EVALUATION OF THE USE OF RADIO MESSAGES IN COMBATING RIVER BLINDNESS IN KWARA AND NIGER STATES
BY
ESSIEN, COLEMAN FIDELIS PG/MA/13/66058
DEPARTMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION FACULTY OF ARTS UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA
JULY, 2016 TITLE PAGE
EVALUATION OF THE USE OF RADIO MESSAGES IN COMBATING RIVER BLINDNESS IN KWARA AND NIGER STATES
BY
ESSIEN, COLEMAN FIDELIS PG/MA/13/66058
A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF POST GRADUATE STUDIES, UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF MASTER OF ARTS DEGREE IN MASS COMMUNICATION
SUPERVISOR:
DR. A. C. EKWUEME
JULY, 2016
i CERTIFICATION
This project is an original work of Coleman Fidelis Essien, with Registration Number
PG\MA\13\66058. The work embodied in this research project is hereby certified as having met the requirements of the Department of Mass Communication, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
______Dr. A.C. Ekwueme Research Project supervisor date
______Dr. Greg Ezeah Head of Department date
______External Examiner date
ii DEDICATION
This project is dedicated to almighty God for the wisdom and strength He granted to me to complete this programme successfully.
iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr. A.C. Ekwueme, for his continued support during this once in a lifetime learning experience. I thank you for helping me to complete this
Iproject, for challenging me and guiding me, for giving your time and extensive knowledge to this project. Your passion for health communication in rural communities is an inspiration to me.
My thanks also go to my incredible friends and colleagues in the Department of Mass
Communication for their meaningful contributions towards the success of this project. And very importantly, thank you to Dr. L.I. Anorue who helped me understand and truly appreciate research methods, thank you for being so willing to give your time and guidance. I would like to thank the communities in all the six Local Government Areas both in Kwara and Niger States, for extending such kind hospitality to me during my fieldwork. Thank you to my fellow colleagues who so willingly assisted one way or the other. I am also indebted to my entire lecturers for their useful suggestions, advice and comments.
I do acknowledge the warm and sustained support of my wife and children, for their patience and understanding during the one year programme. May God almighty bless my entire family.
Finally, I thank Federal University of Technology, Minna for granting me study fellowship to enable me pursue and complete the one year programme successfully.
iv TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page i
Certification ii
Dedication iii
Acknowledgements iv
Table of Contents v
List of Tables vii
Abstract ix
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem 5
1.3 Objectives of the Study 6
1.4 Research Questions 6
1.5 Significance of Study 6
1.6 Scope of Study 7
1.7 Operational Definition 8
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 History of Radio in Nigeria 9
2.2 Radio and Health Messages 10
2.3 Community Radio and Health Messages 15
2.4 Radio Drama and Health Promotion Strategies 17
2.5 Pathological and Entomological Approaches 24
2.6 Theoretical Framework 31
v CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY 3.1 Research Design 35
3.2 Population of Study 36
3.3 Sample Size 36
3.4 Sampling Technique 39
3.5 Measuring Instrument s 45
3.6 Sampling Technique for Qualitative Analysis 45
3.7 Reliability and Validity of Instruments 45
3.8 Method of Data Collection 47
3.9 Method of Data Analysis 47
CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND RESULT Data Presentation, Analysis and Result 48 4.8 Research Question 1 55
4.13 Research Question 2 60
4.20 Research Question 3 68
4.23 Research Question 4 72
4.26 Research Question 5 76
4.31 Discussion of Findings 82 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 Summary 88
5.2 Conclusion 90
5.3 Recommendations 90 References 92 Appendices 99
vi LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.1: Gender Classification of Respondents 48
Table 4.2: Age of Respondents 49
Table 4.3: Marital Status of Respondents 50
Table 4.4: Educational Level of Respondents 51
Table 4.5 Occupation of Respondents 52
Table 4.6 Local Government of Respondents 53
Table 4.7 Frequency Distribution of Participants in Kwara and Niger States 54
Table 4.8 Do you own Radio Set? 55
Table 4.9 Do you listen to a Radio Programmes 56
Table 4.10 Do you expose yourself to radio messages on health issues 57
Qualitative Analysis
Table 4.11Do you own Radio Set? 58
Table 4.12 Do you expose yourself to radio messages on health issues? 59
Table 4.13 Are you aware of River Blindness programme radio? 61
Table 4.14 If yes, how often do you expose yourself to the programmes
on River Blindness? 62
Table 4.15 How often do radio stations run programme on River Blindness 63
Table 4.16 Would you say that the regularity of these programmes
is adequate to sensitize the audience on River Blindness 64
Qualitative Analysis
Table 4.17 Are you aware of River Blindness programmes o radio? 65
Table 4.18 How often do radio stations run programmes on River Blindness 66
vii Table 4.19 Would you say that the regularity of these programmes is
adequate to sensitize the audience on River Blindness? 67
Table 4.20 Do you think that these programmes have been effective
in the fight against River Blindness? 69
Table 4:21 If yes, How do you rate the effectiveness of these programmes? 70
Qualitative Analysis
Table 4.22 Do you think that these programmes have been effective in the
Fight against River Blindness? 71
Table 4.23 Would you say that these programmes have had some kind of
Influence on health attitude of the audience? 73
Table 4.24 If yes, identify the kind of influence they have had on the audience 74
Qualitative Analysis
Table 4.25 Would you say that these programmes have had some kind of
Influence on health attitude of the audience? 75
Table 4.26 Do you think that the radio stations have some challenges in
their efforts against River Blindness? 77
Table 4.27 If yes, please identify these challenges in their order of magnitude? 78
Table 4.28 In what can these challenges b surmounted? 79
Qualitative Analysis
Table 4.29 Do you think that the radio stations have some challenges in their
efforts against River Blindness? If yes, please identify these
challenges in their order of magnitude? 80
Table 4.30 In what can these challenges b surmounted? 81
viii ABSTRACT
River Blindness (Onchocerciasis) constitutes a major public health problem in rural Nigeria. The disease is associated with variety of adverse social and economic effects on the endemic communities. This study sets out to evaluate the use of radio messages in combating River Blindness in Niger and Kwara States of Nigeria. A total of 385 individuals in endemic communities in the two states were studied. Survey method was employed, using questionnaire and interviews as measuring instruments. Multi-stage sampling was also used in this study for collection of data from the primary source. Simple frequency distribution tables, charts and diagrams were employed for data analysis and presentation. The result of the study shows that majority of respondents in the two states are aware of river blindness through health messages from radio. The result further showed that majority owned radio sets and do listen to health programmes weekly; while there were few challenges faced by radio stations in the area of poor transmission and use of English language for health message. The present study reveals that emphasis on pathological and ontological survey has been more on focus than psycho-social survey. The study among others, recommended that the use of radio messages for teaching and promoting health in river blindness endemic communities should be encouraged, local examples should be the point of focus in using radio drama to sensitize the people, radio messages should be motivating and highly interactive, and more studies on psycho-social survey should be encouraged due to paucity of literature on the use of radio messages in combating river blindness.
ix CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
River Blindness (onchocerciasis), first reported in northern Nigeria in 1908, is now widespread throughout the country. Ocular onchocerciasis, the second leading cause of blindness (OSD) is most widespread in the rain forest and savanna/mosaic areas. In 1956, the estimated number of infected persons was 339,000 and about 20,000 became blind due to onochocerciasis (Budden, 1956). However, following the comprehensive nationwide prevalence survey by the National Onchocerciasis Control programme (NOCP) from 1987 to 1990, it was realized that the disease was prevalent in 32 states. The survey further revealed that nearly 30 million people needed treatment in Nigeria. With this revelation, the international health community – health ministers, donors, non-governmental development partners, UN agencies, health experts and the media converged at Abuja, Nigeria's capital to discuss on how to rid
Africa of the River Blindness scourge. After three days of deliberations, participants at the 16th session of the Joint Action Forum (JAF), the Governing Board of the World Health
Organization, African Programme for Onchocerciasis Control (WHO/APOC) reaffirmed commitment toward ending the socio-economic and human devastation of the blinding disease in
Africa (Ejime 2011).
River blindness is one of the world's major endemic parasitic diseases which affects the eye and can lead to blindness when it reaches an advanced stage in the human body (Edungbola,
1991; Lieze, 1991). In 1999, two agencies, the World Health Organization (WHO) and the
International Agency for the Prevention of Blindness (IAPB), agreed to VISION 2020 - The
Right to Sight. Its goal was to eliminate avoidable blindness by the year 2020. And in 2014, the
1 two agencies again, in partnership, launched the global initiative to eradicate blindness by the year 2020 - VISION 2020, The Right to Sight. They focused on two fundamental areas: health and sight as a human right and tackling a disability, specifically visual disability. These developmental agencies, have sustained the campaign against river blindness in Africa (WHO,
1987).
Carter Center in 2012, estimates that up to 27 million Nigerians live with the disease in different parts of the 32 states and needed treatment. The Center provided health education and
Mectizan treatment to more than 6 million people in more than 8,100 villages. This initiative has however, received quite an appreciable number of support in the last couple of years. This support came from organizations and NGOs based in Nigeria through partnership with the
Center in the fight against onchocerciasis (Carter Center, 1995). The National Onchocerciasis
Control Programme in 1993 reported that the disease is presently at varying degrees in all states of the federation. In Nigeria, over 15 thousand Nigerian rural communities are endemic to the disease (Pond, 1995). The fact that Nigeria is the most onchocerciasis endemic country in the world has prompted the Federal Ministry of Health in the country to embark on control measures
(Gyoh, 1993).
The disease is found mostly in rural agricultural villages that are located near rapidly flowing streams or river areas. It is the second-leading infectious cause of blindness. It is caused by the parasite onchocerca volvulus and is transmitted to humans through the bite of the simulium species of black flies. These black flies are common in fast flowing river areas (WHO,
2015).
Vision is associated with the eyes-part of the facial appearance and wholesomeness and self-esteem. A disfigurement of the eyes is a disability as it results in stigmatization,
2 discrimination, and low self-esteem. This aspect can also be linked to poverty. River blindness is both a cause and consequence of poverty. The disabled suffer from exclusion, in its wider sense, which pushes them into poverty.
River blindness (onchocerciasis) is endemic in some communities in Kwara State.
Edungbola (1982) reported an average prevalence rate of about 64 per cent. Particularly, a prevalence rate of about 68 per cent has been reported in Patigi area, thus making the area one of the most endemic part of Kwara State. The State government has also mapped out strategies to eliminate this debilitating disease in affected communities in the state.
Similarly, Niger State, for instance, has been confirmed onchocerciasis endemic state following a National Survey, (Niger State Strategic Health Development Plan 2010-2015), hence the following statement by Niger State Government:
Niger State Government earmarked N16 million in the 2013 budget to fight blindness in the state. Governor Mu’azu Babangida Aliyu made this known at a three-day free eye care programme organized by Talba Success Movement in partnership with the State Eye Health Programme at Ibeto in Magama Local Government Area. The Governor identified the Eye as one of the most vital component in the human body hence the need to take proper care of it. He used the medium to call on all stakeholders, traditional institutions and philanthropists to prioritize healthcare services in order to achieve a healthy society.
Studies by Galadima, Dada, Maiganda and Opaluwa, (1992) show higher prevalence in males than females in Zaria, Nigeria. Also, similar findings were recorded by
Opaluwa, Galadim, Odama and Nock (1999) in Niger State.
Retired General T.Y. Danjuma in 2010 donated the sum of US$1 million, as a survivor of river blindness. As a young officer in the Nigerian Army, he was infected by the disease and was promptly treated. Following the example of the huge sum of money he donated in 2011, the
Federal government pledged US$5 million to APOC (African Programme for Onchocerciasis
Control) to assist with its control efforts to eradicate river blindness in Nigeria (Sixteenth
Session of the Joint Action Forum (APOC – Abuja, 2010).
3 Similarly, in 2015, a wealthy Nigerian businessman and a philanthropist, Sir, Emeka
Offor, donated $10 million to the Carter Center to support the fight against river blindness in endemic communities in Nigeria. According to a report by the Wall Street Journal, Offor made the announcement of the donation at a ceremony in Atlanta on Friday June, 2015. The gift is the largest the Carter Center has ever received from an African donor. At the ceremony, the founder of Carter Center, former US President Jimmy Carter, said that with Offor’s donation, the Carter
Center could make significant inroads towards ridding Nigeria of the disease. This will also enable them to put river blindness on course for global eradication (Carter Center 2015).
In developing countries, radio messages are the most effective tools of communication in rural areas since they cut across literacy boundaries. Scholars assert that radio broadcast medium is the most appropriate for rural and urban emancipation programme (Kukponiyi, 2000). In the same vein (Moemeka 2012) stated:
Radio beats distance and thus covers a wider spectrum hereby having immediate effect on the target audiences. As a matter of fact, the use of technology, more precisely radio, could be a key strategy in helping to solve some of the challenges faced by those in the health communication field. Radio is also cheap to obtain and widely owned by farmers in rural communities due to the advent of the battery operated transistorized sets. The rural communities have access to information through radio programmes especially on health and related matters that concern them. For instance Rural Radio Forum is the strategy which uses radio to create opportunity for discussion and decision-making for rural groups. The strategy involves a presentation of a regular weekly magazine program to rural audiences formed into listening and active participatory groups. The programs usually comprise rural news, answers to listeners' questions, advice (family, work, health, etc) and discussion.
Interventions, incorporating radio broadcast channels hold considerable potential for health promotion and campaign. It also addresses some of the limitations observed by traditional health communication strategies by increasing the potential for wider coverage, engagement, and participation. In health communication, radio, as information source is important for health promotion, education and campaign. Scholars agree that information sources are essential in
4 public health campaigns because they are seen as the cornerstone for health communication interventions (Kreps & Sivaram, 2009; Okorie, 2011).
1.2 Statement of the Problem
River blindness (onchocerciasis) is caused by a parasitic worm and transmitted by the bite of the black fly, which breeds near fast-flowing water (like the rivers where many communities get water for drinking, washing and bathing in the absence of pipe borne water).
This disease is endemic in some communities in Niger and Kwara States of Nigeria as reported by the World Health Organization and Federal Government of Nigeria. Ukoli (1992) stated that onchocerciasis is of great concern in tropical Africa because it incapacitates a large segment of the adult working population and prevent them from reaching their maximum productive capacity. Children are assigned to assist blind relatives. Eliminating blindness in adults would release these children from such duties giving them the opportunity to go to school. As a matter of fact, communities often flee infected areas, meaning that they will lose their homes, economic activities and access to water, which puts them at risk of other diseases. And with poverty being a cause and effect of blindness, a cycle is created that can be hard for communities to break out of. Available studies on river blindness have shown that little or nothing has been done in combating river blindness through the use of radio messages.
