for the discussion of NEW TRENDS IN EDUCATION contents

THE LONDON SCHOOL PLAN: THE PRESENT STAGE H. Raymond King, Headmaster, Wandsworth School

LEICESTERSHIRE: THE FIRST YEAR AT HINCKLEY F. Oldham, Headmaster, Hinckley Grammar School G. Baxter, Headmaster, Burbage High School

EDUCATION POLICIES OF POLITICAL PARTIES Robin Pedley, Senior Lecturer in Education, Univer­ sity of Leicester

JUNIOR SCHOOL STREAMING: A SURVEY J. E. Brown, Headmaster, Sedgehill School

DEVELOPING ADVANCED COURSES IN THE MODERN SECONDARY SCHOOL F. A. Crofts, Headmaster, Carter Lodge Secondary School SCIENCE TEACHING IN THE NUCLEAR AGE : A SYMPOSIUM Peter Astbury, Lecturer in Physics, Imperial College, London R. J. Scammell, Woodherry Down School Michael Robinson, Great Barr Comprehensive School

BOOK REVIEWS Education in the Soviet Union Lady Simon of Wythenshawe Inside the Comprehensive School Edward Blishen

Volume 1 Number 1 Price Three Shillings Annual Subscription (3/4d. post free) eight shillings and sixpence (post free) EDITORIAL BOARD

9 3tacmillan s History EDWARD BLISHEN Assistant Master, Archway County Secondary Class Pictures School, London MARJORIE COOKE SET in Headmistress, Priory Girls' Secondary Modern Sets I and II of these attractive full-colour School, Middlesex plates cover Norman times to Tudor times S. FISHER and the Tudors to Victoria; this third set Senior History Master, Woodberry Down brings the series up to the present day. 60 School, London pictures (21" by W each) £5 Reference book to this set ready shortly. G. C. FREELAND Headmaster, Mowmacre Junior School, Picture Pageant Leicester Series B. F. HOBBY Senior French Master, Yardley Grammar A well-illustrated series, with simply-worded, School, Birmingham interesting texts and very readable introduc­ tions to each subject. Already published: H. E. HOPPER 1. The United Nations 2. Ships 3. Forests Headmaster, Wilby Can* Secondary School, of Britain 4. Roads. 3s 6d each Doncaster H. RAYMOND KING Second Intermediate Headmaster, Wandsworth School, London Comprehensive TREVOR LOVETT Headmaster, Holyhead County Secondary Mathematics School, Anglesey J. D. HODSON F. R. ROLLINSON The second book of an Intermediate Course Headmaster, Westfield Comprehensive School, commencing with First Intermediate Compre­ Derbyshire hensive Mathematics \ these two books cover LADY SIMON OF WYTHENSHAWE the gap between the author's Introductory Manchester Education Committee Course and the final year of the ' O' level G.C.E. course. 8s With answers: Ss 6d J. H. TURNER Director of Education, West Bromwich J. WALTON Technical Drawing Senior History Master, Great Barr Compre­ P. F. HARROP hensive School, Birmingham Assistance in workshop practice and an introduction to more advanced work. The Editors: technique of drawing is clearly explained. ROBIN PEDLEY and BRIAN SIMON Examples. 5s Education Department, University of Leicester

Introduction to Editorial Communications. MSS and contributions to discussion, which will be welcomed, and books Metalworh for review should be addressed to the Editors, 71 HOWARD THOMAS Clarendon Park Road, Leicester. Class books in metalwork for boys, with simple sketches. 3s 6d Business Information. Price Three Shillings per issue (3/4 post free). Postal subscription Eight Shillings and Sixpence yearly. Correspondence relating to subscriptions, advertisements, etc., should MACMILLAN & CO LTD be addressed to the Manager. St Martin's Street WC2 P S W (Educational) Publications, 71 Clarendon Park Road, Leicester. Leicester 75176 2 FORUM

AUTHORS Index to Volume i Page Page Astbury, P., Scammell, R. J. and Robinson, M.; Science Backward Class, Experiences with a : Junei Partington 82 Teaching in the Nuclear Age 25 Comprehensive Conference : John Walton 30 Baxter, G. and Oldham, F.: The Leicestershire Experiment : Comprehensive School, Inside the : Edward Blishen 32 The First Year at Hinckley 10 Discussion 56, 96 Blishen, E.: Inside the Comprehensive School 32 Blishen, E., Wilson, M. and Lewis, M. M.: The Teaching Comprehensive Further Education 96 of English 103 Laboratory Technicians for Modern Schools 60 Brown, J. E.: Junior School Streaming : A Survey 19 Science in the Junior School 58. 96 Crofts, F. A.: Developing Advanced Courses in the Modern Streaming : in Junior Schools 56, 97 Secondary Schools 22 Streaming : in Secondary Schools 98 Flavell, J. S., Trivett, J. V. and Goodstein, R. L.: Mathematics Education Policies of Political Parties : Robin Pedley 14 for Everyman 66 English, The Teaching of : Margaret Wilson, Edward Blishen Hobby, B. F.: Report from the West Midlands 91 and M. M. Lewis 103 Hopper, H. E.: The House System in Coventry Comprehensive House System, The, in Coventry Comprehensive Schools : Schools 88 H. E. Hopper 88 Hurdley, J. H.: Parent and School 50 Junior School : General Subjects in the : F. G. Rickard 85 Judges, A. V.: Agenda for the Non-Selective Schools 61 Junior School : Science in the : Discussion 58 King, E.: Educational Ferment in the U.S.A. 108 Junior School Streaming : A Survey : J. E. Brown 19 King, H. R.: The London School Plan ; The present stage 6 Junior School Today, The : George Freeland 52 Lewis, M. M., Wilson, M. and Blishen, E.: The Teaching of Leicestershire Experiment, The : The First Year at Hinckley : English 103 Miles, M.: Comprehensive Education in Sweden 71 F. Oldham and G. Baxter 10 Oldham, F. and Baxter, G.: The Leicestershire Experiment : London School Plan, The : The Present Stage : H. Raymond The First Year at Hinckley 10 King 6 Partington, J.: Experiences with a Backward Class 82 Mathematics for Everyman : J. S. Flavell, J. V. Trivett and Pedley, R.: Education Policies of Political Parties 14 R. L. Goodstein 66 Rickard, F. G.: General Subjects in the Junior School 85 Microscope, Everyman's : J. G. Shield 101 Robinson, M., Astbury, P. and Scammell, R. J.: Science Modern Secondary Schools, Developing Advanced Courses Teaching in the Nuclear Age 25 in the : F. A. Crofts 22 Scammell, R. J., Astbury, P. and Robinson, M.: Science Non-Selective Schools, Agenda for the : A. V. Judges 61 Teaching in the Nuclear Age 25 Parent and School : Jocelyn H. Hurdley 50 Shield, J. G.: Everyman's Microscope 101 Reform, The Cost of : John Vaizey 99 Simon, J.: Report from South Wales 42 Science Teaching in the Nuclear Age : A Symposium : Simon, S. D.: Education in the Soviet Union 31 P. Astbury, R. J. Scammell and M. Robinson 25 Trivett, J. V., Goodstein, R. L. and Flavell, J. S.: Mathematics South Wales, Report from : Joan Simon 42 for Everyman 66 Soviet Union, Education in the : Lady Simon 31 Vaizey. J.: The Cost of Reform 99 Sweden, Comprehensive Education in : Margaret Miles 71 Walton, J.: Comprehensive Conference 30 U.S.A.: Educational Ferment in the : Edmund King 108 Wilson, M., Blishen, E. and Lewis. M. M.: The Teaching West Midlands, Report from the : B. F. Hobby 91 of English 103

