Thomas Glick, Steven J. Livesey, Faith Wallis, l·dilors

MEDIEVAL SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND MEDICINE AN ENCYCLOPEDIA

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God. Each summa is brief because it is based on sources from which the encyclopedist extracts some data. ERIUGENA, JOHN SCOTTUS Moreover, brevity implies a structure: the encyclopedist The Irish-born Johannes Eriugena-his seventeenth­ methodically organizes the philosophers' discourses. century editor Thomas Gale named him "Johannes The medieval encyclopedia is thus a literary genre Scot us Erigena"-was "master" (magister) of the between the accessus and the account of a synthetic cathedral school at Laon and a scholar at the court of vision of the Creation. Throughout prologues, the King Charles the Bald of France. In 850-851, Bishop numerous quotations from the authorities, whose names Pardulus of Laon refers to "a certain Irishman, named ond/or works are specified, reveal some of the conscious Johannes, who is at the palace of the king." The appela­ process by which scholarly knowledge was rendered into tion "scottus" or "scotigena" means "Irish"; the Vatican encyclopedic knowledge. The encyclopedist writes for an Librarian Anastasius, for instance, refers to him as nudience that has little time to spare, such as the mighty "Joannes Scotigena." The name "Eriugena" ("Irish 01' people who lack the knowledge to read the scholarly born")--corrupted to "Erigena" in twelfth-century cata­ works on which his work is based. He considers himself logues-was a pen-name used to sign his translation of n teacher aiming at a large audience. Among his goals are Pseudo-Dionysius. to improve the reader's understanding of the Bible; to Eriugena was probably born before 800 and died help preachers and train princes; to encourage people to sometime around 877. Recognized for his erudition, he study and then improve their moral standards; and to had a wide knowledge of Christian sources: St. facilitate the reading of more technical texts. Augustine, ,;. , ~'Macrobius, Many medieval encyclopedias were highly successful. , "Bede, "Isidore of Seville, Ambrose, Hilary For example, the De proprietatibus rerum was translated of Poitiers, and Jerome. He refers occasionally to into five languages beginning in the fourteenth century. " (Opuscula sacra) and possibly knew his The texts survive in many manuscripts of this period, and Consolation of Philosophy (glosses, possibly in his hand, from the fifteenth century to the eighteenth century many survive). Two partial commentaries, Annotationes in encyclopedias also appeared in several editions. Marcianum (c. 840-c. 850), on Martianus' liberal arts Numerous marginalia in the manuscripts and borrowings handbook De nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii (The from medieval encyclopedias by many authors show that Marriage of Philolology and Mercury) survive. Pierre these texts were frequently consulted. Library catalogues Duhem thought that Eriugena, in Book Seven of this also contain many references to these works. Thus it is Commentary, offers a version of the non-Ptolemaic dear that medieval encyclopedias played a major role in system subsequently associated with Tycho Brahe. In fact, the culture of the Middle Ages and in the diffusion of Eriugena is accurately reporting Martianus' version of scientific knowledge among a large audience. Heraclidus of Pontus' theory, but remarkably places and also in orbit around the Sun. See also Aristotelianism; Astronomy, Latin; Bestiaries; In the late 840s Eriugena was commissioned by Herbals; Lapidaries; Music theory; Natural history; two bishops to refute a treatise by a Saxon monk, Quadrivium; Vocabulary Gottschalk (806-868), who interpreted St. Augustine as teaching a "twofold" or "twin predestination:' (gemina Bibliography praedestinatio) of the elect to heaven and of the damned I~inkley, P., ed. Premodern Encyclo/Jaedic Texts. Leidcn: E.]