sign in sign up
<<
Home , Cecil Fielder, Detroit Tigers, Jack Morris, Mike Ilitch, Sparky Anderson, Tom Monaghan

Visions in Leisure and Business

Volume 14 Number 1 Article 2

1995

A Study of the Holistic and Affective Elements that Influence the Cultural Expression of Sport

David L. Groves Bowling Green State University

Beverly R. K. Zanger Bowling Green State University

Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.bgsu.edu/visions

Recommended Citation Groves, David L. and Zanger, Beverly R. K. (1995) "A Study of the Holistic and Affective Elements that Influence the Cultural Expression of Sport," Visions in Leisure and Business: Vol. 14 : No. 1 , Article 2. Available at: https://scholarworks.bgsu.edu/visions/vol14/iss1/2

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Journals at ScholarWorks@BGSU. It has been accepted for inclusion in Visions in Leisure and Business by an authorized editor of ScholarWorks@BGSU. A STUDY OF THE HOLISTIC AND AFFECTIVE ELEMENTS THAT INFLUENCE THE CULTURAL EXPRESSION OF SPORT

BY

DR. DAVIDL. GROVES, PROFESSOR

AND

MS. BEVERLY R. K. ZANGER, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

DIVISION OF RECREATION AND TOURISM DIVISION OF SPORT MANAGEMENT EPPLER COMPLEX BOWLINGGREEN STATE UNIVERSITY BOWLING GREEN, OH 43403

ABSTRACT influences the culture and how culture · influences sport. This type of information Popular culture is the second largest explore provides a systems perspective of sport . business. Sports industries are one of the enterprises. Economic growth and business foundations of popular culture. There is a performance are prompted by trends in need to -develop a molecular approach to popularity (32). An organization needs to understand the dynamics 9f enterprise understand the elements of popularity in interactions because the nature of the sports order to develop a process for product industry is changing on a daily basis. acceptance. Sport is an important element Traditional methodologies are global and of the popular culture. Some of the· cultural · reactive and not proactive in there ability to issues are the importance of the popularity achieve change. A contemporary approach of sport, primary influences of sport, and is needed in a fast paced industry such as developmental paths of sport popularity sport. ( 11 ). This type of information can be directly translated and applied to management because understanding the INTRODUCTION contextual systems and associated elements helps develop perspective for the structure The primary approaches for studying sport and function of the organization (2, 17). management are business processes. Behav­ ioral approaches have also been used to help understand sport enterprises. A different MANIFEST A TIO NS method that has been successful in understanding other disciplines is a popular The cultural influences of sport are quite culture approach (4, 11, 32). In the popular pervasive (7, 12). The demand for sport culture approach the primary focus is not logos from the professional to the management or behavior but how sport community lev.els is astounding, especially

4 in terms of hats, T-shirts, posters,· clothing, medium for the expression of one's cards, and other types . of souvenirs. individuality and importance (38). For Individuals wish to be identified with sport example, in contemporary cultures teams (3, 40). They support these teams has the aesthetic characteristics to express directly with game attendance or indirectly the sport and culture phenomenon. One of with the expenditure of dollars for the most important elements is symbolism souvenirs. The impact of sports upon because it institutualizes emotion (5). society can be found in general Baseball is an appropriate vehicle to study merchandise, especially in the clothing symbolism in sport and culture relation­ industry (8, 18). Sports trends have in­ ships. fluenced the American public and their fashions. An interesting indicator of sports Baseball has its roots in the Civil War influence upon the American public is the pericxl. The game has been recognized as a nostalgia with sports memorabilia, for unique American institution with export­ example, tradingcards. There has been, and ation to other countries (24, 31). It was will continue to be, a tremendous market for primarily popularized through U.S. presence autographs, , bats, and other items and the evolution of military involvement as associatedwith sport. observed in the Pacific Rim. Changes in baseball have paralleled the changes in the Other reflections of the culture and the subcultures within· the U.S. society. impact of sports are the "hero" syndrome of Baseball has been labeled America's pastime a particular athlete and loyalty to a sport (24). Examples of the involvement of (24, 26, 35). Many of the more successful subcultures are the Negro leagues, Women's ad campaigns have some type of association leagues during World War II, Little League, with a sport hero or a sport. This and (MLB). The association has helped increase the sales of structure of baseball in the culture of the many prcxlucts. These are only a few of the 1990's is rooted in history. Baseball has manifestations of the U.S. culture's love undergone changes without changing (8). It affair with sport (13, 23, 41). remains a traditional basis upon which to measure American (U.S.) culture and is an important element in the 1990's that impacts CULTURE the culture.