Index to Volume 2 AUTHORS Arithmetic, Some Notes on the Teaching of: Craig Scott 70 Ascher. M. A.: Further Experiences with a Backward Class 50 Average Child, The Education of the : J. W. Tibbie, Peter Bury. S.: Education in the Kirkby Estate 57 Mauger and Marjorie Cooke 8 Cooke, M., Tibbie. J. W. and Mauger, P.: The Education of Backward, Children who are : S. S. Segal 13 the Average Child 8 Backward Class, Further Experiences with a : Maurice A. Cooke, M., Davies, H. and McBeath, I. A.: The Middle Ascher 50 Years. 14 to 16 105 Bristol and the West of England, Report from : H. Knowlson 94 Davies, H., Cooke. M. and McBeath, I. A.: The Middle Crawley New Town, Education in : John H. Merrick 53 Years, 14 to 16 105 Crowther Report: Has Crowther wasted his time? : Brian Davis. K. S.: New Developments in West Germany 72 Simon and Robin Pedley 84 Ennis. J.: Sonnet for a Schoolmistress 119 Discussion 20, 60. 100 Fisher. R. S.: The 18 Plus Bottleneck 43 Average Child, Education of the 60. 100 Hands. C. B. P., Hopwood, E. M. and Richardson, G.: Backward Children 20 French Teaching in Non-Selective Schools 28 Change of Attitude 60 Hart, J.: Education in East Kilbride New Town 58 '18 Plus' Battle 20 Harvey, E.: Unstreaming a Junior School 47 English Teaching 100 Hiller, S.: Education in Harlow New Town 54 High School Partners, Co-operation with our 61 Hopwood. E. M.. Hands. C. B. P. and Richardson, G.: Juniors, Science Books for 101 French Teaching in Non-Selective Schools 28 Russia, Education in 101 Knowlson, H.: Report from Bristol and the West of England 94 Streaming 21 Mauger, P., Tibbie, J. W. and Cooke, M.: The Education of Teaching of French 61 the Average Child 8 Ecole Unique in France, The Development of the Idea of: McBeath, I. A., Davis, H. and Cooke, M.: The Middle Vernon Mallinson 112 Years, 14 to 16 105 18 Plus Bottleneck, The : R. S. Fisher 43 Mallinson. V.: The Development of the Idea of Ecole Unique East Kilbride New Town, Education in : Judith Hart 58 French Teaching in Non-Selective Schools : E. M. Hop wood. in France 112 C. B. P. Hands and Geoffrey Richardson 28 Merrick, J. H.: Education in Crawley New Town 53 Harlow New Town, Education in : Sheila Hiller 54 Pedley, R. and Simon. B.: Has Crowther Wasted His Time? 84 Historical Field Studies in Secondary Education : Jack Walton 17 Pedley. R.: Report from Yorkshire 22 History Teaching Books for the Average Secondary Child : Rapstoff. C: Bi-Polarity in the Secondary Modern School 98 Peter Shuttlewood 115 Richardson, G.. Hopwood, E. M. and Hands, C. B. P.: Junior Partners, Co-operation with our : R. J. Williams 5 French Teaching in Non-Selective Schools 28 Juniors, These, go Exploring in History : S. H. Zoeftig 92 Scott, C: Some Notes on the Teaching of Arithmetic 70 Junior School, Unstreaming a : E. Harvey 47 Segal, S. S.: Children who are Backward 13 Kirkby Estate, Education in the: S. Bury 57 Shuttlewood, P.: History Teaching Books for the Average Middle Years, The, 14 to 16: H. Davies, Marjorie Cooke Secondary Child 115 and I. A. McBeath 105 Simon, B. and Pedley, R.: Has Crowther Wasted His Time? 84 Modern School, Changing Concepts of the, 1944 and 1959 : Taylor. W.: Changing Concepts of the Modern School : William Taylor 62 1944 and 1959 62 Secondary Modern School, Bi-Polarity in the : Cyril Rapstoff 98 Tibbie, J. W., Mauger, P. and Cooke, M.: The Education of Sonnet for a Schoolmistress : Julian Ennis 119 the Average Child 8 Three Year Course, The, and its Implications for the Future : Walton. J.: Historical Field Studies in Secondary Education 17 E. M. Williams 65 Williams, E. M.: The Three Year Course and its Implications West Germany, New Developments in : K. Southwell Davis 72 for the Future 65 Yorkshire, Report from : Robin Pedley 22 Zoeftig. S. H.: These Juniors Go Exploring in History 92

OUR CONTRIBUTORS Established 1870 I

H. Raymond King: head of Wandsworth school, London, since 1932. Ex-chairman of the English New Education Fellowship and member of the international council of ALOPLAST the N.E.F. Member of the U.N. national commission for U.N.E.S.C.O. and chairman of its text-books committee. Here is an ideal modelling material

F. Oldham: head of Hinckley grammar school since 1933. for schools. It remains plastic under Formerly senior physics master, Manchester grammar all conditions, and there is no school. Member of the board of Institute of Physics. Past president, Midlands branch, science masters' tendency for the surface to harden if it association. Author of Thomas Young—Philosopher and is not in regular use. Physician (1933), and joint author of General Physics and Thomas Young (1954). • Long-lasting G. Baxter: head of Hastings high school, Burbage, Hinckley. Taught in grammar, modern and inter­ • Odourless mediate schools. Awarded D.S.O. and D.F.C. in Path­ • Hygienic finder force during the war. • Fifteen colours Robin Pedley: senior lecturer in education, Leicester university. Taught in maintained, direct grant and independent schools. Former training college lecturer. Author of Comprehensive Schools Today and Compre­ • V10 per 1 lb carton hensive Education: a New Approach.

J. E. Brown: head of Sedgehill school, London. Previ­ ously head of Archbishop Temple's school, Lambeth, of Kimberley school, Nottingham, and of Shaw school, ALOSTONE Wiltshire. Hon. editor of The London Head Teacher. Author of The Head says . . ., and Kingsway English: Sets like stone Secondary Series.

F. A. Crofts: head of Carter Lodge secondary school, Alostone is a ' clay ' which is clean to Hackenthorpe. Previously head of Manor school, handle, which does not shrink or crack, Chesterfield. Joint author of Theory and Practice in the New Secondary Schools. Visited U.S.A. in 1952 to study and which dries hard like stone. It the educational system. can be used for solid models of all Peter Astbury: lecturer in physics, Imperial College, sizes, or for models in deep relief. London university. Previously I.C.I. fellow, University College, London, and research fellow, Rome university. Models can be left unfinished if covered In 1945-6 O.C. Boys' training school, Royal Signals. with a wet cloth to exclude air. They R. J. Scammell: head of science department, Woodberry can be kiln-fired with confidence up to Down school, London. Previously taught in grammar and modern schools. One of the opening speakers at a 1,100C. and will take the usual glazes. recent London conference on " Science Teaching in the New Large Schools." • 3f- (approx) 2 lb tin Michael Robinson: head of biology department, Great Barr comprehensive school, Birmingham. Previously taught at King Edward VI grammar school, Aston, Birmingham. Secretary, education sub-committee, Bir­ mingham N.U.T. association. Send now for illustrated leaflet and sample Lady Simon: member and ex-chairman of Manchester education committee. Visited Soviet Union in 1937 and again in 1955, as guest of Academy of Educational Sciences. Author of A Century of City Government and E. J. ARNOLD & SON LTD Three Schools or One. Butterley Street, Leeds 10 Edward Blishen: assistant master, Archway boys' secon­ dary school, Islington. Author of Roaring Boys, Minus Eleven Plus, etc. THE HiJcfohttH GROUP

extend a warm welcome to FORUM on its first appearance, and wish it all success.

We hope that its readers will watch out for the attractive school books — the first of many — to be published in 1959 under a new imprint

Hutchinson Educational Ltd

In order that this Company may serve the schools as effectively 5 as possible, we invite teachers to write and let us know of the textbooks and reference books that they would particularly like to see published. We shall be glad to consider manuscripts and suggestions for books, and are always anxious to hear of new

ideas and new teaching techniques.

