Progress in IPM CRSP Research

Proceedings of the Second IPM CRSP Symposium

May 16-20, 1997 Guatemala City, Guatemala

Office of International Research and Development (OIRD). Outreach Division of the Office of the University Provost v .. rrgi~Tech

VIRGINIA POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE AND STATE UNIVERSITY Contact Address:

IPMCRSP Office of Internatio111al Research and Development (OIRD) Outreach Division of the Office of the University Provost 1060 Litton Reaves Hall (0334) Virginia Tech Bllacksburg, VA 24061 Telephone (540) 231-3513 FAX (540) 231-3519 E-mail: [email protected]

This publication was made possible through support provided by the United States Agency for International Development (USA/D) under terms ofGrant No. LAG-G-00-93-0053-00 made to Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech).

The opinions expressed herein are those of the !PM CRSP Symposium, Technical Committee Meeting and Year 5 Planning Workshop Participants and do not necessarily reflect the views of the USA/D.

Cover photo: Participants •Of the symposium inspecting snow pea fields in the Cuatro Pinos Union of the Agricultural Cooperative Progress in IPM CRSP Research:

Proceedings of the Second IPM CRSP Symposium

Guatemala City, Guatemala May 16-20, 1997

Publication Coordinated and Edited by the Symposium Organizing Committee and the Management Entity ofthe IPM CRSP Proceedings of the Second IPM CRSP Symposium

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface ...... •..•....•...... i

The Purpose of the IPM CRSP Symposium and Technical Committee Meeting••••••.••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••..••..••.••.•••.••. 1

Highlights of Progress and Challenges of the IPM CRSP •• 3

Biological Controi·Based IPM of Diamondback Moth in Asia. •••• 1 0

Biology and Management of the Pea Leafminer Lyriomyza huidobrensis (Blanchard) in Snow Pea ...... ••.••••••••••••••••••••••••• 1 7

Use of Neem, Cultural Practices, and Insect·Resistant Varieties for Insect Pest Management in Millet/Cowpea Association in the OHVN Zone of Central Mali ••••••••••••••••..•••••••••••••••••••••••••... 2 4

Sweetpotato Weevil Integrated Pest Management ••••••.•••••••••••••• 37

The Control of Broccoli White Grubs: A Pilot Program for Guatemala ••••••••••••••.•••.••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••.•••••••••••••••••• 46

Studies on Stalk Borers of Maize in Uganda and Their Implication in Development of Integrated Management Programs for the Pests ••••••••••••••••••••••••.••••.•..•••••.•...•.....•...•••••••••...•...... •.••..•. 49

Pesticide Use and Residues in Vegetable Amaranth (Amaranthus viridis) in Jamaica ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••.•..•••••••.••••••••••••••.• 6 2

Management of Root-Knot Nematode (Meloidogyne graminicola) in Rice-Onion System ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••..••••••••••••••••••••••.•• 6 8

Assessment of Blackberry and Raspberry Diseases Found in Guatemala •••••••.••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••.•.••..•••••••••••.•••.••. 7 8

Damping-Off and Bulb Rot in Onion Production. ••••...... •••••••••• 8 8 Proceedings of 1he Second IPM CRSP Symposium

Weed Management in Rice-Onion Systems .....•....•.•..••••••••••••• 9 5

Integrated Striga Management on Sorghum, Millet And Cowpea in Mali •••••.••. ~ .....••••••.•••••.•...... •...•..••••••••••..••.••.•.••.•.••••••• 105

Economic and Socioeconomic Impact Assessment of Non­ Traditional Crop Production on Small Farm Households in Guatemala: A Summary of Results.••.•••••••.•••.•.••.••••...••••••••• 110

Gender Differentiated Constraints in Malian Semi-Subsistence Production: Implications for Integrated Pest Management and Food Security ...•••••••••••••••••••.•••.•••••••••••••••••••...••.••.•••••••••••••• 13 0

Integrated Management of Snow Peas and Sugar Snaps (Pisum sativum) in Guatemala•.•••••.•••..•.•..•••.••••••••••••••••....•••••••••• 138

Pesticide Policy Dimension of Integrated Pest Management •••••• 151

Information Technologies to Enhance International IPM Research Programs •••••••.•.•••••••••••••••••..••••••••••••••••••••••...... ••••••••••• 15 6

Appendix II: List of Participants•••..•.•..•••••••••••••••••••••••.•.••• 1 7 4 Proceedings of the Second IPM CRSP Symposium

Preface

The Second IPM CRSP Symposium was held in Guatemala from May 16 - 20, 1997. In addition to presentations and discussions of IPM CRSP results, the participants of the symposium also had the opportunity to discuss and contribute to the development of the Phase II Renewal Proposal of the IPM CRSP. Representatives from all four IPM CRSP regions (Africa, Asia, Caribbean, and Latin America), as well as the partner U. S. Institutions, attended the symposium.

Since the primary focus of the symposium was presentation and discussion of major results achieved by the CRSP in the three and a half years of its existence, host country representatives and their U. S. based partners reported on their major findings and achievements. Reports were received and discussed from all four regions. The results and achievements covered all the major IPM areas of the CRSP' s involvement: insects, diseases, weeds, socio-economics, policy, and information exchange. Details of the presentations are documented in . these proceedings which should serve as a good source of information and useful reference. We hope the reports in these proceedings will give the reader a representative sample of the much broader range of IPM CRSP activities globally.

rn terms of the symposium implementation, the local organizing committee led by the IPM CRSP Latin America site chair did an outstanding job in making all the logistic local arrangements to make the symposium a success.

The contributions of Jean-Pierre Amirault and Amy Ostroth in the final formatting and editing of the proceedings for publication are gratefully acknowledged.

Brhane Gebrekidan, Program Director IPM CRSP/OIRDNirginia Tech

I Sullivan: Purpose of IPM CRSP Symposium and TC Meeting

The Purpose of the IPM CRSP Symposium and Technical Committee Meeting

Glenn H. Sullivan Site Chair, Latin America

First, let me welcome all of the Global IPM CRSP representatives to Guatemala, our Prime Site in Latin America. Further, let me introduce the Site Committee from Latin America: Dr. Victor Salguero, outgoing Site Chair (ICTA); Dr. Guillermo Sanchez, incoming Site Chair (U. del Valle); Dr. Linda Asturias, Site Co-Chair (ESTUDIO 1360); Dr. Allan Hruska, Honduras Program Coordinator (ZAMORANO).

The purpose of our meetings this week focuses on the overall objectives of the IPM CRSP in fostering interdisciplinary, participatory research. This research is aimed at improving agricultural production in the developing economies of the world through the introduction of performance proven integrated pest management strategies that are economically, environmentally, and socioeconomically sustainable. It is our mission here to share research fmdings and exchange regional site information that provides greater insight into:

• IPM strategies that reduce agricultural losses due to insect, disease, and weed pests. • IPM strategies that rely less on the use of hard chemicals and programmed chemical practices, and more on integrated pest management practices that are sensitive to human welfare and the environment • IPM strategies that accomplish these overall objectives in a manner that enhances the socioeconomic welfare of small producers, rural communities, and society as a whole, and is sustainable over the long-term.

The underlying premise of IPM CRSP centers on the scientifically proven fact that when current agricultural production technologies are properly integrated and precisely managed, the goals of immediate economic benefit and long-term sustainability are mutually reinforcing. It is within this shared vision for achieving our goals in the IPM CRSP that we set forth with our agenda in this, our second symposium and fourth annual Technical Committee meeting.

Welcome to Guatemala!

1 Gebrekidan: Progress and Challenges ofthe IPM CRSP

Highlights ofProgress and Challenges of the IPMCRSP

Brhane Gebrekidan Program Director, IPM CRSP, Virginia Tech

The Integrated Pest Management Collaborative Research Support Program (IPM CRSP) has made significant progress during the year in working towards achieving its overall objectives. The highlights of the progress as well as the future challenges of the CRSP will be outlined below. Workplans

The Year 4 workplan of the CRSP has been under full implementation since October 1996.

For Year 5, calls for proposals have been made and received.

In these meetings, there is a separate Year 5 planning session in which the Technical Committee as well as other interested Co-PI's are expected to participate actively. Progress on Activities of the Primary Sites

All four sites are now fully operational; brief comments on leadership changes at each site are given below:

Guatemala There have been Site Leadership changes; Dr. Victor Salguero has been named Deputy DG of ICTA, therefore , a host country site coordinator has yet to be identified.

Jamaica Dr. Frieda Eivazi completed her services as the Jamaica Site Chair. New Site Chair, Dr. Bill Ravlin of Virginia Tech, was selected by the Site Committee.

Mali Mr. Makan Fofana left the IER and resigned as host country coordinator. Dr. Amadon Diarra is the new Administrative Coordinator and Dr. Kadiatou Toure Gamby is the new Technical Coordinator for Mali.

PREVIOUS PAGE BLANK 3 Proceedings of the Second IPM CASP Symposium

Philippines No site leadership changes have taken place during the year.

At the Management Entity at Virginia Tech, there have been changes also.

Both Dr. Kent Reid , Assistant Program Director and Sharon Lawson , Administrative Assistant resigned during the year. Margie Zelinski has joined as Administrative Assistant.

Jean-Pierre Amirault joined the ME as Assistant Coordinator for the IPM Consultative Network ( ICN) and Africa IPM Link initiatives funded by USAID Africa Bureau. Reports and Information Dissemination Trip Reports: There are approximately 110 numbered reports to date. These have been distributed to the members of the site committee, Board, TC, EEP, and USAID Mission. USAID has requested that future trip reports should be submitted electronically and this will be initiated soon.

Working Paper To date there are 10 IPM CRSP numbered working papers.

Third Annual The report has just come out of press Report: and is available for distribution. Workshop During the year, two workshop Proceedings: proceedings have been published and distributed by the CRSP. These are the Guatemala Workshop and the IPM Networking in Sub-Saharan Africa Proceedings .

Update newsletter: The last issue, Vol. 3, No. 2 has been distributed already.

4 Gebreki-: Progress and Challenges of the IPM CRSP

Publications and Presentations:

There have been a wide range of publications and presentations produced by the CRSP. Specific lists and details are given in the Third Annual Report. Theses:

Two theses sponsored by the CRSP have been completed during the year. These were done by CRSP supported students: Anne Dix, and Adam Russ.

There are three main World Wide Web CWWW') pages where IPM CRSP related activities are featured and these are : • IPMCRSP http://ipm-www.ento. vtedu:SOOO/crsp/ (Bill Ravlin)* • Africa IPM Link http://ipm-www.ento.vtedu:SOOO/ail/index.html (Jean-Pierre Amirault)* • Penn State Bibliographic Service http://www.ento.psu.edu/home/extension/ipmcrspbib/ipmcrs pbib.html (Ed Rajotte, Kelly Anon)* *Web Master(s)

RESEARCH RESULTS HIGHLIGHTS

Examples of selected research results from each site are presented below. Details of these results and others not mentioned here can be found in the Third Annual Report of the CRSP. Latin America Leaf miner A taxonomic survey of the snow pea leaf miner species Agromyzidae in the Guatemalan highlands has shown that L huidobrensis continues to be the sole species found in snow peas and other crops in the central highlands. So far, four other liriomyza species have been identified: L. trifolii, L. sabaziae, L. sativae, and L. commelinae on a variety of hosts. L. huidobrensis is a highly polyphagous species and occurs on a variety of crops in Guatemala but is quite rare on surrounding weeds and native vegetation. Compared to the other snow pea producing

5 Proceedings of the Second IPM CRSP Symposium regions, leaf miner populations are larger in Chimaltenango and Sacatepequez (the 2 departments with the largest snow pea production). Broccoli Research results have shown that obtaining a satisfactory level of export-quality broccoli can be achieved even under a no-pesticide regime; strip-cropped broccoli and black beans improve yields by as much as 51% in comparison to monocultured broccoli. Tomato IPM From the fourteen technologies analyzed, growers selected five: covered seedbeds, sorghum barriers, yellow sticky traps, and plastic mulches. The plastic mulches helped to reduce viruses, weeds, fertilizer, and water requirements. Based on these results, it is recommended to promote the use of these IPM practices to other tomato producer zones. Caribbean Callaloo, Peppers, and Sweet Potatoes The pesticides most commonly used on callaloo (Amaranthus sp. ), hot peppers and sweet potatoes were diazinon, profenofos, methomyl, malathion, monocrotophos, ethoprop, carbaryl, carbofuran, and deltamethrin. The most common pesticide residue was diazinon, found on 60% of the callaloo samples. IPM for Vegetable Crops Host plant resistance is a suitable substitute for nematicide in controlling root-knot nematodes in pepper plantings; the root-knot nematode resistant pepper cnltivar Carolina Cayenne was demonstrated to be a potentially valuable cultigen for use in crop rotation schemes for the management of southern root-knot nematodes in susceptible vegetable crops. Information Systems for IPM The Information Systems (IS) project provides the IPM CRSP with a mechanism to rapidly and freely share information. This project established a program-wide World Wide Web (WWW) server and developed and presented an IS workshop to enhance IPM CRSP scientist research capabilities in the Caribbean.

6 Gebrekidan: Progress and Challenges of the IPM CRSP

Africa Neem Kernel Extract (NKE) The past season's results indicate that Malian NKE maintains its effectiveness shown in bioassays at high temperatures, including 2 0 0 weeks at 50 C followed by up to 2.5 months storage at 28 C; therefore, NKE produced in Malian villages of the Mourdiah and Sirakorola areas can be stored at the high temperatures routinely encountered in these villages. Striga Four Striga management factors were assessed: cowpea variety, millet/cowpea association method, fertilization, and supplementary late weeding; the Striga-resistant cowpea variety in an alternate row association with the farmer's millet variety increased millet yield 23% over the farmer practice; fertilization resulted in an additional 39% yield increase, but supplemental late weeding did not further increase yield. Economic Analysis Labor shortage is most acute for weeding, with Striga being the most time consuming weed to control; the lack of credit and labor limitations make it unlikely that labor intensive IPM techniques would be well­ received by the farmers. Insects A 14% increase in yield in the treatments with neem and leaf removal (803 kg ha·') over the farmer practice (706 kg ha·') was non­ significant, in contrast with a 53% significant yield increase with petroleum-based azatin application obtained in 1994.

Uganda Pest Monitoring Based on the initial results generated from the program, it is evident that Ugandan farmer groups have a sufficient level of expertise within their associations to implement crop pest monitoring programs if sufficient supervision and instruction is provided.

Arthropod Pests, Diseases, and Weeds Screening of potential rotation crops to control nematodes in the rice­ vegetable cropping system showed that several crops can be planted after rice to reduce nematode level in the soil. The crops that were considered resistant were corn, peanut, cucumber, squash, beans,

7 Proceedings of the Second !PM CRSP Symposium cowpea, pigeon pea, pepper, and eggplant. This year's results also indicate that the alternate wet-dry soil moisture conditions of the rice­ vegetable rotation pattern in San Jose is apparently selecting for a lowland ecotype of Cyperus rotundus over time. Mulching, when combined with one handweeding plus one herbicide application, controlled weeds just as effectively as the farmers' practice of two herbicide applications plus two handweedings. Biological control of Sclerotium rolfsii Compost alone was not suppressive of disease development; however, the addition of the biological control agents Trichoderma hamatum 382 and Flavobacterium balustinum 299 caused a reduction in the damping off disease caused by Sclerotium rolfsii in this system. Literature Searching Service For the Jamaica and the Philippines sites, over 1,400 journal articles and other pieces of scientific literature have been compiled. Pesticide Policy Dialogue Current tax and exchange rate policies, in net, neither deter nor significantly encourage pesticide imports and usage in the Philippines, implying that IPM alternatives developed on the CRSP, if profitable, will not have to compete against heavily subsidized pesticides.

CHALLENGES OF THE IPM CRSP As the CRSP moves forward into the last year of Phase I and renewal for Phase II, it needs to address some issues and themes which seem to come up repeatedly.

1. Definition of !PM. What is the accepted definition of IPM for the CRSP? Compendium of IPM definitions on the internet gives 25 definitions for the decade of the 1990s alone.

2. Pest Management vs. Control. As the Annual Workplans and the Annual Reports reveal, some research activities of the IPM CRSP are definitely concentrating on pest control with the use of pesticides . What is the right balance between pest management and pest control activities for the CRSP?

3. Collaboration is a central concept for the CRSP. Are our collaborations between US and host country scientists sufficient? The CRSPs are not donor agencies but are promoters, facilitators, and implementers of collaboration. There are instances where US and host country scientists are working independently without

8 Gebrekidan: Progress and Challenges of the IPM CRSP

sufficient collaboration. What steps are needed to rectify these situations?

4. Integration should be the core of everything we do in the /PM CRSP. Are we using multiple tactics sufficiently in our IPM strategies? Are we involving multiple disciplines in our IPM problem solutions?

5. Reduction of Pesticide Use and Residue. How much focus is the CRSP giving to these important issues?

6. Institution and Nationol Capacity Building in /PM is an ultimate goal of the CRSP. Activities leading to this goal are training, institutionalizing IPM, and influencing policy changes. Do we have the right activities in place to achieve this overall goal?

7. Impact Assessment of our research and training efforts has to be done on a continuing basis. As a consequence of the IPM CRSP activities, what are the dollars gained, yields increased, environment quality improved, lives saved, and any other measurable benefits to our stakeholders?

8. Benefits ofour activities to the US and to the Host Country /Region have to be documented properly. We are repeatedly challenged to document and demonstrate such benefits both to the US and to the host countries. How is the CRSP positioned to respond to this issue effectively?

In conclusion, the IPM CRSP has made significant progress during the last year but still has a number of challenges to tackle.

9 Proceedings of the Second IPM CRSP Symposium

Biological Control-Based IPM of Diamondback Moth inAsia

N. S. Talekar Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center

Abstract

Diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella (L.), is the most destructive pest of cruciferous vegetables in Asia. So far, the nse of broad-spectrum chemical insecticides bas dominated the control strategies for this pest. This bas led to all-too-familiar adverse environmental consequences, including development of very high levels of resistance to practically all classes of chemicals used in its control. Diadegma semiclausum Hellen, a larval parasite of European origin, was introduced from Indonesia to control diamondback moth in Taiwan and, through AVRDC's collaborative research networks, eventually in many other locations throughout Asia. This parasite was first introduced into the highlands of Talwan, the Philippines, and India, and more recently to Nepal, Sri Lanka, Laos, and Vietnam. It bas so far been established in Taiwan, the Philippines, and India. This bas resulted in enormous reduction in pesticide use, especially in the Philippines. Cotesia plutellae (Kurdjumov) has been introduced in the lowlands of Indonesia, the Philippines, and Laos where it was not found previously. Other parasites, such as Oomyzus sokolowskii (Kurdjumov) and Microplitis plutellae Muesebeck for lowlands and Diadromus collaris Gravenborst for highlands, are being explored for introduction in some countries in Asia to provide added control of the pest on a more sustainable basis. Introduction Diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella (L. ), an insect of European origin, is the most widespread and most destructive pest of economically important crucifers, such as common cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, radish, Chinese cabbage and others, throughout the tropics and subtropics (Talekar and Shelton, 1993). Larvae of this crucifer-specific pest feed on the foliage from seedling stage to harvest,

10 Talekar. IPM of Diamondback Moth in Asia

and greatly reduce both yield and quality of the produce. If not controlled adequately in time, the whole crop can be destroyed. To control this pest, farmers in Asia use large quantities of insecticides. The intensive and often indiscriminate use of chemicals, coupled with the rapid turnover of insect generations and year-round availability of host plants in the ideal tropical climates, has resulted in this insect becoming highly resistant to practically all categories of insecticides used in its control. The lack of suitable alternatives force farmers to rely on chemicals despite their diminished effectiveness. In addition to being hazardous to the health of consumers and farmers, indiscriminate use of chemicals has resulted in increased cost of production and accelerated environmental degradation. The situation is especially critical in lowland areas of Southeast Asia where crucifers are ravaged by the diamondback moth and several other insect pests. Research Approach

The diamondback moth is the most widespread lepidopterous insect in the world. All of its life stages are spent on the plant surface which makes it readily accessible to natural enemies, of which it has far more than its fair share including: 4 egg parasites, 38 larval parasites, and 13 pupal parasites (Lim, 1986). In addition, 25 species of arthropod predators are reported to attack this crucifer pest (Chiu et al., 1981 ). However, most of these natural enemies, especially the more important parasites, are confined to Europe where diamondback moth is kept under control by a plethora of natural enemies (Mustata 1992). Some of these parasites have been successfully introduced from Europe to several countries, including some in Asia, specifically to control diamondback moth (Vos, 1953; Ooi and Lim, 1989). Utilization of these freely available natural enemies represents a great potential for sustainable control of this pest. At the Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center (A VRDC), the entomological research, therefore, emphasizes importation, study of biocontro1 potential, and utilization of exotic parasites for the control of the diamondback moth in various agroecological regions in Asia. Results

In 1984, AVRDC imported a larval parasite, Diadegma semiclausum Hellen, from Indonesia (AVRDC 1987) where this ichneumonid is established and giving reasonable control in the highlands of Java and North Sumatra (Sastrosiswojo and Sastrodihardjo 1986). This parasite of European origin is believed to be one of the most important mortality factors that keeps diamondback moth populations under control on that

11 Proceedings of the Second IPM CRSP Symposium continent Preliminary stndies at AVRDC, where cabbage was grown under large net cages constructed in the field, showed a high level of parasitism in the diamondback moth resulting in the doubling of the cabbage yield in the cage where this parasite was used over the control cage where no parasite was used (falekar 1988).

Encouraged by these results, D. semiclausum was introduced into three agroecological areas in Taiwan where crucifers are widely grown. The areas included (1) Luchu Township, 10 m above sea level where crucifers are grown during cool-dry season from October to April and rice is grown during hot-wet season from May to September; (2) Yangminshan, 700 m above sea level where crucifers are grown during April to October and nothing is grown during the rest of the year due to low temperatures reaching o•c, and (3) Wuling, 1700 m above sea level where crucifers are grown in summer and low temperatures of below o•c for several days during winter limits the cultivation of any crop.

Surveys during the first season showed that the parasite was present at all three locations. In Luchu, the highest parasitism was 27% of the host larvae, in Y angminshan it reached only 10%, and at both locations supplementary control measures became essential to combat diamondback moth. In Wuling, however, the parasitism reached 75% of host larvae 4 weeks after D. semiclausum introduction, after which the pest population fell so dramatically that no further observations could be performed (AVRDC, 1988; Talekar et al., 1990) due to the absence of 3rd or 4th instar host larvae used in the parasitism survey.

Among the three locations where D. semiclausum was introduced in 1986, the parasite has become established only in cool, almost temperate areas in Central Taiwan. A survey in 1988 revealed that the parasite has spread throughout 1000 ha of crucifer-growing area in the highlands around Wuling, reaching distances of more than 60 km from the original site of release (falekar et al., 1990). Repeated demonstration on farmers' fields in subsequent years have shown that there is no difference in diamondback moth populations whether one uses chemical insecticides or relies on this natnrally occurring parasite alone. Thus,there is no need to use any chemical insecticide to control diamondback moth in an area where the parasite has been established (AVRDC 1991). In the remaining two areas, where temperatures during summer exceed 30°C for several days or even weeks, the parasite did not survive. In Wuling, however, this ichneumonid can survive the freezing temperatures common in Taiwan's highlands during December to February.

12 Talekar. IPM of Diamondback Moth in Asia

Substantial portions of crucifers in Asia are grown in the lowlands where diamondback moth is a serious pest and where D. semiclausum cannot survive due to high temperature. To combat the pest problem in these areas, A VRDC uses a braconid Cotesia plutellae found in Taiwan, an eulophid Oomyzus sokolowskii imported from West Africa, and a braconid Microplitis plutellae imported from Upstate New York. Microplitis plutellae, although collected from a temperate area, can tolerate the high temperatures common in the lowlands of tropical to subtropical Asia.

Collaborative Research on Diamondback Moth Control in Asia

Diamondback moth is a common concern among countries in Asia. Most of these countries share similar agroenvironments in which vegetables are cultivated: highlands and peri-urban production areas around big cities in the lowlands. A VRDC's success in the control of this crucifer pest with parasites in Taiwan, especially in the highlands, showed promise for countries in the rest of Asia.

In the first of three regional collaborative research projects funded by the Asian Development Bank (ADB), countries in Southeast Asia-Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines-formed a network, named AVNET, with AVRDC as the coordinator, in 1989. Through this project, national program scientists were trained at AVRDC, modest but permanent parasite rearing facilities were constructed in each country to enable local rearing and utilization of diamondback moth parasites, and funds and technical help were provided for pilot project studies on farmers fields in each country. Through this project, D. semiclausum was introduced for the first time in mountainous areas of Benguet Province of the Philippines in March 1990. By May 1993, it had become established throughout the 7000- ha cabbage growing area of that province. Various surveys conducted in subsequent years report considerable reduction in pesticide use, now averaging between three to six sprays compared with 16-18 sprays per season before introduction of the parasite (Rejesus et al., 1995). This reduced pesticide use and consequent savings in labor and pesticide expenses, accompanied by reduced losses due to diamondback moth damage, amounts to savings of about US$1 0 million per year for the whole of Benguet province. Cotesia plutellae, which was also introduced in 1990 to control diamondback moth in the warmer lowlands of the Philippines and Indonesia, are now established in both countries. This parasite establishment is expected to reduce the pest

13 Proceedings of the Second IPM CRSP Symposium problem-although not as dramatically as by D. semiclausum in the highlands-on a sustainable basis in the lowlands. In 1992, ADB funded a second collaborative research network, SA VERNET, in South Asia which included the countries of Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. IPM research within this network has emphasized the introduction of exotic parasites to combat diamondback moth. Through this network, D. semiclausum has been introduced in the highlands of India, Sri Lanka, and Nepal. It is now established in the Ootakmund and Kodaikanal highland areas of southern India. Studies are underway to assess the impact of this parasite establishment on the pest control. In 1996, Mekong River countries-Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam­ formed their own network, CLVNET, which is also funded by ADB and coordinated by AVRDC. Through this network, D. semiclausum and D. collaris, a pupal parasite of diamondback moth, were introduced in early 1997 in the highlands of Laos and Vietnam, C. plutellae, in the lowlands of Laos, and 0. sokolowskii in the lowlands of all three countries. Microplitis plutellae is being reared in Laos and Vietnam and is being introduced in these two Mekong River countries. This introduction of natural enemies is expected to reduce the dependency on chemical insecticides and promote sustainable control of diamondback moth.

Conclusions Easy access to pesticides, use of which is encouraged and subsidized by governments in most Asian countries, has led to pesticide misuse in vegetable pest control. Time and again it has been shown that. with increased use of broad-spectrum insecticides, diamondback moth infestation becomes more serious. However, no Asian country seems willing to take necessary political steps-legislation, abandoning subsidies, and/or progressive taxation-to reduce pesticide use in vegetable cultivation. Use of freely available natural enemies, especially parasites, for the control of diamondback moth represents an economical, environmentally friendly, and sustainable control alternative. This crncifer pest has been kept under control for ages in its native Europe by a plethora of natural enemies. Most of these natural enemies appear suited for use in the tropical highlands, while others could be suitable in the lowlands. Introduction of these beneficial insects in the tropics and subtropics will increase the availability of natural mortality factors and control diamondback moth

14 Talekar. IPM of Diamondback Moth in Asia

on a sustainable basis. This will also restore the biodiversity adversely affected by the excessive use of chemical pesticides. References

A VRDC. 1987. 1985 Progress Report. Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center, Shanhua, Taiwan, 470 pp. A VRDC. 1988. 1986 Progress Report. Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center, Shanhua, Taiwan, 540 pp. A VRDC. 1991. 1990 Progress Report. Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center, Shanhua, Taiwan, 312 pp. Chiu, S. C., C. C. Chien, L. Y. Chou and B. H. Chen. 1981. Biological control of insect pests on cruciferous vegetables. In C. N. Chen, W. Y. Su and W. F. Hsiao (Ed.), Proceedings of Symposium on Production and Insect Control in Cruciferous Vegetables, pp. 32- 73. Plant Protection Center, Wufeng, Taiwan (in Chinese with English summary). Lim, G. S. 1986. Biological control of diamondback moth. In N. S. Talekar and T. D. Griggs (Ed.), Diamondback Moth Management: Proceedings of the First International Workshop, pp. 159-171. Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center, Shanhua, Taiwan. Mustata, G. 1992. Role of parasitoid complex in limiting the population of diamondback moth in Moldavia, Romania. In Talekar, N. S. (Ed.), Diamondback Moth and Other Crucifer Pests: Proceedings of the Second International Workshop, pp. 203-211. Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center, Shanhua, Taiwan. Ooi, P. A. C. and G. S. Lim. 1989. Introduction of exotic parasitoids to control diamondback moth in Malaysia. J. Plant Prot. Tropics. 6:103-111. Rejesus, B. M., E. V. Cardona and M. Dansiong. 1995. Transfer of IPM­ DBM technology to other areas in the highlands of the Philippines. In Proceedings of the A VNET II Midterm Workshop, pp. 251-254. Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center, Shanhua, Taiwan. Sastrosiswojo, S. and S. Sastrodihardjo. 1986. Status of biological control of diamondback moth by introduction of parasitoid Diadegma eucerophaga in Indonesia. In N. S. Talekar and T. D. Griggs (Ed.), Diamondback Moth Management: Proceedings of the First International Workshop, pp. 185-194. Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center, Shanhua, Taiwan.

15 Proceedings of the Second IPM CRSP SympOsium

Talekar, N. S. 1988. Biological control of diamondback moth in farmers fields. In Gardening Nutritious Vegetables, pp. 50-54. Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center, Shanhua, Taiwan. Talekar, N. S. and A. M. Shelton. 1993. Biology, ecology, and management of the diamondback moth. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 38:275-301. Talekar, N. S., J. C. Yang, M. Y. Liu and P. C. Ong. 1990. Use of parasitoids to control the diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella. In The Use of Natural Enemies to Control Agricultural Pests, pp 106-114. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center of the Asia and Pacific Council, Taipei, Taiwan. Vos, H. C. C. A. A. 1953. Introduction in Indonesia of Angitia cerophaga Grav., a parasite of Plutella maculipennis Curt. Contr. Central Agric. Res. Sta. Bogor No. 134, 32 pp.

16 Salguero et al.: Biology and Management of Lyriomyza huidobrensis (Blanchard) in Snow Pea

Biology and Management of the Pea Leafminer Lyriomyza huidobrensis (Blanchard) in Snow Pea

Victor Eberto Salguero Navas', Stephen C. Weller', and Roger N.Williams'. 'Instituto de Ciencia y Technologia Agicolas (ICTA), Guatemala, 'Purdue University, USA, 'The Ohio State University, USA.

Introduction

Snow pea, called Arveja China in Spanish, is probably the most important non traditional export crop in Guatemala. The export value of snow peas was about US$34 million in 1996. Beside the value of the exports, this crop generates work for about 20,000 families. It includes field, processing, packing, transporting and administrative workers. It also provides employment for women and children. The importance of snow peas, as a non traditional export crop, is not only for the economic value, but for its social impact also.

Unfortunately this crop is highly susceptible to several pests. Traditionally, fungus diseases have been the most limiting production factors. Ascochyta sp. Fusarium spp., Oidium sp. and Erisiphe sp. are the common agents producing foliar and root diseases. However, in recent years insect pests have become more important than fungus diseases.

The insect pests usually found in snow peas in the past were Iepidoptera larvae. Later, several thrips species were considered responsible for pod damage, especially Frankliniella occidentalis. Recent studies suggest that F. occidentalis is not the cause of the pod damage (Calderon, 1997). In order to control these insect pest species, farmers apply insecticides on a calendar basis; sometimes they spray every other day. This irrational insecticide application is probably the reason for the outbreak of the pea leafminer liriomyza huidobrensis, now the newest and most important pest problem in snow peas.

The most important problem of L. huidobrensis is due to current quarantine regulations in the U.S., causing detention and fumigation of snow peas which may carry exotic species of leafminers. It increases the cost for the exporters. However, farmers are not usually concerned about the leafminer problem because they don't see the damage. The damage is detected few days after harvest, when the pods are already in U.S. ports.

17 Proceedngs of the Second !PM CRSP Symposium

Biology Taxonomy The genus Iiriomyza (Diptera: Agromyzidae) contains more than 300 species widely distributed around the world, but more commonly found in temperate areas (Parrella, 1987). L. trifolii, L. sativae, and L. huidobrensis are probably the most common and important species in agriculture in America. The species found in snow pea leaves and pods were identified as L. huidobrensis by CATIE (Alvarez, 1993, Dub6n­ Obreg6n et aL, 1995) and by MacVean and Perez (1994). A more complete taxonomic survey to identify the leafminers infesting snow peas were conducted by the IPM CRSP through the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala (MacVean and Perez, 1997) and the Systematic Entomology Laboratory at Beltsville, MD. This survey confmned that L huidobrensis is the only species found in snow pea pods. Biology and damage Adults may be observed on leaves. Solis and Salguero ( 1996) studied the preference of adults for different leaf strata in snow peas. They found 41% of the adult leafminers on the upper leaves, 34% on the middle part of the plant, and 25% on the lower leaves.

The females repeatedly puncture the leaf surfaces and feed with males on the sap exuding from the wounds (Parrella, 1987). Although these numerous punctures are easily seen, only a few of them contain eggs. The most common damage is the serpentine mine done by the larvae while feeding in the leaves or pods. The life cycle from oviposition to adult emergence, in most Liriomyza species varies from 16 to 28 days (Musgrawe et al., 1975; Morales-A. et al., 1994).

The damage of L huidobrensis in snow pea pods is not normally visible during the harvest. It is detected 3 to 5 days later when mines are done.

According to Parrella (1987) Iiriomyza spp. can impact crops by vectoring diseases, destroying young seedlings, reducing crop yields, accelerating leaf drop, reducing aesthetic value, and causing some plant species to be quarantined. The last two are the most important for L. huidobrensis in snow pea in Guatemala.

18 Salguero el a/.: Biology and Management of Lytiomyza huidobrensis (Blanchard) in Snow Pea

Host-plant interactions, movement and dispersion The genus Liriomyza attacks several plant species and can be considered polyphagous. L. huidobrensis prefers lettuce in California as a host but can be found on cauliflower, broccoli, celery, and spinach (W.R. Grace, Biopesticides). MacVean and Perez (1997) also found L. huidobrensis in onions, black beans, faba beans, leak, radish, beet, cabbage, tomato, raddicchio, and flowers in Guatemala.

The population of L huidobrensis varies through the year on snow peas, mostly due to the presence or absence of rain. Calderon et al. (l996a) found lower adult populations from August to October, when heavy rains occur. The highest population was found during the dry season, especially in March.

The distribution of L. huidobrensis is limited to certain land altitude. MacVean and Perez (1997) found this species ouly on the highland area of Guatemala, occurring between 1500-2600m. Other species of Ieafminers apparently replace L. huidobrensis at lower elevations, such as L. sativae at 980-IOOOin. and L. trifolii at 1200 m. Apparently the temperature is the limiting factor for its distribution. In California L. trifolii is found in hot climates, but L huidobrensis prefers milder temperatures (W.R. Grace. Biopesticides). Management

The management of L. huidobrensis does not have to be considered separate from other arthropod pests in snow peas. Lepidoptera larvae are the first problem for snow peas early in its growth. They should be controlled using biological pesticides, such as Bacillus thuringiensis and chemicals with EPA registration. These products should be applied based on the insect population present, and economic thresholds, which do not exist in snow peas. Chemical pesticides should be applied only when biologicals do not control the problem.

Farmers usually apply chemical pesticides to control Iepidoptera larvae, killing the large parasite complex which normally holds leafminers in check. Additionally, insecticide resistance has been responsible for failure to controlleafminers.

Research must be conducted on developing economic thresholds for Iepidoptera larvae and leafminers. Chemical insecticides Chemical control of leafminers is complicated because the egg and larval stages occur within and are protected by leaf tissue and because

19 Proceedngs of !he Second IPM CRSP Symposium of the relatively long pupal stage occurring in the soil. Insecticide applications have commonly been responsible for outbreaks of Liriomyza because the insecticides used are often more toxic to the large parasite complex holding these leafminers in check than to the leafminers themselves. Resistance to insecticides is also possible with leafminers (Parella, 1987; Chaney 1996).

