DeYoung, 105 and Valyayeva, Reeves, discourse need to be highlighted, citing prominent prominent citing highlighted, be need to discourse some under education, and language between dynamics of kno production the behind ofpower the cognizant the to conceptualize how describe seek to I rather capital Bishkek, and do not take into account rural into account not do take Bishkek, and capital curri and materials Educational resources. material spread, i as thinly be seen can content educational 104 Korth, Korth, 104 2.2.3. Educational Reform TheoreticalTools process and institution of education, in this conte in of education, and institution process Kyrgyz is not as useful of a language for academic academic for of a language Kyrgyzas useful not is songs poems and of folklorist rote memorization its met teaching Language educational curricula. ofthe Kyrgyz include sought to h national decision-makers of na different aspect on essential based an goals, of the building of socialism and the creation of th of creation and the of socialism building ofthe "Kyrgyz[stani] pedagogy was mostly devised and crea devised "Kyrgyz[stani]was mostly pedagogy Here this paper is careful not to problematize the the not problematize to careful is this Here paper modifying the appropriation of discourse with the k with the of discourse appropriation the modifying a politi is educationsystem Every conflict. social it follows prevents, and it what permits it what in we we But discourse. kind of any to access gain can w an instrument of right, be, as well may Education Language Attitudes towards KyrgyzAttitudes Russian Language and Surviving the Transition?the Surviving rgyzstan,” 106.rgyzstan,” 42 xt, are also tools in and of themselves. tools in also are xt, tion-building. centralized tion-building. Thus, e "Soviet Man," e"Soviet n terms of discipline, methodology, discipline, of terms n and , , 132. institution as a tool, while remaining remaining while as a tool, institution linguistic and teaching needs. linguistic cula are developed centrally, developed are cula the in theories, or professional advancement. orprofessional for example, to the perception that that perception the to example, for hodology itself contributes greatly, itself contributes hodology in wledge. wledge. To crucial the understand eroes and folklore directly into much anddirectly folklore eroes , 3. , lying aspects of education as a education aspects of lying cal means of maintaining or of ofmeans maintaining cal of battle-lines well-trodden the institution of education as such, as such, of education institution nowledge and the powers it powers the nowledgeand hereby every individual […] individual every hereby ll know that in its distribution, its distribution, in that know ll ted in Moscow [...] as part as part [...] Moscow in ted 105 which made reform, made reform, which 104 106 The CEU eTD Collection McDonough and Fann refer to refer and Fann McDonough opportunity.” and organizati agency individual between “interplay power, culture, among relationships and stratificat 111 54.Ibid., 11082. Ibid., Inequality,”of Study “The Fann, and McDonough 109 694. He?,” Is “Of Help What Roth, 108 227. Language,” on Discourse “The Foucault, 107 each other.” each in reciprocal for “account ability to in its useful Most cr approaches. previous two the ofintegrating put they outcomes, empirical of formulation the in organizational both Because approaches. field-level fr education, in inequality conceptualizing discuss sociology of education is to address the inherenti address the to is of education sociology investigation of “the interconnectivity and interde of “the interconnectivity investigation an field-level maintenance, elite with relationship which was masked by the ruse that is neutral educat is that neutral ruse the by masked was which illuminat to tend education on analysis Foucauldian Neutrality cannot be found in educational instituti educational in be found cannot Neutrality Particularly relevant to the discussion of e higher discussion the to relevant Particularly carries with it. carries 109 111 107

Boudieuian perspectives on educational structures i structures educational on perspectives Boudieuian 43 55-58. fluence of students and institutions on on and institutions of students fluence alysis allows for the discrete discrete the for allows alysis nequalities. nequalities. pendencies of inequalities.” pendencies ion, while also identifying the identifyingthe also while ion, om individual-, organizational-,individual-, and om forth field-level analysis as the method asmethod the analysis field-level forth itically,most is analysis field-level and individual contexts are integral integral are contexts and individual e that maintenance or modification or modification maintenance ethat ional reform. ional onal structures in shaping educational shaping in structures onal ducation in its dialectical dialectical its in ducation ons, so the primary task of the of the task primary the so ons, McDonough and Fann Fann and McDonough 108

110

n the the n CEU eTD Collection and modes of knowing that are unevenly distributed distributed unevenly are that of knowing modes and of prior kinds certain tastes, determined socially over oft the he tackles that in contribution unique capital based on ideological shifts in the concepti the in shifts ideological based on capital an re-evaluation the is context nation-building the which is exemplified in clan Kyrgyzstan's patronage is exemplified which reproduction. so as a not of education account be Bourdieu's will 2.2.3.1. Bourdieu's Social Reproduction Social Bourdieu's 2.2.3.1. 113 Giroux, Passeron, 112and Bourdieu mind / body disposition, cultural objects / goods, goods, / objects cultural / disposition, body mind be utilized. C can capital cultural capital, social more or less institutionalized relationships of mut of relationships institutionalized or less more t to linked are which resources or potential actual Social this analysis. for relevant particularly are However, equal footing. somewhat on will outline I capital. and ad capital- - financial discourse in prominent 116 Collins, C116 Collins, 248.capital,” of forms “The 115 Bourdieu, Power,” 14 Symbolic and Space “Social 114 Bourdieu, 114 In total, Bourdieu identifies four types of capital types of four identifies Bourdieu Intotal, The primary theoretical tool of understanding educa tool of understanding theoretical Theprimary one another to convertible are forms of these All Ideology, lan Politics and Regime Transition Regime inAsia. Central and Politics lan 112 critical pedagogy, of Thetheorist p Giroux, Henry