The adoption of radio messages to combat river blindness by public health and non- government organizations reflects a widespread recognition that radio as a tool is increasingly necessary to reach demographics. However, the extent to which radio messages have been used in combating river blindness still remains uncertain. This study aims to fill this gap in literature.
5 1.3 Objectives of Study
1. To find out the extent to which the audience expose themselves to Radio messages on
river blindness.
2. To determine the extent Radio messages are employed to sensitize the people on river
blindness.
3. To find out the nature of these radio messages.
4. To find out how effective these radio messages are.
5. To determine the challenges the radio medium face in this respect.
1.4 Research Questions a) To what extent do the audience expose themselves to Radio messages on river blindness? b) To what extent are Radio messages employed to sensitize the people on river
blindness? c) What are the contents of this Radio messages? d) How effective are these Radio messages? e) What are the challenges the Radio medium face in this respect?
1.5 Significance of Study
Critical analyses of studies carried out on River Blindness revealed that most of them did not look at the use of radio message as a tool for combating the disease. One of the study reviewed focused on “perspectives of Nigerians on prevention of blindness: implications for designing effective eye health education messages”. The aim of the study was to collate enquiries from a cross section of Nigerians on prevention of blindness with a view to drawing
6 out relevant implications for designing appropriate eye health education messages. This research work, therefore advance knowledge in this area.
This study has practical benefits for the fields of health communication and provides insight to the negotiation of communities with disease and disease combating efforts through radio messages. Health messages from radio will be useful in the development of future river blindness activities for Niger, Kwara and other endemic states in Nigeria. The study is intended to tackle the problem of river blindness through the use of radio messages which will bring a permanent solution to the problem of river blindness pandemic in the two states. When the two states are free from river blindness, the affected communities would be gainfully engaged in productive activities thereby reducing high rate of poverty.
Another benefit that would accrue to the people of the two states from this study is that the rural dwellers would rediscover their potential of traditional economic production in their domain. It will as well serve as a weapon in their struggle for good health status, enhance working and living conditions as well as political and human rights. The study will equally contribute to research, radio stations on designing programmes to combat health challenges in the two states.
1.6 Scope of the Study
The study is delimited to only river blindness (onchocerciasis) among neglected tropical diseases (NTD) namely: malaria, measles, polio, meningitis etc. endemic in Niger and Kwara
States. This study focuses only on river blindness because most Nigerian citizens are not aware of river blindness due to less publicity and subsequent neglect of rural dwellers.
7 1.7 Operational Definition
Evaluation: An assessment of the performance of radio messages in sensitizing the people on
river blindness prevention. A review used as the basis for judging the success of a
particular event.
Combating: A battle or fight, struggle, contest, hand-hand fighting, fight or contend with,
oppose in battle, to resist.
Radio: A device that can capture (receive) the signal sent over radio waves and render the
modulated signal as sound. The technology of sound or other signals by
modulation of electromagnetic. A device that transmit radio signal.
Radio Message: The process of sending and receiving messages through the air using
electromagnetic waves. Transmitted piece of information through radio.
Combating: Fighting to bring something to a halt. To stop something unpleasant, or harmful
from happening or from getting worse. E.g. measures to fight river blindness.
River Blindness (Onchocerciasis): A tropical disease caused by the parasitic worm
Onchocerca volvulus. It is transmitted to humans through exposure to
repeated bites of infected blackflies of the genus similium.
8 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
One of the most important aspects of research work involves the review of relevant literature to the study. According to Ali (1996), review of relevant literature is imperative in the early planning stage of the work because it is expected that the review should provide much of the theoretical reference point or basis for undertaking a proposed study. It is also hoped that at the completion of the research work, findings would be linked up with the literature reviewed relevant to the research work that would be carried out.
Therefore the literature review would be focused on the following areas:
2.1 History of Radio in Nigeria
2.2 Radio and Health Messages
2.3 Community Radio and Health Messages
2.4 Radio Drama and Health Promotion Strategies
2.5 Pathological and entomological Review
2.6 Theoretical Framework
2.1 History of Radio in Nigeria
Radio was introduced into Nigeria in 1933 by the then British Colonial Government. It relayed the overseas service of the British Broadcasting Corporation through wired system with loudspeakers at the listening end. The service was called Radio Diffusion System (RDS), and from the RDS emerged the Nigeria Broadcasting Service, NBS in April 1951. The Nigerian
Broadcasting Corporation, NBC came into being in April 1957 through an Act of Parliament No.
39 of 1956. In 1978, the Nigerian Broadcasting Corporation was re-organized to become what is known today as the Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria, FRCN. The NBC was instructed to handover its stations that broadcast on Medium Wave frequencies in the States to the State
9 Governments and it took over Short Wave Transmitters from the States. The Broadcasting
Company of Northern Nigeria, BCNN, merged with the NBC stations in Lagos, Ibadan and
Enugu to become the present day FRCN (Radio Nigeria Online, 2015)
Today, the FRCN, as a public service broadcaster with its headquarters in Abuja and also with National Stations in Enugu, Ibadan, Kaduna, and Gwagwalada FCT; plus a Lagos
Operations Office. These National Stations and Lagos Operations Office control all FM/MW/SW stations spread across the country reaching more than 100 million listeners; broadcasting in 15 languages, catering to the diverse broadcast needs of a multi-ethnic Nigerian; uplifting the people and uniting the nation. The Corporation also has four of its stations streaming live audio on the: www.radionigeria.gov.ng.and www.radionigeriaonline.com, thus reaching millions in the world,
(Radio Nigeria Online, 2015).
2.2 Radio and Health Messages
Radio is a popular and ubiquitous medium of mass communication. For now no medium has the potential to reach many people so efficiently for educational, health information, entertainment and political purposes simultaneously (Okoro 2013). Similarly, (Asemah, Anum, Edegoh &
Onyeka, 2013) corroborated this view while saying that radio is easily accessible and affordable, easily understood and accept. It does not demand any complexity in broadcasting or listening.
Health messages can be listened to anytime and anywhere. Similarly, Omenesa (1997) observed that radio programmes are usually timely and capable of extending messages to the audience no matter where they may be as long as they have a receiver with adequate supply of power. The absence of such facilities as road, light and water are no hindrance to radio. As a matter of fact, such obstacles as difficult topography, distance, time and socio-political exigencies do not hinder
10 the performance of radio. He further observed, that illiteracy is no barrier to radio messages since such messages can be passed in the audience own language.
In a study on the use of radio as a tool for rural development in Limpopo Province of
South Africa, overwhelming majority of respondents (100%) had access to radio sets as well as listening to radio programmes on health issues as noted by (Osunkunle 2007).
According to (Asemah 2011), radio is a means of communication through which the individuals share the world around them and beyond their immediate environments”. He stressed that radio in a country should influence social values profoundly and in so doing, improve and strengthen the social and especially the political fabric.
In his contribution to the importance of radio messages in health communication,
Anifowose, (2013) asserted that communication involves the process by which information and understanding are transferred from one person to another. It is the basis for all human interaction for all group functioning. Radio remains a medium in development communication usually employed by the development officers or experts for the dissemination of relevant development messages, especially for rural audience. He further argued that radio can be multi-faceted as among other things, it can serve to pass messages, improve the capability of calling upon and organizing groups and organizations, enlarge the forum for social dialogue, provide effective capability building of the community to raise awareness and knowledge of community issues, bring the people’s voice to the higher level of their political structure and mobilize community to tackle issues.
Radio broadcasting has been identified as a veritable channel for such interactive system that is intended to establish development communication processes in impoverished communities
11 UNESCO (1965). In its effort to make meaningful contributions to the development of the rural poor, UNESCO went further to say:
Effective communication with rural people and their active participation in the life of their country are essential for all developing societies. Radio broadcasting, when skillfully used, has proved to be the most effective medium of communication with these far-flung populations.
According to Moemeka (2011), the three most appropriate local radio strategies suitable for rural healthcare and other social economic developments in Nigeria are the threefold strategies out of the five enunciated by McAnany (1973). These are (a) Rural Radio Forum (b)
Radio Schools (c) Radio and Animation. Rural Radio Forum strategy which uses radio to create opportunity for discussion and decision-making for rural groups according to McAnany (1973), involves a presentation of a regular weekly magazine programme to rural audiences formed into listening and active participatory groups. The programme usually comprises rural news, answers to listeners’ questions, advice (family, work, health etc.) and discussion. The groups, usually between ten and thirty listeners each depending on environmental/social-cultural factors, listen to the programmes and discuss their contents under the guidance of a group leader, and then take decisions on the points raised. The leader sends a monthly report to the source of the programmes for review and possible inclusion in subsequent programmes. McAnany (1973) further stressed that the first and perhaps the most subtle yet very important advantage of this strategy is the sense of involvement and self-worth which it engenders in the rural population as a result of its demand for some action-decision, after discussions, by the group. The follow-up of a radio message with localized discussion and decision ensures commitment to agreed actions and consequently to social change.
According to Roy, Weisman & Rogers, (1969) another important feature of the strategy is that it exposes participating group members in the rural areas to information crucial to the rural
12 community thus turning such categories of people into opinion leaders whose views are often respected in the community. He further stressed that the other aspect is that those who do not participate in the programme, can listen to the radio messages and possibly be affected by them.
This is one aspect of the radiation effect of Rural Radio Forums. The last but not the least is that the forum send back reports and messages with which group members express their views and opinions, thus providing the vital feedback which is often lacking in mass media activities.
McAnany (1973) cited in Moemeka (2011) remarks that Radio and Animation which is the third strategy, popularly called Radio Participating Group focuses on promoting among local communities a trained cadre of decision leaders. These leaders are to promote in a non-directive way, a dialogue in which community members participate in defining their local development strategies of their communities. They also put these problems in a wider social context and devising ways to mobilize their people to common actions. The strategy places emphasis on radio defining, but not suggesting, solutions to the people’s problems.
Radio programmes are made for recorded responses to a definite problem given by some member of the listening public. The participating groups then listen to these responses and views; discuss the problem further, thus creating avenues for further responses from the public and subsequently eliciting decisions (McAnany 1973). This stresses the fact that when radio and animation strategy is put in place, no solutions to problems can be successfully imposed on local communities from the outside. The local communities must first arrive at the problem definition and then find its solution on their own. This is bottom-top approach to rural development predicated on the principles of the Democratic Participation Media theory (Mc Quail, 1983).
This theory lays strong emphasis on serving the people according to their well-identified needs
13 and wishes, and with the full participation of the people in every aspect of their community radio station.
Radio disseminated health messages have been found to be more cost-effective than television, as radio can reach people in their homes, cars, or at work. Brief educational radio segments can be inserted between programs during primetime hours, when the maximal number of people are tuned in (Austin, et al. 1980). The authors stressed that several studies have demonstrated that people who listen to the radio have a surprisingly accurate ability to recall details of broadcasts from months earlier; in this way, the study findings support the potential of radio to disseminate health education messages that significantly affect listeners. The use of radio to disseminate health education messages is particularly advantageous because of the wide range of people it can reach. In developing countries, many rural villages do not have access to electricity or television, but battery operated radios are commonplace. Consequently, its ability to reach people in a diverse range of settings has made radio a prime medium for educational initiatives, and various health topics have been addressed through radio programming throughout the developing world (AGADPERS, 2005).
Nwaerondu (2007) strongly believe that radio can also serve as a forum to elicit listeners’ reactions and comments. He pointed out that one successful illustration of the power of educational radio is the Farm Radio Forum, which began in Canada in 1941 as a “radio discussion program” that has paved the way for subsequent programming in developing nations.
The strategies employed by Rural Radio Forum, including the use of numerous types of media to disseminate information, were later adopted in India and Ghana with the aid of UNESCO, an arm of the United Nations.
14 Like any public health campaign, radio interventions must be carefully designed and implemented. Michael Neil outlines the following components necessary for a successful radio intervention in rural settings: Use experienced educators familiar with the local community;
Collaborate with community leaders; Model programmes of existing work that has been successful in the region; Use village “intermediaries” and respect “established and accepted social structures”; “Encourage illiterate members of the communities to communicate their ideas and concerns through trusted villagers, who can act as scribes if required” Nwaerondu & Gordon
(1987). It is also crucial to identify the target audience in order to select appropriate production and transmission styles Bates, (1982).
2.3 Community Radio and Health Messages
Community radio is a highly accessible medium that can reach the whole community, educate and entertain all sorts of people with different educational levels. The greatest effect of entertainment-education is achieved on the level of exposure and awareness. Achieving behavioural change is very difficult, but can be achieved indirectly through radio messages. The most important thing radio can do is stimulating people to discuss (sensitive) issues Moemeka
(1981). This is not as simple as it seems to be, because when issues are too sensitive or opinions are too far removed from those of the listeners, nothing will change and listeners might even stop listening. An important fact in educating through radio is that people, especially young people, want to be entertained or otherwise will not listen Mc Anany (1973). When a message is both entertaining and educating, listeners will have a positive attitude towards the message.
Community radio can be very effective, it is important to know which characteristics determine the success of the medium. Community radio programmes can be quite diverse, varying from local music, roundtable discussions, reports, interviews, talks, call-in programmes and so-called
15 radio soaps. Radio soaps are a type of entertainment-education (or edutainment). As this term says, entertainment-education is both designed to educate and amuse (Singhal, and Rogers,
1999). Nowadays, many radio professionals agree that edutainment is the key to success and should be applied in all radio formats.
The establishment of local radio station or community radio station in Nigeria has attracted diverse opinions from the cross-sections of the country. Quoting the event that led to extinction of community radio in Oyo State, (Moemeka 1987) opined that what we have today is not community radio that is entirely in the control of community members, but rather we have central station broadcasting educational and information messages meant for rural communities from a central point in an urban setting, far removed from the rural environment, thus Schramm
(1964) noted:
An efficient use of mass media for economic and social development implies that they should be as local as possible. Their programmes should originate no farther than necessary from their audiences; the programs should be prepared by persons who understand the culture to which they are speaking, and means should be available for the audiences to report back to the media.
Based on this advice, Schramm (1964) recommended that local radio stations should be built at points where access to them would be easier for rural communities. This was made in recognition of the need for station availability, accessibility of the station to the target audience and ease of participation in every aspect of the work of the station.