Letters should be addressed to John R. Stevens, HUTCHINSON EDUCATIONAL LTD 178-202 Great Portland Street London W.l. CHIEF CONTENTS

page page THE LONDON SCHOOL PLAN: THE PRESENT DEVELOPING ADVANCED COURSES IN THE STAGE ...... 6 MODERN SECONDARY SCHOOL .. 22

THE LEICESTERSHIRE EXPERIMENT: FIRST SCIENCE TEACHING IN THE NUCLEAR AGE: A SYMPOSIUM ...... 25 YEAR AT HINCKLEY 10 REVIEW ARTICLES: EDUCATION POLICIES OF POLITICAL PARTIES 14 Education in the Soviet Union .. 31 Inside the Comprehensive School .. 32 JUNIOR SCHOOL STREAMING: A SURVEY 19

A New Journal

ITH THIS NUMBER, a new educational journal We should especially welcome accounts of the Wis brought to birth, FORUM must be seen as experiences of practising teachers. Major ar­ an expression of the educational ferment of the ticles, which should not exceed 2,500 words, are present time. From the generous response to also invited. the summer publicity, it is clear that FORUM can If FORUM is really to reflect current trends and act as a focus for discussion of new trends in meet the needs of its subscribers, it must rely education, and that many teachers, administra­ more than most journals on the suggestions and tors and others feel the need for such a journal. criticisms of its readers. We hope that these What are these new trends? The contents of will be forthcoming. Further, if it is to be kept this first number indicate a few of the most im­ in being, the journal needs active support and portant: the new types of school developing in assistance. We calculate that we need a mini­ different parts of the country; the steps taken by mum circulation of 2,000 before we are economi­ modern secondary schools to transcend their cally secure—3,000 would enable us to expand earlier limitations; re-appraisal of such features the journal and build up some reserve against of internal school organisation as streaming; the second year's publication. new approaches to the content of education, The response to our initial circularisation in it is with issues of this kind that this journal will the summer showed a great amount of goodwill, be specifically concerned. Our aim is both to and many people have helped most actively to provide a basis of facts and ideas which may be get the journal known. Even before publication, helpful to those working in these fields, and to we had already close on 1,000 subscribers; of act as a forum for a lively discussion and ex­ these some 33% are from modern schools, 12% change of experience among those most closely from grammar schools, 11 % from comprehen­ concerned. sive and bilateral schools and 8 % from junior We appeal to our readers from the outset not schools; some 11 % of our subscribers are to hold back, but to send in their contributions administrators. The rest fall into miscellaneous so that FORUM can really fulfil its function. In categories. But it has not been possible sys­ future we hope to be able to devote a good deal tematically to circularise all assistant teachers, of space to such discussion, and rather less to parents and others who might wish to support major articles. Since FORUM will appear only FORUM. There is, therefore, a vast field of three times a year we do not propose to carry a potential subscribers still untouched. correspondence column. Contributions to dis­ We therefore must ask our readers to help us cussion, on the issues raised in this first number in making the journal widely known and in (or on other questions) should be written as converting the goodwill that undoubtedly exists articles or statements, and limited to 800 words. into many tangible eight and sixpenny subscrip- 5 FORUM tions. Elsewhere in this number is a subscrip­ obtain annual subscriptions commencing with tion form which could be used for this purpose. the first or second number (at eight and six­ We have, in addition, leaflets available for distri­ pence). Precise details of this scheme will be bution which will be supplied free on request. sent to anyone who is prepared to assist. Further, we will supply copies of this first An effort of this kind, on a wide scale, is number, on sale or return to anyone who is pre­ necessary to establish a journal which, we hope, pared either to sell them as single copies (at will be felt by its readers to belong to them. three shillings), or, preferably, to use them to We will report progress in the second number.

The London School Plan: The Present Stage

H. RAYMOND KING

HE LONDON SCHOOL PLAN was adopted by the school leaving age and later the " bulge," as TLondon County Council in March, 1947, and well as other difficulties, the original plan sur­ approved by the Minister of Education in vived virtually intact. Further, violent attacks February, 1950. This far-reaching, long-term were launched which tended to blur the educa­ plan for primary and secondary education in tional issues. It may well be, however, that London was published in 1947 in a large volume, sponsorship by the dominant party in the L.C.C, accompanied by a series of area maps illustrating in a spirit rather toughened than tamed by the the proposed developments. violence of the opposition, was necessary to carry the plan through the early critical and The most momentous educational feature of difficult years and to bring it to the stage it has the plan was the bold and imaginative conception now reached. The London comprehensive of reorganising secondary education in a system schools have had to make their way against of comprehensive schools. It envisaged 103 much bitter opposition. It is only just beginning comprehensive high school units, of which 67 to be possible to see them, and their counter­ were to be planned as county high schools. parts in the rest of the country, as the spearhead The remaining units were to be formed by associ­ of a general trend towards a more comprehensive ating " county complements " with 36 of the organisation of secondary education; a develop­ former aided secondary schools in order to ment now realised to be so necessary as to be realise the comprehensive idea as fully as pos­ inevitable, though it may take place in varied sible; for the Council had no powers under the forms. Education Act to make building grants to these schools if they became " voluntary aided " or A strong sheet-anchor of the comprehensive to enlarge them to house county pupils if they principle has been the conception of the London chose " voluntary controlled" status. There School Plan as the educational complement of remained 66 denominational secondary schools the County of London Plan with its sociological and one undenominational one which were left basis and implications. Recognition of the outside the comprehensive scheme. Finally, Education Act of 1944 as the first great instal­ free places in independent and direct grant ment of social reconstruction after the war schools, initially to the number of 2,500, were similarly buttressed the plan. The White Paper to be taken up by the Council. which heralded the Act had stressed that its The plan for comprehensive secondary schools main objects would be the promotion of greater had been adopted by the Council as early as equality of educational opportunity and the 1st August, 1944. It is remarkable that, in spite fostering through education of a " more closely of accommodation problems due to the destruc­ knit society." These objects are clearly envi­ tion of schools by bombing, the raising of the saged in the London School Plan. But the