Culture and the ProcessCulture the Schooling, of and Reproduction in education, society and cultureand society education, Reproduction in 44 . ultural capital has three potential forms: forms: potential capitalthree has ultural capital, refers to "the aggregate of the to aggregate "the refers capital, knowledge, language forms, abilities, forms, language knowledge, on ofnation. the on looked notion of 'cultural capital,' “the capital,' 'cultural notion of looked he possession of a durable network of network a durable of possession he or institutional, as in educational as in orinstitutional, ual acquaintance and recognition," acquaintance ual ditionally social, cultural, and symbolic symbolic and cultural, social, ditionally d, thus, redistribution, of cultural cultural of redistribution, thus, d, 77. cial mobility tool but as a tool of social as a tool but mobility cial their relationships and dynamics that that dynamics and relationships their patterns. throughout history.” throughout , including the more obvious and obvious more the including , and are posited, in that way, that in posited, andare tional reform in this paper this paper in reform tional 116 . Withinof networks these oints to Bourdieu's Bourdieu's ointsto 113 Particular to to Particular 115

CEU eTD Collection habitus ofculture.” the habitus prominent. In fact, In prominent. qualifications. 118 Bourdieu, Cul and Social and Education on 117“Bourdieu Nash, sym in themselves reproduce to tend relations power of conversion invisible the more to relates capital ca also but as such, utilized are reproductions The to educational reform and elite reproduction. reproduction. and elite reform educational to linguistic divisions reinforced and produced by the by produced and reinforced divisions linguistic th desirable, remains analysis comprehensive a such evaluation, textbooks, school the organization, textbooks, and evaluation, including“curricu processes, of education entirety its structur reform or maintain to devised policies and langua culture including reproduction, ofelite 121 Giroux, Giroux, 121 Cul and Social and Education on “Bourdieu Nash, 120 Power,” 21 Symbolic and Space “Social 119 Bourdieu, “Bourdieu […] situations the school as the central central as the school the situations […] “Bourdieu The reproduction of capital and power is where educ where is capitaland power of Thereproduction relations between the groups or classes (socialrep or classes groups the between relations contribute of which reproduction the reproduction), which arbitrary a cultural of reproducing function inculatio of function essential of its exercise the and persis existence whose conditions institutional it h fact […] to that the and functioning structure the owes system educational institutionalized every Ideology,Culture Processthe Schooling, of and Reproduction in Education, Society and Culture, and Society Education, Reproduction in 117 In the way that they are convertible, all of his c of his all convertible, are they that Inway the 120 Therefore, this analysis will take into account th into account will take analysis this Therefore, 45 tural Reproduction,” 432. Reproduction,” tural tural Reproduction,” 435. Reproduction,” tural . capital to power, capital in “objective that, e. Giroux advocates for analyzing the the analyzing for advocates Giroux e. rry great symbolic power. symbolic great rry Symbolic ge, and take a critical stance on all on critical stance a ge,and take 79. lum, teaching methods, forms of forms methods, lum,teaching organization of teachers.” education system in Kyrgyzstan. system in education is paper focuses primarily on the the on primarily focuses paper is bolic power relations.” power bolic 54. n and to the fulfillment of its of fulfillment the and to n as to produce and reproduce the the and reproduce produce to as roduction). it does not produce (cultural (cultural produce itnot does generative site of the distinct ofdistinct the site generative tence […] are necessary both to both […] necessary are tence specific characteristics of its characteristics specific s to the reproduction of the reproduction to s the ation figures in as most most as figures in ation apitals are directly related directly are apitals 118 is education site educationsite is 119 121 While CEU eTD Collection building aims. building as astoward well and out-migration stratification Kyrgyzization. as a f stands interplay dynamic This proce transitional the between tensions instigating changed capital cultural and of social definitions and reformed intergroupfunctionally were relations meaning the where reproduction, of social framework Kyrgyzstan's transitional trajectory is unders best Kyrgyzstan'stransitional trajectory 46 along with the nation-building context, context, nation-building the with along the achievement of other nation- of achievement the sses of de-Russification and de-Russification of sses ormidable obstacle to reducing to obstacle ormidable relapsed. More specifically, relapsed. and values that set the stage for stage the set that and values tood using the conceptual conceptual using the tood CEU eTD Collection the linguistic skills developed at home are valued are developed athome skills linguistic the schooling on be placed will here emphasis home, the convertability of the forms of capital. of offorms the convertability dialectical in a divisions with language interplay divisions, Societal andcapital. symbolic cultural capital linguistic conceptualize we can way Inthis CHAPTER 3: Linguistic Capital in Education Capital Linguistic 3: CHAPTER 122 Bourdieu, Bourdieu, 122 123 Ibid. 123 language learning. language an both in domestic origin, manifested social given linguisti by claimed space and divisive politicized Kyrgyzstan highly politicized. Theis intersection dominance is compounded through educational access. educational through compounded is dominance ar divisions linguistic lens, capital. this Through educ higher to primary from levels, and assessment, This chapter focuses on the interrelated empirical empirical interrelated the on focuses Thischapter As an As officially, country, bilingual contested, yet careers, even scientific ones. scientific even careers, var to a system and, educational oflevel the every accou taken into always is style be felt: to ceases leveragefo of points major language the are of use of schooli years first the in manifest particularly , 73. Reproduction in EducationReproduction in 122 and concomita initially learning Althoughlanguage , 80. , 123