According to Moemeka (1987), for a community radio station to operate successfully and to the satisfaction of audiences, it is imperative that the following parameters should function properly. These are a transmitter, affectedness of messages and effectiveness of decisions. The first factor is a transmitter that is capable of taking messages to the target audiences in a clear and audible manner. The second factor - affectedness - is the necessity for messages to be in the
16 code and context that audiences can understand. These two factors – a viable transmitter and affectedness - assure the carrying of messages to target audiences in such a way that they can understand the context and meaning. The third factor is effectiveness that is, ensuring the acceptance of messages and the willingness to act according to the demands of the messages.
This factor, according to Moemeka (1987) is of utmost importance because hearing a message and understanding it-though very necessary and important prerequisites, - do not necessarily assure acceptance of the message. Also, it does not guarantee the willingness of the audiences to act according to the demands of the message. This goal - effectiveness - is better achieved through the reinforcement of interpersonal channels and peer-group intervention which is amply provided for in the local radio strategy structure.
2.4 Radio Drama and Health Promotion Strategies
The use of radio theatre has been introduced into education since the time of John Dewey
(1859- 1952). According to Aristotle (384-322BC) doctrines of catharsis (poetic) reviewed by
Halliburton (1983), a good play purges the spectators of the emotions of pity and fear. He believes that drama may be a guide to good conduct. Not only this, theatre also promotes moral values and culture. It offers the widest scope of learning experience by allowing active and participatory learning. It can also contribute to the fulfillment of educational goals. Perhaps it was the realization of the above and the need to meet the goals of World Health Organization
(WHO) and its declaration that led to employing radio theatre to mobilize the local communities in the Southwestern part of Nigeria to launch a programme litiled “living a good healthy life”.
The WHO declaration says: “the health care system must be based on practical, scientifically sound, socially acceptable method and technology that is universally acceptable to the individual and families in the community. The community must fully participate in the programme at a cost
17 that the community and the country can afford at every stage of development in the spirit of self- determination”, (National Health Policy 1988). This perhaps formed the background for the use of radio theatre in teaching health concepts.
Radio drama or theatre has been successfully used in different countries of the world.
According to Sofowora (2008) on an assessment of the effectiveness of radio theatre in promoting good healthy living among rural communities in Osun State, Nigeria, pointed out that radio theatre was an effective method of promoting healthy living among the rural communities.
A programme titled “Abule Olokemerin” is an interactive radio theatre health programme, aired on the radio all over the Southwestern part of Nigeria. It consists of series of play on family planning, environment, STI, nutrition and HIV/AIDS. It was a programme designed in Yoruba and Pidgin English. It is a health programme on family health, good healthy living and teaching on HIV/AIDS and the various ways to prevent it. The programme was designed and produced by the Society for Family Health in Nigeria. The programme was said to be quite successful in promoting healthy living among the people because of the use of Yoruba and Pidgin English.
This reinforced (Nwosu’s 1990) assertion that one of such problems in communicating social development programmes is the use of correct codes and symbols for communicating messages.
The messages according to him must have some utilitarian value before it can catch the people’s attention, arouse their interests and possibly, move them to action.
Another interesting project titled “communication for healthy living in Egypt” was carried out by Hess, Gill-Dailey and Heck, (2004) to provide health information to families to help them reduce family size, improve maternal health and promote breast-feeding. It was also to improve nutrition and hygiene and, to prevent blood-borne diseases like HIV/AIDS and Hepatitis
C. The communication strategy used in Egypt was built upon three guiding principles:
18 Households as producers of health communication can empower and inform individual families and communities to protect their own health by carrying out simple behaviour and seeking appropriate services. Integration of health content and message from all the major health areas are delivered under the umbrella of “healthy family”. The life stage approach here the family is segmented according to the age-or stage-appropriate needs of each member. This approach is meant to address the needs of each family member while at the same time promoting behavioural changes relevant to the population as a whole (Hess, Gill-Dailey and Heck, 2004). They further stressed that unlike other countries, Egypt employed multi-media approach i.e. television, radio, sports, entertainment education, talk show formats, press inserts, media contests and media coverage of special events. The programme was a huge success.
In the same vein, The BBC World Service Trust began a 15 minutes programme twice weekly to about 10-16 million Burmese people. The purpose of the programme was to raise their awareness about poverty-related health issues including HIV/AIDS and to provide information and practical solution to everyday health care problems (Williams 2003). The radio drama was used to challenge stigmatization and to urge Burma people to accept and help people living with
HIV/AIDS. The use of radio drama has been of great success in promoting positive changes in the health behaviour of the people in many countries. For instance in Afghanistan, Chrommie
(2004) confirmed the successful use of radio to convey health and hygiene messages related to preventing diarrhea diseases in children. The goal of the programme was to reduce infant and child mortality in Afghanistan through prevention and treatment of diarrhea. Equally in Vietnam, there was a research project carried out by the Department of Film and Media Studies, University of Copenhagen. The study was focused on the possibility and the effectiveness of radio drama in
Vietnam where there was a strong media control.
19 Communication Initiative (2004) identified series of Institutional Review on educational drama for development around the world. One thing that was common to all the projects is that the use of radio drama has contributed greatly to improve and change positively, the health behaviour of the people. It was also observed that radio programmes were motivating and elicited behavioural change. However, some schools of thought have criticized its usage. Stacy, et al (2003) argued that drama is not a good method of acquiring knowledge because it can make the learner passive instead of being active learner. However, this researcher believes that radio allows higher interaction and also ensures adequate participation of the rural populace.
Adopting radio drama in promoting health communication has been successfully used in different countries of the world. Studies in a variety of Third World rural settings found that marginal and illiterate groups preferred to communicate face-to-face rather than through mass media or other one-way sources of communication (Okunna 1995). In the world today, popular theatre has been successfully used to increase women's participation and ability to deal with primary healthcare problems.
Rural health problem in Malawi is giving the government a serious concern especially problems arising from a widespread lack of understanding about disease and the correct behavior to prevent its spread and continuous devastating effect on the state of the economy. While the ministry of health in Malawi is attempting to prevent malaria and other communicable diseases by distributing insecticide – treated nets, some communities misuse the nets due to lack of understanding about their purpose (Chancy Mauluka, 2015). However, the Ministry of Health in
Malawi has developed an innovative and highly successful interactive radio programme to educate the people. The initiative, named “Moyo ndi Mpamba”! (Life is Precious!), was showcased from the Johns Hopkins University, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Center for
20 Communication Progammes in May 2015. The edutainment radio drama programme combines the power of entertainment with education to address key issue of malaria, family and maternal planning and other communicable diseases. In each 30 minutes programme, audiences hear about the twists and turns of community life as the characters learn to cope with challenges that reflect the real-life problems of people in Malawi. Listeners were encouraged to respond via sms or
Facebook and a subsequent feeback programme highlighting the audience’s reaction is then aired
Chancy Mauluka (2015).
According to SightSaver, (2015), Guinea Bissau is one of the poorest countries in the world, with 69% of the population living below the poverty line. The impact of river blindness and its devastating effect is tremendous, preventing people from working and trapping them further in poverty in this country. One of the challenges lies in getting positive messages about eye health, screening and treatment across, and with low adult literacy rates, this is often difficult. The innovative solutions according to Sightsaver include:
• Weekly radio programmes on two popular national stations are reaching thousands of people. Listeners can phone in and have their concerns about eye care and treatment answered.
• Local drama group performances are also proving effective. Conducted in local languages, the plays reinforce messages about good hygiene and encourage community discussions.
• Training community members such as teachers, journalists and community volunteers is helping to raise awareness about river blindness and trachoma and inspire more people to seek eye care. An estimated 700,000 people so far have received important information about river blindness and trachoma because of these measures. And the project doesn’t stop there. The
21 project is having a huge impact and changing the lives of individuals, families, and whole communities.
The mass media comprise all technological or mechanical devices engaged by a source with the intent of reaching a diversified and heterogeneous audience with messages simultaneously. Okunna (1999) believes that mass media are a variety of channels through which mass communication takes place.
The mass media helps health workers expand their audience reach, which is crucial, considering the fact that face-to-face channels of communication often require too many human resources and reach only a small number of people in large, underserved rural areas (Austin, and
Husted, 1998). The mass media provides an important link between the rural residents and vital health information. The mass media, in the form of radio and television, are an effective way to persuade target audiences to new behaviours, or to remind them of critical information. Besides informing the public about new diseases and where to seek help, they can also keep the public updated about immunization campaigns.
In handling the Ebola pandemic in Nigeria, Akpobo (2015) noted that health and government officials fully appreciated the importance of communication through the various media channels in reaching the citizenry. They rallied communities to support contain measures, house-to-house information campaigns and messages on local radio stations and television, in
English and local dialects were used to explain the level of risk, effective personal preventive measures and actions being taken for control. The seriousness with which media health communication on Ebola was undertaken underscores the seriousness of the pandemic and the enormous danger it pose to sustainable health development in Nigeria.
22 The mass media can “empower rural populations to the major causes of infant mortality such as diarrheal dehydration and diseases which can be prevented through vaccination. It can inform large numbers of people of seasonal or daily variations for such activities as an immunization campaign or availability of a new product or service. It can as well teach new health skills such as how to mix oral rehydration solution, promote new health behaviours such as taking ivermectin once a year, motivate ad hoc or organized listening groups, and increase community acceptance of health workers” Austin, and Husted, (1998).
Media organizations often use radio to broadcast health information because it is capable of reaching many people while maintaining a strong impact. Certain media interventions have been determined to be particularly cost-effective, considering the benefits that are associated with expenditure Austin, et al. (1980).
The potential of radio messages to inform, educate and entertain its audience, its capacity to break illiteracy barriers as well as its power to penetrate into the remote areas of our rural communities with clear signal is well recognized Edegoh, (2013). What is not known is how often rural people listen to radio and the type of programmes they show interest in; thus the study investigates radio listening habit of rural women and aimed at finding out how often they listen to radio, the kind of programmes that interest rural women and the gratifications they derive from listening to radio. Anchored on the uses and gratifications theory of the media, the study adopted survey research method and used questionnaire as an instrument of data collection. A total of 740 women drawn from Idemili South Local Government Area formed the sample of the study. Findings of the study show that a good number of rural women listen to radio and that programmes that interest them most are health related and agricultural programmes. The study
23 recommends the utilization of radio by government and its agencies for disseminating messages intended for rural people.
Very few studies in Nigeria had attempted to use radio messages to educate the people on prevention of river blindness despite the fact that transistor radio is accessible to everybody as noted by Moemeka (1993). For instance a study to collate enquiries from a cross section of
Nigerians on prevention of blindness with a view to drawing out relevant implications for designing appropriate eye health education messages was conducted by Mahmoud, (2005). The method adopted for the study was a two-hour long phone-in audience participation programme in the studios of the Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria. According to the author, a total of twenty-seven callers phoned-in their enquiries during the two-hour long programme. Some of the questions asked were: What are the various causes of blindness? Is blindness curable? The finding of the study was that the participants were educated on a much wider range of issues relating to the eyesight.
Similarly, in a study carried out in Northwestern State, radio jingle was used to sensitize the people on eye surgery, the result of the study showed that more people were sensitized in
Sokoto State where there was massive use of radio jingles than Kebbi State with a very low level awareness without radio jingles. Hence, Manafa and Isamah (2001) noted that of all filarial parasites affecting man, onchocerciasis, until recently is the least studied in terms of its human behavioural and socio-economic aspects in Nigeria.
2.5 Pathological and entomological Survey
River blindness, a vicious parasitic worm disease transmitted by the bite of black flies causes intense itching, skin disfiguration, vision loss, and blindness. The adverse impact of the disease on Africa, which bears the greatest burden of Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTDs)
24 include reduced agricultural productivity, recycling of poverty and an impediment to development (Ejime, 2011). According to him, the urgency in tackling river blindness and other
NTDs cannot be over-emphasized with year 2015 already here, the date set by world leaders for the attainment of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) including halving extreme poverty worldwide.
According to Edungbola, 1991; Lieze et al, (1991), river blindness is one of the world's major endemic parasitic diseases which affects the eye and can lead to blindness when it reaches an advanced stage in the human body. They noted that apart from its effects on the human body, onchocerciasis has often been indicted for the devastation and decay of communities where it is endemic WHO, 1988; Edungbola, (1991). About 17.6 million people all over the world are infected with the disease, out of which one million are totally or partially blind WHO, (1995).
Similarly, more than 95 per cent of onchocerciasis infected persons are in Africa, Umeh
. Chijioke, Okonkwo (1996), and Nigeria is the most endemic country in the world, harbouring about 60 per cent of all onchocerciasis cases in West Africa, WHO, (1987) and 30 to 40 per cent of all cases in the world Carter Centre, (1995). The National Onchocerciasis Control Programme
NOCP, (1993) reported that the disease is present at varying degrees in all states of the federation, and over 15 thousand Nigerian rural communities are endemic to the disease, Pond
(1995). The Programme Review of the Nigerian Onchocerciasis Control (NOCP 1995) confirmed that areas with the highest prevalence of blinding onchocerciasis in Nigeria are found mainly in parts of nine northern and middle savannah states: Adamawa, Bauchi, Benue, Southern
Borno, Kogi, Kwara, Niger, Plateau and Taraba.
In Nigeria, river blindness (onchocerciasis) is highly endemic, occurring in 32 states and
Abuja, The Federal Capital Territory; it is estimated to be responsible for 200,000 cases of
25 blindness, NOCP (2002). In Nigeria, Onchocerca volvulus is the main causative agent of onchocerciasis and is transmitted primarily by Simulium damnosum complex, WHO, 1995, Asien et al., 2004; Opara et al., (2005). The intensity of infection of human communities by O. volvulus itself is dependent on the density of infective biting vector (Opara et al., 2005).
Although the disease is not normally associated with mortality, a few studies have shown that life expectancy of those blinded by onchocerciasis was greatly reduced and that mortality in blind adults on the average was three to four times greater than in the fully sighted individuals
Hopkins and Boatin, (2011).