6 THE LONDON SCHOOL PLAN

L.c.c. Education Committee had no intention period in out-of-date buildings, inadequately of achieving them at the cost of levelling down. equipped to provide the secondary education They aimed at quality as well as equality, and envisaged by the Act. But this problem—if not to judge by the new schools they have clearly its eventual extent—had been foreseen. To achieved this. meet it the L.C.C began, in 1954, a complete Within the limits of permitted expenditure, survey of secondary school organisation and scaled down by the Ministry while the costs of accommodation. There followed a rapidly de­ labour and material were continually rising, vised plan for a series of minor comprehensive London has made magnificent provision for its regroupings, co-ordinated area by area, to take new schools. This is a remarkable and inspiring effect with the least possible delay within the achievement. While economy in the sense of framework of the original project. By amalga­ retrenchment has not been allowed too seriously mating, expanding and linking schools (other to affect strictly educational facilities, economy than grammar schools) into larger units capable in the true sense is achieved in the larger schools of offering special courses, the Council endea­ where facilities are available to the maximum voured to provide pupils in existing buildings number and deployed to the greatest advantage. with opportunities approximating more closely to those provided by the new schools. In addi­ Buildings do not, perhaps, fully meet the tion the older schools benefited, in common with social requirements of the large school, as the the rest, from the Council's sustained effort to L.c.c. would have wished. To a considerable improve provision for science, libraries and extent social amenities have had to be impro­ general amenities. vised, as has always been the case in the second­ ary school of traditional size and scope. Never­ To look at the total picture, then, is to find theless, visitors to the new London schools are that a tremendous change has been effected in struck by their internal lay-out, beauty and the organisation of London secondary education design. These are places for gracious and in the last four years. With the opening of spacious living, and the school communities are Kidbrooke, in 1954, the comprehensive idea was solving their problems of human and social at last embodied in premises adequately designed relations in a variety of promising and effective for their purpose. The major comprehensive ways. plan now rapidly began to take shape while minor reorganisation continued. Comprehensive re-groupings Early arrangements A progress report on the London plan which dealt only with comprehensive schools proper Experiments and interim arrangements in would be inadequate and misleading. While anticipation of the plan had already been in pro­ the new comprehensive units are gradually gress for some years. In 1946-47, five central being established in new or adapted buildings, schools were expanded by the addition of one or the remaining secondary schools, still the more neighbouring secondary schools; each majority, have demands which it is the L.c.c.'s group of schools was organised as a single unit, policy to meet as fully as possible. Under the buildings and resources being pooled, though plan most of the secondary schools were in­ organisation often presented some difficulty. cluded in comprehensive groupings for which, The following year three more central schools sooner or later, new, or extended and adapted, were transformed into interim comprehensive buildings were to be provided. But it was soon schools in the same way. The heads of the apparent that the new accommodation planned eight schools, and later some others in charge of for the years up to 1960 would barely suffice to similar experiments, were brought together in a house the expected increase in the secondary small standing conference with members of the population. This meant that existing buildings administration and inspectorate from County could not be dispensed with; in fact, they would Hall, so that experiences could be exchanged have to be supplemented by any primary school and evaluated. buildings that became redundant. Though these schools suffered from obvious This might have left many schools with the limitations, it was found that certain educational bleak prospect of continuing for an indefinite advantages associated with comprehensive 7 FORUM schools soon began to be manifested. Pupils five more county complements by this time; who could normally have left school at 15 though the effect of the most recent cuts on this stayed on in significant numbers, a proportion perspective is not yet clear. In addition, four of them successfully taking G.C.E. and building more schools will be housed in buildings eventu­ up sixth forms. Less able pupils also clearly ally to be used as county colleges. derived both educational and social benefit from the arrangement. Of the eight interim Of the 27 fully comprehensive schools listed schools—Battersea, Haverstock, two at Ham­ above, 15 are co-educational; but those expanded mersmith, two at Peckham, Walworth, West from grammar schools, or originally intended Norwood—all but the first now have new or to develop from grammar schools, are single- extended buildings and have developed further sex, as also are the county complements associ­ under the plan. ated with grammar schools. The newly-founded comprehensive schools are mainly co-educa­ A list of the new comprehensive schools, in tional. the order of opening, giving the number of pupils and whether single sex or mixed, may be The present stage of interest, since this information is nowhere readily available. (Those marked with an The technical secondary schools, which before asterisk were formerly L.C.C. grammar schools). the Act were junior technical schools for pupils of 13 to 16 and usually housed in the buildings LONDON SCHOOL PLAN, 1954-8 of technical colleges, are now fully integrated with the secondary system and have either moved Comprehensive Schools County Complements into a comprehensive unit or been amalgamated with modern schools. At Poplar, however, the 1954 Kidbrooke (2,160 girls) school still remains in the technical college, 1955 Woodberry Down Catfield (1,190 girls) while Borough Beaufoy, Ebury and Woolwich (1,250 mixed) Dick Shepherd (960 continue as separate units in their own premises. *Holloway (1,350 boys) girls) Provision for technical secondary education has *Mayfield (2,130 girls) been considerably increased as a result of the new facilities in comprehensive schools and 1956 Elliott (2,160 mixed) Hurlingham (910 girls county complements, and by the institution of Eltham Green (2,160 plus 600 added later) courses in many other secondary schools, mixed) Kynaston (810 boys) particularly the larger ones. *Parliament Hill (1,350 Samuel Pepys (1,150 girls) boys) It should also be noted that, by the close of Tulse Hill (2,160 boys) the period 1952-60, 20 voluntary secondary Forest Hill (1,320 boys) schools will have been opened in new buildings. *Sydenham (1,650 girls) In sum, taking into account the comprehensive *Wandsworth (2,130 boys) schools and the interim minor comprehensive 1957 Sedgehill (2,070 mixed) Christopher Wren regroupings in areas, the greater part of the Crown Woods (2,160 (1,110 boys) secondary school population will be in larger mixed) Hammersmith (1,110 schools of 700 to 2,000 or more by 1960. In girls) seven noteworthy years, from 1954 to 1961, Spencer Park (810 boys) London will have opened some 40% of the comprehensive schools envisaged in the London 1958 Mallory (1,700 mixed) Peckham (1,590 girls) plan. It will then be possible to take stock and Holland Park (2,160 look to the future. The passing of the ' bulge ' mixed) will create a new situation to be met by further Kingsdale(2,160mixed) plans, already in the making. But it is already Garratt Green (2,190 assumed that, during the period 1960-65, most girls) children over 11 will be in schools offering at least five-year courses. Looking ahead, to the peak of the secondary school population curve in 1960-1, it is planned Certain problems raised by the London to add ten more comprehensive schools and comprehensive scheme are very relevant to a 8 THE LONDON SCHOOL PLAN progress report, and deserve attention. But If the comprehensive plan is to be fully vindi­ within the limits of this article, only an outline cated, there must be a joint effort of the whole of one problem can be given. service, primary and secondary alike; more per­ missive treatment from the administration, according to the local situation, during the A balanced entry critical years when the schools are becoming The comprehensive schools are not being established; education of parents and the public allowed to exploit their attractions so that they generally as to their actualities and potentialities. become in any way selective at the expense of It is probable that this battle could be won in the rest of the secondary schools. Each must the localities by vigorous initiative and enter­ conform to the principle of the " balanced prise on the part of the schools themselves, entry," taking in children over the whole of the encouraged and supported by the authority. It ability range from the " delimited area." This might be best for a more widespread, acceptable has the effect of restricting recruitment to a and effectual operation of the comprehensive defined community or neighbourhood. It is principle to come about in this way. calculated that, as a result of parental choice, at least 80% of the pupils transferred at 11 will Successful pioneering come from this area. The rest are to be drawn Internally the schools have shown great from outside, according to the distance they live initiative and enterprise. They will certainly from the school and in order to preserve or succeed, as schools, in their educational task. rectify the balance of the intake. The large school has proved viable. The prob­ This policy of enforcing what may be called lems and difficulties which loomed so large in the full doctrine, in what is only a partially the imagination of the critics and opponents comprehensive system, operates to the disad­ have found practical solutions. These cannot vantage of the comprehensive schools. At be described in terms of either teaching or social present there is no means of securing a " bal­ arrangements adopted in all the schools. No anced output " from the primary schools. Not two are alike. But all pupils accept school only is there no direction of pupils to the uniform, homework and social responsibility as comprehensive school, but the high ability they do in the grammar schools; many more are group has every inducement to contract out. staying on beyond 15, sometimes up to 80%. By far the greater proportion of grammar school The grammar school which has expanded to education in London is still provided in separate become comprehensive now finds itself where it schools. As a result it is still expedient to should be; it is an integral part of a complete award " grammar school" places, though not secondary service providing wider opportunities under that designation, according to perfor­ for its pupils without any deterioration in mance in the Junior Leaving Examination. standards. This perpetuates the idea that pupils " win scholarships " which entitle them to choose a To teach in a London comprehensive school grammar school. Neither they nor their parents, is an exhilarating and, it must be added, a nor often the primary school heads, are by any strenuous experience. Such a school fully em­ means generally persuaded that " successful " bodies the conception underlying the London children in this sense should go to the same plan and helps to spread it more widely. From school as the rest who have " failed ". There the start, those who understand and sympathise is no incentive to try for a place in a compre­ with the comprehensive idea have realised that hensive school. it involves far-reaching changes, not only in administration and organisation, but in the Under such conditions the comprehensive whole conception of the nature and purposes of schools are clearly in a difficult position, in a education at the secondary stage. highly competitive field, in their attempt to balance their intake in the upper ability range. A new film strip in colour, " The Water Babies," has Whether the comprehensive service eventually been issued by Educational Productions Ltd. It is becomes complementary to the grammar school based on a puppet play version of Charles Kingsley's service remains an open question. famous story. There are 23 frames, and the price is 25/-. 9 The Leicestershire Experiment: First Year at Hinckley