The roles of sport within a culture are The tradition of baseball in U.S. culture has symbolism,. escape, family and peer been primarily one of symbolism (2, 36). bonding, vicariously victory through sport, Throughout history sport-related symbolism fantasy, etc. Sport is an arena of has been an important element in cultural interactions, especially for the expression of development. Paramount in the develop­ a spectrum of emotions (2). Formal and ment of cultural and patriotic movements informal competition has been a part of has been the role of symbolism in sport most cultures. This competition has been within society as expressed by tradition and ritualized to emphasize the basic nature of a rules (21, 34). This type of symbolism is culture (28, 31). Competition has been used usually set in the context of a social/bonding as an outlet for the expression of atmosphere and the expressionof emotion in interactions particularly emotions to form a ritualized and familiarscene. and shape a culture (22, 27). Sport is a

5 Baseball as a symbol represents the shared could be developed through the examination values of the culture. This Sport, as a of the affective domain. symbol, gives meaning to an individual's life and allows an interpretation of experiences The affective domain is composed of through emotional participation (1, 10). It emotions that develop a condition or acts as a neutralizing agent for bad times atmosphere for the expression of cognitive and a motivational element for the good and action tendency elements. These are times. Baseball provides a symbolic either holistic or component emotions. It is solution because it allows the individual to important to understand the holistic and live vicariously or play another role or act in component factors that directly affect the another scene (2, 20). Baseball provides a emotional contingency. The purpose of this way of exercising control over one's life study was to understand the holistic and through an interac�ve medium to achieve component elements of cultural expression meaning or add meaning to one's life. of sport, and to develop models based upon the affective domain. The prominence of symbolic inferences in sport guides American leisure (7, 9). The prominence of sportis directly relatedto the CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS emotional appeal, the team concept, and the leisure afternoon experience for family and A contemporary culture analysis is one in friends in a bonding atmosphere. The ebb which the methods are global, deductive, and flow of emotion represent an and qualitative. The researchers were used expenditure of energy and with the peaks as the basic instrumentof interpretation after and valleys represent the endothermic studying the cultural indicators to determine releaseof energy (37). influence and causality. The holistic interpretive levels that were used to determine the extent of involvement were: STRUCTURE value complex, valuing, responding, selected attention, and receiving (Model 1) An appropriate . framework to analyze the ( 16). Instead of using a global approach as cultural styles of sport includes the concepts popular culture a molecular and component employed when studying the values within method was used to determine the specific the cognitive, affective, and action tendency condition that influence decisions in a (a predefined behavior) domains (11). It is regional subculture (33). No component the . expression of these domains in the scales could be identified in the literature. A culture that will give greater understanding conceptual framework was developed in to the sport and its impact upon culture. which major short term elements of ego, Most developed frameworks focus upon the control, love of sport, money, competition, rational or cognitive aspect of sport, and on desire for popularity, nostalgia, and morale the application of these models to business were the primary affective elements processes. Two of the least studied identified as the most important in the dimensions are the affective and the action United States sport culture (Table 1) (14, domains. The juxtaposition of these 15). Within this particular framework, there domains will provide models to explain the were three categories of individuals who impact sport and cultural factors have upon seem to have a primary influence our society. Greater cultural perception owner/management, players, and fans. In