47 e reified and the maintenance of elite of elite maintenance the and ereified manner reflecting the universal universal the reflecting manner along class or ethnicity or otherwise, or otherwise, or ethnicity class along differently by the education system, education differentlythe by c capital. Linguistic capital is tied to a to tied a capitalis Linguistic capital. c the forms and education oflanguage as a subset or intersection of both or intersection subset as a d educational points of access to access of points educational d ation, through the lens of linguistic of lens the through ation, . However, . argues, and as Bourdieu ng when the understanding and and understanding the when ng the language of education in educationin language of the nt, implicitly or explicitly, or implicitly nt, at fields, from terminology to to terminology from fields, ying extent, in all university yingin university all extent, r teachers' assessments, never assessments, teachers' r ntly occurs in in occurs ntly CEU eTD Collection now in a post-independence context, begin long befo begin context, post-independence a in now notwith revolutions of two upheavals the positions, t continues strata elite this 1991, before language language of the former colonial power. colonial offormer the language " other and bureaucracy part the of the on commitment capacity, state “enormous inves sustained planning, actual difficultyand the impacting in passed seen legislation which with ease the between discrepancy in certa environments linguistic postcolonial other 3.1. 3.1. LinguisticDivisions 125 DeYoung, “Conceptualizing paradoxes of DeYoung,post-Soc of 125 paradoxes “Conceptualizing Dave, 124 3.1.1. Primaryand SchoolsSecondary especially in relation to language. to relation in especially commitm an erratic shown have and elite bureaucracy the public education system, she argues, system, she contribute education public the lang on based a division societal and reflecting to barrier Kyrgyzstan psychological in level instigate education institutions – less than 15 percent. 15 than less – institutions education The linguistic divisions in post-Soviet states like states post-Soviet in divisions Thelinguistic Britta Korth argues atth divisions Brittalinguistic Korth that In the Soviet education system, few Kyrgyzstani few cit educationsystem, InSoviet the Kazakhstan , 106. , 124 In this decisive aspect, Kyrgyzstan's decisiveaspect, In this 48 125 ialist education in Kyrgyzstan,” 641. in Kyrgyzstan,” education ialist Educated exclusively in the Russian the in exclusively Educated o holds the majority of bureaucratic of bureaucratic holds o majority the uage. Moreover, uage. in manifestation this language practices. languagerequires practices. Thelatter in aspects; particularly, aspects; in the in s between speakers while contributing contributing while speakers between s s to a common perception of Kyrgyz perception of common to a s standing. divisions, standing. linguistic These tment, and most important, a most important, and tment, demoting colonial languages is languages colonial demoting re university education. university re professional strata educated in the in strata educated professional ent to educational reform, reform, educational to ent e primary and secondary school school and secondary eprimary Kyrgyzstan can be compared to Kyrgyzstan to be compared can izens attended higher higher attended izens CEU eTD Collection 130 Orusbaev, Mustajoki, and Protassova, “Multiling Protassova, Orusbaev, 130 and Mustajoki, Ky in division linguistic and “Education Korth, 129 opportunities compared to Russian language. Russian to compared languag formal and less useful asless the language 128 Orusbaev, Mustajoki, and Protassova, “Multiling Protassova, Orusbaev, 128 and Mustajoki, 98. Ibid., 127 K in division linguistic and Education “ Korth, 126 operation multilingualy. operation ru are 17 and exclusively Russian use 235 language, country,these preschoo Of children. 50,365 serving pres 448 shows 2005-2006 from Data level. preschool Russian-language schools "are highly prestigious an highly prestigious "are schools Russian-language use of Russian along with Kyrgyz other minority Russianalong and of use country, exclusively operate to continued 148 only resources and textbooks. resources ensur without Kyrgyz decree, merely into by schools “the that was noted it locations many and in above policie language by institutions. imposed Theshift no and are residents and urban to elite exclusively which and operated, owned privately are preschools seems educationsystem of the incipient stage this Kyrgyzstan,” 215. Kyrgyzstan,” Kyrgyzstan,” 214. Kyrgyzstan,” Those socialized in Russian have access to more edu to access Russianhave in socialized Those At the secondary school level, the ratio is skewed skewed is ratio the level, school secondary the At 127 and this socialization becomes a matter of public of public a matter becomes this socialization and 128 129 This ratio of almost 2:1 Russian-language predomin Russian-language almost 2:1 Thisof ratio In 2005-2006, of the total 2,091 secondary schools secondary 2,091 oftotal the In 2005-2006, 126 yrgyzstan.” rgyzstan,” 104.rgyzstan,” 49 ualism, Russian Language and Education in Education and Language Russian ualism, ualism, Russian Language and Education in Education and Language Russian ualism, t directly subject to state intervention. to subject state directly t counter-intuitive.However, many s at transition was conducted from was conducted attransition s e in Kyrgyzstani in e society, when government turned Russian schools Russianschools turned government in Russian, while 361 integrated the the integrated 361 while Russian, in ls, 