(1) F. OLDHAM, Headmaster, Hinckley Grammar School

HE LEICESTERSHIRE PLAN, adopted by the heads of the high schools interviewed all parents Tcounty education committee in April, 1957, of children aged 14 who wished to transfer to the is designed to eliminate the 11+ examination grammar school. Meanwhile changes within the without bringing all children within a single schools were also discussed and arranged. comprehensive school. It envisages the trans­ formation of modern schools into high schools, The high schools, which now had to cater for to which all children will go from the primary pupils of 10 to 11 who would formerly have won schools: the majority at 11, the cleverest 10% a grammar school place, found it necessary to (internally selected) at the age of 10. After introduce immediate changes: (1) a widening of three years there, those children whose parents the curriculum to include all subjects taken in guarantee to keep them at school at least until the lower forms of the grammar school; (2) the 16 may enter the grammar school—thus fitted appointment of staff to cover these subjects; roughly end-on to the high schools—without (3) a modification of hours to come into line examination. The remainder will stay in the with the grammar school; (4) the introduction high schools for their final year and leave at 15. of homework. It was decided to stream all the entrants and to provide for the able pupils a This plan was introduced in two areas of the course identical with that followed during the county in September, 1957. One of these, first two years at the grammar school. These greater Hinckley, with a population of 40,000, are the different subjects in the timetable with had four modern schools and one four-stream the number of periods devoted to each: English grammar school. It therefore provided an language and literature (6), history (3), geo­ ideal centre for trying out the experiment, be­ graphy (3), French (4), Latin (4), mathematics cause present buildings could be used to house (6), science (4), handicraft or domestic science units small enough for the head to carry out (2), music (1), art (2), scripture (1), physical those pastoral and teaching duties which training and games (4). distinguish him from the pure administrator. This meant that specialist teachers must be But, in order to make the transition smooth, to appointed to cover subjects hitherto omitted overcome staff problems during the change-over, from the curriculum. This problem was solved and to meet the problem of the ' bulge ' in the by the creation of posts of special responsibility. birthrate, it was decided to introduce a modifi­ A series of joint meetings was held between the cation: for three years the grammar school staffs of the high schools and of the grammar would take 12£% of the primary school leavers school to discuss the co-ordination of syllabuses, at 11 as well as entrants aged 14 from the high text-books and, in science, apparatus and schools. schemes for suitable experiments. Here, as headmaster of the grammar school, I would The high school emphasise that the grammar school staff acted only in an advisory capacity. No attempt was The first step was taken in the spring of 1957 made to fit everything into a single mould but, when the heads of the high schools and the on the contrary, there was freedom of action grammar school and representatives of the provided the final goal was reached. authority met to work out plans. After their adoption by the education committee it was In the outcome, the effect on the prestige and necessary to convince parents that the new academic standing of the high schools has been scheme would mark a step forward and to ex­ quite marked. Parents have become convinced plain how it would work. Meetings were called of the wider field of opportunity and the advan­ of the parents of children aged 11 at which the tage of the closer link with the grammar school. modification of the plan was explained. The School hours and holidays are now the same in 10 LEICESTERSHIRE EXPERIMENT

both types of school, and, having introduced be offered at4 O ' level is eight (English language homework for the top stream, the high schools and English literature being included) and that have found it necessary to extend it to the other both ability and interest can be deciding factors. streams. This has brought an all-round im- Thus pupils with a real blind spot or with par­ improvement, particularly in the case of pupils ticular gifts (practical, mathematical, scientific, from homes where the necessary encouragement linguistic or cultural) can get the necessary is forthcoming. encouragement and have a goal ultimately in view. The grammar school So far as the entrants at 14 were concerned, The grammar school had the problem of I received a report on each pupil from the head evolving a curriculum to cover four-year or of the high school, indicating his ability, charac­ five-year courses for those still entering at 11, ter, interests and rate of school progress. All and of providing for the entrants now coming the parents concerned, having completed a in at 14. declaration to support the scheme and keep their child in school for at least two years, were A modified selection examination was devised invited to a meeting with their children; here to select the top 12£% of primary school leavers the types of course available were described and for entry to the grammar school at 11; the head the school regulations explained. teacher's assessment of performance during the whole period at primary school was also taken These entrants were divided into two forms. into account. The group of pupils who entered The first (4T) consisted of those likely to reach in this way will act as a yardstick for the 'A' ' O' level in three or four subjects, the second pupils in the high schools since they follow the (4H) those for whom this aim could not be set. same curriculum. Here are the timetables for these two forms, giving the periods allotted to each subject: This curriculum (given above) constitutes the 4T: English (5), French (5), mathematics (5), first two years of a four-year or five-year course history (5), geography (5), physical educa­ in the grammar school. Thereafter a number tion (4), scripture (1), science (6), handi­ of alternative choices are offered at the beginning craft, or domestic science, or art (4). of the third year of the four-year course, and at the beginning of the fourth year in the five-year 4H: English (5), mathematics (5), history (5), course. This ensures that, to a basic core of geography (5), physical education (4), twenty periods—devoted to English, French, scripture (1), science (3), handicraft or mathematics, physical education, scripture, mu­ domestic science (4), art (including writing sic—four additional subjects can be added in the and lettering) (8). two years before taking ' O ' level of G.C.E. Here is the scheme of alternatives for the forms con­ Successful integration cerned. One subject (five periods) can be Arising from our experience, we have decided selected from each of the following groups, to widen the curriculum of form 4H to include though not the same subject from two different bookbinding and a greater allocation of time to groups. general science, since they do not require so A B CD much time for handicraft and art. When they move into the fifth form in September next we Chemistry History Physics Chemistry shall give their curriculum a slant towards voca­ Biology Geography German Art tional training by providing for at least half a Latin Biology Scripture History day a week at the College of Further Education Handicraft or Music Geography in Hinckley. Here the boys will do workshop Domestic Science Greek practice, the girls a commercial course. This is a tentative move with the aim of stretching the Most of these pupils are destined for the sixth pupils' efforts to fit them for examinations under form so that the choice made here governs bias apprenticeship schemes. towards arts or science, though the pupil who is undecided can ' sit on the fence.' It will be All the transferred pupils have been absorbed seen that the maximum number of subjects to very successfully into the full life of the school. 11 FORUM

There is a large number of after-school activities who set the tone by his loyalty to the prefects —a literary and debating society (senior and and the school as a whole. junior) and societies covering history, railways, One real initial difficulty for these pupils was music, mathematics, photography, films, hobbies, adapting themselves to a greater number of science—which cater for their interests. They specialist teachers in the grammar school. To meet this problem for next year's transfers we have also taken their full share in school games have appointed a " form teacher" who will and athletics. A factor helping towards success­ take most of the basic subjects, leaving only ful integration has been that 4H was fortunate science, handicraft, domestic subjects and music in having a first class natural leader and athlete for the specialist teachers.

(2) G. BAXTER, Headmaster, Hastings High School, Burbage

ASTINGS HIGH SCHOOL was opened in Septem­ leadership so beneficial and indeed essential. H ber, 1956, as a new modern secondary The school might in fact lack all incentive in school, comprising 456 boys and girls. Of the fourth year and one of the greatest problems these about 100 boys were transferred from a of the modern school might be augmented. neighbouring and overcrowded modern school for boys, about 100 girls were transferred from The new intake an equally near and equally overcrowded modern I must confess that for a time these two basic school for girls and about 100 pupils came from points of view seemed to quarrel, and indeed a not quite so near and not quite so over­ the quarrel was not resolved until I realised the crowded mixed modern school. These pupils source of the conflict. I was looking at the varied in age from 12 to 14 and joined a normal experiment from without and the school from 11+ intake of about 150 pupils. within. What settled the issue was the realisa­ After a settling in period of about two terms, tion that I must view both the scheme and my the director of education for the county of part within it from the point of view of the Leicester announced the new experimental plan pupil. Given all pupils at 11 + could I provide and invited our co-operation. a scheme of education, could I provide an environ­ ment, in which each might flourish? I felt I My first reaction was one of acceptance. I could. welcomed the challenge of thinking afresh, I welcomed the opportunity of working inde­ My first concern was that the staff should pendently within a collective scheme, I welcomed think likewise. An immediate staff meeting the chance to help in providing an education gave me new hope and subsequent staff meetings based, as I saw it, not on opportunity that in have proved heartening. name was equal but on opportunity that in fact By September, 1957, we were ready to start. was unlimited. A series of joint consultations had taken place My second thoughts centred around my own between heads of schools and subject specialists school, as I asked myself what I should lose. concerned. New staff had been appointed, new I should lose, I felt, sole responsibility for the books for new subjects had been ordered, some pupils entering this school, since for many I new schemes of work had been written. We should be providing but the first three years of a were ready to welcome to the school a new five- or seven-year course. I should lose the intake of 170 pupils of whom about 18 might opportunity of setting up facilities within the never have come to us. All these pupils had school for what I had hoped would be an in­ taken the 11+ examination in the normal way. creasing number of pupils able and willing to With this information available and, most complete here a five-year course leading to important, a detailed report on each pupil from external examinations. I should lose many his junior school, five forms were organised. pupils who undoubtedly would have been out­ They are streamed. At the moment two forms standing in the school at work and games and are taking French, one form is studying Latin would have provided the kind of example and and one form is doing special remedial work. 12 LEICESTERSHIRE EXPERIMENT