6 order to develop the interpretive component legislation. Baseball's position within the scales, practical examples were used. The culture helps to maintain the exemption positions on the scales were identified in from anti-trust legislation by Congress (25, terms of characteristics and manifestations, 34). especially at the ends of the continuum. In the current study, the characteristics and In an effort to further delimit the study, a manifestations of the subjects were case study of the Tigers baseball discussed in order to positionthe subjects on team was selected. Historical events were the scale. The characteristics and correlated with the affective elements (39). manifestations used to position the owner/ An interpretation of these events was management, players, and fans on the sequestered from the cultural expression or interpretive scale were: 1) Owner/ indicators studied. The primary influences Management--marketing and advertisement used as an indication of baseball's influence campaigns, promotions, player negotiations, upon the Detroit area were characterized by employee relations, sponsor relations,media owners, players,_ and fans. Culture is an relations,and stadium relations; 2) Players-­ - ever-shifting dimension and must be negotiations, media relations, endorsements, continuously examined through a time trading cards, and memorabilia; and 3) . The recent events in the change of Fans--souvenirs, food purchases, clothing, ownership from Monaghan to Hitch makes slogans and titles, trading cards, stadium Detroit an excellent case study ( 6, 17, 29). relations, movies, and language (7, 9, 12). These indicators denoted the level of emotional involvement related to behavior. CONTENT ANALYSIS The developed framework was used primarily as an interpretive tool after In order to develop a perspective on events studying the cultural expressiveness of sport during the Monaghan and Hitch Eras, the was studied. Baseball was selected as the Detroit News and Free Press and llSA sport to study becauseit represents a cultural Today were the primary sources that were experience from Little League to the reviewed. Other sources included the professional level. Much of the U. S. Chicago Tribune, the Kalamazoo Gazette, population has experienced baseball, and the National (New York), _ Newsweek, they can relateto the emotionof the sport as Oakland Press,Unobstructed View, and The players and/or spectators ( 10, 30). Baseball Washington Post. A content analysis ap­ has a dominating influence upon the culture, proach was used to identify significant and the various ramifications can be seen events. A timeline of significant events was fromyouth through adulthood. developed and basic themes isolated. (Time Line of Significant Events) Each of the Baseball was popularized during the Civil events in isolation does not have much War and has spread well beyond the United meaning, but when the events are viewed on States, and has been carried through various a continuous basis and they are repeated a wars to the Pacific Rim and Europe (24 ). number of times, they become significant. The sportcan be characterized as a typically American game and pastime. Baseball also RESULTS has the distinction of being one of the few businesses that is recognized as a de facto Findings from significant events from the monopoly, and exempt from anti-trust content analysis indicated that there were

7 three primary actors: owner/management, were investigated in relationship to their players, and fans. The fans include those cultural expression and impacts. When the who do and do not attend the owner/management perspective was baseball games. The fans is an encom­ analyzed during the Monaghan era, the level passing term word that includes the Detroit of commitment to attend baseball was general public. The following were presentin spite of competing stimuli (Model important themes of the significant events 1). The owner/management perspective isolated: indicated a low level of commitment that was basically financial and promotional. Of 1. The owner's ego is veryimportant to the component elements, the Monaghan management style. management style was found to have an 2. Owners/managementare protecting arrogantego, an autocraticstyle of control, a their interestsat any cost, regardlessof the promoter position of love of sport, profit players' or fans' perspective. motive toward money, personal pride on the 3. Players are demanding rights. basis of competition, a contemporary 4. Players arecritical of owner's position on nostalgia, and a fame position comments, especiallywhen they are for popularity (Table 1). In the Ilitch era of criticizedin the press. ownership, the primary commitment was 5. The of the ball club can valuing (Mcxlel 1). This value base was a serveas an mediator betweenmanagement commitment from the owner and and the players. management to identify strongly with the 6. Fans arevery active on the issue of a Tigers. The valued identification indicated new ballpark. a desire for a baseball association that 7. Governmental officialsare directly related to Ilitch as a minor league supportive of the owners/management player in the Tiger organization as well as to positions. his financial interest in developing 8. Redevelopment is a critical issue . Ilitch has had a con­ regardingto wherea new ballpark is placed. tinued promotional interest in his pizza prcxluct through sport. In the component Of the significant events, the oqe issue on assessment, the Ilitch management style had which owners/ management, players, and an anonymous position on ego, a democratic fans are strongly divided is the issue of a position on control, a purist position on new ballpark:. The other issue that seems to sport, an investment position on money, a be critical is the typeof management and the team approach to competition, a heritage relationships with players and fans. Players style on nostalgia, and a low popularity and fans want some degree of control profile (Table 1). The transition in owner­ placement of a ballpark. ship from Monaghan to Hitch had the largest differences on the short-tetm elements in Results from the contextual analysis are relation to ego, control, money, and discussed according to owner/manage­ competition. ment, players, and fans. An analysis of the Monaghan era ownership of the Tigers and The Monaghan management style was less the beginning of the Ilitch-era ownership compatible with the Detroit culture than was was conducted (26, 29). Holistic and the Ilitch management style. Detroit culture component elements were examined has been characterized as a management/ respectively. Both elements and factors labor, ethnic, auto city with a simplistic