120 use exclusively the Kyrgyz the exclusively use 120 ls, d in high demand by Russian parents Russianparents by high in demand d n by international organizations international in by n means that they cater more cater they that means ing the supply of qualified human human of qualified supply the ing languages. chools in operation throughout the the throughout operation in chools toward more Kyrgyz-language towardmore Kyrgyz-language cation, information, and job and job information, cation, 130 concern first at the atthe first concern This small number of number small This in the the in ance at ance CEU eTD Collection language.” hav I even village, in but a [Bishkek], here school the in student university a by current commented As educa Russian-language identifying while education, situation-oriented and depends on the mother tongue mother the on and depends situation-oriented schools. or linguisti cultural, social, the capture to fails Russian-language schooling. Russian-language community.lin the reproduces then, discourse, This ofdi the and reflection experience personal ofher for the continued use of Russian-language education Russian-language of use continued the for and by those from other ethnic groups." ethnic other from those by and 133 Orusbaev, Mustajoki, and Protassova, “Multiling Protassova, Orusbaev, 133 and Mustajoki, DeYoung,post-Soc of 132 paradoxes “Conceptualizing 7 countries,” inpost-Soviet “Russian Pavlenko, 131 3.1.2. HigherEducation Institutions the secondary school level. school secondary the can teachers among capital linguistic variable how influence reciprocally do and institutions Students Kyrgyzstan,” 215. Kyrgyzstan,” Parents strive to give their children the best oppo best the children their give to strive Parents But in reference to practice, "the choice of langua choice "the practice, to reference Butin But even more than prestige, there remain cogentan remain there prestige, more than Buteven 132 The student's acknowledgment of this linguistic ba linguistic of this acknowledgment Thestudent's 131 Thus, focusing solely on counting institutions institutions solely counting on focusing Thus, 2. 50 ualism, Russian Language and Education in Education and Language Russian ualism, c capital reproduced in Russian-language Russian-language in capitalreproduced c ialist education in Kyrgyzstan,” 651. in Kyrgyzstan,” education ialist e problems with the Russian the with problems e scourse supported by her parents and parents and her by scoursesupported one another and their dynamics show show dynamics and their one another exacerbate social stratification even at even stratification social exacerbate guistic and cultural capitalof guisticand cultural capital city, capital not I did finish “because among elites. Due to the lack of lack the Due to elites. among of the teacher and students." of the tion as a key component of that aim. aim. of that a key component as tion rtunity to succeed in higher higher in succeed to rtunity ge for teaching is often often is gefor teaching d practical motivating factors factors motivating practical d rrier is both a reflection reflection a both is rrier 133

CEU eTD Collection 136 136 and Tajik-languageUzbek- off are schools Also, 135 Policy.”Wee, inLanguage “Neutrality Kyrgyz schools in the early-1990s following indepen following Kyrgyzearly-1990s the in schools to Russian back children their transferred parents operatin and programs educationinstitutions higher 134 Korth, Korth, 134 as instruments of social reproduction. of social asinstruments linguisti the set and do can institutions education schools. secondary Kyrgyz-Thi and Russian-language gap be the reinforced and education higher language an curriculum improved for demand the reduced shift schools. children’s of their language the choose edu primary community status across ethnicity discourse and ena discourse ethnicity status across community and ethnicity. language between la Russian In fact, w unless such, as conceptualized be they should nor universities utilize learning materials in the Russ the in learningmaterials utilize universities linguistically,rep and of programs asmajority the effectiveness, their prepare not and do challenging Butscho Kyrgyz-language scholars. multiculturalism diversity, linguistic of recognition institutional education affects education in different distinc stakeholders The stratification that fortifies and is fortified fortified and is fortifies that Thestratification Russian schools, however, Russianschools, only by attended not are 136 Language Attitudes towards KyrgyzAttitudes Russian Language and This choice bestows at least some citizens with th with citizens some atleast bestows Thischoice 51 ered in select regions of southern Kyrgyzstan. southern of regions select in ered which is often heralded by by heralded often is which ian language. ian c agenda, while compounding their role their compounding while cagenda, t ways. t schools after a brief experiment with with experiment a after brief schools utable faculties at state and private and atstate faculties utable , 132. students for higher education for higher students nguage schools maintain elite schools nguage cation – between Kyrgyz Russian between – cation and g in the Kyrgyz language, many gKyrgyz the in language, e putatively assume a direct link direct a assume eputatively ble ethnic Kyrgyz ethnic send who ble parents, tween those who graduate from graduate who those tween dence from the Soviet Union. the from dence ols suffer textbooks, lack of ols a from by the multilingual policy in higher higher in policy multilingual the by d text book development in Kyrgyz- development book text d s shift demonstrates the way higher the demonstrates shift s 135 Parents are granted the right to to right the granted are Parents ethnically identified Russians; Russians; identified ethnically eir agency and at least some some least and at agency eir 134 This CEU eTD Collection 140 Ibid., 217.Ibid., 140 214. Ibid., 139 138 Orusbaev, Mustajoki, and Protassova, “Multiling Protassova, Orusbaev, 138 and Mustajoki, languages." national on work where countries in Baltic the and current is that from distinct a situation Russian, utilized, scien as "local often not are words these English, in order to communicate with