The fourth year the 90% returning here some 55% will be In the second and third years no great altera­ completing a course of study lasting the full tions or modifications to the syllabus have been year. considered necessary but an immediate attempt There is no doubt that in the future the has been made to tackle the problem of the numbers transferring to the grammar school and fourth year pupils. It is essential for parent and the numbers of those completing a full four year pupil to realise that at the age of 14 the only course at this school will increase. Interest choice open in the first place is a simple one— among parents is high and at a recent meeting whether to transfer to Hinckley grammar school of parents of our third year pupils I found a for a course lasting at least two years or whether real desire for extended education of all kinds. to return here for a course lasting one year, two There is no doubt also in my opinion that all terms or one term. In either case it is essential schools within this experimental area will need for the pupil to work. to think and rethink. Indeed we are doing so. It was felt that what was needed was a course We need the freedom to experiment. Indeed which would provide a stimulus, a course we have got it. worth-while in itself, which by being different Looking back would place the fourth year pupil apart as rather As I look back over this first year I find special, a course which would leave plenty of myself asking a series of questions. Is there room for initiative, for individual effort and any one outstandingly bright pupil in the school unaided though supervised work. Thus three who is being held back? In fact there is an forms came into being. One consisted of boys outstanding boy. Naturally he is top of his staying a full year, one consisted of girls staying form, he is a member of the choir, he is appear­ a full year, one contained Christmas and Easter ing in our first school play, he belongs to the leavers. Each was placed in the charge of an photographic club, he practises assiduously at experienced member of staff for about 16 periods the nets. Is this boy being held back ? a week. The form of boys has attempted to Is opportunity in fact unlimited? Evidently come to grips with the environment in which it parents think so, for of the 14 pupils transferring lives. It has studied in topic form the immediate this year to the grammar school nine are from neighbourhood and later Leicestershire as a our 'A' stream, three from our *B\ one is from whole. It has learned a little of the past each our 'C and one from our 'D' stream. boy has inherited. It has looked at the present Is every pupil being taught the right things in and has been tempted to think of the future. the right way ? Here I am not so sure. It is Deliberately the course has had running through here where experiment must take place. In it the desire to foster character and a sense of September, 1958, we shall be trying to tackle responsibility. Much of the work has been these questions. done in the field and a week under canvas in Only the future can tell us how this experiment the Charnwood Forest area proved not only of as a whole has worked out. For the present interest but of value. one important action must be taken. Far too The course attempted with the girls was many students and practising teachers applying similar in outline but different in detail. Here for posts in a school such as this know little or the emphasis has been on the environment of nothing of the experiment and the part the high the future. Most of the work has centred on school plays within it. Training colleges and the home and its importance in family and university education departments must help national life. It is hoped these girls have not here. We should like to feel that in future only learned what is practical and utilitarian teachers were bringing into the school not only but have been tempted to consider what is professional skill and training but a desire to attractive and beautiful. take part in what I believe to be a worthwhile We are approaching now the end of our first experiment. year. We are beginning to take stock and think in terms of next year and the future. Provisional Notable developments in secondary education are at present planned or proceeding in different parts of figures show that in September, 1958, we shall England and Wales. In each issue of FORUM we hope to be transferring to Hinckley grammar school present a " progress report" dealing with such areas in 10% of our present third year pupils, while of turn.—Ed. 13 Education Policies of Political Parties ROBIN PEDLEY