8 approach to relationships and traditions. competition, a contemporary approach to The culture has reflected fierce loyalty and nostalgia, a low profile on popularity and staunch independence. Changes needed to self-indulgence on morale (Table 1). be initiated from within and could not be imposed by an outside authority or power. During the Hitch era, the players had a Tiger fansof the city of Detroit have wanted middle position on ego between anonymous some type of control over the destiny of and arrogant, a middle position on control their ball club. Relationships have been between individual and command, a middle equated with management/labor relations position between promoter and purist on because this was the fans' perspective. love of sport, an investment position on Large companies and unions have been an money, a team approach to competition, a important part of the Detroit culture, and middle position on nostalgia between these relationships transferredinto the sports contemporary and heritage, a middle community. When an autocratic style of position on popularity between low profile management was used, it was unsuccessful and fame, and a middle position on morale in the Detroit culture. The Ilitch between self-indulgence and loyalty (Table management style was more conciliatory 1). The differences between the Monaghan and, as a result, has been more successful. and Hitch eras for the players were on ego, The breakdown of relationships with the nostalgia, desire forpopularity, and morale. Monaghan regime allowed a new ownership with an aspect of compromise to be an A primary question was the compatibility almost immediate success. between the players and the culture of Detroit. During the Monaghan era, the Players' primary commitment under the primary focus was to change the Monaghan era was also selected attention, organization from one of ballplayers with a which indicated attention to business when work ethic to a ball club of stars. The the circumstances were favorable (Model 1). mediating forcewithin this organization was The primary dimension of player , the manager, who was commitment to win had be present to able to keep a balanced perspective during develop a competitive edge. This the Monaghan management period (19). competitive edge was present in the mid- Anderson was able to use a combination of 1980s but was not present during the work ethic and star players that was both Monaghan ownership. During the Ilitch era, compatible to management as well as to the the primary commitment was valuing larger community of Detroit. When Bo (Model 1). A new commitment of identity Schembechler was employed, the autocratic developed a new sense of pride in the Tiger management style was doubled. Sparky· name. With the Ilitch ownership, there has Anderson could no longer maintain been a renewedsense of hope. This valuing homeostasis. In the Hitch era, the ballplayers commitment by the players could increase were blue collar. A blue-collar player · can confidence and competitive desire. The be characterized as one with a good work players during the Monaghan era primarily ethic, and a loyal team player. They also had an anonymous position on ego, have paid their dues primarily through the command element on control, a neutral farm system and have come up through the position on love of · the sport between rank and file. Because Detroit is primarily a promoter and purist, a profit motive on union town that understands the work ethic, money, personal pride relation to there was a congruence between the