According to National Control for the Prevention of Blindness NCPB, (1997), the fact that over one million Nigerians are blind and most (75%) of this blindness is from avoidable causes is enough to mobilize every resource at the disposal of the health sector to combat river blindness in Nigeria. It is amazing to note that eye diseases and blindness are endemic in different parts of Nigeria, Ajibode, 1999; Abiose et. al., 1994; Ezepue, (1993). Because of this threat, the Federal Ministry of Health in Nigeria set up the National Programme for Prevention of
Blindness in 1991. Experts believe that such public health approach relies heavily on the participation of the community. This is because a community participation strategy should take into account the factors that can influence community actions such as community beliefs, perceptions and values concerning the cause, prevention and treatment of the different forms of blindness, Hubley, (1999). Since this influences are often rooted in local culture and traditional health practices, these influences may differ from one community to community.
In line with Hubley’s work, Manafa and Isamah (2001) also carried out studies on local knowledge and attitudes about onchocerciasis in Oji-River local government area of Enugu
State. The research through more light on community participation and the influence of culture
26 such as beliefs, perceptions and values concerning the cause, prevention and treatment of the different forms of blindness. The study was designed to explore the local knowledge and attitudes of an endemic population to onchocerciasis so as to identify some of the socio-cultural factors that impinge on the epidemiology and control of onchocerciasis and also influence the acceptance of ivermectin. The study reveal three major groups of belief that the communities had about onchocerciasis: that the germ causing onochocerciasis was normally in the body and scratching only manifest the germ, Nodule formation was due to beef eaten in young age and that explains the higher occurrence of nodules in older people, disease occurs due to old age and too much farm work. The study was principally motivated by the need for information for planning a community educational participation programme. This researcher believes that the integration of radio health education programme will afford the communities the opportunity to learn more about the causes and prevention of river blindness.
In another study on the prevalence and socio-economic effects of onchocerciasis in
Okpuje, Owan West L.G.A. of Edo State, Nigeria, by Wogu and Okaka, (2008), the overall prevalence of onchocerciasis recorded in this study was high. The symptomatic effects of onchocerciasis recorded in this survey were: Leopard skin, itching ocular, nodules, and lizard skin. The victims claimed that their self – esteem and social stature were severely lowered.
While the affected females claimed that they had difficulties in finding good spouses. This could lead to low marriage rate in the community. Similar findings have been reported by the Pan
African study Group WHO, (1995). This negative social effect of the disease was corroborated by Amazigo (1994) who reported that onchocerciasis interfered with breast – feeding among woman. In the same vein, Amazigo and Obikeze (1991) found out that onchocercal skin disease delayed and interfered with marriage prospects and future happiness of adolescent girls in Etteh
27 community, Enugu State, Nigeria. Also, Eneanya and Nwaorgu (2001) reported that people with onchocercal skin disease felt frustrated. They are stigmatized, feared and avoided.
Similarly, a study carried out to ascertain the prevalence of onchocerciasis in the Babana
District of Borgu Local Government Area, Kwara State, revealed startling findings of high endemicity. Although various indication suggest that this district has a history of long-standing onchocerciasis, the knowledge of river blindness and its association with blackflies was poor throughout the district and, except for two teachers, no other subjects had ever received onchocercal chemotherapy, Luke and Edungbola (1984). These factors, apparently, account for the frequent occurrence and severity of various clinical manifestations and complications of onchocerciasis identified in the district. This is why research on onchocerciasis should not be limited to pathological and entomological approaches, but rather, communication experts should also be involved in research to educate the endemic communities on the causes and prevention of river blindness.
In Kwara State, Edungbola (1982) reported an average prevalence rate of onochocerciasis in the rural communities. According to him, a prevalence rate of about 68 per cent has been reported in Patigi area, Edungbola, 1982 and Africare, (1991), thus, making the area one of the most endemic part of Kwara State. The study revealed that most villages are very proximate to streams and rivers that serve as breeding sites for the disease vector. Indeed, quite a number of villages are located right at the bank of river channels. On the average the communities in the study area are located in less than 400 metres from the streams and rivers. Given the close proximity of settlements to river channels, Patigi LGA is expected to be highly endemic to onchocerciasis. This is especially so when one considers the fact that the simulium fly has a flight range of about 12 miles. This could be more when assisted by wind. An average distance
28 of less than one kilometre to the simulium fly breeding sites portends that the disease vector would be widely dispersed in the area, because no community falls outside the range of vector dispersal.
In Niger State also, a pilot study was carried out in Bonu, Suleja Emirate which showed prevalence rates of onchocerciasis. Bonu village is situated on Minna-Lambata road and is very close to Gurara fall, a tourist centre in Niger State. The study further reveals that prevalence rates of onchocerciasis in this village are high among both male and female, Galadima (1982).
Similarly, further studies by Galadima, (1989) and Galadima et al (1997) confirmed preponderance of onchocerca volvulus infections in some communities of Niger and Kaduna
States. The studies showed that people get infected even before school age. This is possible in rural farming communities where mothers carry babies on their backs to the farms or to the river to fetch water leaving body of the babies opened for the blackflies to peck on.
Among the factors continuing to be widely documented regarding the prevalence of the identified diseases is low public awareness/knowledge of the nature and methods for effective control of such diseases Adeoye et. al. (2010), and this together with the chronic weakness of most African health systems, policies and a generally low national investments in healthcare training and service delivery, make the control of such diseases difficult., Aikins et.al. (2010) avers that knowledge or awareness about particular diseases among those mentioned may vary from one individual or community to another. Sometimes, the degree of awareness/knowledge about disease depends on the extent to which people have experienced such diseases, or are exposed to the campaigns available against such diseases Hausmann-Muela et.al. (2003).
The management of the services shows major weaknesses resulting in wastage and inefficiency of resources as shown in the failure to meet the target and goals set by World Health
29 Organization (WHO). The communities are not involved in the decision making process. They are not well informed about matters affecting their health. The implication of the above is that special attention should be given to the health, environment and nutrition of the people. Obioha
(1997) believes that the only way we can achieve all these is through better enlightenment programme and health education which radio and other forms of media should be adopted.
According to him, public enlightenment will help to persuade the people to accept measures that will improve their health and change their attitude. He further stressed that over the years the rural communities have been neglected, while concentrations health infrastructures have been in the major cities.
Over the past decade, Nigeria’s Federal, State and Local governments have intensified the fight against river blindness and other NTDs with the support of development partners and
NGDOs, using African Programme for Onchocerciasis Control (APOC’s) cost-effective and innovative Community-Directed Treatment with Ivermectin (CDTI) strategy, APOC, (1995) .
This strategy also known as the Community-Directed Intervention (CDI) is a bottom-up approach to public health care delivery whereby communities play a leading role in the management of their own health.
Similarly, the Ministry of Health and Sanitation in Sierra Leone, with support from Helen
Keller International and funding from USAID through the END in Africa project, (2011), started advocacy and social mobilization efforts to raise awareness about neglected tropical disease (NTD) control activities in the 12 provincial health districts, including Bo. Using radio discussion programs and promotional jingles on mass drug administration and the use of preventive chemotherapy against NTDs such as lymphatic filariasis, onchocerciasis (river blindness) etc, the Ministry of Health and Sanitation and HKI were working to spread the word
30 through radio that community residents could protect themselves and their children from such diseases just by taking medicine once a year. In addition to the radio promotions, local health workers held a series of community meetings prior to the treatment campaign to further sensitize the public about the benefits of taking treatment, and to encourage community leaders to get the word out to their respective communities, END in Africa Project, (2011). This is a typical example of using radio to sensitize communities that are onchocerciasis endemic.
2.6 Theoretical Framework This study is founded on agenda setting theory and health belief model.
(a) Agenda Setting Theory The theory was proposed by Maxwell McCombs and Donald Shaw in 1973, McQuail
(2005). Agenda setting describes a very powerful influence of the media – the ability to tell the audiences what issues are important. As far back as 1922, Walter Lippman was concerned that the media had the power to present images to the public. Bernard Cohen (1963) stated: “The press may not be successful much of the time in telling people what to think, but it is stunningly successful in telling its readers what to think about.” The theory posits that the mass media determine what issues to be considered as important or not.
Investigating the agenda-setting function of the mass media in the 1968 presidential campaign in the United States, McCombs and Shaw focused on the two elements: awareness and information. They attempted to assess the relationship between what voters in one community said were important issues and the actual content of media messages used during the campaign.
McCombs and Shaw (1972) concluded that the mass media exerted a significant influence on what voters considered to be the major issues of the campaign. Just as McCombs and Shaw expanded their focus, other researchers have also extended investigations of agenda setting to issues including history, advertising, foreign, and Health news.
31 This study will also focus on the two elements: awareness and information. It will investigate the agenda-setting function of the mass media (radio messages) in combating river blindness scourge in endemic communities. We will attempt to assess the relationship between what respondents in the communities say are important issues and the actual content of radio messages used during the field work and, observe whether radio exert significant influence on what the endemic communities consider to be the major issues of the research effort.
Agenda setting theory in Nigeria, the use of the mass media in creating awareness about onchocerciasis scourge has helped majority of Nigerians to know about the disease and how to prevent it. In doing this, the mass media are seen as setting agenda on health issues. In other words, transmitting radio messages about the disease through their channels make them play the agenda-setting role. It is believed that the frequency of transmission of radio messages on debilitating effect of onchocerciasis would certainly have a role to play in this effort in combating the disease. Akpabio (2014) posits that there can be no doubt about the fact that there is more news everyday than the media can possibly accommodate. It is equally true that there could be a dearth of news so much so that what on a good day would not even merit a mention could make headlines. However, because the former scenario is the reality, media gatekeepers using news judgment criteria, pick and choose what constitutes the day’s news.
Agenda setting posits that audiences learn these salient issues from the news media, thus incorporating a similar set of weights and importance into their own personal agenda. In agreement to the above, Folarin (1998:75-76) opined that the mass media have an impact on agenda setting in that they have the ability to choose or emphasize certain topics thereby causing the public to perceive the issues or topics as important. This implies that the mass media pre- determine what issues are considered as important at a given time in a given society. Therefore,
32 in this present study, the mass media, through radio messages is capable of informing the endemic communities the dangers of the disease and how they can avoid being infected.
(b) Health Belief Model
Secondly, this work will also be predicated upon the Health Belief Model (HBM). HBM is an intrapersonal (within the individual, knowledge and beliefs) model used in health promotion to design intervention programmes. The problem and frustration encountered by the
Government of the United States of America as to why citizens did not respond to free health prevention programmes that was offered to them in 1950s kindled the research of three psychologists, Irwin Rosenstock, Godfrey Hochbaum and Stephen Kegels, Burke (2013) and
Maguire (2010). The focus of the HBM is to assess health behaviour of individuals through examination of perceptions and attitudes someone may have towards disease and negative outcomes of certain actions. The Health Belief Model consists of four interrelated variables that are listed and explained below:
Perceived Susceptibility: The belief that one is at risk of an illness is subjective. To one extreme is an individual who is in full denial of any risk while the other is an individual who feels danger is certain. The area in-between contains those who admit the statistical possibility of contracting an illness, but do not fully believe they will. In this case, the perceived risk is river blindness
(onchocerciasis).
Perceived Seriousness: The perception of the consequences of a negative health condition is also subjective. Beliefs of an illness causing pain, debilitation, social stigma or death are examples of seriousness perceived. The seriousness of river blindness such as itching, leopard skin and total blindness could drive people to action.
33 Perceived Benefits of Taking Action: Deciding on a course of action is shaped by the options accessible to the individual and the belief in their effectiveness. Action is thus dependent on having at least one course of action to prevent an illness from occurring while believing it will produce acceptable results.
Barriers of Taking Action: Despite a belief being established that a particular course of action may reduce a health threat, indecision may still take place. If readiness is low and negative aspects of the course of action are viewed as high barriers are constructed preventing action.
Cues to Action: Stimulus that can “trigger”, Rosenstock, (1966), cited in Maguuie, (2010) appropriate health behaviour. This may be internal such as physical discomfort, or external such as a message communicating the seriousness of a disease. The external is most relevant to communications as it often relies on media and interpersonal interaction. This is the instance where radio messages on river blindness (onchocerciasis) become imperative and relevant.
Individuals who perceived the seriousness of river blindness can get cues from radio message to adopt certain health behaviour as preventive measures. This gives an insight into an understanding of how perceived threats of the river blindness and the perceived benefits of taking certain decisions could alter the health behaviour of people.
The relevance of HBM to this study is that, based on the understanding that a person will take a health-related action (i.e., use of ivermectin) if that person:
1. Feels that a negative health condition (i.e., river blindness) can be avoided,
2. Has a positive expectation that by taking a recommended action, he/she will avoid a negative
health condition (i.e., using ivermectin will be effective at preventing and controlling), and
3. Believes that he/she can successfully take a recommended health action (i.e., he/she can use
ivermectin comfortably and with confidence).
34 CHAPTER THREE
METHODS OF STUDY
This chapter deals with the research method and the various steps involved in carrying out the study. It is organized under the following sub-headings: research design, population of the study, sample size, sampling technique, measuring instruments, sampling technique for qualitative analysis, reliability and validity of measuring instruments, method of data collection and method of data analysis.
3.1 Research Design
This study is a descriptive survey research design. According to Osuala, (1987) survey research method focuses on people, the vital facts of people and their perceptions, opinion, attitude, motivations, and behaviour. Similarly, Uzo (1999) noted that one of the most important facts about the survey method is the general consistency of the findings despite the wide variety of circumstances and experience. Also, Nworgu (2006) noted that descriptive survey is a type of study which aims at collecting data on, and describing in a systematic manner, the characteristics, features or facts about a given population.
Thus, the researcher sees it necessary to use survey design because it uses a representative sample of the entire population. Also, Since this research borders on evaluation of the use of radio messages in combating river blindness (onchocerciasis), survey method is considered appropriate for the study. This is because the research focuses on people of Niger and
Kwara States with a view to finding out their perceptions, opinion, attitude, motivations and of course their behaviour about river blindness scourge.
35 3.2 Population of the Study
Considering the importance, popularity, and use of radio messages in health communication, Niger and Kwara States were randomly selected for this research to study the use of radio messages in combating river blindness scourge in the two North-central States. The population of this study comprises of men and women in onchocerciasis endemic communities.
The population of these states was: Niger - 3,954,772 and Kwara - 2,421,581 respectively, bringing the total to 6,376,353 (NPC, 2006). However, based on the country’s population growth rate of 2.5 as approved by NPC, the researcher estimated the current population of Niger
State to be 4,844,595 and Kwara State to be 2,966,436 thereby bringing the total population of the two states to 7,811,033. The calculation is thus:
푟푡 푃 = 푃 (1 + ) 푡 100
Where
P = Total Population r = Growth rate (in %) t = number of years (2006-2015) Pt = Total Population after t-years
3.3 Sample Size
In calculating the sample size for this study, the Australian Calculator as provided by the
National Statistical Service (NNS) was used. Confidence level of 95 per cent, precision level of
0.05 (5%) and an estimate of variance (proportion) of 5% (0.5) was used (NNS, 2012).