Additionally, only few insecticides are permitted in snow peas and they have to be applied carefully because there are limits for residue tolerances (CATIE, 1996). There are insecticides that control the leafrniner larvae in the plant tissue but most of them are not yet registered for snow peas (Chaney 1996, CTL 1990).

Calderon et al. ( 1996b) found that the insecticides which efficiently controlleafminers were cartap, oxamyl, and thiocyclan with adults, and ciromazina, cartap, and tiocyclan against larvae. Since none of them are registered for snowpeas, registration is needed before recommending their use.

Based on these factors, which limit the use of insecticides to control L. huidobrensis on snow peas, other measures have to be considered. As stated before, no chemicals should be applied to control Iepidoptera larvae early. Biological Control Several parasitoid and predator species have been reported to attack the genus Liriomyza. MacVean and Perez (1997) found Chrysocharis igJWta (Eulophidae}, GroJWtoma sp., Disorygma pacRjica, Moneucoela sp. (Eucoilidae), Notoglyptus tzeltales, and Halticoptera sp. (Pteromalidae) parasitising L huidobrensis in Guatemala. OeJWJWgastra sp., a small wasp, was reported in Costa Rica (CTL, 1990). Commercial species are available to be released: Dyglyphus begine, Chrysocharis sp., Hemiptarsenus semialbiclava and Opius dissitus (CTL, 1990). Entomogenous nematodes such as Steinernema spp. and Heterorhabditis spp. have been shown to provide good control of leafminer larvae within the mines (MacVean and Perez, 1997). Solis et al. (unpublished)found several species of parasitoids in the families Braconidoe and Eulophidae, among others. Several predator species among the Neuroptera and Hemiptera orders have been mentioned to attack leafminers. They could play an interesting role as natural control Biological control of L huidobrensis could be oriented to enhance natural population of enemies and release commercial parasitoids available. In order to enhance natural enemy populations several measures should be taken. Chemical control of leafminer and other

20 Salguero et al.: Biology and Management of Lyriomyza huidobrensis (Blanchard} in Snow Pea

pest species should be avoided or minimized. The development of economic thresholds needs to be done for leafminers and Iepidoptera larvae. Commercially available parasitoids need to be evaluated as a control measure.

The release of parasitoids presents some problems in snow peas. Most of the producers of snow peas are small farmers which will not be willing to buy it The procedure to release parasitoids has to be considered and developed. Entomogenous fungus could be a better tactic to include in IPM programs to control leafminers. Solis et al., (1997) found that Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium anisopleae provided a good control of L huidobrensis. These biological pesticides should be more practical and easy to apply for the small farmers producing snow peas. Etological control Yellow sticky traps have been used to determine and/or to reduce the adult population (CIL 1990, Calderon et al;, 1996). However, Calderon et al., (1996a) found that purple was the most effective color trap to capture leafminer adults. Yellow traps captured more thrips and whiteflies. ICTA, through the IPM CRSP, is now evaluating the use of yellow and purple traps in snow pea fields, but the results are under analysis. The use of silver plastic mulches also offers some control of leafminers in snow peas (Calderon et al., 1997). This practice also helps to control weeds, keep soil humidity, and better uptake of nutrients. U.S. Quarantine policies The IPM CRSP/Guatemala, through its Directors in the U.S., effectively mobilized all the necessary resources and expertise to bring about an important change in the leafminer PPQ policy. Dr. Joe Cavey, from APHIS Washington, makes it clear that the IPM CRSP intervention was essential and critical to solve this snow pea crisis. This action will help Guatemalan producers immediately re-establish nearly $34 million in snow pea shipments to the U.S. and over $2.4 million in green onions.

The identification of the leafminer in snow peas conducted through the IPM CRSP (MacVean and Perez, 1997) was also important to bring about the change in the leafminer PPQ policy.

21 Proceedings of the Second IPM CRSP Sympo~um

References

Alavarez, G.A. 1993. Caracterizaci6n del daiio e identificaci6n de Ia mosca minadora en arveja china (Pisum sativum). In: Manejo Integrado de Plagas en Arveja China: Fase II 1992-1993. Pags. 44-48. Editado por D. Dard6n y V.Salguero. Proyecto MIP (AID) ICTA-CATIE-ARF. Guatemala. Calder6n, L., D. Dard6n y V. Salguero. 1997. Efecto de diversos tratamientos sobre el daiio de "lija" a Ia vaina de arveja china (pendiente publicaci6n). IPM CRSP. Calder6n, L., J. M.Castaiieda, V. Salguero, and D.Dard6n. 1996a. Color evaluation in trapping of thrips, leafminer and whiteflies in snow peas. In: Integrated Pest Management in non traditional export crops. IPM CRSP. Guatemala Centro AmJrica. p.35 Calder6n, L., V. Salguero and D. Dard6n. 1996b. Insecticides evaluation for leafminer control in snowpeas. In: Seminar: Integrated Pest Management in non-traditional export crops, Ed.by V. Salguero, G.Sanchez, and L. Asturias de Barrios. IPM CRSP. Guatemala. P.38 Calder6n, L.F., V. Salguero y D. Dard6n. 1996. Leafminer population fluctuations in snowpeas located in the Guatemalan Central Highlands. In: Seminar: Integrated Pest Management in non­ traditional export crops. Ed. by V. Salguero, G. Sanchez and L. Asturias de Barrios. IPM CRSP. Guatemala P. 46. CATIE, 1996. Boletin de tolerancias de residuos de plaguicidas. Arveja, Pisum spp. P. 2. Turrialba, Costa Rica. Chaney, W.E. 1996. Overview of the leafminer crisis in the California. In: Integrated Pest Management in non traditional export crops seminar, ed. by V. Salguero, G. Sanchez and L. Asturias de Barrios. IPM CRSP. Guatemala Centro America pp. 19-20. CTL (Comite Tecnico de Liriomyza) 1990. El minador de las hojas Iiriomyza sp. (Diptera: agromyzidae). MAGA-GTZ. Boletfn divulgativo M. 95. Costa Rica. 25 pp. Dub6n-Obreg6n, R.E., L.F. Calder6n-Bran, D.E. Dard6n-Avila y V.E. Salguero-Navas. 1995. Identificaci6n de especies de mosca minadora (Diptera: agromizidae) que atacan Arveja China y Dulce (Pisum sativum L.) In: Manejo Integrado de Plagas en Arveja China, Fase III: 1993-1994. Editado por D. Dard6n y V. Salguero. Proyecto MIP (AID)-ARF-ICTA-CATIE. Guatemala.

22 Salguero eta/.: Biology and Management of Lyriomyza huidobrensis (Blanchard) in Snow Pea

MacVean, C. and R.Perez. 1997. A taxonomic survey of the snowpea leaf mining species (Agromyzidae) in the Guatemalan highlands. Proyecto MIP-ICTA-CATIE-IPM CRSP-PL 480. Guatemala. MacVean, C. y R.Perez. 1994. Efecto de Ia refrigeraci6n a I°C sobre Ia pupaci6n y emergencia de adultos de Liriomyza huidobrensis (Blanchard) en arveja china (Pisum sativum). Proyecto N. 596- 0165 Chemonies-USAID. Guatemala. lOp. Morales-A. R.A., F.A. Atencio A., J.A. Lara M. Y J.Muiioz. 1994. La mosquita minadora (Liriomyza spp.) en Panama. PRECODEPA­ IDIAP. Monograffa I. Panama. 21p. Musgrave, C.A., S.L. Poe, and H.V. Weems. 1975. The vegetable leafminer, Liriomyza sativae Blanchard (Diptera: Agromyzidae) in Florida. Entomoly Circular 162. Fla. Dept. Agr. & Consumer Services, DPI. U.S.A. 4p. Parrella, M.P. 1987. Biology of Liriomyza. Ann. Reu. Entomol. 32:201-24. Solis, L.F. and V. Salguero. 1996. Leafminer habits (Liriomyza huidobrensis) in snow and sweet peas. In: Integrated Pest Management in non-traditional export crops. Seminar edited by V, Salguero, G. Sanchez and L. Asturias de Barrios. IPM CRSP. Guatemala. P.34 Solis, L.F., D. Dard6n y V. Salguero. Identificaci6n de parasitoides nativos de Liriomyza huidobrensis en arveja china. IPM CRSP. Guatemala (pendiente de publicaci6n) Solis, L.F., D. Dard6n y V. Salguero. 1997. Determinacion del efecto de Metarhizium anisopleae y Beauveria bassiana en el control de Liriomyza huidobrensis en arveja china. IPM CRSP. Guatemala (pendiente publicaci6n) W.R. Grace Biopesticides, Neemix. Commercial Brochure.

23 Proceedings of the Second IPM CRSP Symposium

Use of Neem, Cultural Practices, and Insect­ Resistant Varieties for Insect Pest Management in Millet/Cowpea Association in the OHVN Zone of Central Mali

Mme. Gamby Kadiatou Toure\ C. Richard Edwards', and John S. Caldwell'. 1lnstitut d'Economie Rurale, Mali, 'Purdue University, USA, 'Virginia Tech, USA.

Introduction Millet is the principal cereal grain grown in the northern part of the Operation Haute Vallee du Niger (OHVN) Zone of central Mali, between the capital city Bamako and the border with Mauritania Millet is usually grown in association with cowpea, with millet being the dominant crop. The 1994 Participatory Assessment conducted in four villages of this region revealed that blister beetles (Psalydolytta fusca and P. vestita and Mylabris spp. ), grasshoppers (Oedoleus senegalensis), and the parasitic weed Striga spp. were the principal pests of the millet/cowpea association (Caldwell et al., 1994). These results were confirmed in a farmer evaluation of IPM on-farm research in 1996 (Erbaugh et al., 1996). Observations in 1995 also indicated that populations of the scarab beetle Rhinyptia injuscata are increasing in this zone.

Farmers do not use insecticides for insect pest control on millet/cowpea association (Sissoko and Caldwell, 1995). However, farmers do use insecticides on horticultural crops for market sale (Caldwell et al., 1994 ). With the liberalization of grain markets in Mali, and the broadcasting of market information by radio, opportunities are increasing for greater commercialization of cereals in surplus years. These opportunities might make insecticide use more attractive for cereals. The goal of the IPM CRSP research is to provide farmers with other alternatives that are less costly, and less likely to place farmers on the pesticide treadmill, as has occurred in other countries when subsistence agriculture has undergone a transition to greater commercialization. The use of chemical insecticides can also be dangerous in a country such as Mali where the level of formal education is low in rural villages.

24 Toure et af.: Neem, Cultural Practices, and Insect-Resistant Varieties for IPM in Millet/Cowpea

Oil from the seeds of the neem tree (Azadirachta indica) contains over 50 triterpinoids. Among these, the compound which is the most biologically active is azadirachtin, a mixture of several isomers. The neem tree has become widespread in the Sahel in recent years, the result of its propagation in villages as part of anti-desertification efforts. Its effectiveness for the control of the Sahelian blister beetles (Psalydolytta spp.) and Mylabris spp.has not been tested under farmer conditions. During the heat of the day, blister beetles take refuge under the lower leaves of millet plants. Removal of these leaves might increase their mortality, or cause them to move out of the field in search of other plants that could provide refuge.

In contrast with millet, sorghmn is known to be unattractive to blister beetles. An association of millet and sorghum could provide associational resistance to blister beetles, confusing them and preventing their colonization on millet heads. Several varieties of millet have also been found to be tolerant to blister beetles in research on station in Niger and Mali.

We report here on the results of the monitoring of populations of blister beetles, grasshoppers, and scarab beetles carried out in this zone of Mali. The first trial compared two formulations of neem and leaf removal. The second trial compared sole crop millet, sole crop sorghum, and millet/sorghmn association. The third trial compared six varieties of millet Materials and Methods Trials were conducted on farmers's fields in two villages in the Sirakorola area, Koroma and Dontieribougou, and two villages in the Mourdiah area, Ko'ira and Douabougou. Precipitation in 1996 in Sirakorola, at the transition between millet dominance and sorghum dominance, was 634 mm. Precipitation in 1996 in Mourdiah, further north in the drier zone of millet dominance, was 488 mm. Population dynamics of insect pests. Light traps were placed in two millet fields and one fallow field in each of the four villages, for a total of 12 light traps. The traps used a design developed by Gamby. The traps consited of a round metal container supported by a tripod. Water and detergent were placed in the container. The container was open to the air but covered by a conical roof mounted on poles above it. A kerosene lamp was hung from the center of the cone, so that it was

25 Proceedings of the Second IPM CRSP Symposium below the cone but above the top of the container. The lamp was lit each night at sundown and extinguished the following morning. During the night, insects were attracted by the light of the lamp, but when they got too close to the lamp, they were stunned by the heat and fell into the water in the container below. Insects were collected and counted daily from July 26 to November l, 1996. Daily counts were summed over weekly intervals. Neem and leaf removal. Treatments were applied on the millet fields of 10 fanners in the four villages. Each field was divided into 2 four plots of 625 m , and one of four treatments was assigned to each plot: (1) farmer control; (2) azadiractin (azatin) 40 EC at the rate of2 R ha·'; (3) neem oil at the rate of 2 R ha·'; (4) removal of lower leaves. Treatments 2-4 were carried out when the crop was at the stage of 50% flowering. Results are reported for usable data obtained from eight farms in the three villages. Neem oil was prepared locally in each village. Neem fruits were collected in May and June. A total of 300 kg was obtained in the three villages. The grains were removed from the fruits, washed in water, and then placed in the shade. Grains were turned several times until they were completely dried. Any molded grains were removed, and the remaining grains were then shelled and winnowed, removing 90% of the shell. Any poor grains were removed before weighing. The grains were then mechanically crushed to make a powder similar to ground coffee. The powder was heated prior to placing it into a press (GRAT) to extract the green neem oil. Approximately 0.75 R of oil was obtained per kilogram of powder. Data were taken from five 25 m2 sampling squares per treatment. The number of blister beetles on 10 heads per square (50 heads total per treatment) were counted 24 hours before and 24 hours after treatment application. At harvest, the numbers of heads with damage from blister beetles (Psalydolytta spp. and Mylabris spp. ), head miners [Heliocheilus albipunctelkl (Joinis)], grasshoppers, and birds were counted using the same 10 heads. Millet heads were harvested, threshed, and weighed from each sample, and the data pooled to determine yield per treatment. Farms were treated as replications within villages. Where numbers of farms were adequate, analysis of variance was done by village. Analysis of variance was also done across villages using a nested design, with villages and zones in the design structure, to test for treatment by village and zone interactions (Milliken and Johnson, 1984).

26 Toure et al.: Neem, Cultural Practices, and Insect-Resistant Varieties for IPM in Millet/Cowpea

Millet/cereal associations. Three treatments were successfully established on a farmer's field at Dontieribougou: (1) millet in pure stand (2) millet in alternating rows with sorghum; (3) sorghum in pure stand. Each treatment was applied to a 20 m2 plot, and replicated three times in a randomized complete block design. A treatment with millet/ maize was also planted, but because the maize did not grow well, results are not reported. The numbers of blister beetles were counted at flowering, and yields determined at harvest Data were analyzed using analysis of variance procedures.

Insect-tolerant millet varieties. Six treatments were applied on the millet fields of five farmers in the four villages. Five improved varieties found to have some degree of tolerance to insect pests in on­ station research were compared with the farmer local variety of millet, souna. The improved varieties were: M2D2, Toroniou Cl, and Pool6 (from Mali), and GRPl and Zatib (from Niger). The number of blister beetles of both species were counted on 10 heads three times from mid­ September to early October. The number of heads damaged by head miners H. alhipunctella was counted. Days to flowering, number of suckers, and head characteristics were also recorded. All data were analyzed by analysis of variance procedures as in the neem and leaf removal trial. Results and Discussion

Population dynamics. The peak numbers of both Psalydolytta fusca and P. vestita occurred in fallow fields at Dontieribougou and Koroma between August 23 and September 6. Peak numbers of P. fusca were 7.5 times greater than P. vestita. There were two peaks of Rhyniptia infuscata, a larger first peak between August 11 and 25, and a lesser second peak the week of October 13. Counts of R. infuscata were 10 greater at its peak than counts of P. fusca at its peale. Counts of Heliochelus albipunctella were highest between September 20 and October 10 in the Sirakorola villages, but this iusect was not found in the Mourdiah villages (Figures 1-4).

Neem and leaf removal. The average number of blister beetles per head increased from 1.3 to l.7 after treatment (Table I). This increase was concentrated in the control, where the number of blister beetles increased 33%, whereas it decreased by 4%, 15%, and 33% in the treatments with leaf removal, locally-extracted neem oil, and azatin, respectively. The number of damaged heads at harvest was 14% less in the two treatments with azatin and neem oil, but this decrease was not statistically significant. Similarly, yield in plots treated with azatin

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31 Proceedngs of 1he Second IPM CRSP Symposium was 23% higher, and yield in plots treated with locally-extracted neem oil was II% higher, relative to the control with no treatment, but these differences were also not statistically significant. However, there was a highly significant negative correlation between yield and the number of damaged heads (r = -0.61) (Table 2). These results suggest that the application of the two types of neem and leaf removal caused a relative concentration of blister beetles in the control treatment Table 1. Effect of application of neem extract and leaf removal on number of blister beetles, damaged heads, and yield of millet in four villages in the OHVN Zone, Central Mali.

Blister beetles Damaged Yield Yield gain (no. head·') heads

Treatment Before After %

1. Control 1.5 2.0 16.7 884 2. Leaf removal 1.3 1.2 17.4 850 (34) 3. Local neem 1.4 1.0 14.3 985 101 4. Azatin 1.7 1.4 14.4 1090 206

Probability of contrasts a. 1 vs. 2,3,4 0.99 0.38 0.67 0.51 b. 2 vs, 3,4 0.72 0.98 0.39 .022 c. 3,4 0.79 0.64 0.98 0.54

Farmers(Vil)' 0.11 0.03* 0.11 0.009** z Significant at P < 0.05 (*) or P < O.ol (**).

Table 2. Correlations btween blister beetle counts, head damage, and yield of millet in four villages in the OHVN Zone, Central Mali.

Insect counts Head damage Yield Correlation Significance Correlation Significance

Before treabnent 0.02 0.94 -0.38 0.07+ After treabnent 0.16 0.46 -0.23 0.29

Head cla!ruu>;e -0.61 0.002** Significant at P < 0.10 (+) or P < O.ol (**).

32 Toure et al.: Neem, Cultural Practices, and Insect-Resistant Varieties for IPM in Millet/Cowpea

Populations of blister beetles before treannent were 2.3-4.5 times higher in Mourdiah than in Sirakorola. Similarly, a greater percentage of heads were attacked by insect pests and birds at Mourdiah than at Sirakorola. Conversely, yields in Mourdiah were only 13-21% of yields in Sirakorola (Table 3). The much lower yields in Mourdiah reflect not only higher pest pressure, but also 30% greater rainfall in Sirakorola (634 mm) compared with Mourdiah (488 mm). However, there were no significant differences in interactions of treannent responses, whether based on insect counts, numbers of damaged heads, or yields, and village or zone.

Table 3. Effect of village-by-treatment interaction on counts of blister beetles before and after treatment, head damage, and yield of millet in four villages in the OHVN Zone, Central Mali.

Parameter Mourdiah Sirakorola Koroma Dontieribougou Blister beetles 1 (no. head' ) * before treatment 2.7 1.2 0.6 * after treatment 1.1 2.1 1.0 Damage to heads 22.9 14.1 10.1 (%ears) Yield 214 1,017 1,625 1 (kg ha' )

Millet/cereal associations. Compared with millet in pure stand, the number of blister beetles in the millet/sorghum association was reduced by 80%. This was similar to the reduction in pure sorghum of 87%. These results support the hypothesis of associational resistance. Millet yield was higher in the millet/sorghum association (34% increase). Pure sorghum had higher yield than pure millet (77%) (Table4).

33 Proceedngs of the Second IPM CRSP Symposium

Table 4. Effect of association with sorghum on blister beetle infestation and yields of millet in four villages in the OHVN Zone, Central Mali.

Arrangement Blister beetles (no p1r') Pure stand millet 7.5 620 Millet I sorghum 1.5 831 Pure stand sorghum 1.5 1,100

Insect-tolerant millet varieties. The improved varieties all flowered 5-7 days later than the local variety. All improved varieties except M2D2 had more total suckers per plant than the local variety, and all but Zatib had approximately twice as many fertile suckers than the local variety. Two varieties, GRPl and Toroniou Cl, had yields 55% and 54%, respectively, higher than the local variety. These two varieties had the highest number of fertile suckers per plant of all the varieties, and their heads were respectively 62% and 62% longer and 65% and 48% heavier, compared to the local variety (Table 5).

Table 5. Agronomic characteristics and yield of six millet varieties in four villages in the OHVN Zone, Central Mali.

Variety Days to Fertile Head Weight Head Yield Flowering suckers length bead filling (kg ha·') 1 (no pl\" ) (cnl) (g) Local 52 1.0 25 13 2.0 534 M2D2 58 1.9 30 13 2.1 657 Pool6 58 2.0 30 15 2.1 724 Zatib 58 1.3 47 15 2.3 764 Toroniou Cl 60 2.3 40 20 1.5 822 GRP I 57 2.7 40 22 1.7 830

The susceptibility of these two varieties to insect pests differed. GRPl has smallest number of total blister beetles per head of all the 6 varieties, while Toroniou Cl had the highest number. At the same time, GRPI had the highest percentage of damage by Heliochelus albipunctella, 57% greater than the next most susceptible improved variety, 2.5 times greater than Toroniou C I, and 9 times greater than the local variety. The percentage of damage by H. albipunctella on · Toroniou Cl was over 6 times higher than the percentage of damage on the local variety (Table 6). These results indicate that superior agronomic characteristics can provide tolerance to insect damage.

34 Toure et al.: Neem, Cuttural Practices, and Insect-Resistant Varieties for IPM in Millet/Cowpea

The performance of these two superior varieties was not the same across the villages. Toroniou C I was among the three highest-yielding varieties in all four villages. GRPI was the highest-yielding variety in both Mourdiah villages, but it did not perform as well in the Sirakorola villages. This was despite its greater percentage of damage from H. albipunctella in Mourdiah compared with Sirakorola.

Table 6. Infestation by blister beetles and ear damage of six millet varieties in four villages in the OHVN Zone, Central Mali. Variety Blister beetles Ears damaged by Heliochelus alibipunctella (no plr') (%) Local 8.5 4 M2D2 9.1 11 Pool 6 7.6 19 Zatib 7.5 13 Toroniou C1 11.4 11 GRP I 5.8 28

Conclusions

The lack of significant differences in the neem trial, despite trends that would otherwise support the hypotheses of the research, may be due to the problem of poor mixibility of the neem oil and water in conventional sprayers. This can result in uneven neem oil coverage within plots, as well as greater heterogeneity among farmers. This in turn reduces the consistency of treatment differences, and increases experimental error. In 1997,' we will compare neem oil mixed with water in conventional application, with Ultra Low Volume (ULV) application. With ULV, the neem oil will be applied without water, avoiding the problems of mixing and increased heterogeneity.

Heterogeneity in the response of the varieties was greater between Mourdiah and Sirakorola than between villages within each zone. This confirms the zonation used by the project. It also shows the importance of developing research-based information in each zone.

Research planned for 1998 will combine the best insect-tolerant variety with neem application on both the millet and a Striga-resistant cowpea variety. This integrated treatment will be compared with separate insect and parasitic weed control treatments and the farmer control, to test the hypothesis of synergistic response to combined IPM methods.

35 Proceedings of the Second IPM CRSP Symposium

References

Caldwell, J.S., M. Erbaugh, F. Dunkel, R. Balakrishnan, S. Kyamanywa, and D.B. Taylor. 1994. Participatory IPM assessment for the OHVN Zone of Mali. IPM CRSP Trip Report Ma-2. Virginia Tech, Blacksburg. Erbaugh, J.M., J.S. Caldwell, M. Fofana, B. Dembele, Mme. Diakite M. Diarra, 0. Camara, and Mme. Sissoko H. Traore. Farmer evaluation of integrated pest management on-farm research. 1996. IPM CRSP Working Paper 96-5. Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia. Milliken, G.A., and D.E. Johnson. 1984. Analysis of messy data. Volume 1: designed experiments. Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York. Sissoko, Mme. H.Traore, and J.S. Caldwell. 1995. Analysis of crop production calendars and farmer practices for millet, sorghum, and cowpea in the OHVN Zone. IPM CRSP Report. IPM CRSP Trip Report Ma-7. Virginia Tech, Blacksburg.

36 Lawrence et al.: Sweetpolato Weevillntegrared Pest Management

Sweetpotato Weevil Integrated Pest Management

Lawrence', J. Bohac', and S. Fleischer'. 'Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute, Jamaica, 'United States Department of Agriculture- Vegetable Laboratory, South Carolina, USA, 'Pennsylvania State University, USA.

Abstract

Sweetpotato, Ipomoea batatas (Family: Convolvulaceae), is an important food crop and source of foreign exchange to Jamaica. Production of the crop is constrained by the sweetpotato weevil, Cylas formicarius (Coleoptera: Apionidae) which, in some cases, reduces harvested yields by over 60%. Traditionally, management of the weevil with cultural practices, and to a lesser extent chemical insecticides, has been somewhat ineffective and/or not adopted by farmers. Under the CARDIIIPM CRSP research program, farmers in 3 districts in Sonth Central Jamaica who have had a history of a greater than 30% reduction in marketable yields due to the weevil were encouraged through seminars and field demonstrations to utilize an integrated approach (cultural practices and pheromones) to reduce weevil infestations and root damage. An initial baseline survey was conducted to determine the pest management practices being utilized by farmers. At harvest, weevil populations were estimated with traps baited with 1 Oug weevil sex pheromones and crop loss assessed to determine related yield losses. Thirty-eight percent of farmers interviewed utilized the IPM approach and the remaining relied on cultural practices only. Significant differences in weevil infestations and root damage were observed between farms adopting the IPM approach and those not adopting in (P

Sweetpotato, Ipomoea batatas (Family: Convolvulaceae) is an important food crop in the diet of most Jamaicans. Traditionally, the crop was grown as a backyard garden crop for home use and sale in the

37 Proceedings of the Second IPM CRSP Symposium local markets. However lately, as the island diversifies and expands its export market, the economic status of sweetpotato has changed. The crop is now considered a foreign exchange earner responsible for revenues of close to US $1 million annually (Reid and Graham 1997).

Although over 20 species of pests have been recorded on the crop in Jamaica (IPM CRSP Annual Report Year III), the sweetpotato weevil, Cylas fonnicarius (Coleoptera: Apionidae) is one of the most yield limiting, reducing marketable yields in some cases by over 60%. Historically, farmers have relied on cultural practices and, to a lesser . extent, chemical insecticides to manage the weevil; however, due to inappropriate selection and application techniques, the latter has been some what ineffective. Moreover, recommended cultural practices are usually not adhered to by farmers as they find these methods time consuming, labor intensive, and costly (Fielding and Crowder 1993). The challenge therefore, is to identify management tactics that are not only low input, sustainable, cost effective and environmentally sound, but which are also socially acceptable to the farming community.

During the past four years under the CARDIIIPM CRSP research program, sweetpotato farmers in three districts in South Central Jamaica (12 sq km) who have had a history of an over 30% reduction in harvested yields due to the weevil, have been encouraged through seminars and field demonstrations to utilize an integrated approach to reduce sweetpotato weevil infestations (CARDI Annual Report 1992, 1993). The approach emphasized the use of cultural practices such as field sanitation, frequent irrigation, quick harvesting and crop rotation, as well as continuous trapping of male weevils in traps baited with I 00 ug of female weevil sex pheromone. The present study assessed the impact of the introduced IPM on weevil infestations and root damage. Methodology

Baseline Survey. All sweetpotato farmers within the 3 districts were interviewed to detennine the production practices, pest composition and management tactics being utilized. Farm inspections were also conducted to confinn the pest management practices reported by farmers. Based on the findings of the survey, farmers were categorized as IPM (cultural practices and pheromones) and non-IPM (cultural practices) users.

Sweetpotato Weevil Population Assessment. At the beginning of harvest (approximately 4 months after planting), traps baited with lOug of female sex pheromone ((Z)-3-dodecen-1-ol(E)-2butenoate) were placed in sweetpotato fields for 48 hours. The numbers of

38 Lawrence eta/.: Sweetpotato Weevillntegrateo Pest Management

weevils caught were recorded. Weevil catch was estimated by counting 5 subsamples of 500 weevils, determining the average weights of the samples and extrapolating the weights to the total catch.

Crop Loss Assessment. At harvest, losses due to the weevil were determined. The total harvest was weighed and sorted into marketable and unmarketable yields. The weight of each category was recorded and unmarketable yields sorted further with respect to various categories of damage (weevil, white grub, rat, cracks, immature, bruising, other). Each category was then weighed.

Analyses. Restricted Maximum Likelihood Estimation (REML) using the GENSTAT statistical package was used to assess the effect of pheromone traps on total marketable yield per hectare as well as percentages of all damage categories. Adjustments were made for district effects. Weighted analyses were utilized with total yield being used as the weighting factor. Weevil counts were analyzed by Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) using the JMP statistical package. Results

A total of 18 1 farms were visited within the 3 districts (mean holding size 0.3 ha; range 0.08 - 4 ha). Seven farmers utilized an integrated approach to manage the weevil and the remaining ll relied only on cultural practices. Baseline Survey - Cultural Practices. All farmers conducted some form of cultural control to reduce weevil damage. Seventy-seven percent of the farmers conducted more than 4 of the seven practices recommended (Table l). The number of cnltural practices adopted by farmers was not related to exposure to IPM training. The most frequently practiced cultural control methods reported by farmers were avoiding soil cracking by keeping the field moist through frequent irrigation (94%) and the removal of old roots and vines from the field (83% ). It is interesting to note however, that although the latter was reported, inspection of the fields after harvest revealed that over 60% of the farms had large numbers of old roots lying within/beside the rows.

The least frequent adopted practice was the destruction of old fields after harvest (11% ). Most farmers reported that old fields were not

1 Eighteen (18) farms represents aU farmers cuRivating sweetpotato during the season (1 996-1997). This is a decline of approximately 40% in the number of farmers planting sweelpotato in previous seasons.

39 Proceedings of 1he Second IPM CRSP Symposium ploughed under after harvest as they were used as a source of planting material for the succeeding crop. In relation to crop propagation, 55% of the farmers reported that the younger sections of the vines were used, but felt that when tips were too young poor establishment occurred None of the farmers interviewed reported that they removed the alternate host Ipomoea sp. ("wild slip") which lined most farms. More than 60% of the farmers were not aware that "wild slip" was an alternate host. Three farmers reported that these weeds are a source of food for their animals (cows). All farmers reported that they "rotated" their crop, rotation being defmed as moving the crop from one area of the holding to another. Pheromone Baited Traps. Thirty-eight percent of the farms visited used pheromone baited traps along with cultural practices to reduce weevil damage. All farmers using traps were knowledgeable of the use and maintenance of the trap. However, inspections of the traps showed that on 30% of the farms, traps were not rotated within the field or had insufficient water and/or debris in the catchment container. Weevil Infestations and Yield. IPM farms (cultural practices and pheromones) had significantly lower numbers of weevils than Non­ IPM farms (cultural practices only); mean weevil catch per 0.1 ha of sweetpotato after 48 hours was 779 (SE 139) and 22 (SE 149) respectively (Figure 1). Similar trends were observed for losses in yield due to the weevil. Those farmers adopting the IPM approach experienced significantly lower weevil damage than those that did not adopt the approach (P<0.007); weevil damage averaged 4% and 13% of total harvested yields respectively (SED 3.0%) (Figure 2). Although IPM farmers experienced low weevil infestations and root damage at harvest, it was interesting to note that significantly higher levels of white grub damage (16%) were observed when compared to Non-IPM (3%) (SED 4.45%) (P< 0.005) (Figures 3 and 4). No significant differences were therefore observed in marketable yields between the groups (P> 0.3). Overall, marketable yield was 75% of total harvest.

40

Table Table

Propagate Propagate Field Field

Frequent Frequent

Crop Crop Removal Removal

Quick Quick

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1. 1.

Sanitation Sanitation

rotation rotation

Cultural Cultural

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Old Old

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vine vine

Practices Practices

and and

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Conducted Conducted

Lawrence Lawrence

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55 55

77 77

94 94

83 83

II II

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Used Used Limited Limited Farmers Farmers

First First

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Three Three

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41 41

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of of

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Management Management

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market market

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Jamaica. Jamaica.

of of

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poor poor ---- Proceedings of the Second IPM CRSP Symposium

IPM Non- IPM erticallines represent 95% confidence interval or weevil counts. Median field size is 0.25.

Figure 1: Weevil Infestation of Sweetpotato Fanners' Fields

1 4 .,------1 2 +-----,.,..-,:,....,.--=.,...--- 10 8 6 4 2 0 IPM Non­ IPM

Figure 2: Weevil Damaged Yield of Sweetpotato Farmers

42 Lawrence eta/.: Sweetpota!O Weevil Integrated Pest Management

IPMFanners (n=7) other 3.34% bite grub 15.92%

4.24% marketable 7259%

other N on-IPM Fanners (n=ll)

weevil 12.78% marketable 78.97% Figure 3: Categorization of Yield

medlanical IPMFanners 0.46% (n=7)

1.89% white grub 5838% rat 9.42% cra:k 14.30% N on-IPM Fanners rat innnature (n=ll) 10.03% crad<: 4.81% white grub 15.4% 60.76% Figure4: Categorization of Damaged Yield

43 Proceedings of the Second IPM CRSP Symposium

Discussion and Conclusion The findings of the study indicate that the IPM measures adopted by farmers were in part responsible for the reduction in weevil populations and the reduced levels of weevil damage observed. However, in order to ensure sustainability of the approach, it is critical that the socio­ economic factors identified for non-adoption of some of the recommended tactics be considered in the further development and refinement of sweetpotato weevil IPM. For example, in order to accommodate farmer practice of allowing animals to graze in old fields, pheromone traps may have to be used to hold populations until these fields are ploughed under. In addition, this close association of livestock with sweetpotato production and the possible influence on white grub infestation needs investigation. It will also be necessary to identify any possible interactions between weevils and white grubs.

Additional training sessions need to be conducted to demonstrate the cost benefit of proper field sanitation as well as reinforce the relationship between trap maintenance and trapping efficiency and the resultant improvements in yield and quality. Moreover, it is critical that other tactics be investigated so as to optimize the number of components available for farmers. Previous investigations by the USDA Vegetable Laboratory, South Carolina have demonstrated the presence of high resistance to various insects in some excellent, high yielding breeding lines that are useful in an IPM system (Schalk 1984, Schalk et al. 1993). The potential of these breeding lines are being evaluated in Jamaica. If they consistently show potential under local growing conditions and are acceptable in the market, they will be introduced into the current IPM program. The use of these lines will therefore have this dual function of weevil as well as white grub management.

44 Oix and Carroll: Control ocl Broccoli White Grubs

References

CARD! Annual Report 1992. Sweetpotato Integrated Pest Management. Crop Production Unit. CARD!, Jamica. CARD! Annual Report 1993. Sweetpotato Weevil Integrated Pest Management. Crop Production Unit. CARD!, Jamica. Fielding, W. J. & Van Crowder L. (1995) Sweetpotato weevil: acceptable pests. Journal of Sustainable Agriculture. 5(4): 105 - 117. Reid, R & Grabam, H. (1997) Market research- sweetpotato, hot pepper, callaloo. IPM CRSP Draft Report. Prepared by the Agribusiness Council, Jamaica. 47 pp. ,19 Appendices. Schalk, J. M. ( 1984) Multiple insect resistance in sweetpotato. Proceedings - Sweetpotato Weevil Workshop. Southern Branch Entomological Society of America Meetings, New Orleans, LA. pp 56-64. Schalk, J. M., Bohac J. R., and Dukes, P. D. (1993) Potential of non­ chemical control strategies for reduction of soil insect damage in sweetpotato. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 118 (5): 605 - 608.

45 Proceedings of the Second IPM CRSP Symposium

The Control ofBroccoli White Grubs: A Pilot Program for Guatemala

1 1 Anne M. Dix and C. Ronald Carroll • 1Institute of Ecology, University of Georgia, (USA). Collaborating institutions: CARE/Micuenca, Agrilab, Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, Escuela Agricola Panamerican - Honduras.