9 ballplayers and Detroit fans. The greatest a length of time before negative motivation influence on the players was morale. was evidenced. Fans were seeking success Morale created an environment for players through their ball team. As a result, the to reach maximum potential and greaterjob owners and players were a motivational satisfaction, and work together to achieve a factor in the community. During the latter goal. phase of the Monoghan era, fans were angry, and there was a feeling of defeatism. For fans, in the Monaghan era, the When the ownership changed to Ilitch, there commitment was again selected attention has been a new pride in the Detroit that represented a commitment based on colllillunity. Changes have occurred, and finances and promotion (Mcxlel 1). During ball games have become more family the Ilitch era, the primary commitment level oriented. The primary variables that have was valuing, which was based upon the influenced the fans were the desire for concept of individualization (Mcxlel 1). In popularityand success of their team. the Monaghan era, the component elements indicated that arrogance was related to identity, command was related to control, IMPLICATIONS promoter was the primary element of love of sport, necessity was the ingredient in It is the interactions of the owner/man­ money, heritage was related to nostalgia, agement, players and fans that ultimately fame was associated with popularity, and have developed the role of baseball within a self-indulgence was related to morale (Table culture (Mcxlel 2). For ownership, the 1). During the Ilitch era, the component primary element in Detroit was control, for elements indicated that anonymous was the the players it was morale, and for the fans it primary element of ego, an individualistic was popularity and success. When the fans perspective was the primary influence of and the ownership moved in opposite control, purist was the associated ingredient directions, the impact was frustration and with love of sport, disposable income was disappointment. When the goals of the related to money, heritage was the essential ownership/management, players, and fans ingredient in nostalgia, fame was the are more congruent, there was a positive primary influence of popularity, and loyalty impact upon the community. Spoit has was the essential ingredient in morale (Table brought a community together to overcome 1). The important variables with the largest differences. The primary emotional attach­ differences were: ego, control, money, and ments werehope and pride, which translated morale. into a new developmental cycle for the culture. Owners and players had a profound The fans in Detroit vicariously have lived influence upon the motivation of fans, their lives through the success or failure of culture, and the community. the team, indicating positive and negative motivation. In order to obtain this feeling Cities such as Baltimore, , the fans of Detroit have spent their , and Buffalo have similar disposable monies and more to attend a cultures. The nature of these cities often baseball game. If the team wins, the city rise and fall on the success of their culturally has taken on a feeling of success and a new compatible sport endeavors. One of the atmosphere for development and pride. If outcomes is motivation. Motivation, in this the team loses, the fans were supportive for context, is the desire to achieve and the

10 confidence to carry out the plan of action. and there has been a renewed interest in Baltimoreand Cleveland have new ballparks baseballand the city's development.

REFERENCES 1. C. I. Bailey and G. H. Sage, V aloes Communicated by a Sports Event: The Case of the Super Bowl, Journal of SportBehavior , Vol. 11(3), pp. 126-143, 1988.

2. L. G. Bolman and T. E. Deal, Modem Approaches to Understandin� and Mana�n� Ot:�anizations, Jossey-Bass Publishers, San Francisco, 1984. 3. N. R. Branscomb and D. L. Wann, Positive Social and Self Concept Consequences of Sports Teams Identification, Journalof Sportan d Social Issues, Vol. 15(2), pp. 115-128, 1991.

4. R. Brunt,Engaging With the PopularAudiences forMass Culture and What to Say About Them.In L. Grossberg, C. Nelson, and P. Treichler,C ulturalS tudies, Routledge, Chapman, and Hall, Inc., New York, New York, pp. 69-76, 1992.

5. T. Callahan, America'sSupersymbolism, U.S. News and World Report, Vol. 110(3), p. 60, 1991.

6. H. Collingwood, Is Buying a Ball Club a Fool'sGame, Business Week. Vol. 3279(August), p. 106, 1992.

7. G. E. Dickerson, TheCinem a of Baseball; Ima�es of America, Meckler, Inc., Westport, , 1991.

8. M. Dyreson,The Emergence of Consumer Cultureand the Transformationof Physical Culture: American Sport in the 1920's, Journal of SportHi story, Vol. 16(3), pp. 261-281, 1989.