According to the NSS (2012), the Australian calculator allows “one to calculate the required responding sample size, standard error, relative standard error and confidence interval
(0-0.5) proportion estimate, using just one of these criteria as an input”. For example, if you know the minimum standard error you require to ensure the precision of your estimate, you can
36 find out the responding sample size required to achieve that; if you know the likely size of the responding sample, you can estimate the standard error of your estimate, and a confidence interval for it (http://www.nss,gov.au/nss/home.nsf/SS.OA4A642C712719DCCA2571AB00243
DC6?).
The sample size calculator allows for the calculation of sample size, standard error, relative standard error, and a confidence interval (95% or 99%) for a proportional estimate, using just one of these criteria as an input. For example, if the minimum standard error is known, and the estimate of the precision known, the responding sample size required can be calculated. On the other hand, if the responding sample size is known, the standard error and the confidence interval can be calculated. It is recommended that the level of precision be set to allow the survey to achieve the desired outputs. Below is the calculation:
37
From this calculation, it is given that the basic sample size of the study is 385. However,
NSS (2012) states that “the sample size required to be selected from your population will need to take into account the number of individuals or groups that will not respond to your survey. For example, if the sample size calculator indicates that you need a sample size of 500 and from previous experience the number of individuals or groups that has responded to your survey has
38 been 50 per cent then the total sample required from the population would be 1000”. This simply mean that an over sampling calculation is required.
Bertlett, Kotrlik and Higgins (2001) citing Salkind (1997), Fink (1995) and Cochran
(1977) recommended oversampling when they noted that “if you are mailing out surveys or questionnaires… count on increasing your sample size by 40% - 50% to account for lost mails and uncooperative subjects”. Bertlett, Kotrlik and Higgins (2001) further opined that “if the research decides to use oversampling, let him estimate the response rate as a means of calculating for it”. To calculate for the oversampling procedure, a response rate estimate of 96% was adopted. The calculation for the contingency is presented below: n2 = Minimum sample size Anticipated response rate
Where anticipated return rate = 96%. Where n2 = sample size adjusted for response rate. Where minimum sample size = 385.
n2 = Minimum sample size = 385 Anticipated response rate 96% n2 = 385/0.96 = 401
The sample size for the survey aspect of the study is 401 respondents.
3.4 Sample Technique
For proper investigation of the issue under study, multi-stage cluster sampling technique will be used as sampling technique to generate data for this study. Multi-stage is more of a procedure than a method of sampling. According to Asemah et al (2012), it requires the researcher to choose his samples in stages until he gets the required sample. In addition,
39 multi-stage sampling technique also requires the researcher to choose a sample in two or more stages where the populations cannot be easily identified or are extremely large, Creswell (2002).
In the case of this study, the population of the two states, Kwara and Niger are comparatively large to make multi-stage sampling technique relevant. Similarly, Kothari (2012) avers that this sampling technique is usually “applied in big inquiries extending to considerable large geographical area”; for instance, the population of an entire country, city, or state Babbie,
(2007). Therefore, multi-stage sampling technique becomes the most suitable in the present study which has a very large population. To simplify the process, it is imperative to carry out the sampling in phases.
Phase I
Cluster technique was used to bring into line with the three exiting clusters in each of the two States. These clusters are popularly referred to as senatorial zones and are listed below:
Kwara State consists of Kwara North, Kwara Central and Kwara South senatorial zones; while
Niger State comprises of Niger East, Niger North, and Niger South senatorial zones. This is in line with the postulations of Kothari (2012) and Nachmias & Nachmias (2009). According to the authors, when a population of study is large and complex, the most convenient way to draw a manageable sample is to make a selection from within the clusters using random sampling to get smaller units which are in themselves, clusters. The table below shows the local governments and population in each senatorial zone.
40 SENATORIAL ZONES, KWARA STATE
S/N Kwara Central Senatorial Zone Population 1. Baruten 206679 2. Edu 201642 3. Kaiama 124015 4. Moro 108715 5. Pategi 110852 Kwara North Senatorial Zone Population 6. Asa 124668 7. Ilorin East 207462 8. Ilorin South 209251 9. Ilorin West 36,5221 Kwara South Senatorial Zone Population 10. Ekiti 54399 11. Isin 59481 12. Ifelodun 204975 13. Irepodun 147594 14. Offa 88975 15. Oke-Ero 56970 16. Oyun 94454 Total 2,365,353 Source: NPC 2006
41 SENATORIAL ZONES, NIGER STATE
S/N Niger East Senatorial Zone Population 1 Bosso 148136 2. Chanchaga 202151 3. Gurara 90879 4. Muya 103461 5. Paikoro 158178 6. Rafi 186118 7. Shiroro 235665 8. Suleja 215075 9. Tafa 83874 Niger North Senatorial Zone Population 10. Agwara 57347 11. Borgu 172835 12. Kontagora 151968 13. Magama 181470 14. Mariga 199600 15. Mashegu 215197 16. Rijau 176199 17. Wushishi 81756 Niger South Senatorial Zone Population 18. Agaie 132098 19. Bida 185553 20. Edati 159818 21. Gbako 126845 22. Katcha 120893 23. Lapai 117021 24. Lavun 209777 25. Mokwa 242858 Total 3,954,772
42 Phase 2
From the six senatorial zones or clusters in Kwara and Niger States which are larger groupings, six local government areas (LGAs which are smaller units were selected using purposive sampling technique; given that 1 local government (LGA) was picked from each senatorial zone. The reason for using purposive sampling technique was because earlier research carried out in the two states revealed varying degrees of onchocerciasis prevalence, ranging from hyper-, meso- and hypo-endemicity, Galadima, Vajime and Harris (1997) and (Babatimehi,
2008). The researcher selected local government areas that have urban set up or semi-urban set up for the purpose of gaining access to literate population so that the questions in the questionnaire will be properly handled. The selected local governments (LGAs) and their unit samples are presented below:
PROPORTIONAL REPRESENTATION TABLE
Senatorial Zones Selected LGAs Population Sample Size of Each
LGA
Kwara Central Senatorial Zone ASA 124668 51
Kwara North Senatorial Zone Pategi 110852 46
Kwara South Senatorial Zone Ifelodun 204975 85
Niger East Senatorial Zone Suleja 215075 98
Niger North Senatorial Zone Borgu 172835 72
Niger South Senatorial Zone Lapai 117021 49
Total 6 966016 401
Unit population x total sample size ÷ total population
43 Unit sample size was drawn from the six selected LGAs using proportional representation. This means that for every LGA selected, the numbers of questionnaire that were administered were known. Therefore, in ASA LGA, 51 copies of questionnaire was distributed; in Pategi 46 copies was distributed; in Ifelodun 85 copies were also distributed; Shiroro got 89 copies; while Borgu and Lapai both got 72 and 49 questionnaire respectively. Therefore, the total sample size was 401.
Phase 3
Selected Villages in the Selected Local Government Areas
Selected LGAs Selected Villages Copies of Questionnaire Distributed
ASA Asa 51
Pategi Pategi 46
Ifelodun Ifelodun 85
Shiroro Shiroro 98
Borgu Borgu 72
Lapai Lapai 49
Total 6 401
Phase 4
Copies of questionnaire were randomly distributed within the selected communities.
Respondents with the capacity to respond to items in the questionnaire were issued with the questionnaire.
44 3.5 Measuring Instruments
To generate data for this study, questionnaire and interview guide were used for both quantitative and qualitative data. The questionnaire consists of two sections; Section A – demographic data and Section B - psychographic data. The questionnaire contained closed-ended questions. This made it easier for response categorization and analysis. Interview guide provided a plateform for more probing questions for respondents. This also provided an opportunity for a follow up on issues that will not have been effectively examined at the quantitative level.
The data generated through this instrument were analyzed through finding the percentage of the responses that were supplied. The result is presented in frequency tables and graphs.
Section A comprised of information regarding the demographic data of the respondents. While section B contains 14 items built on six clusters namely: The extent to which the audience expose themselves to radio messages, the extent to which radio messages are employed to sensitize the people on river blindness, the nature of these radio messages, the effectiveness of these radio messages and the challenges the radio medium faces in this respect?
3.6 Sampling Technique for Qualitative Analysis
Interview guide with relevant questions prepared by the researcher was used to generate qualitative data. Therefore, 12 persons who had experience and knowledge about river blindness were purposively selected for the interview. Thus, 2 persons were selected from each of the community for the study.
3.7 Reliability and Validity of Measuring Instruments
The reliability of the measuring instrument (questionnaire) was checked using test-retest method. Test-retest, according to Nachmias and Nachmias (2009), involves the administration of the measuring instrument to the same group of persons at two different times, and the
45 computation of the correlation between the two sets of observations. This means that for reliability of an instrument to be effectively established, a researcher will administer the instrument on the respondents at two intervals to check their ability to be consistent in responses.
This is because experts insist that measuring instrument should constantly measure what it sets out to measure and not something else Ogboushi and Kothari, (2012).
For test-retest in this study, 20 copies of the questionnaire were administered to respondents not in the selected communities at two separate intervals. This was followed by the second administration two weeks later. This interval was initiated to avoid a situation where a respondent recalls the exact question asked in the first test thereby providing the same response which may lead to over estimation. In addition, some of the questionnaire items were slightly reframed while retaining their original meaning. After the two were collected, Pearson’s r correlational coefficient statistical procedure was used to subject the two sets of observations to reliability test. Below is the formula for the calculation:
∑ (∑ 푋)(∑ 푌) 푋푌 − 푛 푟푥푦 = √[(∑ 푋2 − (∑ 푋)2) (∑ 푌2 − (∑ 푌)2)] 푛푥 푛푦
Where X refers to the frequency figure on variable X, and Y is a frequency figure on variable Y. The respective figures as presented below shows that audience perception in first administration is represented by variable X, while audience perception in second administration of instrument is presented by variable Y. The value of N in the formula is for one to know the number of subjects measured on both variables.
To establish the validity of the measuring instruments, copies of the questionnaire and interview guide were given to the project supervisor and two other scholars in the Departments of Mass Communication. They were requested to examine the instrument with regards to
46 relevance and adequacy, language comprehensiveness of the items, appropriateness of the content and representativeness of the items, appropriateness of the various dimensions in measuring what they were suppose to measure. However, the comments, suggestions, and criticisms that were made independently by the experts, helped the researcher to modify and produce the final instrument which was subjected to trial testing based on the research questions.
Here, both content and face validity were obtained.
3.8 Method of Data Collection
Questionnaire and interview guide were used to collect quantitative and qualitative data for the study. For questionnaire administration, two research assistants were trained and used for quantitative data collection. For qualitative data collection, the researcher personally handled the interview in the selected communities to ensure one-on-one relationship with victims of river blindness and share their experiences.
3.9 Method of Data Analysis
The importance of data analysis for a study of this magnitude cannot be over-emphasized.
Data is described as facts of truth or information which are collected for specific purposes and which when analyzed, supply answers to research questions Okoro (2001).
Quantitative data were collected through questionnaire and analyzed using frequency distribution tables, and charts; while qualitative data were collected through in-depth interview and discursively analyzed using themes and frames. Data collected from the sample were coded and summed into master tables. Simple percentage system was used to reduce the raw data to comprehensive indices in order to provide clear and logical answers to the research questions.
47 CHAPTER FOUR DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND RESULT
In this chapter, all the quantitative and qualitative data generated through questionnaire and in-depth interview are presented and analyzed in line with the five research questions raised in the study.
Out of the 401 copies of questionnaire administered, 395 copies were returned and analyzed; 6 copies were not properly filled by the respondents. With this, the mortality rate is less than 5 percent allowable error margin. First, the biographic data are presented.
Table 4.1: Gender Classification of Respondents
Variable Frequency Percent Male 204 51.6 Female 191 48.4 Total 395 100.0
51.6%
48.4%
48.4%
48.4%48.4% Figure 4.1: Gender Classification of Respondents
48 Table 4.1 and Figure 4.1 above present sex distribution of respondents. Out of 395 respondents, 204, representing 51.6 percent were males, while females constituted 191, representing 48.4 percent of the total respondents who participated in the research exercise.
Table 4.2: Age of Respondents
Variable Frequency Percent 21-30 19 4.8 31-40 47 11.9 41-50 101 25.6 51-60 126 31.9 61-70 78 19.7 71> 24 6.1 Total 395 100.0
31.9% 25.6% 19.7 % 25.6 19.7% 11.9% % 19.7 % 6.1%% 4.8%4.8% %%16. 4.8% 1%
Figure 4.2: Age of Respondents
Information in table 4.2 and figure 4.2 reveals that respondents who actively participated in the exercise were between the ages of 21-30 years, 19, representing 4.8 percent, 31-40 years,
49 47, representing 11.9 percent, 41-50 years, 101 representing 25.6 percent, 51-60 years, 126 representing 31.9 percent, 61-70 years, 78 representing 19.7 percent, and 24, representing 6.1 percent were 70 years and above. This means that age bracket 51-60 were the highest respondents who participated in the exercise.
Table 4.3: Marital Status
Variable Frequency Percent Single 65 16.5 Married 229 58.0 Divorced 62 15.7 Widowed 39 9.9 Total 395 100.0
58%
16.5% 15.7% 9.9%
Figure 4.3 Marital Status
Table 4.3 and figure 4.3 above shows the marital status of respondents. The table indicates that out of 395 respondents, 65, representing 16.5 percent were single; 229,
50 representing 58 percent were married while 62, representing 15.7 percent were divorced and 39, representing 9.9% were widowed. The married took the lead with 58 percent.
Table 4.4: Educational Level of Respondents
Variable Frequency Percent FSLC 21 5.3 SSSE/GCE 129 32.7 NCE/Diploma 82 20.8 BA/BSc. 98 24.8 MA/MSc. 35 8.9 PhD 30 7.6 Total 395 100.0
32.7%32.7%
20.8% 24.8%
8.9% 7.6% 5.3%
Figure 4.4: Educational Level of Respondents
Obviously the educational level of respondents contributed immensely to the decision level of the data generated in the field. Table 4.5 and figure 4.5 above shows the educational
51 level of respondents. The table indicates that out of 395 respondents, 21, representing 5.3 percent have First School Leaving Certificate; 129, representing 32.7 percent have SSSE/GCE; 82, representing 20.8 percent have NCE/Diploma; 98, representing 24.8 percent have BA/B.Sc degree; while 35, representing 8.9 percent have MA/MSc degree and 30 respondents, representing 7.6 percent have PhD degree. Therefore, this implies that the number of persons with SSSE/GCE were the highest.