In 1994 we began work in Chilasco, a small traditional community that had recently started growing broccoli. Chilasco is located in the moist highlands of central Guatemala, at the edge of the Sierra de las Minas Bisophere Reserve and II km off the main highway to Cohan. It has approximately 300 families, representing nearly 3,000 people. Despite the fact that it has some of the best agricultural soils in Baja Verapaz, it is also located in the most economically depressed region of the country (GTZ 1994).

Chilasco is an interesting example of what happens when a new technology is introduced into an old community. In this case, broccoli was introduced in the early 1980s as an alternative source of income. A German development project, Food for Work, in collaboration with ICT A (Instituto Centroamericano de Tecnologia Agricola) taught the farmers how to grow horticultural crops. In less than 10 years, traditional corn for local markets was largely replaced by broccoli that was sold on the world market. These crop and market changes were accompanied by changes in production practices, the way farmers prepared their soil and modified the inputs they used.

These new inputs currently include organic and inorganic fertilizers and pesticides. When the IPM CRSP frrst started working with the community, we expected to find that Plutella :xylostella was the principal pest problem. Much to our surprise, farmers identified root­ feeding white grubs (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) as their principal problem. Although the root-feeding complex of scarabid beetles contains many species and are major pan-tropical pests, in Chilasco these white grubs are predominantly Phyllophaga obsoleta (Carranza, 1996). These beetles have a massive mating flight in May, lay their eggs and develop into a serious problem for growing plants between July and September during larval development. Unfortunately, pesticides used locally in attempt to control white grubs are highly toxic. Since women and children do most of the planting and applying of pesticides to the plant roots, they are at potentially serious risk of pesticide poisoning. 46 Dix and Carroll: Control od Broccoli WMe Grubs

In order to develop a research agenda that would lead to grub control and pesticide reduction in Chilasco, we developed working relationships with other institutions and involved local fanners in a participatory approach to research. Through the Universidad del Valle we obtained a light trap which was operated by CARFJMicuenca extentionists in Chilasco. This light trap provided us with information about the seasonality of the adult beetles, permitted us to identify the main species in the area and gave the extentionists first hand experience which they then used to discuss pest control strategies with other farmers.

Through a series of open-ended interviews we asked farmers to explain reasons why their fields had so many white grubs. Two theories predominated (Dix 1997): l. White grubs are associated with the use of chicken litter, which is also the source of houseflies in these communities. 2. White grubs are usually associated with the planting of corn in broccoli fields.

Through field observations, greenhouse experiments, and field trials we were reached the following significant findings (Dix 1997): l. The presence of buried corn residue in broccoli fields enhances white grub survivorship, particularly in the early instars when mortality is normally very high. 2. White grub larvae are attracted to buried corn residue. 3. Chicken litter does not increase survivorship and there is no apparent relationship between the use of chicken litter in broccoli fields and the presence of white grubs.

Thus, we concluded that buried corn residue remaining in the field from previous corn planting is an important factor for Phyllophaga obsoleta survivorship in broccoli. Along with improved intensive horticultural practices, farmers no longer burn the corn fields and instead incorporate the residue as a soil conservation practice. This makes sense for soil fertility management, but can lead to more problems with white grub infestation. Future Directions

We have proposed impregnating strips of buried corn residue, located between broccoli rows, with entompathogens such as Metarhiziwn and entomopathogenic nematodes that are currently produced commercially in Guatemala by Agricola El Sol. The selection of control agents was 47 Proceeclngs of the Second IPM CRSP Symposium determined by their ability to survive well in buried plant residue and their known effects on beetle larvae. Carlos Palala, an agricultural student at the Escuela Agricola Panarnericana (Zamorano) began field trials with these agents in 1997 in collaboration with Gexpront and ALCOSA In addition, fanners in Chilasco, led by CARE extentionists Aura Esteban and Sergio Arneperez are carrying out their own experiments using local knowledge. They have already demonstrated that a water slurry of white grubs, when applied to the soil around individual plants, can lower the incidence of living grubs. While the mechanism for this effect is not known, it may be that the slurry contains high concentrations of pathogens. Though not a rigorous controlled scientific experiment, these results suggest that additional research into possible mechanisms might be worthwhile. Perhaps, a more important point is that the farmers and local extentionists have begun to try their own experiments and this engagement can only enhance the level of local knowledge that will be of value to future researchers. In 1998 researchers from ICTA will begin testing white grub slurry, as well as entomopathogens specifically, in other parts of the country to provide a more robust and analytical interpretation to these fanner-based experiments. Because white grubs are a major pan­ tropical pest, other IPM CRSP researchers have expressed interest in our approaches into possible control protocols for white grub in other crops. A final comment on our control protocol, we have explicitly included two additional objectives: the maintenance of soil organic matter and the reduction of erosion. By keeping com residue in the fields and by orienting these water-absorbing strips normal to the slope, we hope to meet these objectives· as well and thereby further strengthen the fanners incentive to adopt a control practice that greatly lessens health risks.

References Dix, AM. 1997. The Biology and Ecology of Broccoli White Grubs in Guatemala: A Case Study of Chilasco Baja Verapaz Guatemala. PhD Dissertation. 165pp. Carranza, H. 1996. Estudio de Ia Incidencia de Gallina Ciega en Broccoli en Guatemala. ICTA. 8pp. GTZ. 1995. Estrategias para un Lineamiento de Ordenarniento Territorial. Guatemala. 300pp.

48 Kyamanywa: Development of IPM Programs for Stalk Borers of Maize in Uganda Studies on Stalk Borers of Maize in Uganda and Their Implication in Development of Integrated Management Programs for the Pests

Samuel Kyamanywa Department of Crop Science, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda Introduction

Maize is an important cereal crop in Uganda Although it is a relatively new crop in the country, its popularity is on the increase. The area under maize and its production have more than doubled since 1981 (fable 1). It is gradually replacing fmger millet and sorghum in Eastern and Northern Uganda, and bananas in Central and Western Uganda. Based on the current trends of maize consumption it may become the number one staple for Ugandans in the next twenty years.

The major maize producing districts in Uganda include Kasese, Masindi, Kapchorwa, Iganga and Masaka. Although the area under maize in these districts is increasing continuously, maize productivity is very low. The average yield per hectare is about 1.3 tonnes, which is low compared to other major maize producing countries. Among the major constraints limiting maize productivity are insect pests. Earlier studies in Uganda and elsewhere in East Africa indicated that stalk borers were the most important pests of maize. Surveys of local literature in Uganda indicated that the problem of stem borers was recognised as early as 1924 (Michelmore 1954; Hargreaves 1939). Since then a number of studies have been conducted on species composition, distribution, ecology and control. These efforts, however, have not been properly utilized in developing sound management strategies for stem borers in Uganda. Furthermore, this research has been disjointed with a lack of clear direction.

The objectives of this paper, therefore, are to:

• review the work that has been conducted in Uganda during the pre and post independence era; • identify the strong and weak areas in the current knowledge of stalk borers on maize in Uganda; and • present the results of the work being conducted in Uganda under IPM CRSP and other programs.

49

50 50

.I .I

~UI~ ~UI~

source: source:

Year Year

1987 1987

1986 1986

1985 1985

1984 1984

1983 1983

1982 1982

1981 1981

1989 1989

1988 1988

.1 .1

• •

Ministry Ministry

.tt.l-~il .tt.l-~il

(Ha) (Ha)

Area Area

340 340

299 299

330 330

293 293

374 374

371 371

323 323

341 341

332 332

Finger Finger

t t

of of

UUU UUU

Agriculture, Agriculture,

Production Production

millet millet

lUll lUll

(Ton) (Ton)

479 479

545 545

528 528

479 479

598 598

578 578

517 517

349 349

263 263

iiiiU. iiiiU.

Entebbe, Entebbe,

I I

.IUUU\,;I.IUII .IUUU\,;I.IUII

Area Area

(Ha) (Ha)

346 346

288 288

294 294

285 285

260 260

566 566

394 394

306 306

321 321

Uganda Uganda

Maize Maize

Production Production

Proceedings Proceedings

t t

(Ton) (Ton)

1019 1019

412 412

560 560

362 362

343 343

285 285

392 392

279 279

342 342

UUU UUU

I.UIIIIf;I!!Jil I.UIIIIf;I!!Jil

of of

the the

(Ha) (Ha)

Area Area

205 205

207 207

200 200

245 245

256 256

202 202

207 207

Second Second

170 170

190 190

Ul Ul

Sorghum Sorghum

t.lll.': t.lll.':

IPM IPM

Production Production

IIUI IIUI

CRSP CRSP

(Ton) (Ton)

407 407

310 310

279 279

320 320

257 257

368 368

378 378

314 314

164 164

.. ..

IUI.-

Symposium Symposium

~IC.IICPI ~IC.IICPI

(Ha) (Ha)

Area Area

73 73

17 17

15 19 19 15

18 18

14 14

17 17

17 17

15 18 18 15

12 14 14 12

~.l-Ull:) ~.l-Ull:)

Rice Rice

Production Production

Ill Ill

(Ton) (Ton)

23 23

20 20

21 21

33 33

19 19

18 18

IUIS.iiiiUil IUIS.iiiiUil

.170.1/07 .170.1/07

Area Area

(Ha) (Ha)

4 4

4 4

4 4

5 5

6 6

5 5

5 5

5 5

5 5

Wheat Wheat

Production Production

(Ton) (Ton)

13 13

12 12

11 11

II II

10 10

8 8

9 9

8 8 8 8 Kyamanywa: Development of IPM Programs for Slalk Borers of Maize in Uganda

Species Composition, Distribution and Life Cycles of Stem Borers of Maize in Uganda. Studies on species composition and their distribution in Uganda constitute the largest part of the research work that has been conducted in Uganda. Hargreaves ( 1939) reported that Busseola jusca (Fuller)(Noctuidae), was the major stalk borer of maize and millet in Uganda, while Sesamia calamistis (Hamps.)(Noctuidae) and S. cretica (Led)(Noctuidae) were very rare. In 1950, the damage caused by the stalk borers in Eastern and Northern Uganda was considered great and a survey was conducted to determine the extent of damage. The survey indicated that there were five lepidopterous stalk borers which could be considered major and included B. fusca. Chilo zonellus (Swinehole )(Pyralidae ), S. calamistis, S. cretica, and S. vuteria (Stoll) (Michlemore 1955). A year later, however, Ingram (1956) produced a list of 8 species of stem borers which attacked maize in Uganda (fable 2). Nevertheless, in a detailed survey of pests of cereals in Uganda, lngram(l956) noted that the most common species of stalk borers in most districts were C. zonellus, S. calamistis, S. poephaga (rams and Bowden), and Eldana saccharina (Walker). He further noted that B.jusca was widely distributed, but most abundant in areas of intensive cultivation, where plant residues enabled the resting larvae to survive the dry season; on the other hand, C. zonellus, which was a recent introduction, was not widely distributed but was the most common species in areas at altitudes below 4000ft in the west, and those below 500ft in Eastern and Northern Uganda; the other species were very rare. More recent surveys (Girling 1978; K.alule, eta!. 1994a) indicate that C. partellus (zone flus), was the major stalk borer of maize followed by B. fusca, and finally, with E. saccharina and Sesamia spp. being the least important; occurring in proportions of 45%, 30%, 20% and 5% respectively. Although there are no studies in Uganda which have compared the importance of these species in terms of the loss they cause, it would appear from these surveys that C.partellus, which was introduced from India, is continuing to be more important than other species; it is believed that it is replacing the other species (Overholt et al. 1994). Because of this, the IPM CRSP activities in Uganda are concentrating on C.partellus on maize and sorghum.

The biologies of these species have been studied in great detail by Ingram (1956) and appear to have been confirmed by the studies of Walker (1960). This information seems to be good enough to still be of value even today and they provide a very useful reference.

51 Proceedings of the Second IPM CRSP Symposium

Table 2. Species of Stalk borers which attack Maize in Uganda SIJeCies name Family Busseola.fusca (Fuller) Noctuidae Busseola segeta(Bowden) Noctuidae Sesamia botanephaga (fams & Bowden) Noctuidae Sesamla calamistis (Hamps.) Noctuidae Sesamia poephaga (Tams & Bowden) Noctuidae Chilo zonellus/partellus (Swinehole) Pyralidae Eldana saccharina (Walker) Pyralidae Pectinif(eria SP. Pyra]idae

Losses Due to Stalk Borers in Uganda Losses caused by stalk borers in maize are not well established. No studies have been conducted in Uganda to detennine the stalk borer damage/yield relationships on maize or sorghum. Because of this paucity of infonnation on losses, doubts have been expressed as to whether stalk borers cause enough damage to warrant control. Coaker (1965), for instance, observed that when DDT dust was used at a rate of 20 lb/acre applied three times at weekly intervals, there were no significant differences in stalk borer damage and yield between the treated maize and the untreated one. From these results--surprisingly without considering the biology of the stalk borers, the time of application of the chemical, the crop growth stage, the efficacy of DDT and the rate of application--Coaker (1956) concluded that the degree of damage caused to maize did not warrant control. This decreased the work on stem borers of maize in Uganda.

On the other hand, Michelmore (1954), using a look-see DDT dusting trial at Serere demonstrated that maize yielded I OOOlbs/acre more than the untreated, although only 60% control of stalk borers had been achieved. However, not enough details are given on the trial to be able to evaluate its significance. The most recent attempt to detennine losses caused by stalk borers on maize is that of Kalule et al. (1994b) who reported between 8 - 37% loss in grain yield depending on the time of planting and infestation.

The present account shows that there is a lot to be done in regard to stalk borer damage/yield relationships in Uganda. There is a need to establish economic injury levels and economic thresholds which are important in IPM implementation procedures. There is also a need to understand the relationship between the time of infestation, the stage of growth, and grain yield loss. Knowledge of these elements are the basis for developing sound stalk borer management practices. In light of this, it is proposed that under year five of IPM CRSP activities,

52 Kyamanywa: Development of IPM Programs for Stalk Borers of Maize in Uganda studies will be initiated on stalk borer damage/yield loss relationships with a view to developing economic thresholds. Control of Maize Stalk Borers Studies on the control of stalk borers in Uganda have mainly concentrated on identifying appropriate insecticides. There are a few studies that have examined the potential of cultural and biological control practices. Insecticide Control Studies Studies on insecticide control of stalk borers date back to 1954, when Michelmore (1955) conducted the first look-see DDT dusting experiment to control stalk borers in Uganda. He noted that the damage due to stalk borers was significantly reduced and the yield in treated plots was 1OOOlbs higher than in the untreated plots. This was followed by the work of Coaker (1956) who found no significant differences in stalk borer damage and grain yield between maize treated with DDT dust 3 times at two weekly intervals and the untreated ones. Although these trials were not properly controlled, they led to a cessation of the work on insecticide control of stem borers in Uganda until in the 1990's when entomologists at Namulonge resumed it (Okoth and Kalule 1990). Okoth and Kalule (1990) studied the level of protection offered by three insecticides (Sumi-alpha, Furadan and Danitol) to maize against the borers. They reported that in the first rain trial, Furadan and Sumi-alpha significantly reduced leaf damage, while leaf damage was similar in Danitol and the unprotected plots and was the highest compared to the other treatments. On the other hand, mean borer tunnel length per plant was longest in untreated maize, followed by that treated with Furadan and least in those treated with Sumi-alpha. In the second rains trial, the results of effects of the three insecticides on tunnel length were different from that observed in the first rains. Maize treated with Sumi-alpha had the longest tunnel length compared to the other treatments. The effect of these chemicals on maize grain yield was not reported. Furthermore, they did not test the appropriate rates and time of application of these chemicals. In 1991 Okoth and Kalule (1991) conducted further insecticide screening trials and identified spot-on treatment in the tunnels with Carbofuran 5% granules applied 2 - 3 weeks after crop emergence as the best chemical for controlling stalk borers on maize. They argued that this chemical had no harmful effect on the natural enemies of the stalk borers.

Given the above scenario, it is perhaps appropriate to admit that our knowledge of chemical control of stalk borer in Uganda is very limited, and if we hope to incorporate insecticides in the control of stalk borers and use them judiciously, a lot of effort will have to be put into this

53 Proceedngs of the Second IPM CRSP Symposium field of research. Even the chemical controls that have been previously recommended were not based on experimental results performed under Ugandan conditions. Although it is not the policy of the WM CRSP to conduct insecticide experiments, I would urge the program to consider including them; if appropriate studies are conducted to determine when and how much pesticides give economical control of the stalk borer, then advising on minimum or zero application of pesticides would be easy. Cultural Control Studies Several workers have recommend the use of cultural practices to control stalk borers on maize and sorghum. Hargreaves ( 1939), noted that continuous planting of maize encouraged stalk borer populations and damage. He therefore proposed that planting sorghum at the same time would perhaps help in reducing the pest incidence and damage. Hargreaves also proposed trap cropping and destruction of plant residue as possible ways of controlling the pest population and damage. Ingram (1956) proposed destruction of all trash, stubble and volunteer plants as cultural methods that would probably help reduce the stalk borer attack on maize and sorghum. Dunbar (1969) recommended early planting of maize in Uganda as one way of reducing stalk borer damage.

As much as the potential of these cultural practices sounds wonderful, very little research has been put in to validate the assumptions behind them. The only work that has been done on the effect of cultural practices on stalk borer populations and damage is that of Kalule et al. (1994 a & b) which examined the effects of the time of planting of maize on the incidence and damage of stalk borers. The work demonstrated that early planted maize was more vulnerable to stalk borer attack, exhibited significantly higher foliar and stem damage, and also had correspondingly lower grain yield. These findings contradicted earlier beliefs that early planting of maize reduced stalk borer damage and therefore demonstrate a need to re-examine all unverified cultural control recommendations. As pointed out by Harris (1990), a better understanding of the population dynamics of the stalk borer species, including information on the carry-over from one cropping season to another, the effect of cropping systems and the time of planting, would also aid the development of good stalk borer control.

It is in this context that the IPM CRSP in Uganda is looking at effects of intercropping maize with beans on stalk borer damage in !ganga district. This cropping system has been shown elsewhere (Amoako-

54 Kyamanywa: Development of IPM Programs for Stalk Borers of Maize in Uganda

Atta eta!, 1983; Dessimond & Weltzien, 1986) to influence stalk borer population and damage.

Biological Control Studies Studies on the incidence of parasitoids of stalk borers in Uganda were a pre-occupation of many entomologists during the late 1950's and early 1970s. Ingram (1956) studied the incidence of parasitoids in the major stalk borers of maize, and reported five species of parasitoids of stalk borers in Uganda (Table 3).

Table 3. Parasitoid species attacking various stalk borer of maize in Ueanda as identified bv Ineram (1958). Host stalk borer species

B.fusca c. Sesamia E. partellus sp saccharina

I. Peduobius sp. (Eulophidae) X X X - 2. Hyperchalcidia soudenensis . XX . - (Chalcididae) 3. Apanteles sesamia X X X - (Braconidae) 4. Chasmias sp. (Ichneumonidae) - X - . 5. Mesobracon sp. (Braconidae) - - X -

More detailed studies of parasitoids of stem borers in Uganda were conducted by Muhyuddin (1970, 1972) who observed that Pediobius furvus and Dentichnsmias busseolae (Heinr) (lchneumonidae) were the main endemic parasitoids of stem borers in Uganda. Furthermore, Mohyuddin (1971) explored the potential of introducing Apanteles flavipes and A. sesamia to Uganda. Introduction of these species were made but were never successful.

Since that time, no studies have been undertaken to understand the factors which influence efficacy of indigenous stalk borer parasitoids and how they could be augmented. Furthermore, although there had been an attempt to introduce A. flavipes in Uganda, there were no follow-up studies to determine why the parasitoid failed.

Nevertheless, in 1996, the International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE), based in Kenya, has shown interest in introducing Cotesiaflavipes to Uganda for a classical biological control program of Chilo partellus. IPM CRSP is going to be a partner in this project. It has been proposed that ICIPE produce and release the

55 Proceedings of the Second IPM CASP Symposium parasitoids in !ganga district while IPM CRSP conducts follow-up studies on parasitoid establishment and efficacy. Resistant Cultivar to Maize Stalk Borers The breeding work in Uganda has mainly emphasized production of high yielding maize cultivars; no attention has been given to incorporating resistance to stalk borers in commercial maize varieties. The only attempt to screen for resistance to stalk borers in Uganda was that of Starks (1965) at Serere Agricultural Research Station, when he conducted limited screening of maize varieties and found more Chilo resistance in "White star" and "Western Queen" Ugandan varieties than in some "introduced" lines. But he observed that " White star'' and ''Western Queen" were low yielding varieties.

Because of the general lack of information on the resistance/susceptibility of the maize line being grown in Uganda, the author initiated studies in 1994 to determine the relative susceptibility of some of the maize varieties in Uganda. Details of these studies are considered in the remaining part of this paper. Screening of Maize Cultivars for Resistance/Susceptibility to Maize Stalk Borer Studies have been conducted at Makerere University Agricultural Research Institute Kabanyolo, to determine the susceptibility/resistance of some maize cultivars to stalk borer attack. The cultivars were obtained form the Maize Research Programme at Namulonge Agricultural Research Institute (NARI) and included Longe-l, Top Cross, KWCA, Pop28, Pop29, Pop43, and Single Cross. Longe-1 is the latest released maize variety and KWCA is the recommended variety in the country. Single Cross is also a local line. Pop 28, 29 and 43 were originally from CIMMIT.

The cultivars were grown in a randomized complete block design, in plot sizes of 2m x Sm. The treatments were replicated five times, while the experiment was repeated three times in the long (a) and short (b) rains of 1994 and in the long rains of 1995.

The data collected included: number of egg batches per plant; number The results of incidence and damage of stalk borers on different maize cultivars are shown in Tables 4-6. Leaf damage, percent of plants

56 Kyamanywa: Development of IPM Programs for Stalk Borers of Maize in Uganda

J. i:tun:: "t. ~t::'i:tlUi:tllliU!t: l!li\::UI·t:: anu Dt:n.::t:nt8l!t: Ul JlliUZt: DIHIIIS llllaiteU Ill VltriUI s varieties Leaf Damage Score % Plants infested

94a 94b 95a Mean% 94a 94b 95a Mean%

Pop 28 0.173 2.484 2.178 1.61 25.2% 5.001 16.82 15.6

Pop 29 0.069 2.544 2.241 1.61 15.6 6.787 16.419 12.93 Pop 43 0.183 2.547 2.291 1.67 27.6 6.872 20.306 18.25 Top 0.156 2.253 2.112 1.59 18.4 6.275 19.719 14.79 Cross

Single 0.076 1.987 2.362 1.47 13.6 4.272 21.894 13.25 Cross

KWCA- 0.257 2.654 2.747 1.89 23.9 7.225 26.609 19.24 SR

Longe I 0.159 2.525 2.581 1.75 31.1 4.500 16.544 17.38

Mean 0.153 2.427 2.358 22.2 5.84 19.75

57

Table Table

58 58

A A

Longe Longe

Single Single

Pop Pop

Top Top

Pop43 Pop43

Pop Pop

KWCA-SR KWCA-SR

Single Single Pop Pop

Pop Pop

Top Top

Mean Mean

Longe Longe

KWCA-SE KWCA-SE

Pop43 Pop43

QUI" QUI"

28 28

29 29

Cross Cross

Cross Cross

29 29

28 28

6. 6.

-.l'• -.l'•

Cross Cross

I I

Cross Cross

I I

Stalk Stalk

~II"'"" ~II"'""

0.40 0.40

0.86 0.86

0.28 0.28

0.00 0.00

0.40 0.40

0.74 0.74

94a 94a

1.14 1.14

borer borer

VI VI

0.516 0.516

0.300 0.300

0.740 0.740

0.530 0.530

0.585 0.585

0.457 0.457

0.843 0.843

94a 94a

0.272 0.272

TAIIAI-IUII TAIIAI-IUII

el!l! el!l!

0.897 0.897

0.874 0.874

0.907 0.907

94b 94b

2.713 2.713

1.037 1.037

1.812 1.812

1.081 1.081

Larva Larva

batches, batches,

IU IU

per per

0.213 0.213

0.15 0.15

0.362 0.362

0.156 0.156 0.156 0.156

0.113 0.113 95 95

0.17 0.17

3.5 3.5

3.9 3.9

94b 94b

2.8 2.8

2.47 2.47

1.9 1.9

1.8 1.8

1.5 1.5

1.9 1.9

1'-'AI. 1'-'AI.

No. No.

plant plant

larval larval

Holes Holes

UQI&IA-Fo'-9 UQI&IA-Fo'-9

0.52 0.52

0.37 0.37

0.61 0.61

0.55 0.55 0.94 0.94

0.72 0.72

mean mean

1.03 1.03

0.40 0.40

0.80 0.80

0.80 0.80

0.30 0.30

95a 95a

0.65 0.65

0.25 0.25

0.80 0.80

1.20 1.20

Proceedings Proceedings

per per

and and

plant plant

QUU QUU

~ ~

upai_R!Ipulation upai_R!Ipulation

0.00 0.00

0.29 0.29

0.86 0.86

0.27 0.27 0.73 0.73

0.71 0.71 94a 94a

0.71 0.71

1-UUU'->1 1-UUU'->1

of of

0.91 0.91

Mean Mean

0.67 0.67

1.60 1.60

1.14 1.14

!.50 !.50

!.58 !.58

!.09 !.09

the the

Mean Mean

Second Second

1'->UFol-lll 1'->UFol-lll

O.D2 O.D2

0.06 0.06

0.06 0.06

O.Q7 O.Q7 0.08 0.08

0.05 0.05 94b 94b

0.05 0.05

pupae pupae

IPM IPM

Ill Ill

densities densities

0.571 0.571

2.259 2.259

2.272 2.272

94a 94a

2.90 2.90

1.757 1.757

1.557 1.557

!.832 !.832

1.514 1.514

0.00 0.00

0.00 0.00

0.01 0.01

CRSP CRSP 0.00 0.00

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

95a 95a

0.00 0.00

per per

U.I&I"'I.'-'UI-

plant plant

Symposium Symposium

Mean Mean

0.01 0.01

0.11 0.11

0.30 0.30

0.11 0.11 0.27 0.27

0.25 0.25

0.25 0.25

mean mean

in in

•tiAI&o'-

26.0 26.0

94b 94b

21.0 21.0

18.2 18.2

17.1 17.1

18.8 18.8

14.1 14.1

18.5 18.5

16.7 16.7

vartous vartous

tunnel tunnel

0.003 0.003

0.005 0.005

0.003 0.003

0.002 0.002 0.013 0.013

94b 94b 0.006 0.006

0.008 0.008

'-UI '-UI

length length

.. ..

matze matze

ITAI>J ITAI>J

Egg Egg

4.2 4.2 6.6 6.6

5.5 5.5

2.3 2.3

95a 95a

3.7 3.7

3.9 3.9

1.6 1.6

1.8 1.8

per per

batches batches

0.002 0.002

0.00 0.00

0.002 0.002

0.003 0.003

0.00 0.00

0.00 0.00

0.003 0.003

95a 95a

cultivars cultivars

plant plant

per per

(em) (em)

7.185 7.185

7.724 7.724 6.985 6.985

7.971 7.971

Mean Mean 5.490 5.490

11.253 11.253

10.166 10.166

plant plant

0.003 0.003

0.00 0.00

0.003 0.003

0.008 0.008

0.003 0.003

0.00 0.00

0.00 0.00 mean mean Kyamanywa: Development of IPM Programs for Stalk Borers of Maize in Uganda of larvae and pupae per plant; number of holes per plant; and leaf damage using a 1 - 5 score scale. All of th~e parameters were measured on 20 plants per plot and at weekly iiitetvals. At harvest, grain yield per plant was determined.

The results of incidence and damage of stalk borers on different maize cultivars are shown on tables 4-6. Leaf damage, percent of plants infested, number of holes per plant, and egg batches per plant were significantly higher in KWCA than in any other maize cultivar, and overall susceptible-resistance index was highest in this cu1tivar, suggesting that it was more susceptible than all other cultivars.

Compared to KWCA, Longe-1 was the least susceptible to stalk borers. Consequently, we are incorporating this new maize variety in the IPM CRSP trials in !ganga. The aim is to compare its effect on borer population compared to the local maize varieties in !ganga.

References

Amoako-Atta B., Omolo, E. 0. And Kidega K. E. (1983). Influence of maize/cowpea intercropping systems on stem pod borer infestations. Insect science and its Application 4: 47 - 57. Coaker, T. H. (1956). An experiment on stem borer control on maize. East Africa Agriculture and Forestry Journal 21, 22Q-221. Dessimond, A and H. C. Weltzien. (1986). Influence of sorghum and cowpea intercropping on plant pests in semi arid area of Kenya. Med. Fac. Landbouww. Rijksuniv. Gent, 51!3a, 1986, 1147 - 1155. Dunbar, A. R. (1969). Annual Crop of Uganda. East African Literature Bureau pp 189. Girling, D. J. (1978). The distribution and biology of Eldana saccharina (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) and its relationship to other stem borers in Uganda. Bulletin of entomological Research 68: 471 - 488. Hargreaves, H. (1939) Notes on some pest of maize and millets in Uganda. East African Agriculture and Forestry Journal 5, 104 - 106 Harris, K. M. (1990). Bioecology of Chilo species. Insect Science and its Application 11(4/5):467 - 477.

59 Proceedings of the Second IPM CRSP Symposium

Ingram, W. R. (1956). The Jepidopterous stalk borers associated with gramineae in Uganda. Bulletin of entomological Research 49: 367 - 383. Kalule, T., Ogenga-Latigo, W.M and Okoth V.A.O. (1994a). Influence of time of planting on incidence of Lepidopterous stem borers of maize in central Uganda. Fourth Eastern and Southern African Regional"maize Conference 28th March - 1st April 1994 pp 173 -175. Kalule, T., Ogenga-Latigo, W.M and Okoth V.A.O. (1994b). Relationship between successive dates of sowing maize and stem borer damage in central Uganda. African Crop Science conference proceedings Vol. I :338-340. Michelmore, T. (1954) Annual Report of the Department of Agriculture Uganda Protectrate 1954. Entomologist report Michelmore, T. (1955) Annual Report of the Department of Agriculture Uganda Protectrate 1955. Entomologist report Muhyuddin , A. I. (1970) Notes on the distribution and biology of Pediobius furvus (Hym., Eulophidae), a parasite of graminaceous stem borers. Bulletin of Entomological Research 59:681 - 689. Muhyuddin , A. I. (1971). Comparative biology and ecology of Apanteles flavipes and A. Sesamiae as parasites of graminaceous borers. 61(1): 33 - 39. Muhyuddin , A. I. (1972) Distribution, biology and ecology of Dentichasmias busseolae (Hym., lchneumonidae ), a pupal parasite of graminaceous stem borers. Bulletin of entomological Research 62(2): 161 - 168 Okoth, V.A.O. and T. Kalule. (1990). Maize entomology. Annual report of Namulonge Agricultural Research Station, Kamapala Uganda. Okoth, V.A.O. and T.M. Kalule. (1991). Evaluation of Efficacy of Storage Pest Insecticides for the Control of Graminaecious Stem Borers of Maize in Uganda. Annual Report 1991 of Namulonge Research Stateion. Overholt, W. A., Ngi-Songo, A. J., Kimani S. K. And Mbapi!a, J. (1994). Ecological Considerations of the introduction of Cotesia flavipes for Biological control of Chilo partellus in Africa. Biocontrol News and Information 15: 19N-24N Starks K. J. (1965) Cereal entomology. Annual Report of the Department of Agriculture. Republic of Uganda. Pg. 69-70.

60 Kyamanywa: Development of IPM Programs for Stalk Borers of Maize in Uganda

Walker, P. T. (1960). Insecticide studies on the maize stalk borer, Busseola fusca, in East Africa. Bulletin of Entomological Research 51: 321-351.

61 Proceedings of the Second IPM CRSP Symposium

Pesticide Use and Residues in Vegetable Amaranth (Amaranthus viridis) in Jamaica

Janice C. Reid', Dionne Clarke-Harris', Peter Espeut, Clive Edwards', 4 and Dwight G. Robinson • 'Caribbean A~cultural Research and Development Institute (CAROl), Jamaica; South Coast Conservation Foundation (SCCF) Jamaica; 'Ohio State University, USA; 4University of the West Indies, Mona, Jamaica.

Abstract Callaloo, or vegetable amaranth, Amaranthus virid is, is basic to the Jamaican diet and has become an important potential source of income as a non­ traditional export to the US and elsewhere. The value of total production increased from US$2.34m in 1991 to US$8.7m in 1995, while farmer income increased by 157%. This potential is being threatened by repeated rejections of shipments because of pest or pesticide contamination of shipments. A survey of 109 Callaloo farmers revealed that ninety-two percent saw Iepidoptera as their most serious pest, and that they used seventeen pesticides, including four fungicides, to control these. Sixty­ three percent applied pesticides routinely. Field experiments showed no difference in the quantity of marketable yield in spite of an 8-fold reduction in methomyl use. Treatments with Bacillus thuringiensis gave yield losses equivalent to the no­ treatment control. Market-basket samples collected in 1995 and 1996 recorded unacceptable levels of diazinon in both years and malathion and profenofos in 1996. Many examples of the pesticide misuse noted can be corrected with training, but focus will also be on refining simple decision tools for farmer use.

62 Reid et al.: Pesticide Use and Residues in Vegetable Amaranth (Amaranthus viriis)

Problem Statement Callaloo, or vegetable amaranth, Amaranthus viridis, is a basic element of the Jamaican diet. It is rich in calcium, iron and some proteins. In addition, within the past six to eight years, elevation of the crop to the status of a non-traditional export (NTAE), has increased its potential value to the small farmer. The estimated value of total production rose from US$2.34m in 1991 to US$8.7m in 1995, while value to the farmer increased 157% within the same period (Reid and Graham, 1997).

The crop has a considerable potential for satisfying the US winter market to ethnic and health food shops. However, shipments have been rejected because of the presence of pest "hitchhikers" or unacceptable pesticide residues. Pesticides now represent 40% of the cost of input as farmers use any available pesticide to protect their potential income. Appropriate programs to reduce pesticide use and increase crop marlretability must be based upon understanding farmer attitudes toward pest and pesticide management as well as knowing the chief sources of pesticide contamination in marketable produce.

This report highlights elements of the IPM project that address pesticide use in vegetable amaranth.

Research Approach 1 . Baseline survey This was part of a survey for farmers producing the three crops being studied. It was targeted to 100 farmers in important Callaloo production areas of six parishes, using structured formal interviews with coded and open questions. No more than five farmers per area were selected with the farms selected being at least two kilometers apart. Parameters considered included socioeconomic factors (schooling, gender, sources of income); approaches to pest management (recognition of pests, selection of pesticides, safety) and market dynamics (how harvested, to whom sold, location of market). Responses were grouped for frequency and a series of two way tables produced. Standard "t'' tests were done to measure the degree of significance between these relationships.

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2. Effect of timing pesticide applications on crop loss. Four treatments were distributed in a randomized complete block with seven replicates. Each plot consisted of 56 plants (20 of which were experimental plants, the remainder being guards) and received one of the folJowing: (i) farmer practice (methomyl every eight days); (ii) methomyl applied when plots exceeded a threshold of 2.5 larvae/plant; (iii) Bacillus thuringiensis at the same threshold and (iv) a no-treatment control. Pest incidence was measured on five randomly selected plants per plot Loss was estimated at harvest using standard marketable criteria (IPM CRSP Annual Report, 1995). 3.0 Pesticide Residue Determination. 3 .1 On pesticides applied under controlled field conditions The above study was supplemented by one which focused on the persistence of two frequently used compounds, methomyl (O.OSg Lannate SP) and lambda-cyhalothrin (0.8cc Karate 2.5 EC). Both pesticides were applied to 4-week old Callaloo and residues determined on samples taken one hour after spraying and at 2-day intervals thereafter for the next 10 days. Lambda-cyhalothrin residues were determined using a Hewlett-Packard HP 5890 Series II GC with a 30mHP-1 capillary column and a Ni-ECD. An HPLC was used for measurement of methomyl residues. 3. 2 On market basket samples In 1995, eleven samples of Callaloo were colJected from farm markets and frozen immediately. These were analyzed at the Ohio State University using FDA analytical methods for diazinon, ethoprop, malathion, profenofos, chlorpyrifos, endosulfan, monocrotophos, methamidophos and dimethoate. EPA SW846 Method 8318 was used for methomyl and carbaryl. In 1996, nine Callaloo samples were colJected from three markets and treated in a similar manner. Results Baseline Survey Results presented here will focus only on tlte main issues relating to pesticides. The rest of the information will be presented in the working paper on the entire survey. Ninety two percent of the 109 farmers interviewed chose the Iepidoptera complex as lhe most important pest. Seventeen pesticides (including three fungicides) were lhose most often used (Table 1). Approximately 66% of the respondents were applying

64 Reid et al.: Pesticide Use and Residues in Vegetable Amaranth (Amaranthus viriis)

pesticides on a calendar or preventative basis, although 33% were using some type of threshold, albeit one that could be refmed (Table 2).