9. H. Erickson, Baseballin theMovies: A Comprehensive Reference, 1915-1991, McFarland Jefferson,North Carolina, 1992.

10. G. A. Fine, Withth e Boys; LittleLea� ue Baseballand Preadolescent C ulture, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois, 1987.

11. J. Fiske, Cultural Studies and the Culture of Everyday Life, In L. Grossberg, C. Nelson, and P. Treichler, CulturalS tudies, Routledge, Chapman, and Hall, Inc., New York, New York, pp. 154-164, 1992.

12. L. Frank, Playin� HardBall; The Dynamicsof BaseballFol k Speech, P. Lang, Inc., New York, New York, 1983.

13. B. Garfield,A's Get Major LeagueHit fromGoodby Campaign, Advertisin� A�e, Vol. 64(March),p. 50, 1993.

11 14. J. 0. Gaylord, Jr. and D. L. Groves, Framework Development forIsolating the Important Factors to the Formationand Development of ProfessionalSport Leagues, Jo urnalo f Hospitality and LeisureMarketin� , Vol. 1(4), pp. 11-39, 1993.

15. D. L. Groves, An Analysis at the Louisiana World Exposition: A Consumer Perspective, Visions in Leisurea nd Business, Vol. 3(4) and Vol. 4(1), pp. 70-89, 1985.

16. D. L. Groves and H. Kahalas, A Methodto Determine Personal Values, Journal fo EnvironmentalMana �ement, Vol. 4, pp. 303-324, 1976.

17. J. Gusser� Phillies Fit Well in Philly, Toledo Blade,October 12, pp. 19, 22, 1993.

18. S. Hardy, Adopted by all Leading Clubs: Sporting Goodsand the Shaping of Leisure, 1800-1900.For F un and Profit, R. Butsch, Temple University Press,Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, pp. 71-104, 1990.

19. L. H. Kahn, Managerial Quality, Team Success, and Individual Player Performance in Major LeagueBaseball, Industrial and LaborRela tions Review, Vol. 46(3), pp. 531-547, 1993.

20. D. A. Karpand W. C. Y oels, Sport and Urban Life,Journal of Sporta nd Social Issues, Vol. 14(2), pp. 77-107, 1990.

21. A. M. Klein, Su�arBall; TheAm erican Same,th e Dominican Dream, Yale University Press, New Haven, Connecticut, 1991.

22. P. Lawton, Sports and the American Spirit: Michael Novak's Theory at Culture,Ph ilosophy Today, Vol. 20(Fall), pp. 196-208, 1976.

23. G. Levin,Baseball's Opening Pitch: Winning Over New Fans, Advertisin� A�e, Vol. 64(April),pp. 1, 42, 1993.

24. P. Levine, A, G, Spauldin� and the Riseo f Baseball;T he Promise of American Sport, OxfordUniversity Press, New York, New York, 1985.

25. J. W. Markham, BaseballEco nomics and PublicPo licy, Lexington Books, Lexington, Massachusetts, 1981.

26. K. V. Meier, The Ignoble Sports Fan, Journal of Sportsa nd Social Issues, Vol. 13(2), pp. 111-119, 1989.

27. M. Morse, Sport as a Model forCultural Interaction: The Classic Maya Fall Game, Journal of Sporta nd SocialIss ues, Vol. 16(1), pp. 34-48, 1992.

28. K. Nakornhet, Cultures and Sports Preference,A sian Folklore Studies, Vol. 48(1), pp. 107- 121, 1989.

12 29. M. O'Neal, Pizza Pizza.and Tigers, Too,Busine ss Week, September, pp. 108-109,1992.

30. F. Owen, Teen-a�e BaseballSt ories, Grosset and Dunlap, New York, New York, 1948.

31. B. B. Rader, American Sports; Fromthe A�e of FolkGam es tothe A�e of Televised Sports, EnglewoodCliffs, New : Prentice Hall, 1990.