. to hell, based on the opinion of Isidore of Seville, Brill,1997. Sententiae II, 6, l. Eriugena's De divina /Jraedestinatione Lusignan, S., M. Paulmier~Foucart and A. Nadeau, eds. (On Divine Predestination, c. 851) rebuts Gottschalk, Vincent de Beauvais. Intentions et receptions d'une c£uvre rejecting any predestination toward evil by appealing to encyclopedique au Moyen Age. Paris: Vrin, 1990. God's unity, transcendence and goodness. This treatise Lusignan, Sand M. Paulmier-Foucart, cds. Lector et proceeds through a rationalistic, dialectical analysis of compi/afor, Vincent de Beauvais, (rere precheur. Un key theological concepts, relying on argument rather than intellectuel et son rnilieu au XIIle siecIe, Grane, France: Scripture (something criticized by contemporaries, see PL Creaphis, 1997. CXV 1294a). Eriugena holds that "true philosophy is Ribemont, B, De natura rerum, Etudes des encylopedies du Moyen Age. Orleans, Paradigme, 1995. true religion and conversely" (following Augustine, De --. Le Livre des propriites des choses, une encyclopedie uera religione 5, 8). au XIVe silxle, Paris: Stock, 1999. In De divina praedestinatione Eriugena maintains that --. Les Origines des encyclopedies medievales. D'Isidore God wants all humans to be saved and does not de Seville aux Carolingiens. Paris: Champion, Bibliotheque predestine souls to damnation. Humans damn themselves du Moyen Age, 2001. through their own free choices: "Sin, death, unhappiness --. Litterature et encyclopedies du Moyen Age. Orleans: are not from God." God is outside time and cannot be Paraciigme, coil. Mcdicvalia, 2002. said to foreknow or predestine. Eriugena locates --, La "renaissance" du XIIe siecle et l'encyclopedisme. Gottschalk's errors as midway between the Pelagian [Essais sur Ie Moyen Age 27J Paris, France: Champion, heresy that down plays divine grace, and the opposing 2002. Seymour, M.e. Bartholomaeus Anglicus and his Encyclopedia. heresy that denies human freedom. In turn Eriugena London: Variorum, 1992. himself, due to his emphasis on free will, was accused of B. RmEMONT "Origenism') and "Pelagianism." Eriugena's treatise was , 162 ERIUGENA, JOHN SCOITUS

I condemned at the councils of Valence (855) and Langres Four Divisions of Divine Nature (859): one reason for the verdict on the work was its 1 reliance on "dialectic" (dialectica). Eriugena divides the divine nature into four "divisions" Around 860, Eriugel1a translated the works of (divisiol1es), or "species" or "forms," namely: (Pseudo-) Dionysius the Areopagite-his Divine Names, nature which creates and is not created, Mystical Theology, Celestial Hierarchy, and nature which creates and is created, Ecclesiastical Hierarchy. He subsequently wrote a long nature which is created and does not create, and i commentary, Expositiones in hierarchiarn coelestern, on nature which is neither created nor creates. the Celestial Hierarchy. In his Divine Names, Dionysius God is present in all four divisions. The outgoing of all I draws on ' Commentary on the to things in creation is balanced by their "return" (epistro­ argue that affirmations are less worthy than negations in phe, reditus, reversio) to God. There is a general return of referring to entities that transcend being, since negations all things to God. Corporeal things will return to their strip something away whereas affirmations involve incorporeal causes, the temporal to the eternal, the finite "possession of form." Negations concerning God (such will be absorbed in the infinite. The human mind will as, for example, "God is not good") are "more true" than achieve reunification with the divine, and then the corpo­ affirmations (such as "God is good"). Divine names real, temporal, material world will become essentially apply metaphorically and not literally to God, who is incorporeal, timeless and intellectual. The elect achieve "beyond all that is." Pseudo-Dionysius maintains that "deification" (deificatio, theosis), merging with God as God is not known directly except through theophaniai, lights blend into the one light, as voices blend in the choir, divine appearances (Divine Names, ch. 7, PG III 869c-d). as a droplet of water merges with the stream. God shall Eriugena also translated and commented