Timing of Pesticide Applications During the trial, in contrast to eight applications made in plots following the farmer treatment, only one was needed in the plots using the crude AT for methomyl with no difference in yield. Therefore, even without further refinement, application of this threshold would result in an 8-fold reduction in pesticide use. Bt treatments were not economical, with yield loss levels (18.8%) equivalent to those in the no-treatment control (18.2%) (F=5.19, df = 29, P=0.03).

Table 1. Features of pesticide use on Callaloo farms surveyed' JD 1996 Category Number Total number of farmers 109 Major pest is Iepidoptera 100 (92%) Type of pesticide used Total 18 Insecticide 14 Fungicide 4

Toxicity class* 1 2 2 4 3 3 4 3 other 6 * classification accordmg to EPA.

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Tabl 2 . F e eatures o f pesbci• "d e use bIY CHIa aoo f armers Feature %positive Feature %positive response response Action threshold Mix more Routine 32.7 sometimes 46.0 See any insect 19.8 always 11.3 See some damage 13.2 never 42.7 Any or all the 34.9 above

No. appl'ns/week Use of excess I 63.2 spray again 23.6 2 19.8 spray others 23.6 3 1.9 throw away 30.2 other 10.4 save 42.7

Frequency of harvest 1/week 77.3 l/10 days 16.1 1/2 weeks 6.6

Persistence of lambda-cyhalothrin and methomyl After one hour, the mean concentration of lambda-cyhalothrin was 2.45 mg/g. ; after 10 days it was 0.60mg/g, where 40% had been lost during the first two days. Determination of methomyl residues has been delayed due to equipment malfunction and will now be done by collaborators at Ohio State.

Market Basket Residues Data show that 60% of Callaloo samples collected in 1995 contained detectable residue levels; five samples had unacceptable levels of diazinon ranging from 0.2 to 3.2 mglkg. In 1996, supplies from each market originated in different areas of St Catherine. Thirty percent of the samples collected had detectable residues (diazinon - 4.3mglkg; malathion - L2; and profenofos - 0.8). Discussion and Conclusions

A study of this type provides important baseline information to aid selection of the most critical areas for focusing research efforts. Several instances of pesticide misuse were identified, many of which require enhanced farmer training. In addition, refining simple decision-based spray guidelines for fanners, in a farmer-participatory activity, could ensure that pesticide use is kept to a minimum, correctly timed and

66 Reid et al.: Pesticide Use and Residues in Vegetable Amaranth (Amatanthus viriis) applied to avoid unacceptable residues at harvest. There are also no published USEPA or WHO standards for Amaranthus, hence those for similar leafy vegetables have to be used as a crude guide. Even so, data from the persistence study with Karate and Lannate suggest that 32- 36% of the pesticide would still be present at harvest, since most farmers reap every seven days. For one farmer, nine different pesticides were applied in one 3-month crop season. In spite of this, he continued to experience losses of 341 Okg/week resulting in a default on his contract with a processing plant which led to its temporary closure.

Issues relating to safety and correctness of application need much closer scrutiny, e.g. it is unusual that 43% of the respondents would never mix more chemical than needed. Similarly, it will be useful to understand how long the excess mixture is kept. Another important consideration relates to the causes of pest outbreaks and the farmer behavioral changes which occur therein. In one case, applications were then made at least every 3 days, with the sequence moving from one pesticide in the mixtnre up to three with each evidence of minimal pest mortality.

References

IPM CRSP. 1995-96. Thrid Annual Report. IPM CRSP, Virginia Tech. Reid, Robert R. and Hugh L. Graham, 1997. Market Research - sweetpotato, hot pepper, Callaloo. Draft report prepared for IPM CRSP, Jamaica Site. 4 7 pp, 19 appendices.

67 Proceedings of the Second IPM CRSP Symposium

Management of Root-Knot Nematode (Meloidogyne graminicola) in Rice-Onion System

1 1 2 R.M. Gapasin , J.L. Judal , C. Pile, E. Gergon and J. Halbrendr. 1Phi!Rice, Philippines, 2Penn State University, USA

Abstract

Studies were conducted to understand the biology and development of M. graminicola in onion and manage the rice root-knot nematode in the rice-onion system with the objective of reducing nematode population in the soil to a manageable level. The second stage juveniles infect onion roots 48 hours after and had advanced four days after and developed into adult 14 to 18 days after. Adult females start to lay eggs 20 days after inoculation. The canister experiment aimed at determining the effective soil depth level reached by rice hull burning (RHB) on nematode mortality, showed that nematodes were killed by heat even at a depth six inches. Several galls per root system were counted in rice seedlings through bioassay in the unburned treatments as compared to zero galls in all the burned treatments (0, 5, 10, 15 em depth). RHB significantly affected the number of galls and in most cases, the nematode density in the soil and roots. Yield of onion increased almost three fold in the burned treatment. The result of the biofertilizer experiment conducted in three fields (San Jose, Bongabon, and Bongabon Demo Farm) showed no significant effects among treatment means on the number of galls and nematode densities in soil and roots. However, among the biofertilizers evaluated, VAM and Bio N have the potential for galls and nematode densities were generally lower. Pot experiments showed that Tagetes spp. and two Crotalaria species reduced the number of galls and nematode density in soil by 73-96 percent and increased fresh root weight when incorporated in the soil. Preliminary results of the crop rotation experiment revealed that mungbean and peanut were resistant to the nematode for none to few galls were counted in their root systems and in soil.

68 Gapasin eta/.: Management of Meloicbgyne graminicola in Rice-Qnion System Objectives

1. To understand the biology of M. graminicola in onion. 2. To determine the effectiveness of rice hull burning (RHB) in controlling root-knot nematode and its effect on yield of onion. 3. To evaluate different biofertilizers for possible suppression of root-knot nematode. 4. To determine the antagonistic effects of Tagetes spp. and Crotalaria spp. on population of root-knot nematode. 5. To determine the effect of different rice-based cropping patterns on the incidence of root-knot nematode in onion and rice and identify the most effective crop rotation scheme for root-knot control. Materials and Methods

Biology of M. graminicola in Onion One month old seedlings of onion were planted in small plastic cups containing sterilized soil. After ten days, 30 onion seedlings were inoculated with 100 larvae of the nematode. After every two days until the 20th day, two plants were harvested and the roots were washed and stained with acid fucshin lactophenol. Stained roots were dissected and examined under the stereomicroscope. Photomicrographs were taken to illustrate and elucidate the life cycle of the nematode. Rice Hull Burning Experiment Small canisters made of PVC pipe measuring 5 em long and 3.8 em diameter were prepared. The canisters with sterilized soil were first infested with 500 eggs of the root-knot nematode before burying 1hem at specific depths (0, 5, 10, 15 em) in the farmers field prior to rice hull burning (RHB). Both ends of the canister were covered with a wire mesh to protect the soil and eggs from being spilled. The canisters were recovered after 24 hours while 1he control treatment was incubated in 1he glasshouse. One mon1h old rice seedlings (UPLRi 5) were planted to the canister with one seedling per canister. Plants were incubated in 1he glasshouse and uprooted after 35 days. The roots were washed in a running water, examined for root galls and later counted. The treatments were replicated four times.

In 1he field experiment, farmer cooperators wi1h fields known to have high nematode populations were selected. Two 4 m x 5 m plots were laid out in each farmer field; one plot was burned and the other was unburned, with a total of eight plots (4 replications). Prior to RHB nematode densities were assessed by getting ten 200 g soil samples from each plot. At sampling time (4, 8, and 12 weeks after

69 Proceedings of the Second IPM CRSP Symposium transplanting (WAn onion), ten root systems and ten 200 g soil samples were randomly taken from the plots. All samples were brought to the Phi!Rice Nematology Laboratory and roots were later examined and galls were counted. The roots were weighted, cut to small pieces, and placed in plastic mesh fastened in a 7.5 em diameter PVC pipe and placed in a plastic petri dish with water. The suspension was collected after 72 hours and nematode were heat-killed, fixed in Triethanolamine Formalin (TAF) and counted under the stereomicroscope. The soil samples were processed for nematodes using the modified Baermann. funnel method and nematode suspension was taken after 48 hours. Nematodes were heat-killed, fixed in TAF, and later counted under the stereomicroscope. Yields of onion were measured in six m2 in the plots. Biofertilizer Experiment The biofertilizer experiment was conducted in three sites (Abar I st, San Jose; Bongabon farmer's field; and Demo farm at Bongabon). The land was prepared according to farmers' practices. In San Jose, four fanner cooperators with Tanduyong as their variety were selected. Each farmer represents a replicate. The area was divided into plots measuring 4 m x 5 m and was laid out in RCBD manner. There were six treatments that included VAM applied at seeding, VAM applied at planting, Bio N, Rhizo N, Bio Green, and 14-14-14 (complete fertilizers). Before treatment application, 400 gms (12 bags/Ha) of complete fertilizer were applied in all plots as basal treatment The biofertilizers were applied just before planting the onion seedlings. Sampling for roots and soil for nematode assays were done 4, 8, and 12 weeks after transplanting the onion. The procedures were exactly followed when the experiment was conducted in Bongabon demo and farmers' fields, however, the YAM at seeding treatment was not included. Also, five sample plants and five 200 g soil portions were collected from each treatment at the Demo farm. The variety used in the Bongabon farmers' field was Red Creole, while Yellow Granex was used in the Demo farm. Effect of Antagonistic and Non-host Plants Pots containing sterilized soil were infested with 750 eggs of M. graminicola. Pots were arranged in the screenhouse in CRD manner with the following treatments: rice, Crotakzria I, Crotaloria 2, Tagetes spp. and fallow (no plants). The treatments were replicated five times. Two months later, plants were harvested and roots were examined for root galls. Nematode density in the soil was assessed by getting 200 g soil and processed in the Laboratory using the modified Baermann funnel method. The biomass of Tagetes spp. and Crotalaria spp. were incorporated in the soil. One month old onion seedlings were then

70 Gapasin et al.: Management of Me/oidogyne gtaminicola in Rice-Onion System planted in the pots with three seedlings per pot. The onions were harvested after two months, galls were counted anc! nematode densities in soil and roots were assessed. The fresh weight of the onions was also taken. LSD was used to compare the means. Crop Rotation Experiment The two year crop rotation experiment was conducted in the Demo farm and two farmers' fields in Bongabon. The experimental plots measuring 4 m x 5 m were laid out in RCBD manner with the following treatments: T1 (Rice-Onion-Pepper-Rice-Onion-Peanut); T2 (Rice-Peanut-Cucumber-Fallow-Pepper-Mungbean-Fallow-Rice); T3 (Rice-Mungbean-Pepper-Fallow-Onion-Peanut); T4 (Rice-Onion­ Fallow-Rice-Onion-Fallow). Nematode density in the soil was assessed after every crop. Root and soil sampling for nematode assay were done 4, 8, and 12 weeks during the cropping season. Results Biology of M. graminicola in Onion Second stage juveniles infect onion root tips 48 hours after inoculation. Four days after juveniles have advanced, they develop into adults 14 to 18 days later. The nematode completes its life cycle in 20 days. Eggs were laid inside the roots. Rice Hull Burning In the canister experiment, heat killed nematodes even at six inches depth as shown by zero galls in the roots of rice seedlings incubated for 35 days. Galled roots were observed in the control plants (Table 1), an indication of nematode activity. Table 2 shows the effect of rice hull burning (RHB) on fresh root and top weights, the number of galls per root system, nematode densities (L2) in roots and soil and yield of onion (var. Yellow Granex). RHB did not significantly increase root weight and top weight except during the 12 WAT where top weights in the burned plots were significantly higher than the unburned plots. The number of galls were significantly reduced by RHB by almost three fold In all cases the nematode density in roots and soil were lower in the burned treatments. Onion yields were almost three fold higher compared to the unburned treatment.

71 Proceedngs of the Second IPM CRSP Symposium

Table 1. Number of galls per root system on rice seedlings 35 days after they were grown in cannisters inoculated with 500 eggs of M. graminicola and buried at different depths. Dep!h (em) I II III IV Total Mean Burned 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Burned 5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Burned 10 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Burned 15 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Unburned (Control) 63 42 66 55 226 56.5

Table 2. Summary table on the effect of rice buD burning on fresh root and top weights, number of galls per root system, nematode densities I (L2) in roots and soil and rield of onion (var. vellow Granex • Treatments/ Root Top Number Nematode Nematode Yield 2 sampling weight weight of galls density- density- (6m ) roots soil Bmned 4WAT 0.5a 10.4a 6.7b 1.6b 12.6b SWAT 1.3a 130.2a 6.Sb 6.3a 6.4a 12WAT O.Sa 221.6a 2.3b 3.3a 5.5b 35.7a Unbmned 4WAT 0.5a 7.0a 20.7a 27.4a 3S.Oa SWAT 1.2a S6.la 20.0a 3S.4a 30.Sa 12WAT 0.5a 96.4b 6.5a 15.la 17.9a 127b Means m a column of the same samplmg penod havmg the same letters are not significantly different using DMRT. * W AT - Weeks After Tnmsplanting.

Biofertilizer Experiment Tables 3, 4, and 5 show the effects of biofertilizers on fresh root and top weights, the number of galls per root system, nematode densities (1..2) in roots and soil, and yield of onion in the three sites. The effects of biofertilizers on the parameters considered were insignificant, however in most cases the application of VAM and Bio N reduced the number of galls and nematode densities in the roots and soil. This result is inconclusive, however.. Several species of mycorrhizae have been reported to interfere in most activities of soil borne pathogens and nematodes depending upon the inoculum density and timing of application.

72 Gapasin et al.: Management of Meloicbgyne graminicola in Rice.Qnion System

Table 3. Summary table on the effect of biofertilizers on fresh root and top weights, number of galls per root system, nerttatode densities (L2) in roots and soil, and yield of onion (var. Tanduyong) (Abar 1st, San Jose)! Treatments/ Root Top Number Nematod Nematod Yield 2 sampling weight weight of galls e density e density (10m ) -roots -soil 4WAT BioGreen 0.4 9.0 5.6 4.1 16.3 VAMatT 0.4 6.8 4.3 4.3 11.8 VAMatS 0.3 6.4 3.2 4.5 12.7 RhizoN 0.4 7.1 3.7 3.8 17.1 BioN 0.4 6.2 2.4 3.7 11.4 14-14-14 0.4 8.2 5.4 4.6 15.8 SWAT BioGreen 1.7 55.9 8.8 4.4 6.1 VAMatT 1.7 64.0 3.7 3.0 4.7 VAMatS 1.7 55.8 9.5 4.9 7.0 RhizoN 1.6 54.8 10.5 6.7 6.1 BioN 1.4 60.1 5.4 3.4 7.4 14-14-14 1.8 57.5 10.1 7.8 8.3 12WAT, BioGreen 1.5 96.3 3.3ab 8.2a 8.5ab 18.8a VAMatT 1.0 89.3 1.7b 4.4b 3.8b !8.lab VAMatS 1.0 71.8 2.lab 4.1b 2.6c 12.7c RhizoN 1.3 101.4 4.3a 7.5ab 9.4a 16.6ab BioN 1.0 76.0 2.3ab 3.9b 4.6ab 16.1abc 14-14-14 1.5 102.0 3.3ab 9.la 8.9ab 14.6bc 1 Means in a column With the same letters of the samplmg penod are not significantly different using DMRT. * WAT -Weeks After Transplanting. ** Initial Population - 11.8

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Table 4. Summary table on the effect of biofertilizers on fresh root and top weights, number of galls per root system, nematode densities (L2) in roots and soil, and yield on onion (var. Red Creol) (Bongabon Farmer's Site). 1 Treatments/ Root Top Number Nematode Nematode Yield sampling weight weight of galls density- density- (10m2) roots soil 4WAT BioGreen 0.3 4.1 1.8 2.8 2.9 VAMatT 0.3 4.0 2.0 2.6 3.5 Rhizo N 0.3 3.7 1.3 2.5 3.2 BioN 0.3 3.8 1.3 2.0 3.0 14-14-14 0.4 4.4 2.0 3.0 4.0 SWAT BioGreen 0.8 35.9 1.2 4.5 10.0 VAMatT 0.7 31.4 1.3 3.0 6.4 RhizoN 0.9 29.4 1.8 5.5 8.8 BioN 0.8 34.4 1.9 4.9 10.6 14-14-14 0.7 28.7 1.5 6.4 9.9 12WAT Bio.Green 0.7 52.9 0.6 3.7 7.4 11.2 VAMatT 0.7 48.0 0.5 2.3 10.6 12.2 RhizoN 0.7 47.3 0.9 3.0 8.9 10.1 BioN 0.7 58.4 0.9 3.2 11.8 10.3 14-14-14 0.6 50.5 0.7 3.0 13.9 10.8 1 Means are not stgnificantly different usmg DMRT. * W AT - Weeks After Transplanting. ** Initial Population - 3.1

74 Gapasin eta/.: Management of Meloic/ogyne graminicola in Rice.Qnion System

Table 5. Summary table on the effect of biofertilizers on fresh root and top weights, number of galls per root system, nematode densities (L2) in roots and soil, and yield of onion (var. Yellow Granex) (Bongabon Demo Site). 1 Treatments/ Root Top Number Nematod Density sampling weight weight of galls e roots soil 4WAT Bio Green 0.5 5.6 2.8 2.3 11.3 YAMatT 0.4 6.5 3.6 2.7 5.3 Rhizo N 0.4 4.6 3.1 2.0 7.0 BioN 0.5 5.3 2.4 1.8 7.7 14-14-14 0.5 5.7 3.2 1.9 8.0 SWAT Bio Green 1.0 47.6 2.4 5.2 9.3 YAM at T 0.9 51.0 2.2 2.2 5.0 Rhizo N 0.9 47.2 1.9 4.9 7.6 BioN 1.0 59.4 1.9 1.9 7.6 14-14-14 0.9 44.0 3.0 11.9 11.9 12WAT Bio Green 0.3 53.1 0.3 1.5 7.2 YAM at T 0.2 64.2 0.3 1.5 4.8 Rhizo N 0.4 82.0 0.4 1.7 10.2 BioN 0.2 71.3 0.3 1.8 6.6 14-14-14 0.3 67.3 0.3 1.5 9.7 1 Means are not s1gmficantly different usmg DMRT. * WAT - Weeks After Transplanting. ** Initial population 32.13. Yield was not taken due to miscommunication with fanner.

Effect of Antagonistic and Non-host Plants No galls were observed on Tagetes spp. and the two species of Crotalaria when planted in the infested soil (fable 6). These plants also reduced the nematode density in soil by 73-96 percent. When onions were planted, galls were significantly reduced and nematode density was reduced by as much as 96 percent. Crop Rotation Experiment Preliminary results show that mtmgbean and peanut were resistant to the root-knot nematode as none to few galls were observed on their roots (fable 7). Soil samples also showed the presence of few root­ knot larvae compared to the soil taken from onion.

75 Proceedings of the Second IPM CRSP Symposium

Table 6. Effect of Crotalaria spp., Tagetes spp. and fallow on the number of galls and nematode density in soil and reaction of onion var Yellow Granex) 1Ianted to the treatments (Pot exJ)t!rlment). 1 Treatments Number Nematode Number Nematode Fresh of galls density in of galls density in soil weight(g) soil (onion) (onion) (onion) Crotalaria 1 O.Ob 17.8c (73.0) 7.4b 16.4b ( 67 .2) 15.0b Crotalaria 2 O.Ob 12.8cd (80.6) 3.4b 9.8b (80.4) 15.0b Tagetes spp. O.Ob 2.4d (96.4) 2.3b 1.8b (96.4) 1l.lb Fallow - 38.2b (42.1) 5.6b 120b (76.0) 128b Rice 85.8a 66.0a ( - ) 57.5a 50.0a (-) 4.la LSD 14.2 12.5 9.6 14.8 4.5 1 Means in a column having the same letters are not significantly different using LSD. * Initial number of eggs - 750. Onions were harvested two months after transplanting. ** Number in parenthesis denotes percent reduction relative to rice.

Table 7. Summary table on the effect of crop rotation on fresh root and top weights, number of galls per root systems, nematode densities (L2) in roots and soil, and yield of onion (var. Yellow Granex) (Bongabon Demo Site).I Treatments/ Root Top Number Nematode Nematode Yield sampling weight weight of galls density - density - (10m2) roots soil 4WAT Tl (onion) 0.9 5.7 2.5a 0.9 5.2 T2 (peanut) 0.5 4.5 O.Oc 0.0 0.7 T3 (mungbean) 0.2 1.1 O.Oc 0.0 0.9 T4 (onion) 0.4 5.0 1.2b 0.3 2.7 SWAT Tl (onion) 0.9 52.9 2.2a 11.6 9.5 T2 (peanut) 0.7 19.2 O.Ob 0.0 7.7 T3 (mungbean) 0.5 9.8 O.Ob 0.0 8.1 T4 (onion) 1.0 52.9 2.1a 11.4 7.9 12WAT Tl (onion) 0.2 115.1 0.5a 3.4 6.5 47.9 T2 (peanut) 1.0 76.2 O.Ob 0.0 5.6 T3 (mungbean) 0.6 14.6 O.Ob 0.0 6.9 T4 (onion) 0.2 85.5 0.4a 3.4 9.4 44.0 1 Means in a column of the same sampling period having the same letters are not significantly different using O:MRT. 2 Tl=R-0-Pp-R-0-Pt; TI=R-Pt-C-F-Pp-M-0-F-R; T3=R-M-Pp-F-O-Pt; T4=R-O-F-R·O·F. * Initial population - 6.5

76 System Gapasin eta/.: Management of Meloidogyne graminicola in Aice-Qnion

Discussion its the conditions of the experiment, M. graminicola completes Under is life cycle in 20 days in onion. An important feature of the nematode that the eggs are laid inside the roots. This feature has to be considered selecting management options against the nematode. Rice hull when and burning (RHB) has been shown to effectively reduce galls this may nematode densities in roots and soil. While RHB is effective, cause environmental pollution because of the smoke it emits, especially widely used. Burning may also alter soil structure and nutrients. when for This should encourage nematologists to continuously search and alternative management strategies that are environmentally friendly economical. ashes YieW of onion increased almost three fold due to RHB. The could have added fertility to the soil. Fly ash increased the availability Mg, Mn, of carbonates, bicarbonates, sulfate, chlorides, B, P, K, Ca, Zn and yield of tomato. In most cases, the application of Cu, and in V AM and Bio N reduced the number of galls and nematode densities soil and roots and improved the yield of onion. Apparently, contained in VAM when inside the roots could interfere mycorrhizae with with root-knot infection. The improved growth of onion applied Bio N could have increased the tolerance to nematode infection. spp. and Tagetes spp. effectively reduced nematode Crotalaria been densities in the soil in pot experiment. Crotalaria spp. has spp. has reported as a non-host of the nematode, while Tagetes nematicidal properties. These plants could be grown in nematode fields during fallow period before onions are planted. While infested their peanut and mungbean were found resistant to the nematode, acceptability to farmers as a rotation crop should be considered.

77 Proceedings of 1he Second IPM CRSP Symposium

Assessment of Blackberry and Raspberry Diseases Found in Guatemala

2 G.E. Sanchez', J. De!Cid , and Roger N. Williams'. 'Agricultural Research Fund (ARF)-Asociaci6n Gremial de Exportadores de Productos No Tradicionales (AGEXPRONT), Guatemala; 'Agri-Lab, Guatemala; and 'The Ohio State University.

Abstract

In the last 10 years blackberries and raspberries have evolved into highly important export crops grown in the Guatemalan highlands. Most of the farming practices and technology utilized in bramble cultivation have been imported from other countries and no documentation exists about the main pests affecting brambles in the country. During 1994 and 1995, trips were taken to the bramble growing regions in order to ascertain what pests were found in the field. Samples were taken to the laboratory and standard diagnostic procedures were applied. A total of 24 pathogens were detected, 17 fungi, 2 bacteria, 3 nematodes and 2 viruses. Of these, the most widespread and important pathogens were Botryti• cinerea (fruit rot in both blackberries and raspberries), Oidium spp (powdery mildew in blackberry), late leaf rust (Pucciniastrum americanum) in raspberries, and nematodes and crown gall (Agrobacterium tumejaciens) in both crops. The rest of the pathogens are presently considered minor pests; however, some were significant problems in isolated cases, depending on environmental conditions, plant health and farming practices. This constitutes the first report documenting the pathogen-induced diseases affecting brambles in Guatemala. Sound IPM strategies, .in pursuit of sustainable, safe and ecologically conscientions agricultural production, can be designed when proper information is available. Introduction

The production and export of blackberry and raspberry (Rubus spp.) have become increasingly important components of Guatemala's non­ traditional export crops. In just 7 years after initial introduction into Guatemala, the combined acreage of bramble plantations has increased

78 &i.nchez G.E. eta/.: Blackberry and Raspberry Deseases in Guatemala to approximately 700 ha (AGEXPRONT, 1997). Due to their high­ value attractiveness, bramble field sizes vary tremendously, from less than 0.25 ha to 20 ha or more. Furthermore, blackberries, and to a lesser extent raspberries, are grown by small, medium, and large landholders, indigenous and non-native farmers.

As with other crops of recent introduction into Guatemala, most of the practices and technology employed in the local farming of brambles have been imported from other countries. However, because of local climatic conditions, these imported practices are not necessarily the most suited for blackberry or raspberry production in Guatemala.

Even though farmers have empirically gained elementary knowledge of the principal biotic diseases locally affecting brambles, no information existed prior to this research documenting the diversity and importance of plant pathogens in Guatemala. The objectives of this study were therefore, to identify the main plant pathogens locally infecting blackberry and raspberry ,and to estimate their general incidence among Guatemalan bramble fields. Materials and Methods The main strategy for this study consisted of appraisal field trips to the main bramble growing areas. Samples of diseased tissue were obtained during these visits and taken to the laboratory for further testing and pathogen identification. Field Trips

Scheduled trips were taken approximately twice a month from April 1994 to September 1995. Suspected diseased tissue samples were taken, wrapped in a paper or plastic bag and placed in an ice chest for transportation to the laboratory. Information regarding date, field location, crop and type of diseased. tissue was recorded. A photographic inventory was also developed, taking picture slides of infected tissues when possible. Laboratory procedures and Pathogen Identification

Laboratory procedures consisted of direct examination under light microscopy of both fresh, unaltered tissue (microstereoscope) and mounted slides. Appropriate literature was consulted for pathogen and/or disease identification. When fungal infection was suspected, diseased tissue was placed in moist chambers to promote fungal growth

79 Proceedngs of the Second !PM CRSP Symposium and sporulation. When the infectious agent was not obvious after performing the previously mentioned procedures, 5 mm2 diseased tissue samples were taken, sterilized and placed in 10 mm petri dishes containing various general growth media, mainly potato dextrose agar (PDA), water agar, malt agar and V8 agar. The cultures were placed at room temperature and when fungal growth (originating from the tissue) was observed, small blocks of mycelium were taken and transferred to fresh culture media where the individual isolated colony was allowed to grow and sporulate for fungal identification. Detailed descriptions of pathogen isolation procedures can be found elsewhere (Agrios, 1988).

If bacterial ooze was observed in the diseased tissue or bacterial infection was suspected, standard tissue sterilization, bacterial recovery and isolation procedures were followed. Identification of plant pathogenic bacteria was conducted by plating on selective growth media as described by Schaad (1988).

When nematode infestation was suspected, 20 g of root tissue were processed using the sieving, centrifugation and sucrose flotation (CATIE, Costa Rica). A I ml aliquot was taken from the final solution and placed under the rnicrostereoscope for nematode identification and quantification.

If no organisms could be detected or recovered from diseased tissue and symptoms resembled those caused by viral infections, samples were sent to AGDIA laboratories (Elkhart, IN) for serological screening, using enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Results and Discussion

From April 1994 to September 1995, 52 field trips were taken to the main growing regions in Guatemala Since the majority of the bramble fields are located within 60 miles of Guatemala City and many times are neighboring one another, most of the fields trips included visits to 3 or more fields. In addition, many farmers grow both blackberry and raspberry, which were individually assessed during these occurrences. Several farms were visited more than once with a total of Ill and 110 visits taken to both blackberry and raspberry fields, respectively.

A total of 24 plant pathogens were detected during the course of this study. Seventeen were fungal in origin, 2 were bacteria and 3 were plant-parasitic nematodes (Table 1). A mixed virus infection, the first case found in Guatemalan brambles, was also detected in December 1995. The infecting agents were Tobacco ringspot nepovirus (IRSV)

80 Scinchez G.E. eta/.: Blackberry and Raspberry Deseases in Guatemala

and Tomato ringspot nepovirus (foRSV), as reported by serological assays performed abroad.

Table 1. Inventory of plant pathogens detected during 1994-1995 in blackberry and/or raspberry fields in Guatemala. Pathogen Affected Tissue Host Year of Raspberry Blackberry Detection Agrobacterium crown and roots X X 1994 spp. Alternaria spp. canes X X 1994 Armillaria spp. roots X X 1994 Botrytis cinerea fruits, leaves, canes X X 1994 Cercospora spp. leaves X X 1994 Cladosporium spp. fruits X X 1994 Colletotrichum canes X 1995 Coniothyrium canes X 1994 Erwinia spp. young shoots & twigs X X 1994 Fusarium spp. roots X 1994 Helicotylenchus roots X X 1994 Meloidogyne roots X X 1995 Oidium spp. apices, leaves & X 1994 floral buds Phoma spp. canes X 1994 Phomopsis spp. canes X 1994 Phyllosticta foliage X 1994 Pestalotia spp. canes X 1994 Praty/enchus spp. roots X X 1994 Pucciniastrum spp. leaves X 1994 Rhizoctonia spp. roots X X 1994 3Rosselinea spp. roots X X 1994 Sphaceloma spp. canes X 1994 TRSV' leaves X 1995 ToRSV' leaves X 1995 1 Tobacco ringspot nepovirus; 2Tomato ringspot nepovirus. 3 This is apparently the first time Rosselinea spp. is found associated with Rubus. No reports were found in the literature documenting Rosselinea white root rot on either blackberry or raspberry.

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Of the pathogens listed in Table l, Botrytis cinerea and Oidium spp. are the ones most prevalent in blackberries. In raspberries, Botrytis fruit rot is also common whereas Oidium spp., the causal agent of powdery mildew, has not been found. Table 2 shows that other commonly found pathogens in brambles include the phytopathogenic nematode Pratylenchus, Agrobacterium tumefasciens (causal agent of crown gall). A rust disease tentatively identified as Late leaf rust (Pucciniastrum americanum) is also present in virtually 100% of raspberry plantations. It has proven very difficult to verify the precise causal agent as the telial stage has not been found. However, the disease cycle, signs and symptoms, are very similar to those reported for late leaf rust (Wilcox, 1989; Nickerson, 1991).

The remaining pathogens listed in Table l were not widely disseminated, although in isolated cases they were severe enough to cause real concern to the farmers. Examples of these are root rots induced by Armillaria, Rhizoctonia and Rosselinea; the mixed 1RSV ToRSV infection was also a matter of great concern to the grower due to the high damage potential associated with viral infections.

1 Table 2. Ranking and estimated incidence in Guatemala of the most prevalent diseases incited by plant pathogens. 1 DISEASE I HOST INCIDENCE PATHOGEN BLACKBERRY RASPBERRY (percent) Botrytis fruit rot X X 100 Powdery mildew X 90 Late leaf rust X 100 Pratylenchus root X X 50 lesion Crown gall X X 25 1 Incidence represents the percentage of plantations at which the disease has been foWld. In the cases where both blackberry and raspberry are affected by the same pathogen, incidence takes into accoW!t the total number of affected plantations of both crops.

Botrytis Diseases Botrytis fruit rot, also known as gray mold is the most prevalent disease in both blackberry and raspberries, causing significant yield losses worldwide (McNicol, et al., 1985). In Guatemala, gray mold is the most common cause of blackberry and raspberry fruit rot, causing estimated yield losses ranging from 15- 25%. During the initial months of the harvesting season (September­ November), losses due to Botrytis fruit rot can amount to 25-40% of the total harvest, with occasional cases exhibiting losses greater than

82 s.inchez G.E. eta/.: Blackberry and Raspberry Oeseases in Guatemala

50%. When harvesting takes place mainly during the dry season (December-May) losses by Botrytis can diminish to 5-10% of the harvested volume. The principal control strategies consist of scheduled chemical sprayings, mainly Benomyl, captan, iprodione and dicloran. Some growers, especially growing blackberries in plots of 1 ha or less, also apply other disease management tactics, such as the removal of infected fruit from the field.

Botrytis cane blights, known as spur blights (Didymella applanata), are considered to be serious raspberry diseases in many parts of the world. In temperate climates, they can inflict serious losses by inhibiting the growth of lateral buds during the spring (Borecka, et al. 1975; Williamson and Hargreaves, 1981; Williamson and Jennings, 1986). These lateral buds grow and develop into flowers from canes remaining dormant during the winter (Crandall and Daubeny, 1990). In Guatemala this is not a problem since canes are not kept for second harvest. Canes yield from the upper portions immediately after which they are pruned to the ground, to incite the growth of new canes.

Powdery mildew Powdery mildew is reported to be caused by Sphaerotheca humuli (Wilcox, 1989), although it can also be found as S. macularis (Ellis, 1991 ). In Guatemala, powdery mildew has been found to be a significant disease in blackberries. In 1994 it was detected in over 80% of the plantations that were visited, while in 1995 it was found in 90% of the fields. The perfect stage of this fungus has not been detected in Guatemala; the only cause of infection found up to date is the imperfect stage, Oidium spp. The great majority of Guatemala's blackberry production relies on the culture of the 'Brazos' cultivar, released in Texas (Brazos county) in the 1950's, which has proven to be susceptible to powdery mildew. Control of powdery mildew in Guatemala is achieved mainly by chemical sprays of benomyl and sulfur. In small fields (1 ha or less), growers also remove infected buds and leafs by pruning. Powdery mildew has not been found in raspberries which suggests that the two main cultivars grown in Guatemala, Summit and Autumn Bliss, are resistant to the fungus.

Raspbeny rust: Rust has only been found in raspberry and is the most threatening disease to raspberry production in Guatemala Symptoms of infected plants resemble those described for "late leaf rust'' caused by Pucciniastrum americanum (Nickerson, 1991 ). It is found primarily on matore or senescent tissue, affecting leaves, sepals, and fruits. The causal agent has not been rigorously identified because in Guatemala ouly the uredinial stage has been found. Samples were taken at

83 Proceedings of the Second IPM CRSP Symposium different times of the year in search of the telial stage but to no avail. Teliospores of this fungus are very different to those of other rust fungi infecting Rubus, but urediniospores are very similar and difficult to differentiate between pathogens (Cummins and Hiratsuka, 1991). Even though it has not been evaluated quantitatively, fruit infection is less common on the cultivar Summit than on Autumn Bliss. This is an important characteristic because infected droplets render the fruit unmarketable.

Late leaf rust is most important during the rainy and overcast conditions common from September to November. Because of the favorable weather conditions during this period, the phenological stage of the crop, and the lack of effective registered fungicides for use in raspberries, it has proven to be very difficult to control. Even though triadimefon is labeled for its use in raspberries and is recommended for the control of rust diseases, it has not provided satisfactory control of late leaf rust in Guatemala

Crown gall: Agrobacterium tumefasciens, causal agent of crown gall, is widely associated with bramble plantations. It has been present in 10% of the evaluated raspberry plantations and in 10% of evaluated blackberry plantations. The trade of infected nursery plants for the establishment of new plantations is considered to be the main dissemination avenue for this pathogen. The main strategy employed in Guatemala to control crown gall in contaminated plantations is to eliminate all infected plants. Growers have tried chemical control through bactericides such as streptomycin and copper compounds, but these applications have failed to control the disease satisfactorily.