colleagues wo colleagues with to communicate in order English, scientific terminology in Kyrgyz is borrowed from t in Kyrgyz from terminology borrowed is scientific country the in present of diglossia type particular symbo extensive language with Russian the fortifies out Russian from borrowed was vocabulary technical languages. and natu inventing task the to of deliberately more by the Russian language. Russian the by natural sci socioeconomics, like subjects technical offer are studies Humanities arena. academic global cap linguistic to substantially contribute not does 3.1.2.1. Specialized Terminology Specialized 3.1.2.1. to their provide schools, Russian to children their 137 Korth, Korth, 137 Kyrgyzstan,” 214. Kyrgyzstan,” Significantly, in "even specialists Turkicphilolog During the Soviet institutionalization of Kyrgyz-la of institutionalization Soviet the During Language Attitudes towards KyrgyzAttitudes Russian, Language and 138 State commitments and resources in these other exa these in resources and commitments State 140 This bias can be seen as reifying “the unequivocal as“the reifying be seen can bias This 52 ualism, Russian Language and Education in Education and Language Russian ualism, linguistic research traditions in Ukraine Ukraine in traditions research linguistic tific [...] work is mostly produced in in produced mostly work is [...] tific . In total, seventy to eighty percent of percent eighty to seventy In total, . ital within Kyrgyzstan, let alone in Kyrgyzstan, the alone within let ital children with increased social capital. social with increased children ences, and technology are dominated dominated are technology and ences, ralizing technical vocabularies in local in vocabularies technical ralizing 83. languages is published in these in published languagesis ed in Kyrgyz and Russian, but more in more Kyrgyz ed and but Russian, he Russianlanguage. he lic capital and maintains the the and maintains capital lic rldwide." of expedience, yet this terminology this yet terminology ofexpedience, y prefer to write in Russian or in or in in yRussian write to prefer nguage script, much of the the of much script, nguage 139 TheKyrgyz language mples were dedicated dedicated were mples 137 However, linkage of linkage CEU eTD Collection maintain the existing educational infrastructure, s infrastructure, educational existing the maintain largerdiscourse. aims c that elite-driven, political, by constrained educational ofin instruction language the deciding secondary and primary the to reference in mentioned the capacities of linguistic the by constrained are 143 Luke, McHoul, and Mey, langua and of limits McHoul, the Luke, “On 143 Ky in division linguistic and “Education Korth, 142 hegemony.” para [that egalitarianism itspromoting role in and and mobility, modernity with Russian its dif [with] 141 Dave, Dave, 141 3.2.1. Funding 3.2. Maintenanceof Elite Dominance maintenance of elite dominance via the axis of ling axis the via dominance of elite maintenance testing. and corruption, instr These funding, their and enact actors state by articulated are education Nonetheless capital. of symbolic concept Bourdieu's At the higher education level, many decisions regar decisions many level, education higher the At State bodies, like the Ministry of Education, lacke of Education, bodies, Ministry the State like effect, in are, both and education policy Language Kazakhstan, 141 143 The limited agency of elites in this engineering i engineering in elites this of agency The limited 68. rgyzstan,” 98.rgyzstan,” 53 ge planning.”ge ontradict pedagogical reasoning pedagogical ontradict instructors, as was previously was previously as instructors, uments serve as tools for the the as tools for serve uments taffing, and curriculum, let alone let taffing,and curriculum, doxically] enabled it to it attain enabled doxically] ed by educational institutions, through through institutions, educational edby institutions, decision makers are often makers are decision institutions, fusion to all echelons of the society ofsociety the to echelons fusion all uistic divisions. uistic , key points of access to higher to ofpoints access key , school-levels. Furthermore, in in Furthermore, school-levels. d sufficient resources to sufficient to d resources social engineering embedded in in embedded engineering social ding language of instruction of instruction dinglanguage s captured in in captured s . 142 CEU eTD Collection cultural than they are strictly 'educational.'" strictly are they than cultural Kyrgyzstan in internation from projects improvement international funding from donors as well. as well. donors from funding international is, reform in educational neutrality that mentioned entirely to the parents and students, away from the from away parents and students, to the entirely those truly interested in higher learning would wan would learning in higher interested truly those industry,be m would training university for demand w for those did as it college to went who those for socialismpr all. for "Since of education precedent be conside should education Marxist-Leninist behind neo-colonial legacy of treating the region like a ' like region the of treating legacy neo-colonial perso the to geopolitical the from range influences implement reforms on it. on reforms implement 146 Orusbaev, Mustajoki, and Protassova, Multilingu Protassova, Orusbaev, 146 and Mustajoki, DeYoung,post-Soc of 145 paradoxes “Conceptualizing Central in Part with “Education Asia, Mertaugh, 144 in Kyrgyzstan different in fighting forces “represent 150 DeYoung, 150 and Valyayeva, Reeves, post-Soci DeYoung,“Conceptualizing of 149 paradoxes 148 DeYoung, 148 and Valyayeva, Reeves, provide instruction primarily in the Kyrgyz in the primarily instruction languag provide Kyrgyzstan-TurkeyManasUniversity, and Kyrgyz-Russ most prestigious, of the some including bodies, Ame 147 The most popular historical narrative of this c this of narrative historical popular most 147 The Game Kyrgyzstan,” 217. Kyrgyzstan,” Since independence, the burden of higher education education higher burden of the independence, Since . 