Table 4.5: Occupation
Variable Frequency Percent Teaching 39 9.9 Trading 63 15.9 Farming 111 28.1 Civil Service 122 30.9 Others... 60 15.2 Total 395 100.0
30.9% 28.1%
15.9% 15.2%
9.9%
Figure 4.5: Occupation
52 Data in table 4.5 and figure 4.5 above shows the occupation of respondents. This indicates that 29 respondents, representing 9.9 percent were Teachers; 63, representing 15.9 percent were traders; 111, respondents representing 28.1 percent were farmers; while 122, respondents representing 30.9 percent were civil servants and 60, representing 15.2 percent were others. The overall result shows that civil servants were the highest number of respondents.
Table 4.6: Local Government of Respondents
Variable Frequency Percentage
Kwara State Asa 52 13.2 Pategi 46 11.6 Ifelodun 86 21.8 Sub-total 184 46.6% Niger State
Shiroro 90 22.8 Borgu 72 18.2 Lapai 49 12.4 Sub-total 211 53.4% Grand-total 395 100
Table 4.6 above shows the local government areas of respondents in Kwara and Niger
States respectively. From the table, 52, respondents representing 13.2 percent were from Asa
Local Government Area; 46, representing 11.6 percent were from Pategi Local Government
Area; 86, representing 21.8 percent were from Ifelodun Local Government Area in Kwara State.
While 90 respondents, representing 22.8 percent were from Shiroro Local Government Area; 72, representing 18.2 percent were from Borgu Local Government Area, and 49, representing 12.4 percent were from Lapai Local Government Area of Niger State. The table therefore shows that
53 respondents in Ifelodun Local Government Area were the highest group with 21.8 percent in
Kwara State, while in Niger State, Shiroro Local Government Area were the highest group with
22.8 percent.
Table 4.7: Frequency Distribution of participants rating in Kwara and Niger States
S/No Variable Frequency Frequency Kwara State Niger State Yes No Can’t (%) Yes No Can’t (%) say say
1. Do you own radio set? 45 56 9 47.0 47 70 7 53.0 2. Do you listen to radio programmes 37 59 4 50.0 30 60 10 50.0 3. Do you expose yourself to radio messages on health issues? 64 30 3 46.4 77 31 4 53.6 4. Are you aware of river blindness programmes on radio 30 51 5 40.8 51 69 5 59.2 5. If yes, how often do you expose yourself to the programmes on river blindness? 25 60 5 47.1 55 40 6 52.9 6. Would you say that the regularity of these programmes is adequate to sensitize the audience on river blindness 70 38 10 58.4 40 40 4 41.6 7. Do you think that these programmes have been effective in the fight against river blindness? 53 41 6 50.0 50 45 5 50.0 8. If yes, how do you rate the effectiveness of these programmes? 60 28 4 60.5 36 20 4 39.5 9. Would you say that these programmes have had some kind of influence on health attitude of the audience? 25 41 3 42.9 40 55 5 57.1 10. Do you think that the radio stations have some challenges in their efforts against river blindness? 60 21 12 51.7 34 44 9 48.3
54 RESEARCH QUESTION ONE: To what extent are the audiences exposing themselves to Radio messages on river blindness?
In answering this research question, items 1, 2 and 3 in the questionnaire were used.
These items are both presented in tables and figures 4.8 – 4.10 below:
Table 4.8: Do you own Radio Set?
Variable Frequency Percent Valid Percent Yes 234 59.2 59.2 No 161 40.8 40.8 Total 395 100.0 100.0
59.2%
40.8%
Figure 4.8: Do you own Radio Set?
Table 4.8 and figure 4.8 above show the number of respondents who own and those who do not own radio set. It indicates that 234 respondents, representing 59.2 percent own radio set, while 161 respondents, representing 40.8 percent have no radio set. This implies that more people own radio set.
55 Table 4.9: Do you listen to radio programmes?
Variable Frequency Percent Valid Percent Yes 229 58.0 58.0 No 166 42.0 42.0 Total 395 100.0 100.0
58%
42%
Figure 4.9: Do you listen to radio programmes?
Information in Table 4.9 and figure 4.9 above indicates the number of respondents that listen to radio programmes. The table indicates that 229 respondents representing 58% listen to radio programmes. On the other hand, 166, representing 42 percent do not listen to radio programmes. Therefore the number of respondents that listened to radio programmes is higher than the number of those who do not.
56 Table 4.10: Do you expose yourself to radio messages on health issues?
Variable Frequency Percent Valid Percent Yes 209 52.9 52.9 No 186 47.1 47.1 Total 395 100.0 100.0
52.9%
47.1%
Figure 4.10: Do you expose yourself to radio messages on health issues?
The table and the figure above reveals that 209 respondents, representing 52.9 percent affirmed that they expose themselves to radio messages on health issues, while 186, representing
47.1 percent do not. This means that the respondents that said yes were higher in number than those who said no.
57 Qualitative Analysis
In order to probe into the respondents’ awareness level of River Blindness
(Onchocerciasis), interviews were held with the 12 selected interviewees in the 6 selected communities in Kwara and Niger States. The responses from interviewees are presented below:
Table 4.11: Do you own Radio Set?
Names of Respondents LGA Responses Theme Niger State Isa Abubakar Shiroro I own a transistor radio set. With the absence of electricity, I used battery operated radio. Purchased Malam Kaseem Shiroro I have a good radio set that I Purchased listen to daily. Adullahi Tanko Borgu I owned a radio from my youth because it is very useful for information on health and other Purchased matters. Alhaja Danladi Borgu I do not have radio but hope to None buy one very soon. Alhaji Usman Lapai I have not been able to buy another radio set since the previous one developed fault. None Umaru Sule Lapai I have a functional transistor Purchased radio for news and programme Kwara State Ayorinde Babatunde Asa I own radio set where I derived all information on health issues and Government policies Purchased Samuel Akindele Asa I have a good radio for daily news Purchased Alhaji Subairu Pategi I have a transistor radio given to me by my daughter to listen to news in vernacular since I cannot Purchased read and write Malam Jubril Pategi I have a radio set Purchased Malam Alhassan Ifelodun Radio is my companion. I listen to foreign, especially BBC and radio drama on health issues Purchased Mathew Ajibola Ifelodun Yes, I have a radio set for news Purchased
58 Qualitative Analysis
Table 4.12: Do you expose yourself to radio messages on health issues?
Names of Respondents LGA Responses Theme Niger State Isa Abubakar Shiroro Yes, I often listen to radio Radio messages on health matters Malam Kaseem Shiroro I listen to radio soap opera and Radio radio drama Adullahi Tanko Borgu I Listen to radio messages on Radio other matters but not on health because of fear of contacting disease Alhaja Danladi Borgu I love listening to health issues on Radio radio Alhaji Usman Lapai No, I do not listen to because of the nature of my work
Umaru Sule Lapai I listen to radio messages because Radio it is beneficiary to me. Kwara State Ayorinde Babatunde Asa I do not have time to expose Radio myself to radio messages on health because it is only for the educated ones. Samuel Akindele Asa I am a farmer and do not listen to Radio radio messages on health issues Alhaji Subairu Pategi Radio messages on health issues Radio are my favourite because I learn from it. Malam Jubril Pategi Yes, I do because my family Radio benefit from it. Malam Alhassan Ifelodun I am exposed to radio messages especially health education programmes Radio Mathew Ajibola Ifelodun Yes, I do and wish to introduce it Radio to many rural people because it is useful for every family
Summary of Research Question One
The quantitative data presented in tables and figures 4.8, 4.9 and 4.10 reveal that majority of the respondents own battery operated transistor radio sets as well as listening to radio
59 programmes. The data also showed that more respondents expose themselves to radio messages on health issues.
In the same vein, qualitative analysis also reveals that majority of respondents interviewed in the two States own radio sets and also listen to radio programmes. Majority of them expose themselves to radio messages on health issues. This in essence, means that a good number of respondents in the two States make use of radio and radio messages in combating river blindness.
RESEARCH QUESTION TWO: To what extent are Radio messages used to sensitize the people on river blindness?
In this research question, both quantitative and qualitative data were used to answer the research question. Information in tables and figures 4.13 to 4.16 reveals the answers. An interview was held to complement and authenticate the findings.
60 Table 4.13: Are you aware of River Blindness programme on radio?
Variable Frequency Percent Yes 211 53.4 No 184 46.6 Total 395 100.0
53.4%
46.6%
Figure 4.13: Are you aware of River Blindness programme on radio?
From the above table and figure, it is evident that 211, representing 53.4 percent of respondents indicated that they were aware of river blindness, while 184 respondents representing 46.6 percent were not aware of the disease. The result therefore showed that majority of respondents was aware of River Blindness.
61 Table 4.14: If yes, how often do you expose yourself to the programmes on River Blindness?
Variable Frequency Percent Daily 100 25 Weekly 191 49 Monthly 104 26
Total 395 100.0
25%
49%
26%
Figure 4.14: If yes, how often do you expose yourself to the programmes on River Blindness?
In table 4.14 and figure 4.14, vast majority of the respondents 100, representing 25 percent of the respondents exposed themselves to daily programme on River Blindness; 191, representing 49 percent indicated weekly exposure, while on the other hand, those who exposed themselves to monthly programme on River Blindness were 104, representing 26 percent of the respondents.
62 Table 4.15: How often do radio stations run programmes on River Blindness?
Variable Frequency Percent Once daily 103 26.1 Several times daily 126 31.9 Once in a week 106 26.8 Several times weekly 60 15.2 Total 395 100.0
31.9%
26.8% 26.1%
15.2%
Table 4.15: How often do radio stations run programmes on River Blindness?
The overall impression in table 4.15 and figure 4.15 shows that 103 respondents, representing 26.1 percent said that the stations run programme once daily; 126, representing 31.9 percent of the respondents maintained that radio stations run programmes on River Blindness several times daily, while 106, representing 26.8 percent said the programme is run once in a week. 60 respondents, representing 15.2 percent said several times weekly. Those that indicated several times daily had the highest number.
63 Table 4.16: Would you say that the regularity of these programmes is adequate to sensitize the audience on River Blindness?
Variable Frequency Percent Yes 204 51.6 No 149 37.7 I don't know 42 10.6 Total 395 100.0
51.6%
37.7%
10.6%
Figure 4.16: Would you say that the regularity of these programmes is adequate to sensitize the audience on River Blindness?
Table 4.16 and figure 4.16 present the opinion of respondents on whether the regularity of these programmes is adequate to sensitize the audience on River Blindness. It shows that 204 respondents, representing 51.6% said yes; 149 representing 37.7% said no, while 42 respondents, representing 10.6% claimed that they do not know. In all, those who said yes were the highest.
64 Qualitative Analysis
Table 4.17: Are you aware of River blindness programmes on radio?
Names of Respondents LGA Response Theme Niger State Isa Abubakar Shiroro Yes, I am aware of river Radio/Local blindness through Radio Niger Government Malam Kaseem Shiroro Yes I often listen to a Radio/Local programme called magaji lafia Government from Radio Niger Adullahi Tanko Borgu Yes, I am aware of the Radio programme on river blindness
Alhaja Danladi Borgu I am aware of river blindness Radio programme on radio Niger Alhaji Usman Lapai I am aware of other diseases like Radio malaria, but not river blindness
Umaru Sule Lapai I am not aware of river blindness Radio Kwara State Ayorinde Asa I am quite aware of river Radio/Local blindness programme in my Government local government. Samuel Akindele Asa River blindness has been a Radio devastating disease in my Local Government. I am aware of the programme Alhaji Subairu Pategi I am not aware of the disease Radio called river blindness or any radio programme associated with it. Malam Jubril Pategi I am conversant with radio Radio programme on onchocerciasis Malam Alhassan Ifelodun Through radio programme, I came to know about river blindness Radio Mathew Ajibola Ifelodun I am not aware of programme on Radio river blindness
65 Table 4.18: How often do radio stations run programmes on River Blindness?
Names of Respondents LGA Response Theme Niger State Isa Abubakar Shiroro The programme on river Individual blindness is run once a week opinion Malam Kaseem Shiroro It is run once a while depending Individual on station’s schedule opinion Adullahi Tanko Borgu It is run as often as possible but Individual cannot say exact time. opinion Alhaja Danladi Borgu Sometime two times a week Individual opinion Alhaji Usman Lapai I am not aware of such Individual programme opinion Umaru Sule Lapai Two times a week Individual opinion Kwara State Ayorinde Asa The programme comes on air as Individual many times as possible a month opinion
Samuel Akindele Asa Three times per week Individual opinion Alhaji Subairu Pategi Three times per week Individual opinion Malam Jubril Pategi Weekly depending on season Individual opinion Malam Alhassan Ifelodun I do not know about the Individual programme opinion
Mathew Ajibola Ifelodun I am not too sure of the time, but Individual it comes on air opinion
66 Table 4.19: Would you say that the regularity of these programmes is adequate to sensitize the audience on River Blindness?
Names of Respondents LGA Responses Theme Niger State Isa Abubakar Shiroro Of course yes, because many Individual people through this programme are opinion aware of river blindness. Malam Kaseem Shiroro I will say yes because the Individual programme has created awareness opinion among the rural people. Adullahi Tanko Borgu Obviously the programme has Individual sensitized the people opinion Alhaja Danladi Borgu There is no doubt about that. The Individual regularity of the programme is opinion helpful in sensitizing the people. Alhaji Usman Lapai I can’t really say whether the Individual people are sensitized opinion Umaru Sule Lapai The regularity of the programme on Individual river blindness has made many opinion people conscious of the disease and take necessary precautionary measures. Kwara State Ayorinde Asa It is quite evident that since the Individual beginning of the programme on opinion onchocerciasis and regularity of messages, a lot of people have benefited from it. Samuel Akindele Asa The regularity of programme is Individual quite in order because people are opinion aware of the availability of drugs for prevention of the disease Alhaji Subairu Pategi Many are sensitized and educated Individual on river blindness opinion Malam Jubril Pategi Regular messages especially in Individual local languages helps the illiterate opinion audiences Malam Alhassan Ifelodun I do not know Individual opinion Mathew Ajibola Ifelodun I am aware of the regularity of the Individual programme on onchocerciasis opinion
67 Summary of Research Question Two
Qualitative data presented in tables and figures 4.13, 4.14, 4.15 and 4.16 indicated that majority of the respondents were aware of River Blindness programmes on radio. The data also revealed that quite a number of respondents exposed themselves to the programmes on River
Blindness, while majority of them confirmed that radio stations run programmes on River
Blindness several times daily. This in turn ensures adequate sensitization of the people.