Nematodes: Plant parasitic nematodes are an important pest in both blackberries and raspberries in many parts of the world (McElroy, 1977; McElroy, 1991). They were detected in all the bramble growing areas of Guatemala The most common varieties found included the lesion nematode, Pratylenchus spp., the root-knot Meloidogyne spp., and Helicotylenchus spp. The most common of the three species is Pratylenchus spp., accounting for 100% of the detected nematode infections in 1994 and for 91% of the detected nematode infections in 1995. The only case of root nematodes attacking brambles was found in Chimaltenango in January 1995, in blackberries.

During 1995, 50% of bramble root samples taken for nematode analysis tested positive. Of 9 raspberry plantations that were sampled, 6 (67%) yielded positive results for nematodes. Three of six (50%) blackberry plantations assayed were found to be affected by nematodes. In contrast, in 1994, 70% and 58% of raspberry and

84 &inchez G.E. eta/.: Blackberry and Raspberry Deseases in Guatemala blackberry plantations, respectively, were found to be affected by plant parasitic nematodes.

An interesting aspect of this area of the research was provided by the nematode (Pratylenchus) counts done from root samples. By associating nematode counts to the plants' general appearance, it was observed that raspberry plants holding populations between 200-700 Pratylenchus did not present symptoms of the plant decline or weakness usually associated to nematode infestations. However, 5 raspberry root samples showed Pratylenchus populations greater than I ,000 organisms/25 g of roots. All of these samples were taken from plants showing poor growth, wilting, yellowish appearance and poor cane densities, known in general terms as "decline" (Bristow, et al., 1980).

As can be deduced from the information above, the diseases that were found to be the most important in Guatemalan Rubus plantations, are also some of the most important worldwide. Perhaps the only exception is late leaf rust, which has been generally considered to be a minor disease in raspberries grown elsewhere, until recent outbreaks which have caused significant damage (Nickerson, 1991; Luffman and Buszard,_ 1988).

The data collected during this assessment has allowed the the researchers to determine several significant factors not previously documented for Guatemala. First, Botrytis fruit rot is the most significant disease affecting bramble production in Guatemala; second, Powdery mildew is a significant economic factor in blackberry production; third, late leaf rust is the most prevalent and most difficult disease to control in raspberries grown in Guatemala; and finally, crown gall and phytopathogenic nematodes are widely disseminated in bramble plantations, posing a significant threat to bramble productivity in the future.

This constitutes the first report documenting the pathogen-induced diseases affecting brambles in Guatemala. It should prove useful in the generation of sound IPM strategies, in pursuit of sustainable, safe and ecologically conscientious agricultural production, in the detection of potentially major problems before they become a significant threat to local bramble production and in contributing to agricultural science by reporting the presence of plant pests in unresearched farming regions of the world.

85 Proceedings of the Second IPM CRSP Symposium

References

AGEXPRONT. Asociacion Gremial de Exportadores de Productos no Tradicionales. 1997. Agrios, G. N. 1988. Plant Pathology. Third edition. Academic Press, 803 pp. Borecka, H., Kleparski, J. and D. F. Millikan. 1975. The effect of pruning on the mortality and productivity of red raspberry plants infected with Botrytis and Didymella. HortScience, Vol I 0( 4) 403-404. Bristow, P.R., Barritt, B. H. and F. D. McElroy. 1980. Reaction of red raspberry clones to the root lesion nematode. Acta Horticulturae 112:39-43. Crandall, P. C. and H. A. Daubeny. 1990. Raspberry management. In: Small fruit crop management. eds, G. J. Galleta and D. G. Himelrick. Prentice Hall, New Jersey, pp 157-213. Cummins, G. B. and Y. Hiratsuka. 1991. illustrated genera of rust fungi. APS press. St. Paul, Minnesota, 152 p. Ellis. M.A. 1991. Powdery mildew. In: Compendium of raspberry and blackberry diseases and insects. eds. M. A. Ellis, R. H. Converse, R.N. Williams and B. Williamson. American Phytopathological Society, pp16-18. Luffman, M. and D. Buszard, D. 1988. Control of late yellow rust (Pucciniastrum americanum (Farl.)Arth.) of red raspberry. Can. J. Plant Sci. 68:1185-1189. McElroy, F.D. 1977. Effect of two nematode species on establishment, growth and yield of raspberry. Plant Dis. Rep. 61:277-279. McElroy, F.D. 1991. Root-Lesion Nematodes. In: Compendium of raspberry and blackberry diseases and insects. eds. M. A. Ellis, R. H. Converse, R.N. Williams and B. Williamson. American Phytopathological Society, pp 59-60. Nickerson, N .L. 1991. Late leaf rust. In: Compendium of raspberry and blackberry diseases and insects. eds. M. A. Ellis, R. H. Converse, R.N. Williams and B. Williamson. American Phytopathological Society, pp 30-32. Schaad, N. W. 1988. Laboratory guide for identification of plant pathogenic bacteria. N.W. Schaad, ed. APS press, St. Paul, Minnesota, pages 1-16.

86 Sanchez G.E. et at.: Blackbeny and Raspberry Deseases in Guatemala

Wilcox, W. 1989. Disease Scouting and Management. In: Bramble production guide. Marvin Pritts and David Handley, eds. Northeast Regional Agricultural Engineering Service, Ithaca, NY, pp 65-78. Williamson, B. and A. J. Hargreaves. 1981 Effects of Didymella applanta and Botrytis cinerea on axillary buds, lateral shoots and yield of red raspberry. Ann. appl. Bioi. 97:55-64 Williamson, B. and D. L. Jennings. 1986. Common resistance in red raspberry to Botrytis cinerea and Didymella applanta, two pathogens occupying the same ecological niche. Ann. Appl. Bioi. 109:581-593.

87 Proceedings of the Second !PM CRSP Symposium

Damping-Off and Bulb Rot in Onion Production

1 Leandro Sanchez', Juliet Rillon , and Sally A. Miller. 1 Philippines Rice Research Institute, Maligaya, Munoz, Nueva Ecija, Philippines; 2 The Ohio State University, USA.

Abstract

Onions are an important crop for domestic consumption and export in .the rice-vegetable growing areas of Central Luzon in the Philippines. The yield and quality of the domestic Tanduyong and the Yellow Granex type grown for export are adversely affected by damping off and bulb rot diseases, which are caused by a complex of soilborne plant pathogens. The fungi which are often found in this area to be associated with these diseases are the species of Fusarium and Rhizoctonia solani. We studied two crop management practices common in Central Luzon to determine if they encourage or discourage the development of these diseases in onions. Rice straw mulching was found to have no effect on disease incidence in Tanduyong onions in farmer cooperator fields in San Jose. Although R. solani was found in rice straw used for mulch just prior to onion transplanting, it was no longer detectable at the time of harvest. The populations of the Fusarium species and of the antagonistic soilborne fungi, Trichoderma spp., in rice straw were not affected during this time period. A second farmer practice, rice hull burning, was shown to reduce populations of pathogenic fungi in soil and in onion tissue, especially early in the growing season. It appears that this practice may reduce disease incidence due to the reduction of pathogen populations in soil during the burning process, thus reducing initial inoculum levels.

Problem Statement Onions are a major component of the rice-vegetable cropping system in the Central Luzon region of the Philippines. Tanduyong (native type), Batanes, and Red Creole types are widely grown for domestic consumption, while the hybrid Yellow Granex onion is grown primarily for export. Farmers have identified damping off and bulb rot as major disease problems in all onion types. These diseases are caused by soil-borne fungi, primarily in the genera Pythium (damping

88 Sanchez L et al.: Damping.Qff and Bulb Rot in Onion Production off), Rhizoctonia and Fusarium (damping off and bulb rot). Damping off is a general term for the death of seedlings before or after plant emergence. Bulb rot can be caused by several types of pathogens, but those most frequently encountered in Central Luzon are species of Fusarium, including F. oxysporum, F. so/ani and F. moniliforme, as well as Rhizoctonia so/ani. Diseases caused by soilborne fungi are often difficult to control, and cultural practices can have a significant influence on disease incidence and severity. We examined two farmer practices to determine their roles in disease development in onion. Mulching with rice straw is commonly used in the production of Tanduyong onions to conserve soil moisture and discourage weed growth. However, rice is highly susceptible toR. so/ani and rice straw could serve as a source of initial inoculum for damping off and bulb rot. Secondly, rice hull burning is practiced commonly by farmers in the San Jose province primarily to reduce weed seed germination. A thick (10 em) layer of rice hulls is placed on seedbeds and fields prior to seeding or transplanting and burned. The ash is then incorporated into the soil. We carried out studies to assess the influence of these practices on the incidence and severity of damping off and bulb rot in onion. Research Approach

The effect of rice straw mulch on onion disease incidence and severity was assessed in experiments conducted in three fanner's fields in the Santo Thomas barangay of San Jose in the dry season from December 1996 until April1997. Fields were tilled or treated with glyphosate to kill weeds according to fanner practices. One week later, a 10 to 12 em layer of rice straw was laid out in most of the field, leaving a small area umnulched. Plots, 4m x 5m, were marked in the mulched and umnulched areas. Each fanner's field served as a replication, for a total of three replications per treatment. The onion variety Tanduyong was produced in seedbeds, then transplanted to each field, fertilized and irrigated according to standard practice. Assessment of seedling vigor was made in the seedbed 42 and 55 days after seeding, and 35, 65 and 95 days after transplanting in the field. Seedling vigor was assessed by counting the number of healthy and diseased plants in three lm x lm quadrats per plot The mean percentage of diseased seedlings was determined for each plot. After transplanting, ten onion plants were sampled randomly within each plot and assessed for disease symptoms. The basal portion of the bulblets was divided into three parts and each was plated on potato dextrose agar (PDA) medium and incubated for 4 days at 28 ·c. Fungal colonies were then identified and counted The percentage of each species recovered was determined for

89 Proceedngs of the Second IPM CRSP Symposium

each plot Yields were determined at harvest in one 2m x 5m area per plot.

Rice straw used for mulching was analyzed for the presence of Rhizoctonia and Trichoderma spp. Twenty-five pieces of rice straw were randomly collected from each farmer cooperator before transplanting onions and after onion harvest, and five 3-cm segments were plated on each of five plates containing PDA. Cultures were incubated at 28 'C for 3 to 5 days, then fungal colonies were identified and counted. Data are presented as the mean percentage Rhizoctonia, Fusarium or Trichoderma colonies recovered from 25 rice straw segments for all cooperators.

The effect of rice hull burning on incidence of bulb rot was determined in experiments set up in two farmer cooperator fields in Palestina, from December 1996 to Aprill997. Transplants were produced in seedbeds upon which a 12 em layer of rice hulls had been burned after plowing. After 24- 48 hours of burning, the ash was incorporated into the soil and Yellow Granex onions were seeded. Prior to transplanting, rice hulls approximately 12 em deep were laid out on the field and burned for 24 to 48 hours. An adjacent area remained unburned. Two replicate 4m x 5m plots were set up in each farmer's field in the burned and unburned areas.

Yields were determined at harvest in one 2m x 5m area per plot. Random soil samples were collected from each plot and pooled into one sample. Three replicates of 100 mg soil were plated directly on PDA and incubated 3 to days at 28'C. Fusarium colonies were counted and data are represented as the mean percentage of Fusarium colonies (per total fungi recovered) per plot. Ten onion plants were randomly sampled for each plot 52 and 78 days after transplanting. Fungal colonization of bulblets was determined as described above. Research Findings

Rice straw mulching. There were no significant differences in the percentage of Tanduyong onion plants showing reduced vigor or stunting in the mulched and unmulched plots, whether in the seedbed or after transplanting (Table 1). The weight and height of the plants also did not differ significantly for the most part in mulched and unmulched plots (Table 2). On two of the five sampling dates (55 days after seeding and 35 days after transplanting), the proportion of onion bulbs infected with Fusarium moniliforme was significantly lower for onions grown in mulched plots than in unmulched plots (Table 2).

90 Sanchez L et al.: Damping-Off and Bulb Rot in Onion Produclion

Table 1. Effect of rice straw mulch on incidence of reduced vigor and stunting in Tanduyong onions. Time of Sampling Treatment % Reduced Vigor or Stuntingu Seedbed · Mulched 7.9 Unmulched 18.8 35 days after transplanting Mulched 11.7 Umuulched 13.8 65 days after transplanting Mulched 8.7 Umuulched 15.3 95 days after transplanting Mulched 17.3 Unmulched 22.3 1 Values are the mean of three replications; each replication lS a plot in a farmer's (Hipolito, Salazar, DelaCruz) in San Jose, Nueva Ecija. 1996-97. 2 Differences between means are not significant at P s 0.10.

Table 2. Effect of rice straw mulch on weight and height of Tanduyong onion plants in the seedbed and after transplanting, and on the percentage of onions infected with the bulb rot pathogen, Fusarium moniliforme. 1 Sampling Time Treatment Weight (g)' Height (ern)' % Infection 42 days after seeding Mulched 7.5 24.1 2 10.7 Umuulched 7.4 19.92 29.3 2 55 days after seeding Mulched 13.3 2 32.2 2.7 Umuulched 10.1 2 25.5 38.7 2 35 days after Mulched 4.6 24.5 34.7 2 transplanting Umuulched 3.5 23.4 72.0 ' 65 days after Mulched 18.7 34.6 33.3 transplanting Umuulched 10.1 30.2 42.0 95 days after Mulched 21.0 35.1 15.0 transplanting Umuulched 14.8 27.9 21.7 1 Values are the mean of three replications; each replication is a plot in a farmer's (Hipolito, Salazar, DelaCruz) in San Jose, Nueva Ecija, 1996-97. 2 Mean values for pairs of data are significantly different at P s. 0.10.

However, by the end of the growth period (95 days after transplanting), differences in the incidence of infection by this pathogen were not significant Other species of Fusarium, including F. so/ani and F. oxysporum were also isolated from onion bulbs, but were not as prevalent as F. moniliforme. Rhizoctonia solani was isolated from 0-8 % of the onion tissue tested. The average yield of Tanduyong onions (three locations) did not differ significantly in mulched (15.4

91 Proceedings of the Second IPM CRSP Symposium kg) and unmulched (4.4 kg) treatments, although the yield for one grower (Hipolito) was much higher in the mulched plot (31.9 kg) than in the unmulched plot (1.6 kg).

The pathogen Rhizoctonia solani was isolated from rice straw used for mulch before transplanting but not after harvest The proportion of rice straws colonized by the pathogen Fusarium moniliforme or the antagonistic fungus Trichoderma sp. was the same at the two sampling times (Table 3).

Table 3. Incidence of soilborne fungi in rice straw used for mulching. Fungus Sampling Time% Rice Straws Colonized'·'

Rhizoctonia solani Before transplanting 36.03 After harvest 0.03

Fusarium moniliforme Before transplanting 54.7 After harvest 65.3

Trichoderma sp. Before transplanting 9.3 After harvest 7.3

1 Values are the mean of three replications from farmer's (Hipolito, Salazar, Dela Cruz) fields in San Jose, Nueva Ecija, 1996-97. 2 Fungi were isolated from 25 straw pieces (3 em) from each plot prior to transplanting and after harvest. 'Mean values for pairs of data are significantly different at P s 0.05.

Rice hull burning. Rice hull burning was effective in reducing the population of Fusarium spp. in soil and the proportion of onions infected with Fusarium spp. through the middle of the growing season. By the end of the season there was no significant difference in the proportion of infected onions in the burned and unburned plots (Table 4). The yield of Yellow Granex onions appeared to be higher in the burned than unburned plots for the two cooperator fields that could be harvested, but the difference was not significant (Table 5; P=0.24 for the mean yield of two locations).

92 Sanchez L et al.: Damping-Qff and Bulb Rot in Onion Production

Table 4. Effect of rice hull burning on incidence of Fusarium spp. in soil and in Yellow Granex onion bulbs. Time of Sampling Treatment % Fusarium spp. Isolatedu

Soil (before transplanting) Burned 2.73 Unburned 4.33 52 days after transplanting Burned 2.93 Unburned 10.1 3 78 days after transplanting Burned 7.9 Unburned 12.7

1 Values are the mean of four replications from two fanner's (Estabillo, Ondavilla) fields in San Jose. Nueva Ecija, 1996-97. 2 Fusarium spp. were isolated from I00 mg soil samples in each plot prior to transplanting on semi-selective medium or from three sections from each of ten onion bulbs collected after transplanting. 'Mean values for pairs of data are significantly different at P ~ 0.10.

Table 5. Effect of rice hull burning on yield of Yellow Granex onion bulbs. Cooperator Treatment Yield (kg)'

R. Estabillo Burned 23.0 Unburned 7.4 D. Ondavilla Burned 48.0 Unburned 18.0 Mean Burned 35.5 Unburned 12.7

Conclusions

Fusarium spp., including F. moniliforme, F. oxysporum and F. solani were isolated most frequently from onion bulbs collected in field plots in San Jose, Nueva Ecija Fusarium moniliforme was by far the predominant species. Rhizoctonia solani was also recovered from onion bulbs in these studies but was relatively infrequent. The results of these studies clearly indicate that the practice of rice straw mulching does not increase damping off or bulb rot in Tanduyong onions. The average yield of onions for the three sites did not differ for mulched and unmulched plots in this instance. However, yield was higher in

93 Proceedings of the Second IPM CRSP Symposium mulched than unmulched plots in one field. This may have been the result of numerous factors, probably related to moisture availability. There was no evidence that the rice straw used for mulching served as a source of primary inoculum for Rhizoctonia damping off or bulb rot in onions. Although R. solani was present in fresh rice straw placed on fields prior to transplanting, by onion harvest the pathogen could not be detected. Populations of another pathogen, Fusarium moniliforme, in the straw did not change. Interestingly, populations of the soilborne fungus Trichoderma sp., known to be antagonistic to Rhizoctonia and other genera of fungi, also did not alter significantly between sampling periods. The practice of rice hull burning, which has become common in San Jose and other areas of the Philippines in the past decade, reduced populations of soilborne pathogenic fungi at least through the middle of the onion-growing season. Not surprisingly, populations of Fusarium spp. increased to levels similar to those in unburned plots by the time of harvest However, early "escape" of onions from Fusarium and other bulb-rotting fungi could result better initial growth and plant vigor. While yields in burned plots appeared to be higher than those in unburned plots, differences were not highly significant. Statistical significance for yield effects can probably be shown if additional replications are done in future studies. The effects of rice hull burning on soil organic matter composition, nutrient levels, and structure, among other characteristics, should also be investigated.

94 Baltazar et al.: Weed Management in Rice-Onion Systems

Weed Management in Rice-Onion Systems

2 2 A.M. Baltazar', E.C. Martin , M.C. Casirnero , F.V. Bariuan', S.R. 2 3 Obien , and S.K. De Datta • 'University of the Philippines, Los Banos, Philippines, 2Philippines Rice Research Institute, Philippines, 3Virginia Tech, USA.

Abstract

In a survey of major weeds infesting rice-onion cropping systems in three villages of San Jose, Nueva Ecija, the three most dominant weeds were Cyperus rotundas, Trianthema portulacastrum, and Cleome viscosa in onion and Ludwigia octovalvis, Cyperus rotundas and Echinochloa glabrescens in rice. Four of the dominant weeds in onion are now observed in flooded rice in increasing populations, possibly due to the alternate wet-dry rotation pattern which is apparently selecting for species that could tolerate both soil moisture conditions. Of these species, Cyperus rotundas is the most dominant. Replicated on-f;u:m studies showed that the farmers' practice of applying two herbicides followed by two handweedings in a season can be reduced to only one herbicide followed by one handweeding without reducing onion yields. Rice straw muJch provided adequate season­ long suppression of grasses and sedges but not of broadleaf weeds. Rice hull burning adequately suppressed grasses and sedges and increased onion yields. Problem Statement

In the Philippines, vegetables are grown in rainfed areas where cropping seasons are based on the annual rainfall pattern: vegetables in the dry season (December to May) and rice in the wet season (June to November). Weeds that grow in vegetable crops can cause yield reductions of up to 90% of potential yield if left uncontrolled. The current weed control practices are direct weed removal methods of herbicides and handweeding and cultural methods like mulching and rice hull burning. Handweeding is the most expensive because of increasing wages due to decreasing availability of labor and increasing industrialization in the country. Onion growers in Bongabon, Nueva Ecija spend $400/ha or about 20% of their production costs, making them less competitive in the world market Herbicides are much more cost-effective than manual weeding but few herbicides are available for

95 Proceedings of tile Second IPM CRSP Symposium use in vegetables because of minor hectarage, hence, relatively small herbicide market, for vegetables compared to rice. There are also few broadleaf herbicides that have adequate selectivity to onions.

In spite of the fact that these are rice-based rotation systems, current weed control practices in vegetables are on a single crop, single season basis which are largely direct weed removal methods unique to each crop. Consequently, they are used in isolation and independent of control methods used in other crops in the rotation. No studies have yet been conducted to determine if the alternate wet-dry cropping pattern repeated continuously over the years in a rice-vegetable rotation has an impact on weed growth and on subsequent control methods. The general objective of this project is to determine weed control strategies based on a rotation systems approach in order to reduce reliance on repeated treatments of direct weed removal methods of handweeding and herbicides every cropping season. The specific objectives are to identify major weeds infesting rice-onion systems in San Jose, Nueva Ecija, to determine and evaluate complementary or alternative weed control strategies in onions, and to characterize C. rotundus ecotypes and determine control strategies against this weed. Research Approach Study 1. Identification of major weeds in rice-onion systems Weed surveys were conducted using the quadrate sampling method in the l3 farmers' fields in three villages in San Jose, Nueva Ecija from 1994 to 1997. Weed counts and dry weights were taken from three l x 1m2 quadrates at 30-45 days after planting, 60-70 days after planting and at 7 days before harvest in each field. Weed dominance was expressed as the summed dominance ratio (SDR) of relative density and relative dry weight for each species. Study 2a. Evaluation of chemical and cultural methods On-farm studies were conducted in three farmers' fields in Pales tina and Santo Tomas during the 1996-97 dry season to determine the efficacy of various combinations of herbicides, handweeding, and cultural practices for control of weeds in onion. Land preparation, fertilizer and water management were done according to respective farmers' practices in a particular site. The treated plots (4m x 5m) were superimposed in the farmers' fields. Treatments were replicated four times in a RCBD lay-out. Crop injury (I =no injury; 9=30% or more injury) and weed control (1=90-100% control; 9=60% or less) were rated visually at 7, 15, and 30 days after treatment Weed counts and

96 Baltazar et al.: Weed Management in Rice-

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Study 3. Characterization and control of C. rotundus ecotypes This study was conducted to detennine morphological differences in the upland and lowland C. rotundus that could indicate existence of ecotypes and responses of upland and lowland types to control methods. Study 3a. Growth of C. rotundus in two soil moisture regimes. Tubers of C. rotundus were collected from four fields (two from Santo Tomas, one each from Palestina and Abar lst) in San Jose during the 1995 fallow period immediately after onion harvest. The tubers were washed free of soil, placed in Petri dishes lined with moist filter paper and allowed to germinate in room temperature and natural light in the laboratory. Two to three tubers with 1-2 em sprouts were sown into 25 em diameter clay pots filled with loam soil. The pots were watered to saturation and placed under natural environmental conditions. When the seedlings emerged with 4-5 em hypocotyls, pots were thiuned to one plant each. One set was provided with 3-5 em standing water simulating flooded (lowland) soil conditions. The other set was grown in saturated well-drained soil simulating dryland (upland) soil conditions. The plants were grown under natural environmental conditions from September to November 1995 in Nueva Ecija and from December 1995 to February 1996 in Laguna. Each treatment was replicated three times. Plant height was measured weekly. At 70 days after emergence (DAE) in Nueva Ecija and at 90 DAE in Laguna, the plants were harvested and fresh weights of roots, shoots, and tubers were recorded. Study 3b. Growth of C. rotundus in opposite and natural habitats The transplant approach (growing the lowland and upland types in their opposite and natural habitats) was used to determine if the lowland type could be considered an ecotype. Tubers from plants from fields 3 and 4 (used in Study 3a) were grown in pots using the transplant approach. The tubers were pregenninated, then sown into clay pots similar to the procedure in Study 3a and grown in natural environmental conditions. Tubers from plants previously grown in lowland soil in field 3 and tubers from plants previously grown in upland soil in field 4 were grown in their opposite and natural habitats. For comparison, tubers collected from dryland fields in Laguna were also grown in lowland (opposite) and upland (natural) habitat at the same time. The first set­ up was grown from April to July 1996. Tubers collected from these plants were again grown in opposite and natural habitats from January 1997 to Aprill997. Treatments were replicated three times in the first

98 Baltazar et al.: Weed Management in Rice-Onion Systems set-up and four times in the second set-up. Plant height, number of leaves, and number of offshoots were recorded weekly. Culm diameter, length and diameter of longest leaf, number of inflorescence, and number of days to flower were also recorded. At 90 days after emergence, fresh weights of plants, and number and fresh weights of tubers were recorded. Research Findings Study 1. Identification of major weeds Averaged across the three sites, the twelve most dominant species in rainfed lowland rice in San Jose, Nueva Ecija during the 1994, 1995 or 1996 wet seasons were, in decreasing order, Ludwigia spp., C. rotundus, Echinochloa glabrescens/crusgalli, S. zeylanica, I. rugosum, C. iria, M. vagina/is, E. colona, C. difformis, T. portulacastrum, E. prostrata, and F. miliacea. In onion, the ten most dominant weeds in the three villages were C. rotundus, C. viscosa, T. portulacastrum, E. colona, 0. sativa, P. amarus, E. indica, C. tora, H. indicum, and D. ciliaris. Dryland weeds which were not observed in lowland rice 10 to 20 years ago are now emerging as dominant weeds in lowland rice in our survey. These species include C. rotundus, E. colona, E. indica, Digitaria spp., E. prostrata and T. portulacastrum. All of these species, except E. prostrata are the dominant weeds in onion in the three villages. The increase in dominance of dryland weeds in lowland rice could be a reflection of two things: 1) inadequate soil moisture conditions due to scarce rainfall or inadequate irrigation facilities, or 2) the alternate wet-dry rotation pattern in rainfed areas is affecting the composition of the weed flora and causing shifts in dominant species. Study 2a. Evaluation of complementary control methods The application of one herbicide followed by one handweeding can provide adequate weed control, comparable to the farmers' practice of two herbicides and two handweedings, particularly if combined with a cultural practice like use of rice straw mulch. Our results also indicate that the kind of herbicide used in a particular field will depend on the dominant weeds on that area. However, these results need to be verified in further studies since in two of the fields, the trends in weed density and weight were not reflected in the yields obtained. Study 2b. Effect of rice straw mulch on weed growth Averaged across the three fields, there was 57% more weed growth, mainly of broadleaf weeds, in unmulched than in mulched plots at 1 to 2 weeks after planting (Table I). From mid-season to harvest, there was a more than 50 to 80% reduction in growth of grasses and sedges

99 Proceedings of the Second IPM CRSP Symposium in mulched plots. But there was 50 to 60% more growth of broadleaf weeds in mulched plots indicating failure of the mulch to control the broadleaf weeds. This was particularly true in one field (deJa Cruz) where the dominant broadleaf weed, C. viscosa, grew profusely through the mulch. In two of the fields (Hipolito and Salazar), yields were 69 to 95% greater in mulched than in unmulched plots, reflecting adequate weed growth suppression in these fields (Table 2). But in one field (deJa Cruz) yield in the mulched plots was 20% lower than in unmulched plots. Mulching can suppress weed growth at the initial stages of onion growth, particularly the first two weeks from planting. Adequate weed suppression due to mulching throughout the required critical weed-free period was observed in two fields. In these fields, higher yields were obtained from the mulched plots. In one field, mulching failed to suppress growth of broadleaf weeds from mid- to late-season. However, higher yields in unmulched than in mulched plots in this field can not be fully explained by the effect of mulching.

Table 1. Weed density in mulched and unmulched onion plots in three fields in San Jose, Nueva Ecija during the 1997 dry season. 2 Weed density (no/0.25m )" 7-15 OAT 30-45 OAT Harvest Weed Group M u M u M u Sedge 5.2 0.8 (-)" 2.3 7.0 (67) 2.3 21.7 (89) Grass 6.0 5.5 (-) 4.0 10.5 (62) 8.7 17.7 (51) Broadleaf 12.2 48.3 (74) 20.3 9.3 (-) 5.5 2.2 (-)

Total 23.4 54.6 (57) 26.6 26.8 (I) 16.5 41.6 (60) •Average of 6 replications; numbers in parenthesis indicate %difference between mulched (M) and unmulcbed (U) plots within a weed group, OAT= days after transplanting.

100 Baltazar et al.: Weed Management in Rice-Onion Systems

Table 2. Yield in mulched and unmulched onion plots in three fields in San Jose, Nueva Ecija during the 1997 dry season. Treatment Bulb weight (tlha) •

Hipolito DeJa Cruz Salazar Average

Mulched 31.9 (95) 7.8 (-) 6.5 (69) 15.4 (70) Unmulched 1.6 10.1 2.0 4.6 •Average of 6 replications; numbers in parentheses indicate % difference between mulched and unmulched plots within a field. Study 2c. Effect of rice hull burning on weed growth

The dominant weeds in both fields were C. rotundus, E. indica, and E. colona. On the average, weed growth in unburned plots was 45 to 70% greater than in burned plots throughout the season (fable 3). Suppression of growth of the sedge C. rotundus was most pronounced within I to 2 weeks from planting. Suppression of growth of the grasses (E. indica) was most pronounced at mid-season. Since there was very minimal broadleaf weed growth, the effect of rice hull burning on broadleaf weeds in these fields was not very distinct. In both fields, yields in burned plots were 60% higher than in unburned plots (Table 4). Our results indicate adequate season-long suppression of weed growth, particularly grasses and sedges, by rice hull burning.

Table 3. Weed density in burned and unburned plots in two onion fields in San Jose, Nueva Ecija during tbe 1997 dry season. Weed density (no/0.25m )' 7-15 DAT 30-45 DAT Harvest Weed B U B U B u Grou Sedge 10.5 23.8 (56) 18.3 25.3(28) 15.5 34.8 (55) Grass 16.5 31.0 (47) 14.0 85.5 (84) 9.0 11.8 (24) Broadleaf 5.5 4.0 (-) 1.0 0.5 (-) 1.5 5.0 (70)

Total 32.5 58.8 (45) 33.3 111.3 (70) 26.0 51.6 (50) •Average of 4 replications; numbers in parenthesis indicate % difference between burned (B) and unburned (U) plots within a weed group, DAT =days after transplanting.

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Table 4. Yield in burned and unburned plots in two onion fields in San Jose, Nueva Ecija during the 1997 dry season. Treatment Bulb weight (tlha) ' Ondi villa Estabillo Average

Burned 80 (63) 38.5 (68) 59.3 (64) Unburned 30 12.3 21.2 'Average of 4 replications; numbers in parentheses indicate % difference between burned and unburned plots within a field.

Study 3a. Growth of C. rotundus in two soil moisture regimes C. rotundus from fields 3 and 4 (Santo Tomas) were 34 to 37% taller when these plants were grown in lowland condition. These plants were also 40 to 60% taller than C. rotundus from fields 1 and 2 (Abar 1st and Palestina) whether the latter were grown in upland or lowland conditions. The ability to grow taller in lowland condition was not observed in fields 1 and 2 plants. Study 3b. Growth of C. rotundus in opposite and natural habitats Regardless of their previous growing conditions, plants from fields 3 and 4 were taller and produced more leaves and offshoots, bigger culms, longer and bigger leaves, more flowers, bigger tubers, artd generally had 60 to 76% more biomass when grown in their natural (lowland) habitat than in their opposite (upland) habitat. In comparison, plants collected from upland fields in Laguna did not change in height whether grown in their natural (upland) or opposite (lowland) habitat. However, these plants, when grown in lowland (opposite) habitat also produced more leaves and offshoots, bigger culms, more flowers, more and bigger tubers and had 56% more biomass than the plants grown in upland (natural) habitat. These results confirm those in Study 3a where C. rotundus from two fields in Nueva Ecija grows bigger and taller in lowland soil than in upland soil. Under lowlartd conditions, the lowland C. rotundus reached a height of 94 to 102 em, which is about the height of rice. These same plants were also 25% taller than C. rotundus collected from upland fields in Laguna.

102 Baltazar eta/.: Weed Management in Rice-Onion Systems

Conclusions

The major weeds in rainfed rice-onion systems in Nueva Ecija, Philippines were identified. Six dryland species are now observed in lowland rice in increasing numbers, indicating that the alternate wet-dry pattern could be selecting for species that can tolerate both moisture regimes. Over time, this could result in dominant species shifts. Although their presence in flooded rice ensures continued infestations in the rotation cycle, it could open up possibilities of control during rice that are not possible in onion due to selectivity problems. Of the dryland species now increasing in rice, C. rotundus is the most dominant. Morphological, physiological and genetic studies are being conducted to determine if they are genotypes with differential responses to control methods. On-farm evaluations of control strategies showed that two herbicides plus two handweedings could be reduced to only one herbicide plus one handweeding without reducing yields. Rice hull burning adequately controlled weeds and increased yields over unburned plots. Rice straw mulch controlled grasses and sedges and increased yields over unrnulched plots but not when the dominant species were broadleaf weeds.

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References

Chaves, R.C. and K. Moody. 1986. Ecotypic variation in Cyperus rotundus. Proceedings of the Symposium in Weed Science. BIOTROP Special Publications 24. Bogor, Indonesia. pp. 123- 126. De Datta, S.K. 1974. Weed control in rice: Present status and future challenge. Philipp. Weed Sci. Bull. 1-16. Komai, K., J.C. Iwamura, V. Kiatsoonthorn, and K. Ueki. 1983. Geographical variations of Cyperus rotundus L. and ecological properties. Proc. Asian-Pacific Weed Sci. Soc. Conf. Manila, Philippines. pp. 66-70. Pablico, P.O. and K. Moody. 1985. A survey of lowland rice (Oryza sativa) weeds in central and southern Luzon, Philippines. Philipp. J. Weed Sci. 12:44-45. Pablico, P.O. and K. Moody. 1986. A dry season lowland rice (Oryza sativa) weed survey in central and southern Luzon, Philippines. Philipp. J. Weed Sci. 13:39-49. Paller, E.C. and G.L. Magsino. 1984. Field evaluation of chemical and physical weed control methods in transplanted onions. Weed Science Annual Report 1980-81. Univ. Philipp. Los Banos, College, Laguna, Philipp. p. 86-89. Paller, E.C., F.V. Valente and A.M. Baltazar. 1979. Weed distribution in cabbage. Weed Science Annual Report 1978-1979. Univ. Philipp. Los Banos, College, Laguna, Philipp. p. 80.

104 Dembele et al.: Integrated Striga Management on Sorghum, Millet, and Cowpea in Mali Integrated Striga Management on Sorghum, Millet And Cowpea in Mali

1 2 B. Dembele', A. Diarra , J. Caldwell', and B. Gebrekidan • 1Institut d'Economie Rurale, Mali, 2Virginia Tech, USA.

Introduction: Problem Statement

Millet and sorghum are the basic foods for human consumption in Mali. They are grown on 1.5 million hectares, which account for almost 75% of the arable land. These two crops are in most cases intercropped with cowpeas, which in tum is the primary source of protein for most small farmers. Due to the importance of these crops for food security and self sufficiency, the IPM CRSP in Mali focused on solving pest problems in order to improve the income and social welfare of farmers. The results of the participatocy IPM conducted in Mali during the 1994 cropping season indicated that the parasitic weed Striga spp. was considered the main weed pest, causing serious damage to the millet/cowpea and sorghum/cowpea complexes. Yield losses due to the combined effects of pests are estimated at 50 to 80% for millet, 30 to 60% for sorghum, and 10 to 15% for cowpea. Complete loss due to storage pests is common on cowpea.

The main objective of the IPM CRSP in Mali is to develop integrated strategies for controlling pests in the millet/cowpea and sorghum/cowpea complexes. These strategies need to be technically and economically feasible for transitional farmers. Field research on Striga management is focused on testing resistance of promising sorghum varieties and use of improved agronomic practices. Research Approach: Materials and Methods

The treatments utilized in these experiments were derived from the best treatments developed at the research station for several years and they were compared in the trials reported here to farmers' practices. Field research started during the 1995/1996 growing season in four villages (Koroma, Dontieribougou; Douabougou and Koira) in two areas (Sirakorola and Mourdiah). Two sets of experiments were carried out during the 199611997 cropping seasons:

• Verification of the resistance of promising sorghum varieties to Striga hermonthica;

105 Proceedings of the Second IPM CRSP Symposium

• Assessment of the effect of alternative methods of millet/cowpea intercropping on Striga control.