144 For this reason, many universities are funded by f by funded are universities many this reason, For Surviving the Transition?the Surviving Surviving the Transition?the Surviving olonial rivalry can be found in: Hopkirk, Hopkirk, in: found be can rivalry olonial "Most of the loans and grants for educational for educational and grants loans of the "Most 148 54 icular Reference to the Kyrgyz Republic,” 4.KyrgyzRepublic,” the to Reference icular alism, Russian Language and Education in Education and Language Russian alism, ialist education in Kyrgyzstan,” 648. in Kyrgyzstan,” education ialist alist education in Kyrgyzstan,” 641. Kyrgyzstan,” in education alist greatgame.' omised approximately equal salaries equal salaries approximately omised for influence in the republic.” the in influence for ho chose to go into agriculture or into go agriculture chose to ho at best, a pretense, this extends to to extends pretense, this a atbest, nal, but are generally predicated on the the on predicated but generally are nal, national government. national t to attend." to t e. ore natural under socialism, and only and socialism, natural under ore rican University of Central of Central University rican Asia, red here because it established the it established redbecause here al donors are far more political and more far are donors al 145 , 16. , , 23-24. , It is clear that these universities is these that clear It ian Slavic University, Slavic ian not do and tuition has shifted almost almost shifted has tuition 147 150 been already has it While But presently, parents 149

Thetheory The Great Great The oreign 146 These CEU eTD Collection state intervenes to administer exams in educati the exams administer to intervenes state language). stimulatory,and att discourse dominates second the and degr of diplomas credibility the eroded has and places to and grades 'selling' examination as such educational of augmenting purpose its original from contr of private practice "the that in implications initiatives enacted to address it or to link it to link or to address it to enacted initiatives in highe corruption with express distaste employers 3.2.1.1. Corruption3.2.1.1. role. a subdued maintains lingeri the while education, higher commodifies and tran the as costs, and associated tuition students' large of t sacrifice members percentages family and 154 Leontiev, “Linguistic Human Rights and Educatio and Rights Leontiev, 154 Human “Linguistic 645. Ibid., 153 DeYoung,post-Soc of 152 paradoxes “Conceptualizing Central in Part with “Education Asia, Mertaugh, 151 3.2.2. Testing as an Access Point (cited somewhere between 53 and 80 percent). 80 and 53 between somewhere (cited r of underemployment is lost, credibility than More Of the state's three functions in language policy: policy: in language functions three Ofstate's the as discusse sources, funding of Thediversification 154 In terms of the state's regulative role, there are there regulative role, ofstate's the terms In 55 icular Reference to the Kyrgyz Republic,” 7.KyrgyzRepublic,” the to Reference icular nal Policy in Russia,” 66. inRussia,” Policy nal other educational reform issues. reform othereducational ialist education in Kyrgyzstan,” 642. in Kyrgyzstan,” education ialist 152 sition to the market economy reevaluates reevaluates economy market the to sition ibutions to schools has been subverted subverted been has schools to ibutions parents, and most students, Although the most coveted schools and programs, and programs, schools coveted most the on system. system. on ees to employers and the public."and the employers to ees ecent university graduates is pervasive pervasive is graduates university ecent ention (eg. declaring official (eg. declaring ention state r education, there are very few actual actual very are few there education, r heir small incomes to support to incomes heirsmall resources [...] to corrupt practices practices corrupt [...] to resources ng socialist educational ideology educational socialist ng executive, regulative, and and regulative, executive, d above, has additional negative negative additional has above, d two key points where the the key where points two 153 151

CEU eTD Collection pupils. ( Exam pupils. State Theupdated exam admin nation-wide the in changes upcoming 2012 year. academic final their of Educatio TheMinister scholarships, is determined by Kyrgyzstan's by Nationa determined is scholarships, thousand total) took the exam in Uzbek, exam the took total) thousand preferences. W students' the on depending languages secondary schools. secondary closing on not and of access, key point a content, exam. Strangely, Uzbek-language this mobilizati the regi and state the both in buildings administrative Testirovanie 157 I cannot adequately explain why such protests w protests such why explain adequately cannot I 157 inKyrgyzsta Language Uzbek Over “Row Shoshina, 156 News 24.kg 155 Agency,Sadykov.” “Kanat following section. following for students prepare ofsystem the to capacity the Kyrgyz, of thi Russian, or Uzbek. ramifications The o language primary in the was administered exam the to take a Kyrgyz language portion beginning next ye next beginning Kyrgyz takeportion a to language an average of almost 30 points (where the maximum s maximum (wherethe points of almost 30 average an increasingly complex issue in contemporary Kyrgyzst contemporary in issue complex increasingly tensi framed paper, this of ethnically as scope the Firstly,p school graduating all requires state the Secondly,co the and education, to higher admission or or ORT 157 ). This exam is also administered in Kyrgyz-, in ). Russi is administered also exam This Students who took the exam in the Russian-language in the exam the took who Students Goseksam 156 protests are often held in front of of in front often held are protests ), asserts the Minister,asserts the ), students all require will 56 ons between Southern Kyrgyz and Uzbeks is an is Uzbeks Kyrgyz and Southern between ons ould be directed towards the Uzbek-language within within Uzbek-language the towards directed be ould n.” ani ethnopolitical discourse. discourse. ethnopolitical ani onal capitals to push for the abolition of of abolition the push to for capitals onal such an exam, will be considered in the in considered will be an such exam, down the country's 91 Uzbek-language Uzbek-language 91 country's the down n, Kanat Sadykov, Kanat n, in announced April s reform, particular