on the work of be all in all (omnia in omnibus, V 935c). Maximus Confessor, giving him access to a rich Greek Eriugena controversially claims that God and the Christian anthropology. These translations gave him creature arc ultimately "one and the same" (Periphyseon, both a familiarity with and a preference for the IIl.678c), and that God is the "essence of all things" Eastern Fathers. (essentia omnium) or "form of all things" (forma Eriugena's dialogue, Periphyseon or De divisione omniunl), expressions that led to the accusation of naturae (On the Division of Nature), enthusiastically pantheism. However, Eriugena also stresses the divine adopts the Areopagite's main ideas, chiefly, his distinction transcendence: God is the non-being above being as well between affirmative (kataphatic) and negative as the principle or form of all things. (apophatic) theology. He even extends the dialectic of Eriugena's Periphyseon had influence in the schools of affirmation and negation beyond theology to statements Laon, Auxerre, and Corbie, and was popular in the about human nature ("man is not an animal" is more twelfth century, especially when circulated in the "edition" true than "man is an animal"). Overall his outlook is of William of Malmesbury and in the paraphrase, Clavis rationalistic; true philosophy is true reason (vera ratio); physicae, of Honorius Augustodunensis. His version of authority is but right reason (Periphyseon, I.51lb). One Dionysius was also influential in the twelfth and thirteenth should introduce the "opinions of the holy Fathers" only centuries. Linked with two heretical Paris theologians, where "the gravest necessity requires that human rcason David of Dinant and Amaury of Bene, PerijJhyseon was be supported for the sake of those who, being untrained condemned in 1210 and 1225. of in it, are more amenable to authority than reason" Hochheim (c. 1260-c. 1328) and Nicholas of Cusa (Periphyseon IV.781c-d). (1401-1464) were both familiar with the l'eriphyseon. Eriugena's cosmology includes original views on creation, matter, space, and time, corporeal body, the See also God in Christianity; Nature: the structure of nature of paradise and hell, and so on. For example, the physical world heaven and hell are not places. Paradise is perfect human nature (Periphyseon IV.840a), whereas souls trapped in Bibliography their own fantasies are in "hell." He defines nature Primary Sources (natura) very broadly as the "totality of all things" Barbet, Jeanne. Iohmmis Scoti Eriugenae Expositiones in including both beings and non-beings, both God and Ierarchiam coe!estem, Corpus Christianorul11. Continuatio creation. All things emerge from and return to the one Mediaevalis XXI, Turnhout: Brepols, 1975. God, Who is beyond being and non-being. God "creates Cappuyns, Maiul. Le De imagine de Gregoire de Nysse traduit Himself by manifesting Himself in theophanies" par Jean Scot Erigenc. Recherches de theologie ancienne et (Periphyseon I.446d). This self-manifestation (I.455b) is medievale (1965) 32: 205-262. identical with the speaking of the Word and the creation Contreni, John]. and Padraig P. 6 Neill. Glossae Divinae of all other things, since all things are contained in the Historiae. The Biblical Glosses of John Scottus Eriugena. FircI1ze: Sismel-Edizioni del Galluzo, 1997. Word. The Word contains the divine Ideas or "primary Floss, H.-J., ed. Johannis Scoti 0tJera quae sutJersunt Omnia. causes" (causae primordiales) of all creation, which Patrologia Latina CXXIl. Paris, 1853. proceed into their created effects. The timeless primordial Gale, Thomas. Joannis Scoti Erigenae causes are contrasted with the "mutable and imperfect Libri Quinque Diu Desiderati. Accedit AfJlJendix ex and as yet formless procession of this sensible world" Ambiguis S. Maximi Graece et Latine. Oxford: Sheldonian (Periphyseon II.549b). Theatre, 1681. ERIUGENA, JOI-IN SCOTfUS 163