For the first set of experiments, ten farmers were selected in the Sirakorola area. For the second set, ten farmers were selected in both areas. Each farmer was considered as a replicate for the treatments in each village. Data were analyzed using a randomized complete block design.

Striga-resistant sorghum varieties. Two promising sorghum varieties (Malisor 84-1 and Malisor 92-1) and an improved local variety Seguetana were compared to local checks.

Fields plots were 320m2 (20m x 16m). Sorghum was sown at 80 em between rows and 50 em within rows. Plots were weeded twice at 15 days intervals from sorghum emergence. One hundred kilogrammes of 15-15-15 were added at sowing and urea was applied at booting at the rate of 50 kglha.

Field data on counts and weights of Striga spp. were collected at 70 and 90 days after sowing and at crop harvest. Sorghum densities and grain yields were also evaluated.

Alternate methods of millet/cowpea intercropping. The experiment used the cowpea variety IT 89KD 245. The following three treatments were compared:

- Millet as a pure crop - Millet and cowpea in alternate rows - Millet and cowpea in alternate hills in the same row.

The cowpea variety IT 89KD 245 matures in 75 to 85 days. It has a grain yield potential of 1.5 tlha and a potential forage yield of 2 tlha. It grows well with rainfall of 400 to 800 mm and has shown good resistance to Striga.

106 Dembele et al.:. Integrated Striga Management on Sorghum, Millet, and Cowpea in Mali Research Findings

Striga resistant sorghum varieties. In this area, a prolonged period of dry weather occurred after the first 10 days of July. This explains why most farmers planted their crop during the last I 0 days of this month.

The results of the experiments indicated that Malisor 92-1 showed the highest population of Striga spp. at Koroma in Sirakorola, although the F-test was not significant With a low Striga population, the improved sorghum variety Malisor 84-1 showed a yield increase of 25% when compared to the yield of the local check. It has a growing cycle of II 0 days and a yield potential of 2 tlha. The sorghum variety 92-1, which has shown a high tolerance to Striga spp. and has a yield potential of 3 tlha, did not perform well in Koroma (Table 1).

Table 1. Effect of sorghum variety on number of Striga plants and sorghum yield, Koroma. Striga countstm• Sorghum Varieties yield 70DAS 90DAS Harvest (kg/ha) Malisor 84-1 2 5 3 1764 Malisor 92-1 7 12 11 1512 Seguetana 3 6 6 1476 Local check 2 5 4 1416 Mean 3.5 7 6 1542 F-Test NS NS NS NS

At Dontieribougou, Malisor 92-1 and the improved local variety Seguetana showed the lowest number of Striga plants. The variety Malisor 84-1 did not perform well due to poor emergence (Table 2). During the evaluation, farmers expressed a preference for Seguetana. In most cases, Seguetana showed a high number of Striga but yields were less affected. The use of such a variety could lead to a build up of Striga population.

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Table 2. Effect of sorghum variety on number of Striga plants and sorghum yield, Dontieribougou. Sorghum 2 Varieties Striga counts/m yield 70DAS 90 DAS Harvest (kg/ha) Malisor 84-1 3 4 3 906 Malisor 92-1 I I I 1044 Seguetana I I I 1004 Local check 2 6 5 1252 Mean 1.75 3 2.5 1051 F-Test NS NS NS *

Effect of alternative methods of millet/cowpea intercropping. The techniques of planting cowpea in alternate rows (inter row) or in alternate hills (intra row) showed significant reductions in Striga population when compared to the farmer practice in Kolra (Mourdiah). The intra row technique showed a yield increase of 18% compared to farmer practice (fable 3). The same trends in Striga population and yield were observed in Douabougou. Even though yields were lower in this location, a 30% yield increase was observed over the fanner practice (fable 4 ).

Table 3. Effect of intercropping metbod on Striga counts and millet yield, Koira.

Agronomic Striga counts/m2 Plants at harvest Yield practices 70DAS 90DAS Harvest Millet Cowpea (kglha)

Intra rows 3 5 5 82 107 2240 Inter rows 6 5 5 61 105 1440 Farmer 17 19 18 95 0 1900 practice Mean 8.7 9.7 9.3 79 69 1860 F-Test • * • NS ** NS

108 Oembele et al.: Integrated Striga Management on Sorg,um, Millet, and Cowpea in Mali

Table 4. Effect of intercropping method on Striga counts and millet yield Douabougou ' . Agronomic Sniga counts/m2 Plants at harvest Yield practices 70 90 Harvest Millet Cowpea (kg/ha) DAS DAS Intra row 4 2 I 91 93 804 Inter row 3 5 1 81 81 824 Farmer 9 9 5 98 0 620 practice Mean 5.3 5.3 2.3 90 58 749 F-Test * * * NS * * NS

The inter row technique had a lower plant density and a consequently lower yield. This technique is not preferred by farmers for this reason. The intra row technique was preferred by farmers, but more work is needed for establishment of the crop. Economic analyses need to be done to determine if the increase in yield can compensate for the extra labor. Conclusions

The results of two years testing for resistance of improved sorghum varieties to control Striga infestation indicated that farmers prefer the locally improved Seguetana variety over Malisor 84-1 and Malisor 92-1 mostly because of yield stability and lower infestation when compared to their local variety. In other areas of Mali, Seguetana is tolerant of heavy infestations of Striga.. The use of such a variety could lead to a build-up of Striga population.

For the second year, inter row and intra row intercropping of a Striga resistant cowpea variety with millet demonstrated a capability to reduce Striga hermonthica population and improve yield of the cropping system. Intra row intercropping requires more labor, so this technique needs to be evaluated on an economic basis. These techniques found effective in these two areas need to be tried in other areas to increase the impact of IPM CRSP adapted technologies.

109 Proceedings of 1he Second IPM CRSP Symposium

Economic and Socioeconomic Impact Assessment of Non-Traditional Crop Production on Small Farm Households in Guatemala: A Summary of Results

1 2 Linda Asturias de Barrios', Brenda Tevahin , and Glenn Sullivan • 1 Estudio 1360, Guatemala, 2Purdue University, USA.

This paper contains a summary of results derived from several activities of socioeconomic research conducted in Guatemala during year three of the IPM CRSP. Results were taken from final reports, draft papers, and annual reports in order to provide an overview. Emphasis is on socioeconomic impacts of non traditional export (NTE) crops on small farmers. Special attention is devoted to snow pea production, not only because it is one of the main NTE crops but also because the 1995- 1996 snow pea crisis due to leaf miner infestation and consequent detention/quarantine of shipments in USA negatively impacted producers, intermediaries and agroexporters. IPM CRSP was called to bring a solution to the crisis. As part of IPM CRSP responses, a study of the socioeconomic impact on small producers and intermediaries was conducted, and a comparative study of conventional vs. integrated crop management of snow peas was undertaken, in addition to agricultural and socioeconomic case studies of snow peas producers. Thus, this paper presents results from a literature review, two surveys, and the fieldwork undertaken in the Chimaltenango and Sacatepequez departments, which represent the major production area of snow peas and broccoli. Objectives

• To assess the socioeconomic impacts of NTE crops on small farmers in Guatemala during the last 15 years by reviewing specialized literature. • To assess the socioeconomic impact of detention/quarantine of snow pea shipment as a consequence of the presence of leaf miners in the pods among small producers and intennediaries in selected areas of Chimaltenango and Sacatepequez. • To describe socioeconomic changes perceived by farmers growing NTE agricultural products and other community members as a consequence of the diffusion of this economic activity.

110 Asturias de Barrios eta/.: Socioeconomic Impact Assessment of Non-Tracfrtional Crops

• To describe the regional and local socioeconomic context of production and commercialization of N1E products, especially snow peas and broccoli.

• To assess the institutional and policy factors that influence non­ traditional cropping decisions, pest management, pesticide use, and IPM adoption of NTE crops in the public and private sectors. • Characterize the socioeconomic conditions of farmers involved in different pest management strategies.

Methods

During year three, several research activities were undertaken. Methods are briefly described for the following activities: literature review, assessment of the socioeconomic impact of detention/quarantine of snow pea shipments on small farmers, regional assessment of snow pea production in Chimaltenango and Sacatepequez, assessment of Cuatro Pinos Cooperative institutional policies on pest control, and socioeconomic characterization of farmers involved in different pest management strategies.

Non-traditional agricultural exports (NTAE) were introduced in Guatemala in the late 1970s and early 1980s. This subsector of the economy has grown in terms of export earnings, investments, technical capacities, diversification of products, and the number of producers. However, the production and marketing of NTAE has also brought about unanticipated socioeconomic impacts, several of which deal with the use of chemical pesticides. In order to identify different socioeconomic impacts as a basis for designing socioeconomic research within the IPM CRSP program, a literature review was conducted during year two, and final reports in Spanish and English were presented during year three. Sources included a wide variety of studies varying from university theses to impact studies sponsored by international development agencies. Relevant content in each source was classified according to the following topics: political and economic context, production and marketing of NTAE, and socioeconomic impacts. These were further subdivided into impacts of pesticide use, distribution of benefits, constraints for small producers, distribution of revenues in the market chain, employment impacts, gender issues, and nutritional impact

At the end of 1995 and beginning of 1996 Guatemalan snow peas producers and exporters were seriously affected by the

111 Proceedings of the Seoond JPM CRSP Symposium because of the detention/quarantine of snow pea shipments in the USA to assess the presence of leaf miners in the pods. In order farmers and socioeconomic impact of this pest-related problem on small a study took place during the first quarter of 1996. intermediaries, from 51 Two surveys were conducted: one among 51 leader farmers intermediaries different producing communities and one among 22 night market in from seven municipalities, who buy the produce at the survey was Patzun. Both samples were non-random. The first or farm. The focused on the leader's community, not on his household included data sections on the community, NTE crops, the questionnaire the agricultural calendar, snow pea commercialization, seasonal pests and socioeconomic impact due to the snow pea crisis, products, and perceptions of socioeconomic changes due agrochemical individual NTAE production. The second survey focused on the to topics of the intermediary. It included adapted sections on the last four occupation. leaders' survey plus information about the intermediary's and women Interviews were conducted with municipal authorities, men cooperative small producers and household heads, intermediaries, and municipalities staff in PatzUn, Tecpan, Santiago Sacatepequez and other producing of Chimaltenango and Sacatepequez, which are the major areas of snow peas. used for the regional assessment of snow pea production The methods small included analyses of agricultural census information; interviewing as participant producers, intermediaries and cooperative staff; as well in production and marketing of snow peas. On the other observation policies hand, the institutional assessment of Cuatro Pinos cooperative on pest management was based on interviewing staff members. producing Finally, the socioeconomic characterization of small farmers on three case under different pest management strategies focused are reported by studies of snow pea producers. The agricultural results Cuatro Pinos Dr. Guillermo Sanchez elsewhere. Two farmers from included in cooperative and one from Flor Patzunera cooperative were The gender the first round corresponding to the dry season cycle. of labor was followed up from planting to harvest. Family division about histories of adoption of NTE crops were elicited. Interviews of benefits and problems derived from NTE crop perceptions families. production were conducted with farmers and their round (rainy Consolidated results for the first (dry season) and second season) are forthcoming.

112 Asturias de Barrios eta/.: Socioeconomic Impact AsSessment of Non-Traditional Crops

Results Literature review on socioeconomic impacts of NTE crops on small farmers

Conclusions of the literature rev1ew summarize mam findings as follows:

According to the literature review, the economic indicators demonstrate that the NTAE introduced in the mid-1970's in Guatemala have had an impact on the growth of exports and an increase in returns per unit of land and per unit of family labor. However, just as marginal returns vary according to the plot size and market conditions, the average returns of some products such as snow peas--the main one--have dropped or even resulted in losses due to falling prices, increased production costs, and detentions at ports of entry in importing countries, especially the USA. At the end of 1995 there was a crisis due to the presence of the leaf miner and the quarantine requirements imposed by phytosanitary authorities in the United States. This crisis resulted in losses for the small producers, the intermediaries, and the agroexport companies. The IPM CSRP was called to contribute to a solution to the crisis. As part of supporting the search for a solution, this program is carrying out a series of entomological, agricultural and socioeconomic research on pest management.

The agroindustry and investment in NTAEs, as well as ancillary industries, have increased. In 1992, the number of exporting companies had increased seven times with respect to the number in 1980. Technical training has developed in the processing of agricultural products. However, NTAE are accompanied by various economic uncertainties and competitive risks. Small producers are the most vulnerable to these risks. As is shown in recent studies (Thrupp et al. 1995, Mendizabal and Weller 1994, Katz 1992a, WRB and INCAP 1994), the lack of access to credit, technical services and market information; the lack of bargaining power; and gender inequalities further aggravate the difficulties of adaptation and response of the small producers to the changes of market demands.

NTAEs have lead to a price increase of land and land leasing. This has benefited the land owners, but has created problems for the small producers with little or no land who resort to renting land to grow crops for self-consumption or for the market.

113 Proceedngs of 1he Second IPM CRSP Sympo~um

The intensive use of pesticides is one of the most serious problems in the NTAE sector. Repercussions are felt directly in high production costs, for which the small producers have no capital, economic losses resulting from detentions because of residue violations, pest resistance resulting in the pesticide treadmill, and damage to health of people exposed to the pesticides and environmental contamination. For these reasons, the IPM CRSP has a mission to develop programs of integrated pest management in NTE crops that would contribute to their snstainability. Regarding the detentions due to excessive pesticide residues, it is important to point out that chlorothalonil is not registered by the EPA for use with snow peas and that in 1992, 62.6% of Guatemalan fruit and vegetables detentions in USA were due to residues of this chemical.

Central American NTAE reveal a concentration of benefits that favor multinational companies and large- or medium-sized companies with national or foreign capital. Guatemala has the widest base of small farmers in Central America However, the price the small farmer is paid and the percentage this represents in relation to the price paid by the consumer show the small producer's difficult situation. In 1985, when the consumer price of snow peas varied between $2 and $4 per pound, the small producer of snow peas received $0.57, an equivalent of 19.5% of $3.00 paid by the consumer. In 1994, when the average consumer price was $3.99, the small producer received $0.18, or 4.5% of this price.

The production contracts between agroexport companies and small producers have two edges to their socioeconomic impacts. On one hand, under favorable circumstances, the contracts give access to capital, technology, and the market But on the other hand, technical assistance is not always appropriate for the particular conditions of each plot; the credits can create dependence and the small producers have little negotiating power.

The Cuatro Pinos Cooperative, the most successful cooperative in Guatemala in the production of NTE crops, and the one which has the financial support of the Switzerland Cooperation and U SAID, has shown the benefits of collective organization of small farmers. The evaluation of its impact reveals increases of income, return by unit of land and unit of family labor, yield of subsistence crops, as well as other benefits. In the 1990's the cooperative has had problems due to low prices and import detentions.

The impact of the NTAEs on employment has been difficult to calculate because a large portion of the jobs are seasonal or temporal. Estimates

114 Asturias de Barrios et al.: Socioeconomic Impact Assessment of Non~Traditional Crops vary between 40,000 and 112,000 jobs defined on a full time basis. There have been various effects on the work of women. Processing plants have taken on more women because they believe women are more dexterous, productive, and efficient than men, and also because their wage is comparatively lower than that of men. In the production phase, the non-remunerated family work of women has become a central factor in the small producers' competitiveness. However, women have benefited less than men, because, for one reason, the income generated by NTE crops is controlled by men, and the time women invest in these crops lessens their opportunity to generate their own income from other activities.

The increase in income generated by NTE crops has not necessarily led to an improvement in nutrition for small producers' families. This phenomenon is related to the engendered pattern of household expenditures. (Sullivan, Asturias, Tevalan and Romero 1997a: 15-16) Assessment of the socioeconomic impact of detention/quarantine of snow pea shipments

Figure 1 shows the annual growth of snow pea exports in Guatemala during the 1986-1995 decade. Figure 2 demonstrates how the snow pea crisis due to the leaf miner infestation and detention/quarantine of Guatemalan shipments to the USA, have negatively impacted the export volume during the first quarter of 1996.

Millions ofpomds

Source: 1986-90 DTSV 1991-95 GEXPRONT

Figure 1. Annual growth of Guatemala's snow peas exports, 1986-1995

115 Proceedngs of the Seoond IPM CRSP Symposum

Source: GEXPRONT.

Figure 2. Impact of the 1995-1996 snow peas crisis on Guatemala's exports

Leader farmers' survey provided the following results on their communities:

• 82% of the communities represented in the survey produce snow peas during the rainy season, 61% during the dry season by using residual moisture, and 51% during the dry season by using irrigation. 1 • The main NTE crops produced in the 51 communities are: snow peas, broccoli (80% ), green beans (59%), and baby vegetables (41 %). • The 51 communities sell their NIE crop production to one or more type(s) of buyers during the year: intermediaries (78% ), cooperative (40% ), agroexporters (31% ). • 98% of surveyed communities were affected by the crisis. Main impacts reported were: debts from unavailability to pay credit (73%) and household needs uncovered (31% ). The crops were abandoned in 90% of the communities at the end of 1995 or beginning of 1996. However, at least in two thirds of the communities, snow peas were planted in the following cycle. • Leader farmers' perceptions of main reason causing falling prices during the snow pea crisis were: overproduction (37% ), leaf miner infestation (22%), unknown (16%), market instability (10%),

1 For this, as for other lems, peR:eJUges do not sum 100, because ansv.ers were not exclusive.

116 Asturias de Barrios et al.: Socioeconomic Impact Assessment of Non-Tracitional Crops

prohibited pesticides (8% ), international competition ( 4% ), agroexporters' decision (4% ). • Main reported snow peas pests were: thrips (51%), white grub (24% ), leaf miner (22% ), gusano nochero (20% ). • Main reported snow peas diseases were: spots (49%), rnildium (37%), aschochyta (35%), fusarium (18%). • NfE crops are ambivalently perceived by the farmers. The pros and cons need to be understood as having developed during a period varying in duration according to particular communities' involvement in this activity. This period may range from a few years to 18 years. Positive perceptions included income increase (63%), improvement of living standard (23%), technological agricultural improvement (18% ), increase of planted area by buying or renting land (14%), house improvement (14%). Reported negative perceptions were economic losses (40% ), intoxication with agrochemical products (20% ), environmental contamination (18%), decrease of waged employment in NTE crops resulting from abandonment or reduction of planted areas (10%), envy arisen from upward mobility of successful small farmers or intermediaries (4% ).

Intermediaries' survey on their own personal experience brought about the following results:

• 91% of the intermediaries surveyed are from Chimaltenango and (9%) from Sacatepequez. In Patzl1n, a municipality from Chirnaltenango, they buy at the night market from individual sellers (96%) and/or from producer groups (73% ). • The degree of intermediaries' specialization varies and may combine NTE with nationally marlceted products: 68% deal with snow peas only, 14% with snow peas and broccoli, 9% with snow peas and beans, 9% with snow peas and other products. • Intermediaries reported buying different amounts of snow peas during one night transactions: 1,000 to 3,000 pounds (18%), 3,001 to 5,000 (23%), 5,001 to 7,000 (24%), 7,001 to 9,000 (14%), and over 9,000 pounds (23%). • The time elapsed between buying and delivering the snow peas to the agroexport processing plants depends on several factors: quantity of produce in the market, price, transportation, distance

117 Proceecings of 1he Seoond IPM CRSP Symposium

between Patzun and the processing plants, etc. Deliveries occur some hours before or after midnight. The intermediaries reported the number of hours their produce takes to arrive from the night market to the processing plant 3 to 5 hours (18% ), 5 to 7 hours (46%), 7 to 9 hours (27%), 11 to 13 hours (5%) and over 13 hours (5%). • Intermediaries' perception of main reason causing falling prices during the snow pea crisis were: Leaf miner infestation (48%), prohibited pesticides (37% ), and overproduction (15% ). • 86% of intermediaries were economically affected by the snow 2 peas crisis, 9% were not affected , and 5% did not answer this question. • Intermediaries estimated their losses during the crisis: $167 - 833 (41%), $1000- 1,666 (36%), $1833- 2,500 (9%), and $8,333- 15,000 (14% ). • The intermediaries' source of information on snow peas damage caused by leaf miner infestation was: agroexporters (90% ), producers (5% ), or other intermediaries (5% ). • Intermediaries reported ability to recognize damage caused by leaf miner on snow peas was based on: damage in pods (77% ); inability to recognize any damage (14%), and did not answer the question (9% ).

Number and location of snow peas producers

In 1995 GEXPRONT conducted a census to determine the number of farmers and the area involved in snow peas production in Guatemala. Table 1 shows the result of grouping the original data by municipality and department. Accordingly the production is highly concentrated in the Chimaltenango and Sacatepequez area. By multiplying the total number of farmers (18,459) by the 1994 national census mean of household members in the main Chimaltenango area (5.2), it is

2 Some irtermediaries a"""""'ed that they were not affected economicaUy by the crisis. However, Wlen 1hey ""'e asked how much money they lost, they provided a money amount. Answioring 'not _.oould have meant a non signllcart amourt of money.

118 Asturias de Barrios eta!.: Socioeconomic Impact Assessment of Non-Traditional Crops

Table 1. Snow pea production area in Guatemala by department, municipality, and number of farmers Department No. of %of total Extension %of total small of small (Hectares) extension famleiS famleiS

CHIMALTENANGO

Chimaltenango 244 1.32 115.21 2.65

Patzicfa 920 4.98 263.55 6.06

Patziin 6713 36.37 1752.12 40.27

San Andres llzapa 113 0.61 57.59 1.32

Santa Apolonia 589 3.19 94.00 2.16

Santa Cruz Balanya 1009 5.47 276.00 6.34

San Jose Poaquil 1049 5.68 156.86 3.60

San Juan Comalapa 623 3.37 99.98 2.30

San Martfn Jilotepeque 64 0.35 14.93 0.34

Parramos 28 0.15 8.28 0.19

Tecpan 1855 10.04 437.97 10.06

EI Tejar 30 0.16 9.45 0.22

Zamgoza 671 3.63 159.78 3.67

SUBTOTAL 13908 75.34 3445.85 79.19

GUATEMALA

San Jose Pinula 138 0.75 36.69 0.84

SUBTOTAL 138 0.75 36.69 0.84

JALAPA

San Carlos Alzatate 110 0.60 24.85 0.57

SUBTOTAL 110 0.60 24.85 0.57

119 Proceedings of the Second IPM CRSP Symposium

Table 1 Cont'd

QUICHE

Chichicastenango 75 0.41 18.43 0.42

Joyabaj 109 0.59 13.77 0.32

Zacualpa 24 0.13 4.55 0.10

SUBTOTAL 208 1.13 36.75 0.84

SACATEPEQUEZ

Antigua Guatemala 139 0.75 23.33 0.54

San Bartolo Milpas Altas 10 0.05 2.33 0.05

Santo Domingo XeDaCQj 18 0.10 3.97 0.09

Magdalena Milpas Altas 426 2.31 210.18 4.83

San Lucas Sacatepequez 189 1.02 45.79 1.05

Santa Lucia Milpas Altas 149 0.81 31.15 0.71

Santa Marfa de Jeslls 64 0.35 10.32 0.24

Santiago Sacatepequez 1675 9.07 187.83 4.32

Sumpango 1342 7.27 278.37 6.40

SUBTOTAL 4012 21.73 793.28 18.23

SOLO LA

SUBTOTAL 83 0.45 13.88 0.32

TOTAL 18459 100 4351.30 100.00

Source: Snow peas census, 1995 (GEXPRONT 1995)

120 Asturias de Banios eta/.: Socioeconomic Impact Assessment Of Non-Traditional Crops

estimated that at least 95,986 people in the country depend on direct production of snow peas. This number does not include intennediaries, shippers, agroexporters, processing plant employees, etc. c Forms of production of NTE crops among small producers

As shown in Table 2, there are four main fonns of production and commercialization of NfE crops among small producers in the Guatemalan highlands: (1) The contracted small producer owns or rents the land, works with family labor, and may hire additional labor, especially for labor intensive tasks such as harvesting. The fanner signs a contract with an agroexporter. When produce is delivered, these costs are discounted from the price due to the producer.

(2) The independent small producer does not have a contract with an agroexporter. Instead he sells the produce to regional intennediaries which may have contracts with agroexporters. If intennediaries reject the product for aesthetic reasons, for example, the fanner may sell it for national consumption as do some fanners that target their produce for the domestic market

(3) The petty capitalist producer owns a relatively larger extension of land which is mostly worked with hired labor. The owner dedicates most of his time to crop management and selling. To increase his income he may complement his own production by buying from smaller producers.

(4) Cooperative producers are members of a cooperative that may provide equipment and inputs on a credit basis. Their produce may be directly exported by the coop or sold to an agroexporter. Cooperative members receive annual dividends. Seasonal calendar of snow peas production in Guatemala

As a tropical country, Guatemala has two seasons: the rainy one (May - October) and the dry one (November - April). Figure 3 shows that in the Chimaltenango and Sacatepequez region snow peas are planted up to three times a year, depending on soil and water conditions. Due to past negative experiences, small fanners avoid growing snow peas during the ftrst part of the rainy season (May to July) because pest problems increase and they have to spend more money on pesticides.

121 Proceedings of 1he Second IPM CRSP Symposium

Table 2. Fonns of production and commercialization of NTE crops among small f anners m. G uat em a1 a Contracted Independent Petty Cooperative Small Small Capitalist Producer Producer Producer Producer Means of .Production

Land Owned by Owned by Owned by Owned by producer. producer. producer. producer. Owned and Owned and Owned and Owned and leased. leased. leased. leased

Equipment Provided by Individually Individually Individually agroexporter purchased. purchased or purcbased or or through an through an individually agroexporter. agroexporter. I oorcbased. Labor Family. Family. Mostly Family. waged. Family with Family with Family with waged waged waged complement. complement. complement. Commercialization

Contract with an Yes. No. In some cases In some cases agroexporter yes, in others yes, in others no. no.

Intermediary In some cases Yes. In some cases No. between producer yes, in others yes, in others and agroexporter no. no.

National market No. Incase of Incase of Incase of intermediary rejection, or rejection, or ~ection of production of production targeted to targeted to national national marlcets marlcets

Foreign importer No. No No Yes

Source: Asturias de Barrios - ASIES 1996: 5.

122

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Assessment of institutional policies on pest management

At the Cuatro Piiios cooperative, the Production Department recommends permitted pesticides, dosages and number of applications to the members. The local agricultural committees from all the associated communities are in charge of divulging the information and supervising the implementation of the recommendations. If problems are found in the fields, the committees report them to the Production Department.

The product of each cooperative farmer is identified by a code number. The produce from the same community is bandied as a lot. Samples for analysis of residues are taken from the lots. If prohibited pesticides are found in the analyses, the infringing farmers are penalized. Analyses are carried out at other institutions' laboratories, although the cooperative's laboratory is equipped to do so. In order to improve the control on pesticide use, the cooperative is working on a fumigation package. When this is implemented, a team of well-trained fumigators will be in charge of the applications of permitted pesticides, and the cooperative members will be able to hire them.

Socioeconomic characterization of snow peas small producers

Table 3 summarizes the socioeconomic characteristics of the three snow peas small producers. The size of the household in the three cases is larger than the mean for the Chimaltenango department (5.2 members). Only one producer is a full-time farmer. The other two complement their income with either wages from non agricultural occupations or snow peas commerce. All three grow subsistence crops to insure food for their families. In order to lower risks from growing snow peas only, all have diversified their agricultural commercial production by planting internally marketed crops and/or at least one other NTE crop.

For two farmers, their land extension devoted to snow peas production (0.177 hectare and 0.147 hectare) is under the national mean of0.23 hectare (GEXPRONT 1995) for the other, it is above that average (0.354 hectare). Only one farmer has his snow pea production land in a single place; the other two have dispersed plots. While two market their snow pea production through the cooperative ouly, one sells through both a cooperative and a group of intermediaries. Snow pea production plays a different economic role in each case. Farmer# 3 is the most dependent on snow peas, for he is both producer and intermediary. However, on a secondary basis, he also relies on another

124 Asturias de Barrios et al.: Socioeconomic Impact Assessment of Non-Traditional Crops

NTE crop, broccoli. Farmer# 2, which has the largest extension of land (1.416 hectares), grows not only snow peas and zucchini (NTE crops) but also a variety of vegetables oriented to l:he national market that allow him to balance agriculmral and economic risks. Farmer# 3 is the only one who does not have land of his own. He rents 0.354 hectares, of which half is devoted to snow pea production. He relies on wages in the construction sector especially during the months that are not suited for NTE crops. As results from the rainy season cycle are consolidated, the role of snow pea production in the household economy will be better understood.

125 Proceedings of !he Second IPM CRSP Symposium

.ble 3. Socioeconomic characteristics of snow peas producers in three case studies CHARAC1ERISTICS CASE No.I CASE No.2 CASE No.3 AGE 38 40 37 OCCUPATION Fanner, Farmer Fanner and construction intennediaty worker and guard HOUSEHOLD Fanner, wife, 2 Farmer, wife , 2 Fanner, wife and COMPOSITION sons, 1 daughter, sons and 3 daughters 8 children (10 1 brother in Jaw (?members) members) and 2 sisters in law (8 members) MUNICIPAliTY Manzanillo, San Santiago PatzUn, AND DEPARTMENT Lucas Sacatepequez, Chimaltenango Sacatepequez, Sacatepequez Sacarepeq. COOPERATIVE AND Cuatro Pinos Cuatro Pinos, Flor Patzunera OiliER member of the and member of a AGRICUL1URAL Agricultural group of GROUPS Committee intermediaries AGRICUL1URAL Crops for family Crops for family Crops for family SIRA1EGY consumption, consumption, consumption and national market national market and export (N1E) and export CNTEl exoort (NIE:)_ CROPS FOR com and beans com and beans comandfava FAMILY beans CONSUMPTION CROPS FOR radish, cabbage radish, beet, lettuce, NATIONAL cotiander MARKET NTECROPS zucchini and zucchini and snow broccoli and snowoeas peas snowoeas lANDHOLDING rented owned and rented owned lAND LOCATION next to house 3 different places, he 2 different places, has his own vehicle he walks to the because the land is plots or rides on faraway a horse. lAND EXTENSION 3 cuerdas * 12cuerdas 4cuerdas * 1 cueraa 0.1118 hectare

126 Asturias de Barrios et al.: Socioeconomic Impact Assessment of Non-TracfJtional Crops

Table 3 Cont'd

SNOW PEAS VARIETY snowflake snow flake + oregon giant sugmpod (longer harvest) SNOW PEA CYClE 29 January - February - May February - June DRY SEASON Mav 1996 1996 1996 HOlDING OF rented owned owned PRODUCTION LAND EX1ENSION OF 1_cuerdas 3cuerdas 1 _ cuerdas PRODUCTION LAND INPUTS He buys He buys individually He buys individually or or through the individually or through the cooperative through the ve cooperative LABOR Family and Family and waged Family and waged wall.ed • WA1ERJNG Natural residual Irrigation system Natural residual CONDIDONS humidity, but if hwnidity needed, he takes water from a well TECHNICAL Cooperative Cooperative Cooperative ASSISTANCE department of deparnnent of deparnnent of production and production and other production other farmers fanner MARKETING cooperative cooperative cooperative and groups of intermediaries ECONOMIC ROLE snow peas due to unpredictable Snow peas OF SNOW PEAS IN production is fluctuating prices, production and HOUSEHOlD complemented he has diversified his commerce is the with salaries commercial main source of from non production income agricultural work

127 Proceedings of the Second IPM CRSP Symposium

Conclusions

Based on serious studies conducted in Guatemala from the early 1980s, the literature review demonstrates that from a socioeconomic perspective, NTE crops have had positive as well as negative impacts on small producers. Focusing on IPM CRSP interests, the intensive use of pesticides has had impacts on high production costs, for which the small producers have no capital; economic losses resulting from detentions because of residue violations; pest resistance resulting in the pesticide treadmill; damage to the health of people exposed to the pesticides; and environmental contamination.

The 1995-1996 snow pea crisis meant economic losses to producers, intermediaries and agroexporters. Prices fell so low that small producers abandoned their crops and experienced hardships such as inability to pay credit and lack of money to fulfill basic needs. However, once prices recovered during the following growing cycle, snow peas were planted again in at least two thirds of the surveyed communities. Intermediaries lost varying amounts of money during the crisis. Some lost capital accumulated through years of work. Both farmers' and intermediaries' surveys revealed that information on leaf miner infestation as ultimate cause of the crisis was inadequate. Relatively few people in the countryside knew what was really happening. Closer to the agroexporters, the intermediaries were better informed than the producers. However, among farmers and intermediaries, the crisis was attributed to prohibited pesticide residues, overproduction, or agroexporters' decisions on prices.

The regional assessment of Chimaltenango and Sacatepequez allowed us to conclude that snow pea production is concentrated in this area of the central highlands, where small farmers are involved in the following production forms: contracted production with an agroexporter, independent production, petty capitalist production, and cooperative production. Depending on soil and water conditions, farmers may grow snow peas up to three times a year, leaving the first part of the rainy season as a fallow period due to the high incidence of pests, and consequently, the high expense for pesticides.

Although snow pea returns per unit of land are among the highest as compared with those of other commercial crops grown in highland Guatemala, the socioeconomic case studies of three small snow pea producers indicate that total dependence on this crop is not perceived as a viable strategy. Diversification in agricultural production and

128 Asturias de Barrios eta/.: Socioeconomic Impact Assessment of Non-Traditional Crops household income sources seems to be an adaptive devise to the agricultural and economic risks of snow peas production. Gender issues are only marginally addressed in this summary. However, fmal reports on the case studies as well as a forthcoming thesis on gender division of labor in Santa Marfa Cauque will cover this important aspect of the IPM CRSP research agenda.

References

Sullivan, Glenn, Linda Asturias de Barrios and Brenda Tevalan. 1997. Socioeconomic Case Study of Small Snow Peas Farmers Engaged in Non-Traditional Export Crops. Guatemala: Estudio 1360. Sullivan, Glenn, Linda Asturias de Barrios, Brenda Tevalan and Sergio Romero. 1997a. Socioeconomic Impacts of Non Traditional Export Crops in Guatemala: A Literature Review. Guatemala: Estudio 1360. Sullivan, Glenn, Linda Asturias de Barrios, Brenda Tevaliin and Sergio Romero. 1997b. Socioeconomic Impact of the 1995-1996 Leaf Miner Crisis In Guatemala. Guatemala: Estudio 1360.

129 Procee

Gender Differentiated Constraints in Malian Semi-Subsistence Production: Implications for Integrated Pest Management and Food Security

2 2 Adam D. Russ\ Makan Fofana , Daniel B. Taylor, Mme. Sissoko , 1 1 Revathi Balakrishnan , and Takaysohi Y amagiwa • 'Virginia Tech, USA, 'Institut d'Economie Rurale, Mali.

Introduction

Mali is a landlocked country in West Africa. As a Sahelian country, it is suffering the effects desertification. The staple crops of the Malian production system are sorghum, millet, and cowpeas, with cowpeas often being intercropped with sorghum or millet These three crops have been the focus of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) during Phase I of the IPM Collaborative Research Support Program (CRSP). Research is being conducted in villages near Sirakorola and Mourdiah, both of which are north of Bamako, the capital of Mali. Mourdiah is the more northerly site and it receives less rainfall than Sirakorola. Over time, pesticide use in Mali had increased reaching $8 million in 1987. After 1987, following the devaluation of the Malian currency by 50 percent and other structural adjustment programs, pesticide use began to fall reaching $6 million in 1993. However, structural adjustment is well underway in Mali, and unless the IPM CRSP is able to develop less pesticide intensive management strategies, it is likely that the pesticide usage will begin to increase again. Objectives

The information presented in this paper is from Adam Russ's M.S. thesis. At this time, only information from the Sirakorola area will be presented. The objectives of Adam's thesis were to:

1. estimate the effect of gender differentiated constraints on household nutrition; 2. estimate the effects of pest damage reduction on household nutrition; 3. evaluate how household size effects household nutrition; and 4. estimate the nutritional adequacy of the Malian diet.

Not all of these objectives will be addressed in this paper. Some of his findings were presented at last year's IPM CRSP workshop.