speculation on on particular speculation reform, s l l Test( on focuses pressure on the test's the on pressure focuses on ar,2013. hile only one thousand (out of forty (out one thousand only hile f instruction of the the school, school, the the of finstruction core is 200) better than those who who those better 200) than is core upils to pass an exam at the end of end of the an exam at to pass upils istered to all out-going school out-going school all to istered Obscherespublikanskoe Obscherespublikanskoe ntingent funding and and funding ntingent 155 Prior to this declaration, this declaration, to Prior an-, or Uzbek- an-, in 2011 in scored CEU eTD Collection 160 Ibid., 34. Ibid., 160 78. Ibid., 159 highest average score are listed in the following t following the listed are in score average highest ORT, the for implementing responsible are unive the took the exam in Kyrgyz exam or the Uzbek. took 158 Center for Educational and Educational Teachingfor Center Assessment 158 political mobilization. political preparation, test qualified or atleast education, Figure 2: Universities with High-Achieving Incoming with High-Achieving Figure2: Universities most pre the listincludes following the exception, or scholarshi standard admission to adhere not does Central of University American commo is which Asia, usa BskkHmnte nvriy144.4 BishkekHumanities University InternationalUniversity of Russian Kyrgyz Russian English Kyrgyz-RussianSlavic Russian Russian Kyrgyz Turkish Russian English(foreign students) Kyrgyz Russian agaeo ntuto HigherEducation Institution Languageof Instruction Admissions Test,”Admissions 34 Utilizing reports from the Center for Educational Centerfor Educational the from reports Utilizing A ygzNtoa nvriy146.7 KyrgyzNational University 151 KyrgyzEconomic University Kyrgyzstan Manas Kyrgyz-TurkishUniversity University 181.9 Kyrgyz State Medical Academy 158 This discrepancy in the provision of quality of quality provision the in discrepancy This 57 Methods, “Results of the Republican-wide Republican-wide the of “Results Methods, does not, however, does similar inspire able. stigious universities in Kyrgyzstan. universities stigious p award procedures. procedures. Withaward p that rsities who accept students with the the with students accept who rsities 159 nly viewed as quite prestigious, but but prestigious, quite viewed as nly Noticeably absent is the the is absent Noticeably Students, Kyrgyzstan (2011) Kyrgyzstan Students, ssessment and ssessment Teaching, who (2011) 168.3 172.6 180.5 admitted1 AverageORT score of st year students 160 CEU eTD Collection languages, Kyrgyz, Russian, or Uzbek, depending on on depending Kyrgyz, or Uzbek, languages, Russian, exam. of the functionality and ofrequired the All history,year the over added have been physics, and on sections optional including sections, Additional prac and comprehension, reading mathematics, parts: educationa of and monitoring accountability improve States United the Developm International for Agency ORT the in participated time. first the for its At 161 Center for Educational and Educational Teachingfor Center Assessment 161 unless otherwise noted. noted. otherwise unless center. urban sever as instruction, of Thelanguage University, State Osh Bishkek, located in is which universities is listed the one of Only misleading. nls Universityof Management and English English (foreign students) (foreign English Kyrgyz Russian Turkish(1 English Kyrgyz Russian Admissions Test,”Admissions 5-6. In June of 2002, thousands ofKyrgyzstan's thousands recent 2002, of In June Despite the wide linguistic accommodation offered accommodation linguistic b wide the Despite Linguistic diversity among the universities listed listed universities the among diversity Linguistic st year students)year s tt nvriy138.9 University State Osh Design Turk Alatoo InternationalUniversity of Ata- Republic thePresident of the Kyrgyz Academyof Management under 58 Methods, “Results of the Republican-wide Republican-wide the of “Results Methods, inception, the exam, funded primarily by by funded primarily exam, the inception, located outside of the capital city ofcapital the outside located optional sections are proctored in three proctoredthree in are sections optional al are often listed, varies by department varies department by often listed, alare chemistry, biology, German, English, the South and is the second largest and is the South the s to increase the relevance or relevance the increase to s tical grammar in the mother-tongue. the in grammar tical l performance, consisted of three of three consisted performance, l ent (USAID) and striving to to striving and (USAID) ent the students' the preferences. is evident, yet perhaps perhaps yet evident, is secondary school graduates graduates school secondary 139.6 139.7 140.1 yORT, the atthe succeeding 161

CEU eTD Collection departments within which students can thrive withou thrive students can within which departments uni attend. multilingual many to are order in There de have still to or will she he funding, subsidized ORT a high receives Kyrgyz in thus score or Uzbek, difficult be profoundly Russ without can university 59 velop sufficient Russian-language skills sufficient velop Russian-language versity options, but limited limited but options, versity ian-language skills. If a student skills. ian-language qualifying for admittance and admittance for qualifying t this linguistic capital. this linguistic t CEU eTD Collection contribute to conceptual confusion among policy mak policy among confusion to conceptual contribute ethnicity,self-identif language, and and ethnicity assumptions hard-line problematic. are These nation comb state of the domain as an articulated identity Primarily, Soviet rule. of and terminology ideology nati diverse of institutionalization in its capital not existing undermines potentially Nation-building unp is exceptionally experiences lived and outcomes formidab the Furthermore, building. the undertaking nation kind as of to what remains question the but CONCLUSION symbolic capital. symbolic altered both reaction the which ways in the foresee for out-migration rapid events, current to response policy Often, undermined. were reproduction social th and values meanings the upheaval, linguistic and of nationhood. model