cnlmeau, Edouard. Jean Scot: Commentaire sur l'Evangile de Gardner, Alice. Studies in John the Scot: A Philosopher of the jean. Chrcticnnes 180. Paris: Cerf, 1972. Dark Ages. London: Oxford University Press, 1900. Jean Scot: L'Homelie sur Ie Prologue de Jean. Sources Gersh, Stephen. From Iatnblichus to Eriugena. Leiden. E.]. Chretienncs 151. Paris: Editions du Cerf, 1969. Brill, 1978. ,,..---, ed. Maximi Con(essoris Amhigua ad Iohannem iuxta Huber, Johannes. Johannes Scotus Erigena: Ein Beitrag zur lahamzis Scotti Eriugenae latinam interpretationem. Corpus Geschichte der Philosophie und Theologie tnt Mittelalter Christianorum Series Graeca, 18. Turnout/Leuven: (1861). Hildesheim: Olms, 1960. Brcpols/Leuven University Press, 1988. Jeauneau, Edouard, Etudes erigeniennes. Paris: Etudes ---, ed. [ohannis Scotti seu Eriugenae Periphyseon, fiber Augustiniennes, 1987. primus. Corpus Christianorum Continuatio Medievalis 161. Leonardi, Claudio and E. Mesesto, cds. Giovanni Scoto nel Turnhout: Brepols, 1996. suo tempo: L'organizzazione del sapere itl eta carolingia. ---, ed. Iohannis Scotti seu Eriugenae Periphyseon, fiber Spoleto: Centro Italiano di Studi sull'Alto Mediaevo, 1989. secundus. Corpus Christianorum Continuatio Medievalis Madec, Goulven. Jean Scot et ses auteurs. Annotations erigeni~ 162. Turnhout: Brepols, 1997. ennes. Paris: Etudes Augustiniennes, 1988. '---. ed. Iohmmis Scotti seu Eriugenae Periphyseon, liber Marenbon, John. From the Circle of Alcuin to the School of Corpus Christiano rum Continuatio Medievalis 163. Auxerre: Logic, Theology and Philosophy in the Early Turnhout: Brepols, 1999. Middle Ages. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981. ---, with the assistance of Mark A. Zier, eds. Iohannis McEvoy, James]. and Michael Dunne, eds. History and Scotti Eriugenae Periphyseon (De Divisione Naturae) Liber Eschatology in John Scottus Eriugena and His Time. Quartus. English Translation by John J. O'Meara and l.P. Proceedings of the Tenth International Conference of the Sheldon-Williams, Scriptores Latini Hiberniae Volume XIII. Society for the Promotion of Eriugena Studies, Maynooth Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, 1995. and Dublin, August 16-20, 2000. Leuven: Leuven Laga, Carl and Carlos Steel, eds. Maximi Confessoris University Press, 2002. Quaestiones ad Thalassium II. Q. LVI-LXV una cum latina McGinn, Bernard and Willcmien Otten, eds. Eriugena. East interpretatione Iohmmies Scotti Eriugenae. Corpus and West. Notre Dame: Notre Dame University Press, 1994. Christianorum Series Graeca, 22. Turnhout/Leuven: Moran, Dermot. The Philosophy of John Scottus Eriugena. A Brepols/Leuven University Press, 1990. Study of Idealism in the Middle Ages. New York: Lutz, Cora, cd. Iohannis Scotti Annotationes in Marct'anum. Cambridge University Press, 1989. Cambridge, MA: Medieval Academy of America, 1939. ---. Pantheism from John Scottus Eriugena to Nicholas of Madec, Goulven, ed. Iohannis Scotti de divina praedestina­ Cusa. American Catholic Philosot)hical Quarterly 1990, tione. Turnhout: Brepols, 1978. Vol. l.XIV No.1 (Winter): 131-152. Sheldon-Williams, I.-P. Iohannis Scotti Eriugenae Periphyseon. ---. "Time, Space and Matter in the Periphyseon: an Volumes I-III, Dublin: Institute for Advanced Studies, Examination of Eriugena's Understanding of the Physical 1968,1972, and 1981. World." In At the Heart of the Real, edited by F. O'Rourke. Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 1992. Secondary Sources . ---. " and Eriugena: Aspects of Christian Gnosis." Allard, Guy, ed. Jean Scot ecrivain. Montreal: Bellarmin, In The Relationship Between and 1986. Christianity, edited by T. Finan and V. Twomey. Dublin: Beietwaltes, Werner. Erit/gena. Grrmdziige seines Denkens. Four Courts Press, 1992, Frankfurt am Main: Vittorio Klostermann, 1994. ---. "Eriugena's Theory of Language in the Periphyseon: ---, ed. Eriugena Redivivus. Zur Wirkungsgeschichte Explorations in the Neoplatonic Tradition," In Ireland and seines Denkens im Mittelalter und im Obergang zur Europe in the IV. Language and Neuzeit. Heidelberg: Carl Winter Universitatsverlag, 1987. Learning, edited by Pr6inseas Ni Chathain and Michael --, ed. Begriff und Meta/}her. Sprachform des Denkens Richter. Frankfurt: Klett-Cotta, 1996,240-260. bet" Eriugena. Heidelberg: Carl Winter Universitatsverlag, ---. Idealism in Medieval Philosophy: The Case of 1990. Johannes Scottus Eriugena. Medieval Philosophy and ---, ed. Eriugena. Studien zu seinen Quellen. Vortrage der Theology (1999) 8: 53-82. III. Internationalen Eriugena-Co//oquiums, Freiburg im O'Meara, John J. Eriugena. Cork: Mercier Press, 1988. Breisgau, 27.