130 Production Russ et al.: Gender Differentiated Constralnts in Malian Semi..Subsistence

Data Sources Data for this study came from the Mali baseline survey and secondary provided data sources in both the U.S. and Mali. The baseline survey most of the information about farm level constrains and resources. Secondary data was particularly important to determine the nutritional composition of foods, and the nutritional requirements of individuals comprising households. of the The next few tables and information in the text contain examples data that Adam used from the baseline survey to construct his type of two model. Table 1 presents average field sizes of households from villages in the Sirakorola Area: Dontienbougou and Koroma.

Table 1. Average Size of Household Fields of two Villages in the Sirakorola Area in Hectares Field Type Dontieribougou Koroma Common 5.65 4.76 Men's Individual 1.15 1.68 Woman's Individual 0.62 0.56 men and Both men and women work on the common fields, while the land women provide most of the labor on their own fields. Most of to one­ is in common fields, with women having from about one-half In third the amount of land that men do on their individual fields. women have fewer individual plots in the Sirakorola area than addition, 2.9 men do. Women average 1.4 individual plots, while men average in individual plots. Average usage of some variable inputs is illustrated Table 2 for the Sirakorola area by field type. for the Table 2. Average Use of Some Variable Inputs by field Type Sirakorola Area Input Common Men's Women's Fields Fields Fields Manure (kg) 1,505 1,300 0 Hired Labor (days) 10.5 0 15.9 Chemical Fertilizer (kg) 28 5 0 Pesticides (% of households using) 10.5 0 0 Men's Most of these variable inputs are applied to the common fields. chemical fields also use a lot of manure, 1.300 kg, and 5 kg of labor at fertilizers. The only variable input on women's fields is hired 15.9 days.

131 Proceedings of 1he Second IPM CRSP Symposium

Nutrition and Pest Management Concerns That adequate nutrition is a serious concern in the Sirakorola area is illustrated in Table 3, containing the average household food deficit for major crops.

Table 3. Average Months of Household Food Deficit in the Sirakorola Area for Major Crops Crop Months of Food Deficit Sorghum 5.43 Millet 5.71 Cowpeas 8.00 Groundnuts 5.51 Bambara Nut (local groundnut variety) 10.00 Okra 7.69

The amount of food deficit is substantial, ranging from five and one half months for groundnuts to up to I 0 months for Bambara nuts. The amount of food deficit in the staple crops is also alarming, ranging from 5.43 months for sorghum to 8.00 months for cowpeas. If an IPM program could reduce the food deficit, it would have a substantial impact on the well being of households. The information contained in Table 4 illustrates the severity of pest impacts on food production for the staple crops in the Sirakorola area.

Table 4. Crop Losses for Staple Crops in the Sirakorola Area -­ Percent of Households reporting a 50 Percent or Higher Loss by Major Pest Type Crop Major Type of Percent of Households with Pest Losses of 50 Percent or More Sorghum Weeds· 32.3 Millet Insects 55.1 Cowpeas Insects 40.0

With 32.3 to 55.1 percent of the households reporting losses of 50 percent or more on these staple crops, an effective IPM based control program could be very beneficial to the households.

132 Russ eta/.: Gender Differentiated Constraints in Malian Semi-subsistence Production

Methods For his analysis, Adam developed a profit maxumzmg linear programming model. The goal of the modeling was to replicate farmer behavior given the resources and constraints faced by the household. Constraints in the model included nutritional constrains, and resources available for use on common, men's individual, and women's individual fields. Part of the uniqueness of this study is that rather than pooling the resources of the household and assuming that they could be used in any production activity, the fact that men and women provide most of the labor on their own fields was taken into account The focus of the model was on crop production. That is, average levels of consumption of other food in the area, such as meat, was incorporated into the nutritional constraints. Twelve crops were considered in the 3 model: Bambara nuts,' cotton, cowpeas, dah,' fonio , garden peas, maize, millet, okra, groundnuts, rice, and sorghum. Once the model was constructed, numerous scenarios were analyzed. First of all, scenarios were run for three household sizes: small at 6.9 members, average at 11.1 members, and large at 14.3 members. Then two major classifications of scenarios considered were:

1. subsistence production -- all agricultural production was for household consumption; and 2. full market access -- households could buy anything from the market, and sell anything to the market including their own labor.

Then under these two major classifications, five sub-classes of scenarios were run: 1. the ideal environment -- no restrictions placed on crops grown or consumption preferences; 2. consumption preferences -- based on observed behavior in the region, 47 percent of calories must come from sorghum and/or millet; 3. production preferences-- based on observed behavior in the region, 75 percent of all land in production must be in sorghum and/or millet, and 85 percent of all common fields must be devoted to sorghum and/ or millet;

1 A local variety of groundnut 2 A fibrous plant of the hibiscus family. ~is grown largely for its flowe!S to make tea, most of which are exported to Senegal. Its stems are used to make rope. 3 A local grain, similar to millet.

133 Proceeclngs of 1he Second IPM CRSP Symposium

4. lack of wage employment opportunities -- no off fann employment is available; and 5. pest damage elimination -- the baseline survey respondents' estimates of the amount of crop loss occurring due to pests was eliminated.

To some extent, these scenarios are looking at extremes of possible conditions faced by households in the Sirakorola area. The actual situation is undoubtedly somewhere between these extremes, but they give us a benchmark on the conditions faced by households.

Results

The model that Adam developed consisted of 171 decision making variables and 38 constraints. Given the many combinations of scenarios that the above classifications and household sizes imply, only a sample of Adam's preliminary results will be presented. Only the average household will be discussed, and the focus will be on gender in terms of activities on men's and women's fields. The purpose of this presentation is only to give the reader an idea of the types of results that were generated.

For example, some results of the modeling for subsistence production with production preferences are presented in Table 5. Men produced no cotton on their fields, while women produced 0.4 hectares of cotton. Men devoted most of their land to okra, while women devoted most of their land to groundnuts. The model also provided information on resource use. For example, consider Table 6 which contains some resource use information for the subsistence production scenario with production and consumption preferences imposed. Since this scenario is subsistence production, all of the land in both men's and women's fields is utilized. Men used 145.4 days of their own labor on their fields, while women used 29.1 days.

134 Russ eta/.: Gender Differentiated Constraints in Malian Semi-subsistence Production

Table 5. Subsistence Production: Crops Produced and Consumed with Production Preferences Crop Men's Fields Women's Fields (ha) (ha) Cotton 0.00 0.04 Millet 0.30 0.10 Okra 1.00 0.40 Groundnuts 0.12 0.50

Table 6. Subsistence Production: Resource Use with Production and Consumption Preferences Resource Men's Fields Women's Fields Land (ha) 1.14 0.58 Total Labor (days) 145.4 29.1

Finally, information is provided on crop utilization as illustrated in Table 7. Okra is produced for household consumption and market sales. Revenues from okra sales permit the purchase of cowpeas and millet for household consumption. Millet is also produced on 6.23 hectares for household consumption.

Table 7. Overall Household Crop Utilization with Production and Consumption Preferences Crop Produced Consumed Purchased Sold (ha) (kg) (kg) (kg) Cowpeas 0.00 102.3 102.3 0.0 Millet 6.23 43,412.0 32,139.0 0.0 Okra 2.08 241.2 0.0 2,415.0

Table 8 contains some of the results from one of the many sensitivity analyses that were conducted In this case, millet yields are lowered by 50 percent for the production and consumption preferences scenario reported in Table 7. Researchers with experience in the Sahel felt that the millet yields reported in the baseline survey were extraordinarily high.

135 Proceedings of the Second IPM CRSP Symposium

Table 8. Overall Household Crop Utilization: Fifty Percent Decrease in Millet Yields with Production and Consumption Preferences Crop Produced Consumed Purchased Sold (ha) (kg) (kg) (kg) Cowpeas 0.00 89.7 89.7 0.0 Millet 6.23 38,047.2 32,410.0 0.0 Okra 2.08 211.4 0.0 2,445.0

The hectares planted to the crops remains the same. Household consumption of okra decreased so that more could be sold. With the additional revenue from okra sales, more millet is purchased. Cowpeas purchase and consumption also decrease so that more millet can be purchased to satisfy the consumption preferences. Conclusions The most persistent nutrient deficiencies across the scenarios were vitamins A and C. Only under conditions of the ideal environment, with or without consumption preferences could households satisfy their nutrition needs. But these scenarios assumed that all active household members have access to wage employment. It would be more typical to only have some men migrate for wage employment during the dry season. Few women would do this, although they can earn income via other mechanisms such as preparing articles and food for sale in the market and midwifery. It appears, however, that off farm earnings and remittances, neither of which were gathered in the baseline survey due to the sensitive nature of this information, are vital for these households to maintain their nutritional well being.

While the elimination of all pest damage is unrealistic, it has the potential to increase households nutritional self-sufficiency by up to 88 percent. Therefore, the more pest damage that can be eliminated with our IPM program, the more nutritionally secure the households will be. Given the limited access to resources that women face it might be possible to increase the well being of the household by increasing their access to resources. However, the opportunity costs of so doing must be carefully evaluated such as: • Can their access be increased without decreasing men's access? If not, then should it be done anyway? • If more resources could be made available -- would they improve nutrition more if they went to men or women?

136 Russ et al.: Gender Differentiated Constraints in Malian Semi-5ubsistence Production

Remember women have limited access to land, and it is doubtful if that this is something that will change in the . foreseeable future. Furthermore, there is a tendency for women's fields to be of lower productivity and to be more distant from their compounds. Both of these factors may significantly increase the opportunity cost of reallocating resources.

137 Proceedings of the Second IPM CRSP Symposium

Integrated Management of Snow Peas and Sugar Snaps (Pisum sativum) in Guatemala

2 3 4 5 G.E. Sanchez', J.L Sandoval , E. Santizo , L. Calder6n , L. DeLeon , 6 6 S.C. Weller , and G.H. Sullivan • 'Universidad del Valle, Guatemala; 2DIGESNGuatemala; 3GEXPRONT- ARF, Guatemala; 4ICTA, Guatemala, 5 APHIS-IS, Guatemala; 6purdue University,USA.

Abstract

Snow peas and sugar snaps have become one of the most important highland export crops of Guatemala with approximately 18,000 farmers involved iu its production. A holistic, integrated crop management system was evaluated at three different locations, as a strategy to ensure Guatemala's competitiveness and sustainability in the international market. In contrast to traditional management practices, ICM-managed plots received approximately half the amount of insecticides applied by farmers. Insects pest populations and diseases were similar in the ICM plots and the farmers' control plots. In two of the sites export-quality yields were 30%-50% higher than the national average, with outputs ranging from 9,500-10,800 kgslha. These results indicate that production and export of high quality edible pods is possible using resources and knowledge presently available. Further studies to establish a protocol to be established at a commercial level will be pursued. Introduction

Snow peas have become one of the main non-traditional agricultural exports (NTAE) in Guatemala (AGEXPRONT, 1996). Grown in the departments of Chimaltenango, Sacatepequez and Guatemala, its cultivation has recently expanded to Quiche and Solohi, involving close to 18,500 growers. According to the Guild of non-traditional products exporters (GEXPRONT) in 1995 Guatemala exported, mainly to the United States, 36.4 million pounds of fresh and/or frozen snow peas 1 (GEXPRONT, 1996 ).

1 GEXPRONT. 1996. Datos sabre Ia producci6n de arveja china en Guatemala.

138 &inchez. G.E. eta/.: Integrated Management of Pisum sativum in Guatemala

In the recent past, the crop has been affected by a series of negative factors, the latest being excessive pod infestations by leaf miners (liriomyza huidobrensis) which have cost exporters hundreds of thousands of dollars in quality loss, extended cold storage and fumigation expenses. Other serious problems include the spraying of pesticides not labeled for snow peas such as metamidophos (organophosphate insecticide) and clorothalonil (chlorinated fungicide). The integrated crop management program (ICM) described in this document is presented as a new approach for quality control, agglutinating the multiple components involved in snow pea production.

With the objective of evaluating the applicability of this holistic management program, three fields trials were conducted at separate locations, each with particular environmental and crop production conditions. The specific objectives were: to design and evaluate techniques allowing more efficient monitoring methods and reductions in pest populations in snow and sweet pea fields throughout the year; to implement effective post-harvest screening procedures and phytosanitary controls prior to the packing of snow peas for export; to evaluate the impact of detailed pest monitoring and scouting-driven pesticide applications on the yield of export-quality snow peas and sugar snaps; and to detennine the feasibility of obtaining satisfactory export-quality yields when applying only EPA-registered pesticides for snow peas. Materials and Methods

Participating groups: The collaborative team in this research was comprised of a number of private and public organizations, from both Guatemala and abroad (fable 1). Field collaborators and location of ICM sites: One producer associated with each of the 3 participating packing plants was selected as field collaborator. The evaluation fields were established at the Village of 2 Xenimajuyu, municipio of Tecpan, Department of Chimaltenango ; Magdalena Milpas Altas, municipio of Magdalena Milpas Altas, Sacatepequez; and Finca Victorias, municipio of Patzicia, department of Chimaltenango.

2 In Guatemala. "municipio" is equivalent to a U.S. county and "Oepartrnenr to state

139 Proceedings of the Second IPM CRSP Symposium

Table 1. Group of collaborators participating in the 1996-1997 evaluation of the Integrated Crop Management program for snow peas. ORGANIZATION COUNTRY SECTOR/function IPM CRSP Guatemala/USA non-governmental/research GEXPRONT/ARF Guatemala private APHIS-IS USA governmental Tierra Fria, S.A. Guatemala private/export Cooperativa Magdalena Guatemala private/export Milpas Altas San Juan agroexport Guatemala private/export DIGESA Guatemala Public/extension ICTA Guatemala Public/research

At each of the three sites, two 1,100 m2 ICM test plots were established, one sown with snow peas (cultivar Oregon sugar pod II) and the other with sugar snap (cultivar Sugar Daddy). In addition, control plots of the same dimensions were also planted for both crops. The control plots were entirely managed by the producer and were used to compare the results obtained between the ICM and the growers' technology.

An agronomist was assigned as field researcher to each of the sites and was in charge of implementing all production aspects, scouting and data collection in the ICM plots. He was also in charge of monitoring and collecting data concerning farming practices, yields, pest behavior and management in the control plots.

The ICM field management protocol used as guideline in the field trials arose from the analysis of previous of IPM CRSP, ARF, and ICTA research results (Calderon, L., 1996; Garcia, C.E., 1992; Salguero, V. et al., 1996). The packing plant inspection guide was developed by APHIS-IS inspectors in conjunction with GEXPRONT/ARF inspectors. Field management criteria included site selection, land preparation, planting, fertilization, trellising, pest management, harvest, post:harvest and data collection guidelines. Packing plant management criteria included certificate of origin codes, transport, product reception, cold storage, classification and pre-shipment storage.

·Pest Scouting and Management Pest scouting, including insects, pathogens and weeds, was conducted three times a week in both the ICM and control plots. Establishment of damage thresholds was based on previous research and the team members expertise when consistent data was not available. Pesticide applications were based on these

140 SBnchez. G.E. et al.: Integrated Management of Pisum sativum in Guatemala predetermined economic damage thresholds. Main insects pests to be monitored were Thrips (Frankliniella spp.) and leaf miners (liriomyza huidobrensis ). Main diseases included Ascochyta leaf and pod blight (Ascochyta pisi), Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. pisi) and powdery mildew (Oidium spp).

Pest management was based on scouting, cultural practices, chemical spraying and etological control (yellow sticky traps). All chemical applications included only pesticides with an EPA label of approval for edible pods. In the case of fungicides, these were limited to ferbam, sulphur, copper oxychloride and ziram.

Packing Plant Inspections: As part of the ICM protocol, inspections of harvested snow peas and sugar snaps were carried out at the packing plant by APHIS inspectors. One kilogram samples (or 1-2% of the harvest) from the ICM and control plots were taken from harvested lots held in cold storage overnight. The produce was inspected for leaf miner and thrips damage, Ascochyta lesions and other biotic infestations or infections. Total amounts of rejected pods were tallied by adding up the specific causes of rejection.

Data: All activities carried out in the ICM and control plots were recorded by the site technician. Information regarding labor, inputs (fertilizers, pesticides), cnltural practice, pest levels and management, yields and prices were also logged. Export-quality field yields and packing plant rejection volumes were also recorded. Results and Discussion

Insect Pest Management: The pest levels found during the entire crop's cycle demonstrate that insect populations behaved in a similar fashion in both the control (farmer attended) and ICM plots, even though chemical control procedures were dissimilar. At Xenimajuyu there was a larger population of insect pests in the ICM plots, with the exception of adult leaf miners. As Figure l (LA and l.B) shows, adult leaf miner readings did not exceed 6 insects per row-meter in the ICM snow pea plot, while the control plot had up to 18 leaf miners per meter. This is a significant fact since the farmer· carried out scheduled applications of insecticide, using up to 6 different kinds of chemicals in over lO applications. In contrast, the ICM plot was subject of 3 applications consisting of naled, malathion and edosulfan.

The sugar snap ICM plot showed in general a more diverse and slightly higher insect populations (Figure l.C and l.D), compared to the

141 Proceedings of 1he Second IPM CRSP Symposium

control parcel. However, there were a total of 10 insecticide applications in the farmers plot, in comparison to 6 in the ICM plot

A.ICM snow pea plot B. Control snow pea plot 20 20 18 ---.-No. leaf ttiners 18 ~ Tkips-flowl.ers 16 16 .. TIKip.....P, 14 14 ~ ~aphids ~ 12 ...... LepimvaO 12 ~ 10 10 .I• 8 6 6 4 4

2 2 0 0 0 5 10 IS 20 0 10 IS 20

C. ICM Sugar snap plot D. Control Sugar snap plot

''~~~~--~~~--~~~ +No. leaf~-; 24 24 ~~; ..... 'ntt;p,...,. 21 18

15

12

9

6 6 3

0 0 4--'---'oi-+.... :!"7'1'i 0 5 10 IS 20 0 5 10 15 weeks after planting

Figure 1. Results of insect pest monitoring in snow pea and sugar snap plots at Xenimajuyu. Points represent the average nwnber of insects from three counts per week. Graphs labeled ICM represent the plots uoder the proposed management system while control plots were managed by the farniers who utilized their own technology and agricultural practices.

At Magdalena Milpas Altas the results were also similar between the ICM-controlled and the farmers' plots. Chemical insecticide sprays were carried out on a scheduled fashion in the control plots while the ICM plots were sprayed according to pre-established thresholds. Total insect populations (Figure 2) were very similar in the two types of management and in both crops. However, in the case of snow peas,

142 5anchez. G.E. et al.: Integrated Management of Pisum sativum in Guatemala there was only I insecticide application for the control of aphids, based on the technician's own appraisal of the situation. In contrast, the fanner was spraying insecticides on a scheduled manner, totaling over I 0 insecticide applications. Similar results were obtained at the sugar snap plots; the ICM plots were subjected to only 2 insecticide sprays throughout the cycle.

A. ICM snow pea plot B. Control snow pea plot 2.4 ------+-Leafminer 2.1 ~ Tbrips; flowers n~ 1.8 . Thrips • tJ:aps .. ~AphW. .,.~ 15 · ~Larvae; Lep. ~ ] 1.2 .5~ 0.9 ..•·.·.·.•··.·.·· ~-~ .. ..-:_~-···...... ·... · •..· .... _··· .. ··.·.... ·.· 0.6 -... >__ .- _- -_:_____ ,

--~-- ', ,. . - - 03 .~------.. 0 ,,. ' 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

C. ICM sugar snap plot D. Control sugar snap plot

_:~7-0 ;~Wn:iner - · 10.8 - -_ -_< :~'I'hrlps-fb~ . 0.8 ... ::~· ~0.6 -~.-.· 0.6 ~ . . 1!0.4 .E 02 ::-~.yt

0 4 8 1216200 4 8 12 16 weeks after planting

Figure 2. Results of insect pest monitoring in snow pea and sugar snap plots at Magdalena Milpas Altas. Points represent the average number of insects from three counts per week. Graphs labeled ICM represent the plots under the proposed management system while control plots were managed by the fanners who utilized their own technology and agricultural practices. At the third site, located in Patzicfa (department of Chimaltenango) lepidopteran larvae populations in the ICM plot merited the application

143 Proceedings of the Second· IPM CRSP Symposium of Bt-derived insecticides in 4 occasions. An additional spray of methyl oxydemethon was necessary to control aphid populations that rose above the established thresholds in the ICM snow pea plot. The applications of Bt' s and methyl oxydemethon were done at the same time for both crops in the ICM plots as in this site. The 4 plots (2 snow pea and 2 sugar snap) were located adjacent to each other and were affected very similarly by the insect pests reported. The farmer utilized scheduled applications of insecticide sprays to manage the insect pests. As with the other two sites, no major differences in leaf miner populations were detected between the ICM and the farmer plots even though insecticide applications were cut in half in the former. The results presented above show evidence that the habitual chemical approach to control insects, especially leaf miner, may not be warranted or even necessary, at least for the rainy season snow pea cycle. This is supported by the following: leaf miner populations never rose to high levels in either of the three field sites, and even with scheduled chemical sprays in the farmers' plots, leaf miner populations were similar or even higher in their plots in comparison to the ICM-managed plots.

Disease Management: The main diseases encountered were Ascochyta leaf blight (Ascochyta pisi), Rhizoctonia damping-off, and Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. pisi). Minor diseases were powdery mildew (Oidium spp.), Downy mildew (Peronospora spp.) and a newly detected disease tentatively identified to be caused by Sphaerulina spp.

Disease levels were also monitored three times a week in all plots. The main disease detected at Xenimajuyu was Ascochyta leaf blight, with over 70% of the plants' nodes exhibiting leaflets affected by the disease. The main management strategy against fungal diseases was chemical control, based on ferbam, copper oxychloride, zinc and sulfur, all preventive fungicides. The ICM strategy was based on periodic sprayings (as in all of the sites) and the application time intervals were based on weather conditions. The farmers employed a similar strategy although applications were scheduled regardless of the environmental conditions.

Xenimajuyu was the site with the greatest diversity of phytopathogens. Even though Fusarium and Rhizoctonia were detected at the other two sites, downy mildew and powdery mildew were only found at Xenimajuyu. Additionally, scattered symptoms of a disease putatively caused by Leptosphaerulina spp. was also detected.

144 Scinchez. G.E. eta/.: Integrated Management of Pisum sativum in Guatemala

At Magdalena Milpas Altas, Department of Sacatepequez, the results also show that Ascochyta blight was the prevalent foliar disease affecting both snow peas and sugar snaps (Figure 3). In the ICM snow pea plots the severity of Ascochyta reached over 60%. but in the control plot it did not exceed 40%. This difference in severity ratings can be explained by the diversity of fungicides used by the collaborator in contrast to the 4 inorganic chemicals used in the ICM plots.

Fusarium wilt was a major limiting factor in the ICM and control sugar snaps plot (Figures 3.C and 3.D) as it severely affected close to 50% of the stand. Interestingly, a major difference between the sugar snap seed planted at this site in comparison to the other two locations was that it had not been previously inoculated with Bacillus subtilis, a biocontrol agent against Fusarium wilt.

At the third site, Patzicfa, Chimaltenango, the main concern was also Ascochyta blight, although severity indices were significantly lower than the other two sites. In the case of snow peas, the ICM and control plots reached Ascochyta ratings of 10% and 15 %, respectively. In sugar snaps, these numbers were 14 % for the ICM plot and 25% for the control plot. Fusarium wilt was only observed in sugar snaps were it reached 23% incidence in the ICM plot and 27 % in the control plot. Both of these plots were planted with seed pre-treated with Bacillus subtilis. Rhizoctonia damping off was also present in both crops, with levels of 5% incidence in sugar snaps and less than 1% in snow peas.

The most important aspect of the fungal component in the pest management of snow peas and sugar snaps was that Ascochyta blight, by far the most feared foliar and pod disease affecting export peas in Guatemala, was manageable utilizing only inorganic preventive fungicides. This is a highly significant achievement as it disproves a long held belief among many snow pea farmers -- that export-quality snow peas are nearly impossible to produce only with the available EPA-approved fungicides. Another significant observation resulting from these trials is that just as farmers have recently claimed, Fusarium wilt is also becoming a major limiting factor in the production of snow peas and may become increasingly more important in the future.

145 Pruceedngs of 1he Second IPM CRSP Symposium

A. ICM snow pea plot B. Control snow pea plot 100 90 -+-% Ascoch.Yta 80 8 70 --*-% Fusnium :s560 g 50 ~40 30 20 10 o~~~~~~~~~ 0 4 8 12 16 20 0 4 8 12 16 20

C. ICM sugar snap plot D. Control sugar snap plot

50

.40 u •= ..,.~30 20

10

0 0 weeks after planting Figure 3. Results of disease scouting in snow pea and sugar snap plots at Magdalena Milpas Altas, Sacatepequez. Points represent the average of three counts per week. Counts were dooe by randomly selecting I 0 sampling areas in the plots, each of I meter in length (approximately 100 plants).

Yields: The yields achieved in these trials were satisfactory in two of the three sites. In snow peas, the highest yield was obtained at Patzicfa for both snow peas (ICM plot = 10,808 kglha) and sugar snaps (control plot =14,140 kgslha) (Figures 7.A. and 7.B.), with very small differences between them. At Xenimajuyu snow pea yields were 9,551 and 9473 kgslha in the ICM and control plots respectively; sugar snap yield in the ICM plot was 87% of the control output A significant effect in the ICM sugar snap yield at Xenimajuyli was an early frost that hit the area in the first week of December. The sugar snap control plot had been planted two weeks earlier than the ICM plot;

··. 146 8anchez. G.E eta/.: Integrated Management of Pisum sativum in Guatemala

therefore, it had a 2-week advantage at harvest when frost damaged the crop. It is estimated that while the control plot lost about 10% of its total production, the ICM plot lost nearly 40% of its harvest.

In the case of Magdalena Milpas Altas, yields were significantly lower to the other two sites in both crops. One reason for selecting Magdalena Milpas Altas as one of the research sites was that its fields and surroundings were the least appropriate of the three sites for snow pea cultivation. It is comprised mostly of sloped land, with deciduous fruit trees associated with the export crops. In November, when strong northerly winds are typical in Guatemala, the ICM plot was flowering and a significant portion of young pods and flowers were forcefully detached from the plants. The control plot was not as affected as it was located approximately I mile away. In sugar snaps, the main cause for low yields was the severe Fusarium wilt infection. These two plots were adjacent to each other.

At Xenimajuyu and Patzicia, the yields were 42% and 52% greater than the national average (6,700 kg/ha). In the case of sugar snaps, local yields average roughly 10,000 kglha. Patzicias ICM and control plots surpassed this average by 30% and 40%, respectively. Xenimajuyli's ICM-sugar snap output was 13% above the national average even with the estimated 40% loss due to frost damage.

147 Proceedings of !he Second !PM CRSP Symposium

A. Snow pea plots B. Sugar snaps plots

16000 ,----~------., 14000 .j--=' IISU!JJ'I" sn1ap IC:M 12000 10000 8000 6000 4000 2000 0 Xenimajuyu Magdalena Patzicia Xenimajuyu Magdalena Patzicia MA MA Figure 7. Snow pea and sugar snap yields at three Integrated Crop Management (ICM) evaluation field sites.

Post-harvest Classification !Packing plant) Post-harvest classification showed varying results in the snow peas and sugar snaps rejection levels, depending on its origin. As Table 2 shows, the largest rejection percentage in snow peas was found at the Xenimajuytl control plot with 24.12% of the admitted volume not meeting export-quality standards. The ICM plots had smaller rejection percentages than the control plots, even though the number of insecticide sprays to these plots was at least half the amount applied to the control plots.

Table 2. Results of snow pea inspections and rejection levels at the packing plants. 1 Origin Plot Yield Rejection Adjusted yield (kglha) (%of field export·quality yield)

Xenimajuyl1 ICM 9428.65 16.76 7848.41 Farmer 9351.65 24.12 7096.03

Magdalena ICM 3257.57 14.63 2780.99 Milpas Altas Farmer 4712.12 3.01 4570.29

Pat2icfa ICM 10808.64 12.5 9457.56 Farmer 10637.67 18.22 8699.49 1 After 12-24 hours of cold room storage at the packing plant facilities, one kilogram samples were taken and inspected throughout the harvest cycle.

148 Scinchez. G.E. et aJ.: Integrated Management of Pisum sativum in Guatemala

Table 3 shows the rejection levels at the packing plant for the sugar snaps plots. In comparison to the snow pea plots, a greater volume of the product entering the plant was acceptable for export. In the case of this crop, all of the ICM plots outperformed the control plots in the quality of pods sent to the packing plant.

There is one important consideration that has to be taken into account. The rejection thresholds followed by the ICM protocol were more stringent than those utilized by the packing plants. Packing plants apply different quality parameters based on temporary factors such the product's final market and the prevailing price. If it is to be frozen, some specks and blemishes disappear during the freezing procedure, therefore classification parameters are more lenient. Likewise, if the existing price is high and supplies are low, then buyers are less demanding and will accept a less presentable product.

Table 3. Results of sugar snaps inspections and rejection levels at the packing plants. Plot Yield Rejection1 Adjusted yield (kg/ha) (%of field export-qnality yield)

Xenimajuy6 ICM 11442.20 4.37 10942.18 Control 13224.75 10.22 11873.18

Magdalena ICM 13214.73 4.77 12584.39 Milpas Altas Control 14140.47 4.39 13519.70

Patzicfa ICM 2640.15 9.45 2390.66 Control 3200.75 13.01 2784.33 1 After 12-24 hours of cold room storage at the packing plant facilities, one kilogram samples were taken and inspected throughout the harvest cycle.

Final Considerations: This report represents the initial phase of the first truly collaborative effort conducive to finding a permanent solution to the major obstacles confronted by the snow pea export sector in Guatemala. The planning and executive team was comprised of members from the private export sector, Guatemalan government institutions, research organizations and US Department of Agriculture representatives. The results obtained through this evaluation are encouraging, as they have demonstrated that highly satisfactory snow pea and sugar snap yields can be obtained by following integrated pest management tactics. Guatemala's snow and sugar pea exports have

149 Proceedings of the Second IPM CRSP Symposium been subject in the last few years of routine detentions by APHIS and FDA inspectors at the port of entry to the United States. Through collaborative efforts such as the one presented in this document, novel management strategies can be implemented in the future to ensure Guatemala's sustainability in the increasingly competitive global market, by offering high quality agricultural exports containing reduced amounts of chemical residues.

References

AGEXPRONT, 1996. Estrategia al aiio 2020. Exportaciones agrico1as no-tradicionales: Situacion actual y estrategia futura. Unidad Regional de Asistencia Tecnica Ruta III. Guatemala, 178 p. Calderon, L., Calderon, E., Dubon, R., Lopez, R., Santizo, E. and Jorge Sandoval. 1995. Manejo Integrado de P1agas en Arveja. Fase III: 1993-1994. Dardon, D. and Salguero, V., eds. Proyecto MIP, ARF-ICTA-CATIE. Guatemala, 156 p. Garcia Chiu, E. 1992. Manejo Racional de P1agas en Arveja China. Proyecto:Manejo Integrado de P1agas. ICTA-CATJE..ARF. Guatemala, 20 p. Salguero, V., Sanchez, G. and L. Asturias de Barrios. 1996. Integrated Pest Management in Non-Traditional export crops. Seminar Proceedings. IPM CRSP. Guatemala. 90 p.

150 TJOmhom eta/.: Pesticide Policy Dimension of IPM

Pesticide Policy Dimension of Integrated Pest Management

1 2 3 Jessica D. Tjomhom , George W. Norton , and Victor Gapud • 'University of Minnesota, USA, 2Virginia Tech, USA, 3Phi1Rice, The Philippines.

Abstract

Pesticide use has increased worldwide resulting in a growing set of problems related to human exposure and environmental contamination, pest resistance to pesticides, and pest resurgence. Pesticide prices can influence producer decisions to apply pesticides as opposed to nonchemical means of pest control. Those prices, in turn, are influenced by price and exchange rate policies. The effective rates of protection for the nine pesticides commonly applied to vegetables in the Philippines were calculated to determine whether government policies are creating incentives or disincentives to adopt more integrated pest management (IPM) methods. It was found that direct price policies tax pesticide use through an import tariff while an overvalued exchange rate subsidizes pesticide use. It was found that the net effect of the policies was to reduce the retail price of pesticides by 6 percent and to increase the quantity purchased by 3.5 percent. Problem Statement Pesticide use has increased worldwide, resulting in a growing set of problems related to human exposure and environmental contamination, pest resistance to pesticides, and pest resurgence. Pesticide prices can influence producer decisions to apply pesticides as opposed to non­ chemical means of pest control. Those prices in turn are influenced by price and exchange rate policies. Many countries tax or subsidize pesticides and/or their components directly through price policies such as sales or value-added taxes, direct input subsidies, or import tariffs. Many countries import most of their pesticides or pesticide active ingredients and often over-(and occasionally under-) value their exchange rates. Therefore, the analysis of pesticide subsidies and taxes must consider the degree of protection (or disprotection) on inputs into pesticides well as on the pesticides themselves and the implicit degree

151 Prooeedings of the Second IPM CRSP Symposium of protection (or disprotection) afforded by exchange rate distortions. The success of IPM programs in encouraging producers to adopt non­ chemical pest management practices will be influenced by the severity of these distortions. The purpose of this paper is to illustrate, using Philippine data, the application of pesticide policy analysis that assesses direct and indirect subsidies and taxes on pesticide use. Conclusions are drawn about the likely effects of those policies on incentives to adopt IPM practices developed on the IPM CRSP. Research Approach

Methods suggested by Corden (1971) for calculating the effective rate of protection (ERP) and by Krueger, Schiff, and Valdes (1987) for calculating the equilibrium exchange rate are applied to data on the nine pesticides most commonly used on vegetables in Nueva Ecija, the Central Luzon, the Philippines. The ERP includes the effects of distorting policies for both tradable outputs (formulated pesticides in this case) and tradable inputs (active ingredients in this case) by calculating the difference between value-added at the domestic price (including market distortions) and value added at the border price (excluding market distortions). It can be calculated using a nominal exchange rate, a free trade exchange rate, or a free trade equilibrium exchange rate. The analysis in this paper calculates both nominal and free trade equilibrium exchange rates.

Formulas for calculating the ERP and exchange rate distortions are presented in Tjornhom, Norton, and Gapud (1996). The effects of tariffs on formulated and technical pesticides are presented graphically in Figure 1. A tariff (t,) on formulated pesticides (Figure 1a) increases the domestic price of formulated pesticides to PF', reduces import demand and increases domestic supply for those pesticides. The effect is to increase the demand for technical pesticides (Q to C1 in Figure 1c) and for pesticide processing (Q to C1 in Figure 1b). A concurrent but smaller tariff (tr) on technical pesticides increases the price of technical pesticides (to PT' in Figure lc). The Philippines does not produce any technical pesticides domestically. The effect of the technical pesticide tariff is to shift back the supply curve for formulated pesticides which reduces the demand for pesticide processing and technical (to Q") and increases the tariff revenue on formulated pesticides (by the dark shaded area in Figure Ia). It also generates tariff revenue on technical pesticides (dark shaded area in Figure 1c). The price of pesticide processing is reduced to PP".

An overvalued exchange rate acts as an import subsidy. The effect on the formulated pesticide market can be illustrated graphically by

152 Tpmhom eta/.: Pesticide Policy Dimension of IPM reversing the effects of the import tariff on formulated pesticides illustrated in Figure 1. Pesticide price would be reduced, imports would increase, and pesticide processing and use of technical pesticides would decrease. The effects of this implicit subsidy on technical pesticides can also be illustrated by reversing the effects of the import tariff on technical pesticides illustrated in Figure 1. The price of technical pesticides would decrease and the supply curve for formulated pesticides would shift down to the right. The result would be an · increase in domestic production of formulated pesticides and an increase in pesticide processing. However, the implicit subsidy on technical pesticides does not affect the price of formulated pesticides.

Data and data sources Tariff rates for calculation of ERPs were obtained from the Philippine Bureau of Agricultural Statistics (BAS). The tariff rates for formulated and technical pesticides for the years 1987 to 1993 were 10 percent and 5 percent, respectively. No other restrictions were placed on pesticide importations. Border prices of formulated pesticides in dollars per liter and technical pesticides were obtained from the Business Statistics Monitor's Monthly Descriptive Arrivals Report.