" W/HAT A PITY education's become a political 1910-11, in 1949-50 that proportion fell to 7-7 VVissue!" Such is the conventional line. per cent, under Labour, and still further in No doubt it is rooted in the old idea that politics 1953-54 to a paltry 6-4 per cent, under the is a dirty business; that most politicians are Conservatives. Is it any wonder that the trimmers who can't be trusted out of one's sight. radical socialists (Victory for Socialism), seeking Yet the increasing interest of political parties to ensure that this Liberal aim is actually achiev­ in education is really a heartening sign. For the ed, want " a Minister of great stature, equal in first time in our history the nation as a whole is ability and influence—in both the government beginning to take it seriously. Now the approach and the country—to the Foreign Secretary and of a general election has stimulated various the Chancellor of the Exchequer"? political bodies to re-think their views on the The Liberals have some pertinent comments future of education in this country. on administration and finance. Most notably Only the Conservatives have, at the time of they revive the idea of directly elected education writing, failed to produce a policy report for authorities: for after nearly 60 years Morant's submission to this year's party conference. replacement of school boards by all-purpose This scarcely matters: seven years of office have bodies looks no better than it first did. They given them ample opportunity to show what also draw attention to the fact that, while we they really stand for, and deeds are a better test clamour for more highly qualified teachers, the than words. The promised statement of Con­ proportion of graduates in the total intake is servative principles will none the less be welcome. actually falling; and of these some 45% have Is one right in supposing that the Conservative no professional training! This is a terrible stands for individual freedom, for the chance to indictment of the provision made in our uni­ get on unfettered by the regulations of official­ versity education departments, whose capacity dom? If so his party has allowed itself to be could, in my view, be doubled. manoeuvred into a false position by defending Only in discussing secondary education does (as its 1957 conference did) the restrictions of the official Liberal pamphlet fall from grace. 11 plus and tripartite secondary education It ignores the overwhelming evidence against which were introduced by the 1945-50 Labour 11 plus selection, alleging that " distrust and government. The attitude of capitalist America fear of the tests are fostered for political ends." is very different. Fortunately the young Liberals seek to correct Liberal zest their elders' blind spot in their own publication, Opportunity in Education. This constructive The Liberal revival has encouraged that party programme follows a British Psychological to do its policy spring-cleaning with refreshing Society report in favouring a break at 13 rather zest. On many counts it is a pity that it has no than 11. It wants to see an improved form of foreseeable chance of translating its manifest primary school up to that age, and, without goodwill into good works. Here is enthusiasm being dogmatic, is by no means averse from and sincerity: "we must fire the imagination having comprehensive secondary schools from of the people," says A Liberal Policy for Educa­ 13 to 18. Less convincingly it advocates entry tion, " and thrill them with the vision of the sort to the public schools mainly on ability. of educational system that we ought to have and can have." At present, they point out, our Much more important than the differences of annual expenditure on education, in all its forms, view themselves, however, is their appearance is a mere two-thirds of that on alcoholic drink: from the same party headquarters. In these less than two-thirds of what we spend on days of disciplining by party machines, how tobacco: two-fifths of the money which goes on refreshing to find a small party which is yet big armaments. It is left to the report of the London enough to sponsor two such statements! Co-operative Society, however, to show that A positive programme comes also from while 9-8 per cent, of the national income went another minority party with no prospect of on education under the Liberal government of power: the Communists. Education—Com- 14 EDUCATION POLICIES OF POLITICAL PARTIES munist Party Policy hits hard at the class system the structure of local government which will of education, at miserly expenditure on the permit greater local control. And they are public sector, at 11 plus selection, and at the deeply concerned about the failure of the 1944 constriction of higher education caused by the Act to end " class and wealth privileges in shortage of university places. education." Specialisation—when? The Victory for Socialism group goes further. The Communists venture a definition of Its pamphlet Equality in Education contains a secondary education: "that all-round, general reasoned plan for integrating the public schools education which the citizen in any modern in the national system. It seeks to ensure a democratic society needs, and which is the best choice to parents where special conditions or basis for later specialisation." This implies a beliefs make that important. It believes that common curriculum comprising " the natural this would mean an enlargement of freedom, and social sciences, as well as mathematics, replacing the present " freedom for the few " language and literature (native and foreign) . . . which " rests on the possession of wealth: . . . the basic essentials of modern technology . . . the same sort of freedom that anyone once had physical training and the appreciation of the —in theory—of buying a rotten borough, or a arts." Later they appear to concede the colonelcy in the army." possibility of " bias or choice at the later stages Socialist ideals of the secondary school course," but " only on the foundation of a common curriculum." The other notable feature of this pamphlet is its stirring call for a re-kindling of the fire, drive Here is a challenge, not only to the orthodox and moral conviction of the early socialists. It who want academic, technical and practical points out that ' equal opportunity ' is perfectly biases from the age of 11 or 13 onwards, but compatible with the idea of an individualist, also to " new" educationists who reject the competitive society, which would thereby be­ whole idea of an imposed pattern of studies come more efficient. " Labour must go further, throughout the secondary stage and who believe and ask: ' Equal opportunity for what?' " We that freedom to choose one's favourite line, and cannot, says Victory for Socialism, to prefer depth rather than breadth, is essential " expect educational reform to go deep so long as the to the proper development of adolescent per­ society in which schools are rooted, and of which sonality. Are the Communists right or wrong parents and teachers form a main part, is governed in wishing to defer specialisation from adoles­ by other motives and values. Can the Labour Party of today sincerely preach the virtues of an educational cence to adulthood? This is a major issue, system in which children will learn to work and play affecting the organisation of sixth form work, for their intrinsic worth? That must be a mockery if the size of secondary schools, the nature of all the time its members seek or accept personal power undergraduate studies, the number of places at and prestige, decorations and titles. These are essen­ tially the same carrots as the more juvenile honours universities—indeed all our practical plans; and bestowed in schools, and have precisely the same we must, as a nation, find an agreed solution. purpose and result: the grading of society into different And so we come to the Labour programme. orders, and the sharpening of individual jealousies and In addition to the official statement, two publi­ competition within it. Nor can Labour convincingly urge the Tightness of a fully comprehensive system cations deserve notice. The London Co-oper­ while leading members seek for their own children the ative Society's report, A Policy for Education, is privileges at present bestowed by a ' public' school wise, thoughtful and detailed. Very properly education." it wants primary school classes to be at least as The justification (from a socialist viewpoint) small as those in secondary schools, with a of this vigorous, crusading appeal is best seen maximum of 25 for infants. It recognises the when one turns to the official Labour document importance of integrating education with the Learning to Live. Its references to an under­ social needs and services of each neighbourhood lying social and educational philosophy are brief, and asks teachers to reconsider their short­ and might serve equally well as Conservative sighted wish to have done with school meal doctrine: " the healthy ambition of an individual duties. While supporting the comprehensive to get on in the world; his natural desire to serve principle it is uneasy about the large size of his fellows and enjoy their goodwill," and so on. London's new secondary schools. Like the Labour is certainly setting out its stall as a Liberals, these Co-operators want changes in national party. In this process of evolution its 15 FORUM former socialist faith appears as vestigial as tially more than five years " to switch over to man's appendix. comprehensive schooling. And Mr. Gaitskeirs Learning to Live is a thorough, comprehensive subsequent explanations are disturbing. " Local review of the main stages of English education authorities" (runs a report of his speech) and their needs. It is at once progressive and " would be asked to submit plans to abolish the cautious. Commitment on all but the most permanent segregation of children into different obvious generalisations is usually and under­ types of schools at 11, but they would have standably avoided, for the expectation of office plenty of latitude as to the way in which, and looms large over these pages. the speed with which, they did this." Put that to any chief education officer in England or The break at 11 Wales today, and he will happily and confidently Labour's real contribution lies in the decision tell you that there is no "permanent" segregation to introduce comprehensive secondary education. of children in his area. How is " the compre­ The case against selection at 11 is cogently hensive principle" to be defined? The electorate argued. Most encouraging, the party is no has a right to know this before it votes. longer asked to plump only for large compre­ hensive schools (11-18), but to accept two-tier The public schools secondary education as an alternative which may Quite the most fascinating chapter, however, be superior in certain areas. This greater is that on fee-paying schools. The Labour lion flexibility will be welcomed on all sides. It is roars its denunciation of privilege bought by disappointing, however, that the 1944 division money. of schooling into distinct primary and secondary " This system," it thunders, " distorts the choice of people for responsible positions; it damages national stages is not reconsidered. This division re­ efficiency and offends the sense of justice. Further, it stricts the flexible development between 5 and creates an irrational social cleavage which is a great 18 which in principle Labour wants to see; and injury to education as a whole. One reason why with the end of selection, little remains to justify there does not arise a passionate demand from the whole nation for a first-class educational system is that compulsory transfer between 10£ and 12. a group of wealthy and influential people can look Independent preparatory schools have an 8/9— after their own children's education, whatever the 13/14 age range: are such ' middle' schools, of defects of the national system. All members of the whose existence the Prince of Wales himself is Labour Party, and indeed all who desire equality of opportunity and social justice, will agree that the taking advantage, to be ruled out for local existence of this privileged sector of education is authorities? undesirable." There is another blunder: the proposal, while And what does it propose to do about this indicating no intention to amend the existing terrible state of affairs? Nothing whatever. law, to require local education authorities to Several odd arguments are assembled to justify " adopt the comprehensive principle." The this somewhat shamefaced anticlimax: too Minister's duty under the 1944 Act is " to many! Qui s'excuse, s'accuse. There is one secure the effective execution by local authorities sufficient reason (refusal to sanction an intensi­ ... of the national policy for providing a varied fied form of selection) why we should have no and comprehensive educational service in every truck with Fleming. There is one sufficient area." Section 8 (b) of the Act defines that reason, and one only (reluctance to end one national policy so far as secondary schools are freedom, however inadequate, until we are con­ concerned; and there can be no denying that it vinced that a better one can be substituted) why leaves room for both selective and non-selective we may not wish to commit ourselves to a large patterns. For seven years Labour M.P.s have take-over project. These are arguments against rightly objected to the restriction, by successive particular kinds of action: they are no justifica­ Conservative Ministers, of local authorities' tion whatever for complete inaction. freedom to organise secondary education as they Mr. Butler and Mr. Chuter Ede gave a lead wished within the limits of that section. Now, when the 1944 Act provided that, for the first it seems, they propose to commit the same time, all independent schools were to become offence by putting the machine into reverse. subject to inspection and approval by the But perhaps this is to be, after all, only a sham Ministry of Education. The English way is reform? It is nonsense to say, as this document simply to extend that control to remove the main does, that " in many areas it may take substan­ anomalies now complained of. 16 EDUCATION POLICIES OF POLITICAL PARTIES