-30. August 1979. Heidelberg: Carl Winter Otten, Willemien. The Anthropology of Johannes Scottus UniversiUitsverlag, 1980. Eriugena. Leiden: E.]. Brill, 1991. Bett, Henry. Johannes Scotus Erigena: A Study in Medieval --- and Ludwig Bieler, eds. The Mind of Eriugena. Dublin: Philosophy. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1925. Irish University Press, 1973. Brennan, Mary, A Guide to Eriugenian Studies. A Survey of Riccati, C. Processio et expiicatio: La Doctrine de la creation Publications 1930-87. Paris: Editions du Cer!, 1989. chez Jean Scot et Nicolas de Cues. Naples: Bibliopolis, ---. A Bibliography of Publications in the Field of 1983. Eriugena Studies 1800-1975. Studi Medievali (1977) ser. Rudnick, Ulrich. Das System des Johannes Scottus Eriugena. 3a, 28: 401-447. Eine theologisch-philosophische Stttdie zu seinem Werk. ---. Materials for the Biography of Johannes Scottus Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 1990. Eriugena. St"di Medievali (1986), ser. 3a, 27: 413-460. Schrimpf, Gangolf. Das Werk des Johannes Scottus Eriugena Brennan, Mary, tr. John Scottus Eriugena. Treatise on Divine im Rahmen des Wissenschaftsverstandnisses seiner Zeit. Predestination, with an Introduction by Avital Wohlman, Eine Hinfithrung zu Periphyseon. Munster: Beitrage zur Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1998. Geschichte der Philosophic und Theologie des Mittelalters, Cappuyns, MaiuI. Jean Scot Erigene: sa vie, son oeuvre, sa 1982. pensee. Louvain: Abbaye de Mont Cesar, 1933. Sheldon~Wiliiams, I.-P. "The Greek Platonist Tradition from Carabine, Deirdre. John ScottHS Eriugena. Oxford: Oxford the Cappadocians to Maximus and Eriugena." In The University Press, 2000. Cambridge History of Later Greek and Early Medieval 164 ERlUGENA, JOHN SCOTIUS

Thought, edited by A.H. Armstrong. New York: Cambridge groups in Arabic and Latin, but the relationship betv·/tTI University Press, ·1970. these four groups is far from being firmly established. Sheldon-Williams, I.--P. and J.J. O'Meara, tr. Eriugella. The second major textual transmission of the Elemel/t' Periphyseon (The Division of Nature). Montreal/Paris: had its start in the last third of the ninth century, \\llll'l Bellarmin, 1987. Ishaq ibn Bunayn (830-911) translated in Baghdad Uhlfclder, Myra and J. Potter, tr. John the Scot. Periphyseon. different Greek version. This translation \vas edited ;1111 On the Division of Nature. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1976. modified by his colleague "'Thabit ibn Qurra (d. 90 II Van Riel, Gerd, Carlos Steel and James J. McEvoy, eds. lshaq's translation is apparently lost except for a Vl'r\ Iohannes Scottus Eriugena. The Bible and Hermeneutics. small number of fragments. The extant manuscripts til:! Proceedings of the Ninth International Conference of the arc acknowledged as representing the two translati(ll Society for the Promotion of Eriugena Studies, held at efforts coutain highly mixed texts with substantial diffe, Leuven and Louvain-La-Neuve, June 7-10, 1995. Leuven: enccs in some books. There is no agreement amO!li Leuven University Press, 1996. historians as to what relationship exists between tlll'~l DERMOT MORAN manuscripts and the three scholars of the ninth century. Parallel to the efforts of translating, scholars began" the early ninth century to edit the translated text accord EUCLID ing to either philosophical or mathematical prioriri('\ Almost all evidence for this work seems to be lost CX(TII Euclid lived around 300 B.C.E. in Alexandria. He for small fragments of "'al-Kindi (d. c. 870) and al-'Abl", authored the most influential textbook in the history of b. Sa'id al-Jawhari (d. c. 860). The most import"" mathematics, the Elements. Additionally, he wrote at versions