Similarly, qualitative data gathered through interview revealed that majority of the interviewees were quite conversant with River Blindness prorgrammes on radio. They maintained that majority of them exposed themselves to health programmes including River
Blindness while a good number of respondents said that the radio stations run programmes several times daily. Interestingly, qualitative and quantitative data for Kwara and Niger States both revealed that the people were quite aware of the move to combat River Blindness through radio programmes.
RESEARCH QUESTION THREE: What is the content of these Radio messages?
To answer this research question, items number 4.20 and 4.21 in the questionnaire were used.
These items are presented in tables and figures 4.20 and 4.21 below:
68
Table 4.20: Do you think that these programmes have been effective in the fight against River Blindness?
Variable Frequency Percent Yes 186 47.1 No 170 43.0 I can't say 39 9.9 Total 395 100.0
47.1%
43%
9.9%
Figure 4.20: Do you think that these programmes have been effective in the fight against River Blindness?
The data in table 4.20 and figure 4.20 revealed that majority of respondents believed that these programmes have been effective in the fight against River Blindness. The above table shows that 186 respondents, representing 47.1% said yes; while 39, representing 9.9% said they could not say whether the programme was effective or not. This means that majority of respondents believed that the programme have been effective.
Table 4.21: If yes, how do you rate the effectiveness of these programmes?
69 Variable Frequency Percent Very effective 146 37.0 Effective 152 38.5 Ineffective 59 14.9 Very effective 38 9.6 Total 395 100.0
38.5% 37%
14.9%
9.6%
Table 4.21: If yes, how do you rate the effectiveness of these programmes?
Information in table 4.21 and figure 4.21 displayed above show that 146 respondents representing 37 percent believed that the programmes were very effective; 152, representing
38.8% said that the programmes were effective. Those who said the programmes were effective took the lead with 38.8 percent. However, there is need to sensitize the people and intensify awareness campaign.
Qualitative Analysis
70
Table 4.22: Do you think that these programmes have been effective in the fight against River Blindness?
Names of Respondents LGA Responses Theme Niger State Isa Abubakar Shiroro The programmes have been very Individual effective because of the regularity of the opinion messages Malam Kaseem Shiroro The programme in my own opinion is Individual very effective because of the use local opinion languages Adullahi Tanko Borgu It is effective and need to be encouraged Individual especially where those that are affected opinion are illiterate members of the society. Alhaja Danladi Borgu It is quite effective in the rural Individual communities. opinion Alhaji Usman Lapai It is not effective because many cannot None afford radio sets Umaru Sule Lapai It is not effective because messages are Individual framed in such a manner that the opinion illiterate farmers cannot understand. Kwara State Ayorinde Asa It is effective to my own understanding Individual because there is attitudinal change opinion among the audiences. Samuel Akindele Asa The programme has been quite effective Individual because many people now know about opinion river blindness Alhaji Subairu Pategi Many attributed the causes of river Individual blindness to mundane things but with opinion awareness created by this programme, many have now known that blackflies are the major cause of it. Malam Jubril Pategi The awareness created by the Individual programme is opinion Malam Alhassan Ifelodun Radio programme on river blindness is Individual effective to some extent opinion Mathew Ajibola Ifelodun The programme is effective Individual opinion
Summary of Research Question Three
71 Quantitative and qualitative data generated under this research questions, probe into the effectiveness of radio programmes in fighting against River Blindness. Tables 4.20 and 4.21 reveal that 186 respondents, representing 47.1% affirmed that the programs was very effective, while 152, representing 38.8 percent said that the programme was effective in combating River
Blindness.
Qualitative data also revealed a similar scenario as quantitative data presented above.
The interview with respondents in Asa Local Government in Kwara State and Shiroro Local
Government, Niger State revealed that the programmes on River Blindness (onchocerciasis) are effective in combating the disease.
RESEARCH QUESTION FOUR: What is the nature of these Radio messages?
In this research question, both quantitative and qualitative data were used to answer this research question. Information in tables and figures 4.23 to 4.25 reveals the answers. An interview was also held to complement the findings.
72 Table 4.23: Would you say that these programmes have had some kind of influence on health attitude of the audience?
Variable Frequency Percent Yes 146 37.0 No 175 44.3 I can't say 74 18.7 Total 395 100.0
44.3
37%
18.7%
Figure 4.23: Would you say that these programmes have had some kind of influence on health attitude of the audience?
Information obtained in table 4.23 and figure 4.23 demonstrates the opinion of the respondents on whether the programmes have had some kind of influence on health attitude of the audience. The data show that 146 respondents, representing 37 percent said yes, while 74, representing 18.7 percent did not respond.
73 Table 4.24: If yes, identify the kind of influence they have had on the audience
Variable Frequency Percent Change in mode of dressing 145 36.7 Avoid body exposure 176 44.6 Environmental sanitation 74 18.7
Total 395 100.0
44.6%
36.7%
18.7%
Figure 4.24: If yes, identify the kind of influence they have had on the audience The overall information obtained in table 4.24 and figure 4.24 identified the kind of influence the programmes have had on the audience. The table shows that 145 respondents, representing 36 percent said that change in the mode of dressing to avoid blacklies bite has been inculcated into them; 175, representing 44.6 percent said that avoiding body exposure was part of their culture, while 74, representing 18.7 percent believed in environment sanitation to avoid disease contact.
74 Qualitative Analysis
Table 4.25: Would you say that these programmes have had some kind of influence on health attitude of the audience? If yes, identify the kind of influence they have had on the audience.
Names of Respondents LGA Responses Theme Niger State Isa Abubakar Shiroro Yes, in Niger State there are changes in Individual the mode of dressing especially people opinion living in onchocerciasis endemic areas. People now cover themselves to avoid bite from blackflies. Malam Kaseem Shiroro No. I have not seen any change in the Individual attitude of the people. opinion Adullahi Tanko Borgu Yes, the influence on the behaviour of Individual the people is tremendous. Audiences are opinion careful of how they expose themselves outside their houses. Alhaja Danladi Borgu The audiences are conscious of the time Individual they stay outside their houses. opinion Alhaji Usman Lapai The programme has little or no Individual influence on the people. opinion Umaru Sule Lapai Health education programme has greatly Individual influenced the people especially on river opinion blindness. There are less people affected by the disease in recent years. Kwara State Ayorinde Asa People are conscious of the diverstating Individual effect of the disease and therefore opinion developed a culture of preventing it. Samuel Akindele Asa Yes, the people are now becoming Individual interested in taking drugs for opinion prevention. Alhaji Subairu Pategi Local government headquarters are Individual now receiving responses on drug opinion distribution. Malam Jubril Pategi I do not know Individual opinion Malam Alhassan Ifelodun There are changes in the attitude of the Individual people towards River Blindness. opinion Mathew Ajibola Ifelodun Farmers are now conscious of river Individual blindness. opinion
75 Summary of Research Question Four
Quantitative data presented in tables and figures 4.23 and 4.24 showed that majority of the respondents accepted that the programmes have had some kind of influence on health attitude of the audience. In identifying the kind of influence, overwhelming majority said they avoided body exposure to blackflies through radio messages.
On qualitative data, respondents from both States also believed that radio programmes on onchocerciasis exerts great influence on peoples’ ways of live especially dressing. It is also evident that majority avoid body exposure because of the diverstating effect of blackflies bite.
RESEARCH QUESTION FIVE: What are the challenges the Radio medium face in this respect?
To answer this research question, items numbers 26, 27 and 28 in the questionnaire were used.
The items are presented in tables and figures 4.26 - 4.28 below:
76 Table 4.26: Do you think that the radio stations have some challenges in their efforts against River Blindness?
Variable Frequency Percent Yes 149 37.7 No 180 45.6 I don't know 66 16.7 Total 395 100.0
45.6%
37.7%
16.7%
Figure 4.26: Do you think that the radio stations have some challenges in their efforts against River Blindness?
Table 4.26 and figure 4.26 present frequency ratings of respondents on whether radio stations have some challenges in their efforts against River Blindness. Information obtained shows that 149 respondents, representing 37.7 percent said yes; while 66 respondents representing 16.7 percent were neutral. This means that radio stations in the two states are operating maximally in the fight against River Blindness.
77 Table 4.27: If yes, please identify these challenges in their order of importance
Variable Frequency Percent Poor transmission 154 39 Use of English language to air health messages 169 43 Irregular health education messages 70 18 Total 395 100.0
43%
39%
18%
Figure 4.27: If yes, please identify these challenges in their order of magnitude The data displayed in table 4.27 and figure 4.27 show the challenges in their order of magnitude and the responses. The table shows that 154 of respondents, representing 39 percent complained of poor transmission; 169, representing 43 percent believed that the use of English
Language to air health messages has negative effect on the audiences, while 70 respondents, representing 18 percent said irregularity of health education messages contribute immensely to
78 ineffectiveness of the programmes. The use of English Language to air health messages has the highest with 43 percent.
Table 4.28: In what ways can these challenges be surmounted?
Variable Frequency Percent Stations should be adequately equipped to improve transmission 144 36.5 Air programmes in local languages/pidgin English 157 39.7 Radio drama on river blindness should be organized regularly 93 23.5 Total 395 100.0
[
39.7% 36.5%
23.5%
Figure 4.28: In what ways can these challenges be surmounted? Table 4.28 and figure 4.28 revealed the ways in which these challenges can be surmounted. In the table above, 144 respondents said that stations should be adequately equipped to improve transmission efficiency. While 157 respondents, representing 39 percent believed that
79 the programmes should be aired in local languages/pigin English. However, 93 respondents, representing 23.5 percent were of the opinion that radio drama should be organized regularly to ensure continuity of the programmes. Respondents who believed that the programmes should be aired in local language were the majority.
Qualitative Analysis
4.29: Do you think that the radio stations have some challenges in their efforts against River Blindness? If yes, please identify these challenges in their order of magnitude
Names of Respondents LGA Responses Theme Niger State Isa Abubakar Shiroro I do not think the stations are facing any Individual challenge opinion Malam Kaseem Shiroro Yes, sometimes transmission is not usually Individual clear enough. opinion Adullahi Tanko Borgu Radio messages on river blindness are not Individual transmitted regularly. opinion Alhaja Danladi Borgu I am not aware whether they have Individual challenges since I am not working in the opinion radio station. Alhaji Usman Lapai I feel that they have some challenges Individual because during raining seasons, opinion transmission is not always clear in the rural areas. Umaru Sule Lapai There are no challenges as far as I know Kwara State Ayorinde Asa I don’t think the radio stations have any Individual challenges because they air the programme opinion on river blindness regularly. Samuel Akindele Asa There is often breaking in transmission. Individual They need new equipment opinion Alhaji Subairu Pategi Yes, they have challenges in broadcasting Individual in most local languages in communities opinion where they have many languages. Malam Jubril Pategi The stations need to restructure their Individual programme to suite the local communities. opinion Malam Alhassan Ifelodun I don’t think the radio stations have Individual challenges opinion Mathew Ajibola Ifelodun I do not know. Individual opinion
80 Table 4.30: In what ways can these challenges be surmounted?
Names of Respondents LGA Responses Theme Niger State Isa Abubakar Shiroro The Authority should employ more Individual qualified staff. opinion Malam Kaseem Shiroro Transmission should be improved. Individual opinion Adullahi Tanko Borgu Programme designers are to be Individual reminded that the messages should opinion be aired regularly. Alhaja Danladi Borgu Radio jingles on river blindness Individual should be done in local languages opinion to motivate the people. Alhaji Usman Lapai With digital transmission, I believe Individual that things will be put right soonest. opinion Umaru Sule Lapai The government should set up Individual community radio opinion Kwara State Ayorinde Asa Radio stations should be well Individual equipped to ensure smooth opinion transmission. Samuel Akindele Asa Modern transmission equipments Individual are needed to replace the archaic opinion ones for better and efficient transmission. Alhaji Subairu Pategi Radio drama and broadcasting in Individual local languages should be opinion encouraged. Malam Jubril Pategi Schedule of radio programmes on Individual river blindness should be printed opinion and made available to endemic communities. Malam Alhassan Ifelodun I don’t have any idea of what to do Individual in order to surmount these opinion challenges. Mathew Ajibola Ifelodun I do not know. Individual opinion
81 Summary of Research Question Five
The quantitative data presented in the following tables and figures 4.26, 4.27 and 4.28 indicated that majority of respondents affirmed that radio station do not have challenges in their drive towards eradication of river blindness. However, in identifying the challenges, those who said yes constituted majority in this respect. 180 respondents, representing 37.7 percent believed that challenges are anchored on the use of English Language in disseminating health messages while 149 respondents, representing 37.7 percent said the challenges are on poor transmission.
Qualitative data analyzed also showed that majority of the people interviewed were of the opinion that the stations have no challenges while few of them said there were challenges. Some suggested that solution could be proffered by replacing obsolete equipments with modern digital machines to improve transmission. Majority of the respondents strongly believed that introducing various local languages for radio programmes would surmount the challenges.
4.31 Discussion of Findings
In this section, all the data presented under each research question above are discussed and linked to empirical studies reviewed in chapter two of this project.
Research question one sought to investigate the extent to which the audiences expose themselves to radio messages on river blindness. The quantitative data presentation in tables and figures 4.8, 4.9 and 4.10 reveal that majority of the respondents own transistor radio sets as well as listening to radio programmes. This confirms the assertion by Moemeka (1993) that radio is cheap to obtain and widely owned by rural people due to the advent of the battery operated transistorized sets. In the same vein, Assemah (2011) concurs when he said that of all the mass media generally available to Africans, radio is the most widely spread and accessible. Radio has been of great help in conveying messages to the communities at risk. This, in essence, means
82 that the respondents’ ownership of radio sets increases their likelihood of getting satisfied with river blindness programmes. This may be because ownership of radio sets guarantees respondents’ relative access to river blindness messages on radio. Austin & Husted (1980) also supported this view by saying that the use of radio to disseminate health education messages is particularly advantageous because of the wide range of people it can reach. In developing countries, many rural villages do not have access to electricity or television, but battery operated radios are commonplace.