32. E. D. Randall, Pop CultureLights Fire Under Top Performers, USA Today, January 3, p. 3B, 1994.

33. M. Roche,Mega-e vents and Micro-mcxiernization: On the Sociologyof the New Urban Tourism, British Journalof Sociolo�y, Vol. 43(4), pp. 563-600,1992.

34. G. W. Scully, The Business of MajorLea�u e Baseball, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois, 1989.

35. D. Shogan, Trusting Paternalism? Trust as a Condition forPaternalistic Decisions, Journal ofPh ilosophy of Sport, Vol. 18, pp. 49-58, 1991.

36. S. S. Slowikowski, Cultural Performance and Sports Mascots, Journal of Sportand Social �' Vol. 17(1), pp. 23-33, 1993.

37. J. A. Somers and M. E. Halt, What's in a Game? A Study of Games as an Instructional Methcxiin an Adult EducationClass, InnovativeHi�her Education , Vol. 17(4), pp. 243-257, 1993.

38. N. Trujillo and B. Knzek, Emotionality in the Stands and in the Field: Expressing Self Through Baseball, Journalof Sport and Social Issues, Vol. 18(4), pp. 303-325, 1994.

34. C. S. Van Doren, Pan Am's Legacy to World Tourism, Journalof Travel and Research, Vol. 26(Summer), pp. 3-12, 1993.

35. D. L. Wann and N. L. Branscombe,Sport Fans: Measuring Degree of IdentificationWith Their Team, InternationalJournal of Sport Psycholo�y, Vol. 24(1 ), pp. 1-17, 1993.

36� J.M. Winski, Impressionism Makes its Mark on the National Pastime, Adyertisin� A�e, Vol. 63(34), pp. 52-54, 1992.

13 Model l Affective Domain-holistic Factor

Core Values

Value complex--Sufficient commitment to an object to build a philosophy of life upon commitment.

Organization--Sufficient commitment to an object to seek to convert others to the cause.

Peripheral Values

Valuing--Sufficient commitment to an object to id�ntify with it.

Responding--Seeks out object and gains satisfaction from working with it.

Selected attention--Attends to stimuli, when the circumstances are favorable.

Receiving--Toleratea the presence of an object.

14 A TIMELINEOF SIGNIFICANTEVENTS

8/11/84 Fetzersells team to Monaghan. 9/19/84 Tigers win A. L. Title. 10/15/84 DetroitTigers win /. 10/16/84 Fans riot after Series win. 10/16/84 DetroitTigers have encountered free agency problems. 5/06/85 DetroitTigers close bleachers becauseof rowdy fans. 12/20/86 Morris claims owners collaborating to keep salarieslow. 2/14/87 JackMorris wins arbitration. 10/05/87 DetroitTigers win A L. East Title. 8/11/88 Intangible makes ball club great/SparkyAnderson. 10/13/88 Monaghan criticizesGibson. 3/19/89 Governorpledges mon�y fornew stadium. 5/26/89 SparkyAnderson takes leave of absence. 6/07/89 Sparky Anderson returnsand hopesto turnteam's losing streakaround. 5/11/90 is hired. 5/23/90 SparkyAnderson talks aboutlosing season and managing career. 5/23/90 ' lockerroom incident is defended by . 10/04/90 Cecil Fielder hits 50th homer. 10/30/90 Bo has new management plan. 11/21/90 Cecil Fielder places 2nd in MVP voting. 12/20/90 ErnieHarwell is firedby WJR. 12/21/90 Survey shows fans do not like K H. firing. 12/28/90 Aguire will try to buy team. Offerfalls on deaf ears. Has Coleman Young's support. 1/08/91 WJR admits being behindfiring of E.H. 1/08/91 General manager quits. 2/21/91 Fetzer's lifeis reviewed as broadcaster and team owner. 4/19/91 Wayne County officialsplan downtown anchor to keep ballpark in city. 4/23/91 Bo makes 90-day demand fordecision. 5/19/91 New stadium is centerpiece of downtown development. 6/06/91 Ballpark will befunded by club. 6/11/91 Nationaltrust for historic preservation/stadium/ endangeredplaces. 6/11/91 Engineering study suggests stadium renovation not practical; new stadium to be built in suburbs. 7/25/91 Owner conflictwith city over ballpark site. 10/03/91 · Bo rejectsdowntown sites, new stadium to bein suburbs. 10/04/91 Bid forTiger's turneddoes. Local investors. 10/08/91 ErnieHarwell's last day. 10/08/91 Stadium room and tax will beapproved as long as stadium goesdowntown. 10/16/91 Team is not forsale. 10/24/91 Monaghan might sell. Team is distractionfrom pizza business. 2/27/92 LouWhitaker cannot negotiate contractbecause team forsale. 2/28/92 confirms desire to sell. 3/21/92 City council allocatesIlitch's Olympic Arenas S500,000