among those extant are the editions compiled II' least five other geometrical works (Data, Porisma, On "'Ibn Sina (d. 1037), Athir aI-Din al-Abhari (d. 12('\1 Divisions, Conics, Plane loci, Pseudaria), one text on MU'ayyad ai-Din al-'Urdi (d. c. 1266), Muhyi'I-Din ,Ii astronomy (Phainomena), an influential text on optics Maghribi (d. c. 1290), "Nasir aI-Din al-Tusi (12111 (Optics) and a work on theoretical music (Elements of 1274), and an anonymous version printed in Rome it Music). Others texts on mechanics and on mirrors 1594. The most influential of these revised editions ,y" ascribed to him are not believed to be his works. the one composed by al-Tusi. As pointed out recently h Certain axioms, postulates". definitions and theorems De Young, Tusi's text indicates that until the thirtecl11i of the Elements have been contested since antiquity. century both major Arabic traditions (Hajjaj and Isl1;}(1 During the greater part of the twentieth century, it was Thabit) were used by scholars across the Muslim wori(1 believed that Heiberg had successfully established the After the thirteenth century, they were replaced by ,Ii genuine Euclidean text in a critical edition. This belief Tusi's edition. was questioned at the end of the century by the works of Other works on Euclid's Elements aimed to soh Knorr, Vitrac, Djebbar, and Rommevaux. Similar shifts of doubts, fill lacunae or add variants as well as Iln understanding and approach occurred in the course of aspects. The most important authors of these kinds ( the century with regard to the medieval transmission of commentaries were Abu'I-'Abbas al-Fadl al-Nayrizi (d., Euclid's Elements. This transmission embraces transla­ 922), Abu Sahl al-Kuhi (fourth/eleventh century), Ahm, tions into Latin, Arabic, Syriac, and Hebrew either from ibn Muhammad al-Sijzi (d. c. 1025), "'Ibn al-Baytham (, Greek or from Ara bic texts. A further strand of transmis­ c. 1041), 'HUmor al-Khayyam (1048-1131), Muhyi'I-I), sion, often ignored, comprises the translation from al-Maghribi (c. 1220-c. 1283), and Shams aI-Din" Arabic into Persian. The multiplicity of texts translated Khafri (d. 1550). from one language into the other and transferred from one scholarly culture to the other makes the study of the history of Euclid's Elements one of the most difficult, but Translations of the Elements also most fascinating, subjects in textual history of Only a fevI' Syriac texts are extant that testify to an inlel medieval mathematics. est in Euclid's \/·/01+ among Nestorian and Jacohl! The first interest in the text is documented at the begin­ Christians. None is known for the period before 700. ;\ ning of the Abbasid dynasty (750-1258), when caliph undated fragment of Book I was edited in 19-'" aI-Mansur (r. 754-775) asked for a Greek manuscript. Historians continue to debate about the language frO! Yahya ibn Khalid (d. 805), vizier of al-Mansur's grandson which it was translated (Greek or Arabic) and about !i Harun aI-Rashid (r. 786-809), sponsored the first known relationship to the Arabic and Arabic-Larin transmissi{)1 Arabic translation by al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf ibn Matar (d. The second known Syriac extract of the Elements elll after 825). No trace of this translation seems to be pre­ from the pen of the Jacobite patriarch Abu'I-Faraj ibn" served. During the reign of Harun's second son, 'lbri (1226-1286). It is related to the Arabic edition, , al-Ma'mun (r. 813-833), al-Hajjaj produced a second the thirteenth century, but the precise character of t h version, the character of which is highly disputed. While relationship has yet to be established. Arabic historical sources imply that this second version The most influential translation from Greek into Ll! I was a new translation, current research sees it more as a before 1200 was made by "'lloethius (c. 480-524/5) i" substantially revised edition .. Fragments of this version or 500. The four fragments that survive from this tr(lIl~1. of editions based on it are extant in at least four different tion either come from northeast France (Corbie) or frol