Soviet the of thispol axis At First of all, the institutionalization of these val of institutionalization the Firstof all, Educational reforms in Kyrgyzstan in as expected, reforms are, Educational Most influential in this puzzle remains the challen the remains this puzzle in Mostinfluential As these capitals shifted, key transformations can can key transformations shifted, these capitals As 60 onalizing values. values. onalizing ication and ascriptive categories, all all categories, and ascriptive ication example, without the capacity to capacity the without example, ined with the very notion of a 'titular' a 'titular' notion of very the with ined is envisioned by the stakeholders stakeholders the by isenvisioned itical, cultural, financial, institutional, financial, institutional, cultural, itical, and was altered by the production of production altered the by and was the firm stance on ascriptive ethnic ethnic ascriptive on stance firm the at sustained previous mechanisms of of mechanisms previous atsustained ions of social, cultural, and linguistic and cultural, social, of ions of congruence, between state and state between congruence, of formulations were developed in in developed were formulations le gap between envisioned policy envisioned legap between redictable in the transitional context. context. transitional the in redictable ues is influenced by the lingering lingering the by influenced is ues ers and implementing bodies. and implementing ers ges of the transition away from from away ofgestransition the be noted, including the the including benoted, directed at nation-building, atnation-building, directed CEU eTD Collection contribute to social stratification because of the the of because to stratification social contribute educational mutilingual reform, to commitments such accountabi to a commitment demonstrate examinations but disconnect, of this much for blame to primarily diffe languages in ofstate the of each devaluation so increased stage for the sets settings linguistic andeducatio higher of secondary interconnectedness and attributed less cultural or linguistic capital. or linguistic cultural less attributed and depending on the social context, social the on depending mar Kyrgyz- use both and Russian-language Although, poverty in their disadvantaged intersectionally are langua in shifts and multi-directional development, m taking educational institutions of administrators in divide education ofurban/rural the exacerbation 162 Korth, Korth, 162 substantially more Kyrgyz-language secondary school more Kyrgyz-language secondary substantially high and secondary between to disconnect contribute actio such education, for higher materials language i without is that reforms, isolated such of context Kyrgy require to of reforms ramifications potential Withintransformati of this educational context the For the remainder of this analysis, it would be val would it this analysis, of remainder the For Language Attitudes towards KyrgyzAttitudes Russian Language and 162 rural speech patterns are systematically undervalu systematically are patterns speech rural 61 cial stratification and a paradoxical paradoxical and a stratification cial particular conditions present here. present conditions particular nvesting in the development of Kyrgyz- development the in nvesting rent contexts. contexts. rent A is of capacity lack , isolation, and linguistic stigma. stigma. and linguistic isolation, , . ore centralized roles in curriculum curriculum in roles centralized ore al access, politically isolated isolated politically alaccess, z-language testing at all schools. In the schools. atall testing z-language the implementation of nation-wide of nation-wide implementation the ns have the potential to further potential have ns the ge attitudes. Rural areas of Kyrgyzstan areas Rural geattitudes. n. The disconnect between the two the n. between disconnect The er education. education. already er are There policies in to policies Kyrgyzstan continue s throughout the country, the throughout s which for ks a level of prestige or stigma ofor prestige a level ks lity and performance. Despite Despite and performance. lity uable to speculate on the the on to speculate uable on, this essay has explored the the essay explored has this on, ed CEU eTD Collection understood about the fates of both languages and na languages and of both fates the about understood transi of post-Soviet aspect linguistic educational faced. of challenges variety the to adequately Afte Kyrgyzstani the how shown transitional has analysis ba suitable potentially are frameworks multilingual as a functi times, often dominance, elite increased si policies of language exception. fluctuations The e current and this relapses by accompanied often so ineffectual j are they which in the illuminates way off played is often so of Kyrgyzizati Russification littlevalu Kyrgyz is attributed the language where add pressu could reform proposed the schools, Uzbek im minimal have a would reform testing proposed the However,of po waves the articulated, as previously 62 tions, there still remains much to be to much remains still tions,there on of their very flexibility. very their of on Where on, this speculative example example this speculative on, ointly deployed. ointly r continued reflection on this on reflection rcontinued e. In this context where de- where context e.In this nce independence have contributed to to have contributed independence nce ses for educational policies, this this educational policies, for ses vent should not prove to be an to prove should not vent tions. mechanisms fail to respond respond to fail mechanisms re to their existing linguistic context context existinglinguistic to re their pact. For the students of Russian or of Russian students the pact.For licy reforms in Kyrgyzstan are Kyrgyzstan in reforms are licy CEU eTD Collection Bourdieu, Pierre. “The forms of capital,” in capital,” in of forms “The Pierre. Bourdieu, Bourdieu, Pierre and Jean-Claude Passeron. Passeron. Jean-Claude and Pierre Bourdieu, iaik ad. Laada. Bilaniuk, Bilinsky, Yaroslav.Russiano Use the of “Expanding Bourdieu, Pierre. “Social Space and Symbolic Power. Space and Symbolic “Social Pierre. Bourdieu, abr enr.Bernard. 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