Retail price of each of the nine primary pesticides applied to vegetables was determined by surveying pesticide dealers in San Jose City in Nueva Ecija. To derive the price at which the pesticide producer sells the formulated pesticide to the distributor, the marketing margin between the producer and retail level (M) was subtracted from the retail price. From information gained through interviews with the Director of the Fertilizer Pesticide Authority of the Philippines and representatives of pesticide companies in the Philippines, the marketing margin was estimated at 30 percent of the retail price of the formulated pesticide. Data for the equilibrium exchange rate calculations were obtained from the IMF International Financial Statistics yearbook (1995) and from Intal and Power (1991). Results

The effective rate of protection under the actual market exchange rate and under the free trade equilibrium exchange rate were summarized by pesticide by year for a recent five year period (results by pesticide available from the authors). The results indicate an average rate of disprotection for pesticide producers of 12 to 25 percent. The direct tax is being mitigated by the overvalued exchange rate. The degree of divergence between the actual and the equilibrium exchange rate varied from -13.7 to -19.9 percent for 1984 to 1993 with a negative

153 Proceedings of the Second IPM CRSP Symposium

SP

QP

(~l Todwiclll pooli;icloo

Fi~=.lre L r;.rr~t.:l~ uf Lar.i£I1 UD. IUJ.ua.daLtw:l11nd fl:chni;"' pc:s.tEcick'i.

154 TJOmhom eta!.: Pesticide Policy Dimension of IPM divergence indicating an overvalued exchange rate. The average amount of overvaluation was 17.7 percent (18.6 from 1989 to 1993). The average annual percentage changes in retail pesticide prices and quantities consumed were calculated and, on average, retail price is 6 percent lower and quantity purchased 3.5 percent higher than they would be without the distortions. Conclusion

Retail pesticide prices in the Philippines have been subsidized in net, and the amount of pesticides produced and consumed have increased as a result All of this subsidy is due to the exchange rate overvaluation. The subsidy is small, however, and therefore should offer little deterrent to the adoption of IPM. There has been some discussion of reducing pesticide tariffs in the Philippines. It would appear that such reductions would be unwise given the concern over environmental externalities unless policies are undertaken to reduce overvaluation of the exchange rate.

References

Corden, M. Theory of Protection (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971), Chapter 3. Intal, P. S. and J. H. Power, "The Philippines," in A. 0. Krueger, M. Schiff, and A. Valdes (eds.) The Political Economy of Agricultural Pricing Policy: Asia, Volume 2, World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1991. Krueger, A. 0., M. Schiff, and A. Valdes, "Agricultural Incentives in Developing Countries: Measuring the Effects of Sectoral and Economy-Wide Policies," The World Bank Economic Review 2:3 (1988): 255-271. Tjornhom, J. D., G. W. Norton, and V. Gapud. Pesticide Policy Dimension of Integrated Pest Management, Department of Agricultural and Applied Economics, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 1996. 28 pp.

155 Proceedings of the Second IPM CRSP Symposium

Information Technologies to Enhance International IPM Research Programs

1 2 3 F. William Ravlin ,Janice Reid , Philip Chung , E. A. Roberts', and 1 Shahrooz Feizabadi • 'Department of Entomology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, 2Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development fustitute (CARD!), Jamaica; 3Jamaica Ministry of Agriculture, Rural Agricultural Development Authority, Kingston, Jamaica

Abstract

Information technologies have the potential to significantly increase the quality of IPM researcher communication and research output. This ·can be done by developing a "research team culture" that emphasizes and values substantive and continuous communication among team members and facilitates this communication with a blend of classical and new communication methods. This paper presents a view of how new and classical methods of communication can be blended to increase communication and enhance research capabilities as demonstrated in the IPM CRSP Caribbean research team.

Characteristics and Needs of International Research and Collaboration.

International research teams are separated in space and time and as a result, communication can be difficult, interactions among team members infrequent, and relationships among team members reduced to "strictly business and a bottom line". At different points in time, collaborators work as an international' team and at other points the research effort is a multinational2 effort. These teams are accountable to the some of the same agencies and at the same time, different ones. Individuals in research teams have different agendas, different perceptions of problems, different problem solving approaches, and

1 International research teams integ!ale objectives, efforts, and skills to achieve a common goal based on a shared set of expedations. International teams maintain a substantive and continuous communication throughout the life of a research project 2 Multinational reasearch teams have a common general goal or set objectives but v.ori< primartly as independent entities based on individual priolity systems.

156 Ravlin et al.: Information Technologies to Enhance lntemationaiiPM Research Programs

different cultures. These similarities and different create opportunities and challenges when faced with achieving research and development goals in developing countries. One opportunity is that different perspectives and disciplines can synergistically combine to produce research teams that achieve excellence. Challenges lie in discovering and implementing "tools" and technologies that foster and facilitate communication (eliminate space and time problems) in international teams, promote equity among team members, and make project information globally available in a timely fashion (i.e., all members have access to the same information at the same time). The objective of this paper is to show how information technology can assist international research and development teams to address problems of space, time, and culture and to significantly improve communications, interactions, and productivity.

Classical Approaches to Communication.

Before 1994, many of the technologies discussed in this paper were nonexistent, or had limited applicability. These technologies include: the Internet, electronic mail (e-mail), the World Wide Web (WWW), user-friendly database management tools and statistical software, and CD ROM. To be userful, all of these technologies require microcomputers and appropriate software and hardware. Microcomputers were not and, to a degree, are not used to a large extent for communications in international and multinational research programs. This lack is due to availability, cost, training, and the lack of awareness of what information technologies can do to improve the quality of research projects. Thus, scientists rely primarily on ground and air mail, telephone, fax, and personal visits to communicate and share information. These approaches are still viable and essential; however, each has its shortcomings and these shortcomings constrain the ability of research teams to progress from groups of multinational collaborators to international research teams. Table 2 compares the classical communication approaches on the basis of the variables as defmed in Table I.

For example, the international mail system is extremely slow and highly variable with regard to reliability. Mail does, however, allow scientists to distribute letters, reprints of publications, slide sets, video tapes, etc. exactly as they appear in the journals, report series, or whatever medium is appropriate. In terms of interacting with the information or the sender of the information there is little opportunity to do so immediately unless other methods of communication are used (e.g., telephone or fax). Obviously each method has positive and

157 Proceedings of the Second IPM CRSP Symposium

negative attributes (as indicated by shading) and it is clear that a combination of these methods is essential to facilitate research.

Table 1. Definitions of variables used to compare communication methods. Variable Definition

Speed the relative rate at which communication can take place compared with telephone communications. Reliability the relative frequency of completing a successful communication. Continuity the potential for a method to facilitate frequent communications compared to daily interactions at a common location. lnteractivity the ability to interact with information or individuals (i.e., react to new information). Facsintile Reproduction the ability of a method to transntit the printed page Media Options the ability of a method to transmit text, graphics, sound, video, or facilitate interpersonal interactions Availability the degree to which a method is available to collaborators in developing countries. Training demands the amount of training required to be able to use a given method Per unit equipment the relative level of skill required to use the demands method (piece of equipment) Per Unit of Information the relative cost of each bit of information Cost after the equipment purchase and training (if necessary).

158 Ravlin et al.: lnfonnation Technologies to Enhance lntemational IPM Research Programs

Table 2. Comparison of classical modes of communication for international research project collaborators. Method of Communication International Variable Mail Telephon Fax Personal e Visits Speed Slow Fast Fast N/A Reliability Low- High Moderate Moderate High during visit Continuity Low Moderate Moderate Low- High during visits Interactivity Low Moderate Low High Facsimile High None Moderate N/A ReProduction Media Options High- Text, Low- Moderate Interpersonal graphics (color), Voice -Text, commtmication video, audio graphics (black and white) Availability Global Variable Variable Low to High depending on resources Training Low Low Low High Demands Maintenance Low Moderate Moderate N/A Demands Per Unit Low Low to Low to Low Equipment rnodeJ:ate moderate Demands Per Unit of Moderate High High Low to high Information (travel costs and Cost length of stay) Positive Negative attribute <------> ...... -...... -...... -...... !---·-···-···-····--··-·-attribute.. ··---····-- Low impact, low information Moderate impact - High impact - high content moderate information content information content

159 Proceedings of the Seoond IPM CRSP Symposium

Internet-based Information Technologies. With the introduction of the Internet and its associated technologies, many new information tools have the potential to significantly enhance international research enterprises. Some of these tools include electronic mail (e-mail), listservs, gopher, and the World Wide Web (WWW). Internet-based methods are compared in Table 3 with regard to positive and negative attributes as with classical communication methods. The positive attributes of most Internet-based tools lie in speed, reliability, and flexibility of media options. In addition, desktop convenience and "timelessness" (i.e., not affected by time zone differences) make these technologies far superior to telephones and fax machines. Two significant negative attributes that constrain global adoption are maintenance and per unit equipment demands. However, once an Internet infrastructure is put into place, the per unit of information cost is very low compared to classical approaches (i.e., local telephone charges compared to long-distance). The Changing Role of Information Technologies in International Research and Development Prior to 1994, Internet-based technologies were viewed as impractical for many, if not most, international research efforts. This was due primarily to priority and resource issues and questions related to introducing appropriate technologies into developing countries. Computers were viewed as too difficult to use and maintain and too expensive to purchase. From the standpoint of priorities and resources, access to "right now information"' (e.g., market prices, weather, pest status) were not given priority over physical goods and services. This situation has radically changed as a function of the global economy, technological advances, and the liberalization of policies governing ownership and distribution of information. Today, global economics are not only enhanced but are dependent upon "right now information" and availability on the Internet In addition, computers (hardware and software) are more accessible with regard to use (human-computer interfaces) and cost. Thus, governmental priorities are shifting toward information technologies because of economic imperatives, competitive forces, and accessibility of the technologies themselves. Another factor that is increasing the demand

3 lnfonnation that is time-sensitive.

160 Ravlin et al.: lnfonnation Technologies to Enhance lntemationa!IPM Research Programs

Table 3 . Comparison of Internet-based modes of communication. Method of Communication World Variable Electronic Mail Listserv Gopher Wide Web Speed' Fast Fast Moderate- Low- Fast Moderate Reliability Moderate - High Moderate- Moderate- Moderate- High High High Continuity Moderate - High Moderate- Moderate Moderate High Interactivity Moderate Moderate Low Moderate- High Facsimile Low- High• Low Low High R~oduction Media Low- High• Low Low High Options Availability Low-High Low- High Low- High Low- Moderate Training Moderate - High Moderate- Moderate- Moderate- demands' High High High Maintem1nce High High High High Demands" Per Unit Moderate Moderate Moderate High' Equipment Demands Per Unit of Low Low Low Low Information Cost • A function of the medium carrying signals (e.g., telephone lines vs. ethernet) and modem capabilities (i.e., baud rate ranging from 9600 to 24,4000 bits per second in most cases). • Depends on the ability to attach other documents. ' Assumes a limited knowledge of basic computer operations by users (i.e., training in basic computer skills may be required). • Includes computer and medium carrying signal. However, these costs are often shared by many users. 'Requires increased computer capability such as RAM and hard disk space.

161 Proceedngs of the Seoond IPM CRSP Symposium for information technologies in developing countries is that many students and older scientists are being educated at US and European universities where information technologies are standard "tools of the trade". These scientists have developed a vision of how information technology can help to increase the research productivity by making information more available and how it can assist developing countries to becoming active participants in information-based industries. In addition, democratization and resulting liberalization of policies governing ownership and distribution of information has empowered people at all levels of government, private industry, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs ), and universities in many countries. This empowerment is exponentially increasing the numbers of people who have a need for timely information and information technology world wide. A notable example of a philosophical change Internet Technology Definitions emphasizing information technology is the Africalink Internet - The collection of computer project that is funded by networks that allow computers to USAID. A portion of the talk to each other using a common Africalink project is devoted to language. increasing the numbers of Electronic mail (e-mail) locations in Africa that have Messages transmitted over the Internet access and e-mail. Internet from user to user. E-mail can contain text, but also can cany The IPM CRSP Caribbean site with it files of any type as is actively evaluating different attachments. forms of information Listserv A program that technology to enhance research automatically "serves" many users projects and ultimately promote by sending electronic newsletters to adoption of IPM technologies a stored database of Internet user by Caribbean farmers. addresses. Objectives for this effort are to Gopher - A searching tool that was the increase the quality of research primary tool for finding Internet and research results by: documents before the World Wide 1. Implementing appropriate Web became popular. technologies and World Wide Web (WWW) - A approaches that will system based upon hypertext that encourage substantive and transfers documents across a varied continuous communication array of computer systems. among IPM CRSP collaborators. 2. Making project information available to each collaborator in a timely fashion. 3. Increasing the quality of research results through better access to bibliographic databases.

162 Ravlin et al.: lnfonnation Technologies to Enhance lntemationaiiPM Research Programs

4. Emphasizing information generating tools including experimental design and statistical software. 5. Allowing collaborators to speak a common "research language". 6. Disseminating information technology concepts and skills through participatory workshops and collaborating with other similar efforts (e.g., the Caribbean IPM Network).

Because of constraints on the scope of this paper it is not possible to discuss all of the above objectives. Therefore, we will present the results of three activities that cut across several objectives. These activities are: The Information Systems Workshop, the IPM CRSP World Wide Web Internet site, and two database management systems that make bibliographic and graphical image resources available to IPM CRSP collaborators.

The Information Systems Workshop. In June 1996, the Information Systems (IS) Workshop was held in Kingston, Jamaica. The objectives of the workshop were to enhance collaborating scientist awareness and capabilities in information technology including data base management and Internet tools (e-mail, WWW, etc.). The IS Workshop also emphasized facilitating collaboration and networking among other IPM scientists throughout the Caribbean. Workshop topics were: • Data collection, entry, and management concepts •Geographic information systems •The Internet •The World Wide Web

The IS Workshop was presented using electronic presentation software4 and these presentations, participant information, and workshop evaluations are available on the IPM CRSP WWW Internet 5 Site • Twenty-two participants from 5 countries (Jamaica, Barbados, St. Thomas, Dominica, and Granada) attended the IS Workshop. Table 4 presents a profile of the participants computer and Internet exposure. An evaluation of the IS Workshop showed that and average of 91% of the participants said that a given topic was very relevant to their job; 84% would definitely attend more workshops on that topic; 91% would recommend a given part of the Workshop to their colleagues.

4 Microsoft PowerPoint"and Netscapee 5 hltp:/Rpm-www.ento.vt.edu:8000/crsp/ 163 Proceedings of !he Seoond IPM CRSP Symposium

Table 4. Profile of the Infonnation Systems Workshop participants exposure to computers and the Internet (proportion of responses n=22) ' . Yes No Access to a computer .77 .23 Expect to have access to a computer within the next year .91 .09 Connected to the Internet .23 .77 Access to e-mail .32 .68 Used the World Wide Web .22 .78 Plan to gain access to the Internet within the next year. .73 .27

IPM CRSP World Wide Web Internet Site. In 1996 the lPM CRSP was the first USAID CRSP to implement a WWW Internet site. The IPM CRSP site was established in August at Virginia Tech. It provides access to a Directory of lPM CRSP Collaborators, Annual Workplans and Reports, the IPM CRSP Policy and Operating Procedures Manual, memoranda of understanding among lPM CRSP collaborating agencies, research reports and workshops, and reference materials including: annotated bibliographies and bibliographic search tools, IPM references, pesticide information, and country maps. In addition, there are ''virtual tours" of the Jamaica, Guatemala, the Philippines, and Mali research locations. The virtual tours provide country maps, images of !PM CRSP activities taken on-site, and access to the CIA Factbook. The IPM CRSP server also contains links to other WWW lPM and agricultural sites, affiliated agencies, and NGOs (e.g., USAID, CGIAR centers, FAO, USDA, World Bank, and the affiliated Consortium for Integrated Crop Protection). Funding for the IPM CRSP WWW site is provided by USAID, USDA, Virginia Tech, and the National Science Foundation Center for Integrated Pest Management (CIPM). This shared funding base and associated networking promotes IPM programs and the distribution of IPM information world wide.

IPM CRSP Database Management Systems. Sharing information among IPM CRSP collaborators is constrained by distance, resources, and tools that facilitate information access and sharing. Non-US scientists cannot easily draw upon research-based literature (books and journals) and US scientists cannot draw upon the so-called "gray literature" that contains a wealth of information about country-specific issues, policies, and indigenous practices (i.e., reports written by governmental agencies, consultants, and NGOs). Thus,

164 Ravlin eta/.: lnfonnation Technologies to Enhance lntemational IPM Research Programs collaborators cannot work from a common information base and are not able to communicate about research issues at the same level. Three computer-aided systems have been initiated by the IPM CRSP to develop tools to capture literature and make it widely available: The Collaborative Information Retrieval System, Pennsylvania State's Bibliographic Search and Database Service, The Collaborative Digital Image Library (CDILib)

The Collaborative Information Retrieval System (CIRS). CIRS is an Internet-based digital library that uses a WWW browser to access literature citations, abstracts, and electronically-captured documents. Citations can be entered into CIRS using commercial software called EndNote®. This approach has the advantages of providing users with a locally-accessible database and then being able to transfer information to CIRS to access it globally using a WWW browser (e.g., Netscape®). Electronically-captured documents can also be accessed by providing an Internet address (uniform resource locator or URL) to that document. By using this approach, documents can reside on a WWW server anywhere in the world. CIRS also allows users to designate "projeets" that compartmentalize databases. For example, a "pepper project" could be initiated that would capture literature about pests, cropping practices, and research associated with pepper production. Another project could capture information about policies that affect IPM adoption and export policies to the US. Because scientists may also wish to search across projects CIRS allows users to select more than one project and to designate keywords and Boolean operators ("and", "or") for each search. Another feature of CIRS is the by using EndNote® as the entry point it is also compatible with Pennylvania State's Bibliographic Search and Database Service. This service allows IPM CRSP collaborators to request bibliographic searches from extensive literature databases such as AGRICOLA.

The Collaborative Digital Image Library (CDILib). CDILib is a database of IPM CRSP images (Jamaica, Guatemala, Mali, Philippines) that were converted into electronic format (scanned). There are two components to the. CD!Lib the images themselves and a database management system that allows users to search for keywords and access the file names of images stored on computer. The benefits of CDILib are that images of international research that were once confined to individual researcher's offices can now become available to all collaborators. The CDILib database management system was written using Fi!eMaker Pro® and the images are stored on hard disk and CD ROM (not yet generally available). It is also possible to make these images available using the Internet and WWW similar to CIRS. The CDILib image base currently has over 2,000 images. 165 Proceedings of the Second IPM CRSP Symposium

Status and Use of Some Information Technology Of the technologies described above, the IPM CRSP WWW site and e­ mail are used most by CRSP collaborators and other individuals interested in IPM. The database projects (CIRS and CDILib) have just begun and will be used to more extensively during the coming years.

E-mail has had an especially significant impact on communications among the IPM CRSP Caribbean team members. For example, during the month leading up to the development of the Year 5 Workplan there were 27 communications among research collaborators and the Site Chair alone. This included the eventual transmission of an initial draft (>20 pages) to all but one of the six primary research units including CARDI, Jamaica. Conclusions Information technologies have the potential to significantly increase the quality ofiPM CRSP researcher communication and output. This can be done by developing a "research team culture" that emphasizes and values substantive and continuous communication among team members and facilitates this communication with a blend of classical and new communication methods. No technology will ever take the place of face-to-face physical interactions. However, by blending information technologies together with the relatively infrequent "site visits," multinational research efforts can move much closer to international efforts. Implementing information technologies will not come without overcoming several factors that inhibit their use. In order to successfully implement information technologies several factors must be overcome. All domestic, multinational, and international research teams must:

I. Create a research culture and a shared set of expectations that reqnires substantive and continuous communication. 2. Create a vision of how communication can best be accomplished, how information can best be shared, and how information technology can aid these processes. 3. Insure that there is administrative support and resources for information technology (i.e., decision makers and administrators have ownership of the vision for information sharing).

166 Ravlin et al.: lnfonnation Technologies to Enhance lntemationaiiPM Research Programs

4. Share the responsibility for communication and information dissemination among all collaborators. Information technologies cannot be delegated to a single individual but accepted as a standard way of "doing business". 5. Acquire technology that can be maintained on site and is sustainable with minimum outside intervention. 6. Implement appropriate information technologies as rapidly as possible. Once awareness of the need has been achieved delays in implementation can undermine preceding efforts. 7. Realize that different cultures move in different ditections at different speeds.

167 Proceedngs of 1he Second IPM CRSP Symposium

Appendix 1: PROGRAM FOR THR SECOND IPM CRSP SYMPOSIUM, PLANNING WORKSHOP, AND TECHNICAL COMMITTEE MEETING

~ay 16-20, 1997 Guatemala City, Guatemala

Friday. May 16th - Symposium

Chair - S.K. DeDatta

8:00 - 8:15 AM Welcome and introductory remarks. S.K. DeDatta

8:15 -8:35AM Official Welcome from Guatemala. Vice Minister Castafieda, Ministry of Agriculture and Ricardo Santa Cruz, GEXPRONT/ ARF

8:35 - 8:45 AM Purpose and objectives of Workshopff.C. meetings. Glenn Sullivan

8:45 - 9:00 AM Highlights of progress and challenges of the lPM CRSP. Brhane Gebrekidan

SESSION I Symposium - Research Reports - Insects

Chair - Don Plucknett

9:00 - 9:20 AM Diamond Back moth lPM in crucifers. N.S. Talekar

9:20 - 9:40 AM Leaf miner taxonomy I management in snow pea. Vfctor Salguero, Roger Williams, Luis Calder6n, and Steve Weller

9:40 - 10:00 AM Use of neem, cultural practices, and insect-resistant varieties for insect pest management in millet/cowpea. Gamby K. Toure, Rich Edwards, and John Caldwell. 10:00 - 10:20 AM Sweet potato lPM. Janet Lawrence, Janice Bohac, and Shelby Fleischer

10:20 - 10:35 AM Coffee Break

168 Appendix 1: Symposium Program

10:35 - 10:55 AM White grub management in broccoli production. Anne Dix and Ron Carroll

10:55 - 11:15 AM Stem borers management in sorghum/millet. Sam Kyamanywa and Hal Willson

11:15- 11:35 AM Pesticide use and residues on vegetable Amaranthus. Janice Reid, Clive Edwards, and Charlie Pitts.

11:35 - 12:00 Noon Discussion

12:00- 1:30PM Lunch

SESSION II Symposium - Research Reports - Nematodes, Diseases, and Weeds

Chair - Brhane Gebrekidan

1:30 - 1:50 PM Root-knot nematodes in rice/onion systems. R.M. Gapasin, John Halbrendt, and J. Prot

1:50- 2:10PM Botrytis and powdery mildew in bramble plantations. Gnillermo Sanchez and Roger Williams

2:10- 2:30PM Damping-off and bulb rot in onion production. Sally Miller and Andy Sanchez

2:30 - 2:50 PM Management of nut sedges (Cyperus rotundis) in rice - vegetable systems. Aurora Baltazar, Santi Obien, and S.K. DeDatta

2:50- 3:10PM Striga IPM in millet and sorghum. Amadou Diarra, Bourema Dembele, John Caldwell, and B. Gebrekidan

3:10 - 3:30PM Discussion 3:30 - 3:45 PM Coffee Break

169 Proceedings of the Second IPM CRSP Symposium

SESSION III Symposium - Research Reports - Social Sciences, Policy, and Technology

Chair - Victor Salguero

3:45 - 4:05 PM Socioeconomic impacts in NTAE crops. Linda Asturias and Glenn Sullivan

4:05 - 4:25 PM Gender differentiated IPM constraints in Mali. Adam Russ, Dan Taylor, Revathi Balakrishnan, and Makan Fofana

4:25 - 4:45 PM IPM strategies in the development of NTAE preinspection protocols, Guillermo Sanchez, Steve Weller, and Glenn Sullivan

4:45 - 5:05 PM Pesticide policy in the Philippines. George Norton, Jessica Tjornhom, and Victor Gapud

5:05 - 5:25 PM New technology to increase international collaboration among IPM stakeholders. Bill Ravlin, Janice Reid, and Philip Chung.

5:25 - 5:45 PM Discussion

Optional Poster I Tools Session 5:45- 6:45PM • Farmer evaluation video, Gamby K.Toure • Uganda IPM Research Poster Presentation, Mark Erbaugh.

Saturday. May 17th - Symposium SESSION IV Symposium - Presentation of site results

Chair - Glenn Sullivan

8:00 - 8:15 AM Asia Site, Philippines. George Norton

8:15 - 8:30AM Asia Site, Philippines. Victor Gapud

8:30 - 8:45 AM Discussion on Asia Site

170 Appendix 1: Symposium Program

8:45 - 9:00 AM Africa Site, Mali. Mark Erbaugh

9:00 - 9:15 AM Africa Site, Mali. Gamby K TouretAmadou Diarra

9: 15 - 9:30 AM Discussion on Africa Site

9:30 - 9:45 AM Coffee Break

SESSION V Symposium - Presentation of site results Chair - Mel Blase

9:45 - 10:00 AM Jamaica site. Bill Ravlin

10:00 - 10:15 AM Jamaica site. Janice Reid/Janet Lawrence

10:15 - 10:30 AM Discussion on Jamaica Site

10:30 - 10:45 AM Latin America site, Guatemala. Glenn Sullivan

10:45 - 11:00 AM Latin America site, Guatemala. Victor Salguero

11:00 - 11:15 AM Discussion on Latin America Site

12:00 - 1:30 PM Lunch

SESSION VI - Planning Workshop Year 5 Chair - George Norton

1:30 - 2:15 PM Guidelines and discussion on Year 5 Planning

2:15- 5:30PM Break out sessions by four sites

171 Proceedings of the Second IPM CRSP Symposium

Sunday. May 18th - Planning Workshop SESSION VII - Planning Year 5 - Plenary Session all Four Groups Together

Chair - 4 Site Chairs

8:00 - 9:00 AM Status reports and clarifications on issues arising from the breakout sessions

9:00 - 10:00 AM Breakout session (continued)

10:15- 10:30 AM Coffee Break

10:30 - 12:00 Breakout session (continued) Noon 12:00- 1:30PM Lunch

SESSION VIII - Planning Year 5 - Plenary Session all Four Groups Together

Chair - 4 Site Chairs

1:30 - 4:00 PM Breakout session (continued)

4:00- 4:15PM Coffee Break

4:15 -5:30PM Joint Reporting Session (plenary)

Monday. May 19th -Technical Committee Meeting

SESSION IX -Technical Committee Meeting

Chair - George Norton

8:00 - 8:15 AM Report from the Board.

8:15 - 8:45 AM Report from the EEP.

8:45 - 9:15 AM Business session.

172 Appendix 1: Symposium Program

9: 15 - 9:45 AM Business session.

9:45 - 10:00 AM Coffee Break

10:00 - 11:15 AM Discussion of Year 5 Workplan

11:15 - 11:30 AM Business session.

II :30 - 12:00 Business session Noon 12:00 - 1:30 PM Lunch

SESSION X -Phase II - IPM CRSP Renewal

Chair - S.K. DeDatta

1:30 - 5:30 PM IPM CRSP Renewal.

5:00 Closing remarks and thanks to host country and participants

Tuesday. May 20th - Field Trip

8:00AM Depart Guatemala City. Visit to the Guatemala highlands NTAE production areas and IPM CRSP research sites.

Lunch in route - Tocoyal

Dinner Antigua (Casa Santo Domingo)

173 Proceedngs of the Second IPM CRSP Symposium

Appendix ll: List ofParticipants

Linda Asturias de Barrios Danilo Dardon Estudio 1,360 S.A. Plant Protection, ICTA 4a. Ave. A 13-60 zona 9 Km. 21.5 carretera bacia Amatitlan, Guatemala, Guatemala Barcenas, Villa Nueva , Guatemala [email protected] or [email protected] [email protected] 502-631-2007 Fax: 502-631-2002 502-360-8862 Fax:502-36Qc8862 Lonni Davenport Aurora M. Baltazar Purdue University UPLB/NCPC College of Agriculture 1165 Horticulture Building Laguna 4031, Phllippines West Lafayette, IN, USA 47907-1165 [email protected] [email protected]. edu 632-836-2231 Fax: 632-761-2405 765-494-1314 Fax: 765-494-0391

Melvin Blase Lucrecia de Leon U. of Missouri, Dept. of Soc. Science USDA APHIS 200 Mumford Hall 4a. Av. 12-62 zona 10 Columbia, MO, USA 65211 Guatemala, Guatemala 573-882-0128 Fax: 573-882-3958 [email protected] 502-331-2036 Fax: 502-333-5446 Lnis Calderon ICTAIIPM CRSP S.K. DeDatta Km. 21.5 Carretera bacia Amatitliln, Virginia Tech, Management Entity Barcenas Villa Nueva, Guatemala Office of Jnt' I Research & Dev. [email protected] I 060 Litton Reaves, 502-631-2007 Fax: 502-631-2002 Blacksburg, VA, USA 24061-0334 dedana@vtedu John S. Caldwell 540-231-6338 Fax: 540-231-6741 Dept. of Horticulture, Virginia Tech 306E Saunders Hall Amadon Diarra Blacksburg, VA, USA 24061-0327 Iustitut d'Economie Rurale (IER) caldwelj @vtedu BP 258 Bamako, Mali 540-231-6323 Fax: 540-231-3083 ier-mali @cgnetcom 223-22-2606 Fax: 223-22-3775 Ron Carroll Institute of Ecology, Univ. of Georgia Anne Dix Athens, GA, USA 30602-2202 Universidad del Valle de Guatemala [email protected] [email protected] 706-542-2968 Fax: 706-542-6040 502-3690793 Ext.l66 Fax: 502-364- 0212

174 Appendix II: Ust of Participants

Richard Drennan Victor Gapud US Embassy !PM Program Leader, Ave. Reforma 7-01, zona 10 University of the Philippines Los Banos Guatemala, Guatemala Phi!Rice. Maligaya, Nufioz, N. Ecija, [email protected] College, Laguna 4031 Philippines 502-331-1541 Fax: 502-331-7373 [email protected] 632-843-5122 Fax: 632-89!-1292 Florence Dunkel Entomology Research Laboratory, Brhane Gebrekidan Montana State University !PM CRSP Bozeman. MT, USA 59717-0302 1060 Litton Reaves Hall, [email protected] Blacksburg, VA, USA 24061-0334 406-994-5065 Fax: 406-994-6029 [email protected] 540-231-3516 Fax: 540-231-3519 Clive Edwards Ohio State University Farouk Hamdy 103 Botany & Zoology Bldg. USDA APHIS 1735 Neil Ave. 4a. Ave. 12-62, zona 10 Columbus. OH, USA 43210-1220 Guatemala, Guatemala [email protected] [email protected] 614-292-3786 Fax:614-292-2180 502-331-2036 Fax: 502-333-5446

Mark Erbaugh Sarah Hamilton International Programs in Agriculture Virginia Tech Ohio State University Office of lnt'I Research & Dev. 113 Agriculture Admin. Bnilding Blacksburg, VA, USA 24061-0334 2120 Fyffe Road [email protected] Columbus, OH, USA 43210-1099 540-231-6338 erbaugh.l @osu.edu 614-292-7252 Fax: 614-292-1757 Dixon Hanna Virginia Tech Kadiatou Gamby Institut d'Economie Rurale (IER) Robert C. Hedlund Rue Mohammed V, US AID B.P. 258. Bamako, Mali GfEGIAFSI, SA2 Room 402-D [email protected] Washington D.C., USA 20523-0214 223-22-2606 Fax: 223-22-3775 [email protected] 202-663-2516 Fax: 202-663-2948 Ruben Gapasin Phi!Rice Suzanne Heinen Munoz, N. Ecija, Philippines US Embassy 632-843-5122 Fax: 632-891-1292 Ave. Reforma 7-01, zona 10 Guatemala, Guatemala [email protected] 502-332-4030 Fax: 502-331-7373 175 Proceedngs of the Second IPM CRSP Symposium

K.L. Heong Sally Miller International Rice Research Institute Ohio State Univ., Dept. of Plant Path. P.O. Box 933, 1099 1680 Madison Ave. Manila, Philippines Wooster, OH, USA 44691-4096 [email protected] [email protected] 632-845-0569 330-263-3618 Fax: 330-263-3841

Allan Hruska Mario Moscoso EIZamorano CATIE Apartado93 6a. Ave. 20-25, zona 10 Tegncigaipa, Honduras Guatemala, Guatemala 504-766140 Fax :504-766242 bvilleda@ gua.gbm.net 502-337-0155 Fax: 502-337-0431 Samuel Kyamanywa Dept. of Crop Science Lisa Myers Room 51, Faculty of Ag. & Forestry Min. of Agr., Dept. of Res. & Dev. Makerere University, Bodies Research Station. Old Harbour P.O. Box 7062, St. Catherine, Jamaica, West Indies Kampala, Uganda 809-983-2823 [email protected]. ug 256-41-533620 Fax: 256-41-531641 George Norton Dept of Ag. & Applied Economics, Janet Lawrence 205-B Hutcheson Hall, Viriginia Tech CARD I Blacksburg, VA, USA 24061-0401 P.O. Box 113, Mona [email protected] Kingston 7, Jamaica 540-231-7731 Fax: 540-231-3318 [email protected] 809-927-1231 Fax: 809-927-2099 Tom Payne Ohio State University James Litsinger 1680 Madison Ave. Penn. State Wooster, OH, USA 44691-4096 365 Jacob's Place 330-269-3701 Fax: 330-263-3688 Dixon. CA, USA 95620 [email protected] Charlie Pitts 916-678-9068 Fax: 916-678-9069 Entomology Dept., Penn. State Univ. 622 Burkslave Charles MacVean State College, PA, USA 16802 Universidad del Valle de Guatemala [email protected] 18 Ave. 11-95, zona 15 814-863-7789 Fax: 814-865-3048 Vista Hermosa III [email protected] 502-364-0336 Fax: 502-364-0212

176 Appendix It Ust of Participan1S

Ed Rajotte Ricardo Santa Cruz Entomology Dept., Penn. State Univ. ARF/GEXPRONT 501 AS! 15Av. 14-72, zona 13 University Park, PA, USA 16802 Guatemala, Guatemala [email protected] 502-362-2002 Fax:: 502-362-1950 814-863-4641 Fax: 814-865-3048 Glenn Sullivan Bill Ravlin Purdue University Virginia Tech Dept. of Entomology 1165 Horticulture Building 30!C Price Hall West Lafayette, IN, USA 47907-1165 Blacksburg, VA, USA 24061-0319 [email protected] ravlin @vt.edu 765-494-1313 Fax: 765-494-0391 540-231-6826 Fax: 504-231-9131 N.S. Talekar Janice Reid AVRDC CARD! P.O. Box 42, Shanhua, Tainan 741 P.O. Box 113 Mona, Taiwan, Republic of China Kingston 7, Jamaica [email protected] 809-927-1231 Fax: 809-927-2099 886-6-583-7801 Fax: 886-6-583-0009

VIctor Salguero Dan Taylor ICTA-!PM CRSP Dept. of Agricultural & Applied 23Av. 30-55, zona 5 Economics, Virginia Tech Guatemala, Guatemala 232-B Hutcheson Hall, icta .micro.com.gt Blacksburg, VA, USA 24061-0401 502-631-2007 or 502-261-0282 Fax: taylord @vtvml.cc. vt.edu 502-631-2002 540-231-5032 Fax:540-23!-7417

Guillermo Sanchez Bladimiro Villeda UVG/IPM CRSP CATIE Guatemala, Guatemala 6a, Ave. 20-25, zona 10 [email protected] Guatemala, Guatemala 502-364-0336/40 Fax: 502-364-0212 bvilleda@ gna,gbm.net 502-337-0155 Fax: 502-337-0431 Milton Sandoval ALTERTEC Michael Wade Boulevard Los Pr6ceres, 18 AGRILAB Calle 9-31, zona 10 11 Ave. 36-40, zona 11 Guatemala, Guatemala Guatemala, Guatemala altertec@guatenet 502-442-2422 Fax: 502-477-0678 Phone/Fax: 502-368-3181

177 Proceedings of the Second IPM CRSP Symposium

Stephen Weller Roger Williams IPM Specialist Horticulture, Dept. of Entomo1ogy/OARDC Purdue University Ohio State University 1165 Horticulture Building 1680 Madison Avenue West Lafayette, IN, USA 47907-1165 Wooster, OH, USA 44691-4096 [email protected] [email protected] 765-494-1300 Fax: 765-494-0391 330-263-3731 Fax: 330-263-3686

178