15 5/05/92 E. H. broadcasts forAngels. 6/13/92 Barrocasolicit $5 million fromAmerican League. 7/03/92 are sold 125 million. This will not help Tigers' sale. 7/08/92 Farmsystem changes in philosophy!fravisFryman. 7/09/92 Ilitchbuys soccerteam. 7/10/92 Public image in frontoffice/do not care. 8/02/92 Build image beforeballpark. Advice to Ilitch. 8/04/92 Bo Schembechleris fired. 8/07/92 Controversyensues over Bo's firing. 8/07/92 Bo preparesto sue Tigers. 8/08/92 Boardchairman fired. A waitingleague approval for sellingof team. 8/21/92 buys Tigers for$85 million. 8/26/92 Ballparkis important to Ilitch. 8/27/92 New management team. Innovator and builder. 8/27/92 New owner is Mike Ilitch. 8/27/92 Will never move team out of city. May build new stadium. 8/28/92 Ilitchwants to Fox and Tigers/team effortneeded. 9/21/92 Leaderspraise new stadium downtown. 10/23/93 New riverfrontstadium dream. 1/08/93 Fans say Fielder worth every penny. 1/08/93 Fielder signs $36 million contract. 1/08/93 Ilitch puts $8 million in stadium. 2/27/93 Ilitchstudies stadium location/nearFox. 5/02/93 Ilitchcares and fanscare. 10/15/93 receives contract. 11/03/93 signs contract. 3/16/94 Younger players arein limelight. 5/18/94 Lead American Leaguein runs scored. 6n/95 Key to winning is pitching/Detroitneeds pitching. 1/3/95 Governor of supports new stadium in downtown. Ilitch and mayor say to stadium spur development. 3/6/95 SparkyAnderson refusesto play with replacement player.

16 TABLE 1 INTERPRETIVE SCALES*

owner/Management Elements M Ego/Image Anonymous 1----/----- Arrogant M Control/Others Democratic -----/----- Autocratic I M Love of Sport Purist -----1----- Promoter M Money Investment 1----/----- Profit/Mach. M Competition Team -----/----- Personal Pride I M Nostalgia Contemporary -----/1---- Heritage M Desire for Popularity Low Profile -----/----- Fame I Players

Elements M Ego/Talent Anonymous 1----/----- Arrogant M Control/Self Individual -----1----- Command M Love of Sport Purist -----/----- Promoter I M Money/Income Investment 1----/----- Profit/Mach. Competition Team -----/----� Personal Pride I Nostalgia Contemporary -----/1---- Heritage Desire for Popularity Low Profile �----/----- Fame M Morale Self-Indulgence -----/1---- Loyalty Fans

Elements M Ego/Identity Anonymous Arrogant -----/-----I M Control/Influence Individual -----/----- Command M Love of Sport Promoter Purist -----/-----I M Money/Cost Disposal Necessity -----/-----I . M Nostalgia Contemporary Fame -----/-----I M Morale Self-Indulgence Loyalty -----/-----I *M Monoghan I Ilitch

17 Model 2

MotivationModel

Owner/Management Players (Control) (Morale)

Fans Motivation (Success)

Community Development

18