On the issue of access and listenership, 58 percent of respondents stated that they have regular access to radio set and that they enjoy listening to health programmes. In a similar finding in Limpopo Province of South Africa, overwhelming majority (100%) had access to radio sets as well as listening to radio programmes on health issues as noted by Osunkunle
(2007). In the same vein, Edegoh et al. (2003) in their findings noted that a good number of rural women of Idemili South Local Government Area of Anambra State, listen to radio and that programmes that interest them most are health related and agricultural programmes. The study recommends the utilization of radio by government and its agencies for disseminating messages intended for rural people.
The data also showed that more respondents expose themselves to radio messages on health issues because of accessibility to radio. For instance, table 4.7 and figure 4.7 showed that
234 (59.2%) respondents owned radio sets in their homes.
Qualitative analysis also showed that majority of the respondents interviewed in the two
States, own radio sets as well as listening to radio programmes. They also exposed themselves to radio messages on health issues since they are in possession of radio sets. This means that a good
83 number of respondents in the two States make effective use of radio and radio messages in combating river blindness.
In research question two, the study sought to find out the extent to which radio messages are used to sensitize the people in river blindness. Both quantitative and qualitative data derived from this research question indicate that majority of respondents said that radio messages are used to sensitize the people through awareness created by the messages. As a matter of fact, quantitative data presented in tables and figures 4.12, 4.13, 4.14 and 4.15 showed that majority of the respondents were aware of River Blindness programmes through radio messages. This finding is consistent with recent studies by Muhammad et. al. (2014) titled “River-Blindness-
Africa-on-Track-Towards Eradication”. The study reveals a higher level of awareness created by the use of radio jingles in Sokoto State, compared to a low level awareness recorded in Kebbi
State as a result of non-utilization of radio messages to sensitize the people on eye surgery. The
BBC World Service Trust also began 2-15 minute radio programme twice weekly to about 10-16 million people of Burma to raise awareness about poverty-related health issues including
HIV/AIDS. It provided information and practical solution to everyday health problems Williams
(2003). Similarly in Guinea Bissau, Weekly radio programmes on two popular national stations were used to reach thousands of people. Listeners can phone in and have their concerns about eye care and treatment answered SightSaver (2015).
The data also revealed that good number of respondents exposed themselves to the programmes on River Blindness, while majority of them confirmed that radio stations run programmes on River Blindness several times daily. 204 respondents, representing (51.6 percent) said that they were sensitized through radio messages. In line with this, Austin, et al. (1980), aver that several studies have demonstrated that people who listen to the radio regularly, have a
84 surprisingly accurate ability to recall details of broadcasts from months earlier. In this way, the findings support the potential of radio to disseminate health education messages that significantly affect listeners.
Similarly, qualitative data gathered through interview revealed that majority of the interviewees were quite conversant with River Blindness prorgrammes on radio. They maintained that majority of them exposed themselves to health programmes including River
Blindness; while a good number of respondents said that radio stations run programmes several times daily. Interestingly, qualitative and quantitative data for Kwara and Niger States revealed that they were aware of the effort by Government and Agencies to combat River Blindness through radio messages.
Quantitative and qualitative data generated under research question three probes into the effectiveness of radio programmes in the fight against River Blindness. Table 4.19 reveals that
186 respondents, representing 47.1 percent said yes, while 152, representing 38.8 percent said no, that the programmes were not effective in combating River Blindness. Chrommie (2004) confirmed the successful use of radio to convey health and hygiene messages related to preventing diarrhea diseases in children. However, in table 4.20, those who ticked Very effective option were less than those who ticked Effective option. This means that more efforts should be put by appropriate stakeholders to attain very effective level of radio messages in endemic communities. This supports the assertion of (Austin and Husted 1998) that the mass media in form of radio is an effective way of persuading target audiences to new behaviours, or to remind the people of critical information.
Qualitative data also revealed a similar scenario as quantitative data presented above.
The interview with medical personnel and staff members of State Radio Stations in Kwara and
85 Niger States revealed that majority of them believed that radio programmes on River Blindness
(onchocerciasis) are effective, while few said the programmes were not very effective. This is in line with Sofowora (2008) assertion that radio theatre was an effective instrument for promoting healthy living in Osun State as a result of a successful utilization of radio messages to sensitize the people on healthy living.
The nature of radio messages has had positive influence on respondents. For instance, in research question four, quantitative data presented in tables and figures 4.22 and 4.23 showed that majority of respondents believed that the programmes have had some kind of influence on health attitude of the audience. In identifying the kind of influence, overwhelming majority, 176, representing 44.6 percent said they avoided body exposure to blackflies through radio messages.
This validates the position of Assemah (2014) that radio as a tool can be used to bring about positive attitudinal change in the audience. In line with Assemah’s assertion, Communication
Initiative (2004) in their findings also noted that radio programmes were motivating and elicited behavioural change among the people of Burma. However some schools of thought have criticized this assertion. Stacy, et al (2003) argued that radio messages through drama is not a good method of acquiring knowledge or influence, but rather it can make the learner passive instead of being active learner.
On qualitative data, respondents from both States also believed that radio programmes on onchocerciasis exerts great influence on peoples’ ways of life especially their dressing code. It is also evident that majority avoided body exposure because of the diverstating effect of blackflies bite. According to (Galadima 1982), women who back their babies with open bodies to the streams whereby blackflies pecked on them, are now covering their babies as a result of regular health messages from the radio.
86 On challenges faced by radio as a medium, the quantitative data presented in the following tables and figures 4.25, 4.26 and 4.27 indicated that majority of respondents who said no were 180 (45.6 percent) while 149 (37.7 percent) said yes, and 66 respondents, representing
16.7 percent were neutral. In identifying the challenges, majority of respondents 180 (45.6 percent) believed that there were no challenges while 149 respondents, representing 37.7 percent) said that the use of English Language to disseminate health messages constituted a challenge. This reinforced Nwosu’s (1990) assertion that one of such problems in communicating social development programmes is the use of correct codes and symbols for communicating messages. The messages, according to him must have some utilitarian value before it can catch the people’s attention, arouse their interests and possibly, move them to action. Similarly, Osunkunle (2007) in his study of Seshego Community radio station, pointed out that the radio station in Seshego has a broad spectrum programming that promotes amongst other things, the ideals, principles and needs of the community. It uses a language quota of 80% of Sepedi local language and 20% English to disseminate health messages to the community.
Qualitative data analyzed also showed that majority of the people interviewed were of the opinion that the stations have some challenges in the area of poor transmission. This is why the principles of the Democratic Participant Media theory McQuail, (1983) lays strong emphasis on viable transmitter in carrying the messages to target audiences in such a way that they can understand the context and meaning. Respondents believe that solution is by replacing obsolete equipment with modern ones. Majority of them also believed that introducing various local languages to disseminate radio health messages would surmount the challenges.
87 CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This chapter presents the findings of the study based on the research questions that guided the study. We also present the summary with conclusion and relevant recommendations.
5.1 Summary
This study focused on the evaluation of the use of radio messages in combating river blindness in Kwara and Niger States. Literature was reviewed under the following sub-heading:
History of radio in Nigeria, Radio and health messages, community radio and health messages,
Radio drama and health promotion, Pathological and entomological review. The review also covered theories on Agenda Setting which assessed the relationship between what respondents in the communities say are important issues and the actual contents of radio messages. The work was also predicated upon Health Belief Model which is an intrapersonal (within the individual, knowledge and beliefs) model used in health promotion to design intervention programme.
The objectives of the study were clearly stated and five research questions were formulated to guide the study. Questionnaire and Interview questions developed for the study were used for data collection. The instrument contained 14 items that dealt with five research questions on evaluation of the use of radio messages in combating river blindness in Kwara and
Niger States. The instrument was validated by the project supervisor and other experts in the
Department of Mass Communication, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. The reliability of the instrument was determined by a pre-test study by the researcher. The 14 items were pilot-tested on a sample of 20 respondents (10 males and 10 females). The data obtained were computed.
The population of the study was made up of male and female respondents in three local governments each of Kwara and Niger States. The respondents who supplied the data for the
88 study were the people in the six local government areas. Multi-stage random sampling technique was used to draw the sample population for the study from the two states and the six local government areas. Five research questions were analyzed using frequency and percentage.
An overview of the overall results of the study showed that respondents’ sources of information on river blindness awareness are diverse, but radio remains the major source.
Despite their low level of education, some respondents still showed high preference for radio programmes that are packaged in Pidgin English and local languages. Radio is still highly favoured and effectively in use by development agencies and the government despite the presence of social and new media tools.
The investigation shows that respondents in Kwara and Niger States owned radio sets which they used in listening to radio programmes. Also, majority of the respondents were exposed to radio messages on health issues. They confirmed being aware of river blindness programmes on radio which they listen to on weekly basis.
A good number of respondents believe that the programmes on river blindness are effective. This is encouraging and calls for improvement in using radio to create awareness on health issues. On the influence on health attitude of the audience, the investigation revealed that there were significant changes in the mode of dressing of the people to protect them from blackflies bite.
The respondents identify challenges by radio stations and proffered solution to the challenges such as improvement in the transmission by using modern digital broadcasting and the use of local languages and pidgin English to disseminate health messages.
89 5.2 Conclusion
The role of radio in health promotion for sustainable health development throughout the world remains vital. Without radio, it might be difficult for health promoters and stakeholders to communicate health information, monitor and co-ordinate health activities in various rural communities in Nigeria. In this study, effort was made to highlight radio health communication activities in Kwara and Niger States, Nigeria. It was shown that the radio has ensured successes in health programmes through their communications and sensitization of the citizenry. The above leaves one to conclude that radio health communication in Nigeria is becoming an instrument for sustainable health development seeing that the information they disseminate is providing knowledge to the people on ways of combating diseases.
Finally, majority of the respondents appreciated the efforts of both States and Federal
Government for giving out free drugs (ivermectin) through radio announcement to the masses.
5.3 Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations were made:
o The use of radio messages for teaching and promoting health in river blindness
endemic communities should be encouraged.
o In radio drama, local examples should be the point of focus.
o Radio messages should be motivating and highly interactive.
o Qualified personnel should be used to design the programmes.
o Pyscho-social research on river blindness should be encouraged by the
government since 85percent of the studies are on pathological and entomological
research.
90 o Intervention policies in River Blindness scourge should package more radio
programmes in Pidgin English, drama and local languages of respondents. These
may enhance listernership, interest and positive change of behavior.
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98 APPENDIX 1
Department of Mass Communication Faculty of Arts University of Nigeria, Nsukka
17th November, 2015
Dear Respondents,
REQUEST TO FILL A QUESTIONNAIRE ON USE OF RADIO MESSAGES IN COMBATING RIVER BLINDNESS IN NIGER AND KWARA STATES
I am a postgraduate student of the Department of Mass Communication, University of
Nigeria, Nsukka, carrying out a study on Evaluation of the Use of Radio Messages in Combating
River Blindness in Niger and Kwara States, Nigeria. Kindly provide your candid opinions as regard the items contained in this questionnaire. This is an academic exercise which has no implication on your personality or job. Your responses are mainly for research purposes and will be kept confidential.
Thank you.
Yours faithfully,
Coleman F. Essien (Researcher)
99 APPENDIX 2
SECTION A: PERSONAL DATA
Tick as applicable
Sex: Male Female
Age: 21-30 31-40 41-50
51-60 61-70 71 >
Marital Status: Single Married Divorced
Qualification: First School Leaving Certificate SSSE/GCE
NCE /Diploma BA/BSc MA/MSc Ph.D
Occupation: Teaching Trading Farming
Civil Service Others please specify………………………….
SECTION B: The following keys should be used in responding to the items in this section. Tick just one option, as Yes [ ] No [ ] Don’t know [ ] Very effective [ ] Effective [ ] Ineffective
[ ] Very ineffective [ ].
Please respond to the questions below by ticking (√ ) against any of the options that best express your feelings.
1. Do you own Radio Set?
Yes [ ] No [ ]
2. Do you listen to a radio programme?
Yes [ ] No [ ]
3. Do you expose yourself to radio messages on health issues?
Yes [ ] No [ ]
4. Are you aware of River blindness programmes on radio?
100 Yes [ ] No [ ]
5. If yes, how often do you expose yourself to the programmes on River Blindness?
Daily [ ] Weekly [ ] Monthly [ ]
6. How often do radio stations run programmes on River Blindness?
Once daily [ ] Several times daily [ ] Once in a week [ ] Several times weekly [ ]
7. Would you say that the regularity of these programmes is adequate to sensitize the audience on River Blindness?
Yes [ ] No [ ] I don’t know [ ]
8. Do you think that these programmes have been effective in the fight against River Blindness?
Yes [ ] No [ ] I can’t say [ ]
9. If yes, how do you rate the effectiveness of these programmes?
Very effective [ ] Effective [ ] Ineffective [ ] Very ineffective [ ]
10. Would you say that these programmes have had some kind of influence on health attitude of the audience?
Yes [ ] No [ ] I can’t say [ ]
11. If yes, identify the kind of influence they have had on the audience.
(a) Change in mode dressing (b) Avoid body exposure (c) Clean environment
12. Do you think that the radio stations have some challenges in their efforts against River Blindness?
Yes [ ] No [ ] I don’t know [ ]
13. If yes, please identify these challenges in their order of magnitude.
(a) Poor Transmission (b) Using English Language for health messages
(c) Irregular health education messages
14. In what ways can these challenges be surmounted?
101 (a) Improved transmission (b) Programmes should be aired in local language/pidgin English (c) Radio drama should be organized regularly on river blindness
INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Do you own Radio Set?
2. Do you expose yourself to radio messages on health issues?
3. Are you aware of River blindness programmes on radio?
4. How often do radio stations run programmes on River Blindness?
5. Would you say that the regularity of these programmes is adequate to sensitize the audience on River Blindness?
6. Do you think that these programmes have been effective in the fight against River Blindness?
7. Would you say that these programmes have had some kind of influence on health attitude of the audience? If yes, identify the kind of influence they have had on the audience.
8. Do you think that the radio stations have some challenges in their efforts against River Blindness? If yes, please identify these challenges in their order of magnitude.
9. In what ways can these challenges be surmounted?
(a) Stations should be adequately equipped to improve transmission (b) Air programmes in local languages/pigin English (c) Radio drama on river blindness should be organized regularly
102 APPENDIX 3
A young boy leads a man impacted by river blindness Courtesy: Olivier Asselin Photos.
103