First, at a time when we are desperately short Our troubles are largely, but not wholly, of teachers, and particularly of graduate teachers, economic troubles. We need more money for we must look at these figures: education; we must use the resources we have Schools Pupils Graduate more efficiently; above all, it is vital to attract per teacher teachers (%) many people of real calibre to the profession of Independent primary .. 12*6 35-8 teaching, and to train them for the right fields of Maintained primary 30-3 4 0 work. The shortage of good, appropriately Independent secondary 12-1 79-5 Maintained secondary.. 20*7 38-4 qualified teachers is the greatest of our ills, and its remedy the greatest social task and test of Clearly it is imperative to ask independent the next government. schools, like fortunate local authorities, to accept the national ratio of teachers to pupils, plus an But though bright ideas, bold planning and agreed allowance for boarding schools. Second, wise spending are all important, one thing yet it should not be possible for wealthy schools to is needed. outbid local authorities in seeking the best I was a small boy at a village elementary qualified teachers. Burnham scale, with a limit school when Arthur Shepherd, the Swaledale on the number of special posts and deductions schoolmaster, came down from the hills to win for the ' perks ' of residence, should apply to all. Darlington for Labour for the first time. I Third, it seems that any public school ' pull' remember why he won. in gaining entry to Oxford and Cambridge is " Is it right?" he asked. " If it's right, then largely due to personal connections between let us do it!" school head or housemaster on the one hand and The people need that simple call today. I college principal or senior tutor on the other. have no doubt that, from whatever political If applications were dealt with by the university quarter it comes, they will respond. faculties (preferably within the framework of a national clearing-house for all the universities), and the total number accepted then distributed among the colleges, it is more likely that students would gain admission by reason of their intellectual merit rather than their social background. THE A commonsense solution CROMWELL BOOKSHOP S. A. Maher Such steps may, to the logical socialist, appear very small beer. They would, none the less, go RECENT AND FORTHCOMING a long way towards rectifying present injustice; BOOKS ON EDUCATION they could not reasonably be opposed by fair- Yearbook of Education, 1958: the secondary minded men; and the first two could be applied school curriculum ...... 63/- CHESHIRE EDUCATION COMMITTEE—Secondary at once. More than this, it seems clear, modern school ...... 12/6 S. F. COTGROVE—Technical education and social Labour's leaders are not prepared to do. But, change ...... 25/- if they are not both to destroy the zeal of the S. J. CURTIS—Introduction to the philosophy of education ...... 12/6 faithful and to incur the contempt of their H. C. DENT—Secondary modern school: an opponents, they cannot well do less. interim report ...... 15/- G. D. FISHER & J. C. SMYTH—The teacher's book # * # of nature study. Illus 35/- C. M. FLEMING—Teaching: a psychological Despite differences on particular matters, the analysis 28/- K. LOVELL—Educational psychology and children 18/- striking thing about these statements of policy H. LOUKES—Friends and their children .. .. 10/6 H. MCFARLAND—Psychology and teaching 10/6 is their degree of common ground. There is no W. F. MORLEY, etc.—Three-year teaching urgent desire to reform the main structure of training ...... 3/6 N.U.T.—Inside the Comprehensive School 12/6 the 1944 Act (no one, for example, criticises the N.U.T.—Curriculum of the Junior School .. 7/6 religious settlement): the common wish, rather, R. H. THOULESS—General and social psychology. is to make it work more effectively. Every party 4th ed 18/6 wants to enlarge educational opportunity: it is a 29 LAMPTON ROAD, HOUNSLOW, sign of health, not of weakness, that the means MIDDLESEX of achieving it should be vigorously argued. 17 Reference Books for the Teacher

EDUCATIONAL THE EDUCATION ACT PSYCHOLOGY AND 1944 CHILDREN PROFESSOR H. C. DENT, Director of the Institute of Education, University of Sheffield. K. LOVELL, M.A., B.Sc, Ph.D. Lecturer in Educational Psychology at the Institute of This seventh edition of the 1944 Education Act Education, University of Leeds. has been reset and revised to include the changes made by the 1946, 1948 and 1953 " Dr. Lovell has produced an excellent textbook " amending " Acts, and also includes notes on —scholarly, clear, undogmatic, and full of good many Circulars issued by the Ministry of sense—which one hopes will be studied by Education, between 1944 and 1956, as well as practising teachers as well as students in train­ a comparative analysis of the Education ing." New Statesman 18/- net (Scotland) Act, 1945. Seventh Edition, 8/6 net

PURPOSE IN THE THE CHILD OF ELEVEN CURRICULUM By D. V. SKEET STANLEY NISBET. Professor of Education, The University, Glasgow. In this thorough survey of the methods of selection for Secondary Education, the author Professor Nisbet sets out a frame-work of first traces the historical background and then twelve practical objectives, grouped under two describes, with a number of examples, the headings, " Adjustment to Environment " and various types of eleven plus examinations at " Personal Growth," against which the practi­ present in use in different parts of the country. cal aspects of education may be measured. . . . stands out for its content, readability, and 10/6 net frank comments . . . can be commended by all interested in the subject. It should be wel­ comed and read by parents, by students, and PSYCHOLOGY IN THE by members of education committees. Times Educational Supplement 10/6 net CLASSROOM JAMES MAIN WARING, M.A., D.Litt. form­ erly Lecturer in Psychology, Dudley Training College. The University of London Press are the pub­ lishers of a wide range of books, both for pupil This book provides a complete survey of psy­ and teacher. Full details will be found in our chology in the Classroom. There are chapters many catalogues, for which you are invited to on discipline, creativeness, the maintaining of apply. Please state level of education in which the pupils' interest, and many other subjects of you are interested, e.g., Infant, Junior, Second­ everyday value to the practising teacher. ary or Grammar. A selection of relevant 7/6 net lists will then be sent to you.

UNIVERSITY OF LONDON PRESS LTD Warwick Square, London, E.C.4 Junior School Streaming: A Survey

J. E. BROWN

HE EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH COMMITTEE of the The third question—"Are you obliged to TLondon head teachers' association recently stream ? "—contained an unfortunate ambiguity conducted a survey of streaming by means of a which, naturally enough, bothered some heads. questionnaire sent out to members. The num­ Five merely replied with the query " By whom?" ber of schools covered was not large; nor was But others understood that the obligation might the enquiry made with the elaborate machinery or might not arise from circumstances and of a large-scale scientific investigation. But the answered accordingly: 17 "Yes," 66 "No." results are interesting in that they throw some light both on the factors affecting school No answer was given by 10 heads to the fourth organisation and on the strong divergence of question—" Is parental reaction to streaming views on the relevance of these factors. favourable, unfavourable, indifferent ? " Evi­ dently the attitude of parents was not known, The questionnaire, to be answered by head presumably because parents take it for granted, teachers, was divided into two sections. The even in these days, that school organisation is a first was designed to obtain a factual description matter for those running the school. The of the school: the number of pupils on roll, of answers that were given indicated that 51 heads classes, of staff, the type of district served and found parents were in favour of streaming, 24 so on. The second section included nine ques­ that they were neutral, and three that they were tions bearing directly on streaming. against; these last three answers all came from Answers were received from schools of all junior mixed and infant schools. types, but only those from junior schools will be Another question, which in fact came later summarised here. These came from 88 schools in the questionnaire, may usefully be considered in all: 40 junior mixed, 37 junior mixed and here—" Do you make special provision for infant, 8 junior boys' and 3 junior girls' schools. retarded pupils ? " Answers made it plain that The answers to the first question showed that the majority of junior schools do this so far as 39% of the schools were fully streamed, 43% shortage of staff permits: 69 answered "Yes," partly streamed and 18% unstreamed. 14 " No," while there was no answer from five. 1. Is your School Streamed? Fully Partly Not The remaining questions applied mainly to » Junior Mixed ..23 15 2 the streamed schools. In an attempt to find Junior Mixed & Infant .. 3 21 13 out what considerations influence the process of Boys' 6 1 1 streaming, head teachers were asked to under­ Girls' 2 1 — line in a given list certain factors (reading, 34 38 16 English, arithmetic, intelligence) and other relevant factors (such as diligence, the require­ ments of the junior leaving examination, social To the second question—" Do you believe in influence, the assessment given by the head of streaming as an educational policy ? "—73 % the infants' school). In the summary below the of head teachers answered in the affirmative schools are indicated by initial letters and the while 27 % were against. number of schools in each category is given. It 2. Views on Streaming For Against is interesting to note the difference between those Junior Mixed 31 9 schools which include infants and those for Junior Mixed & Infant 25 12 junior children only. Boys' 6 2 Girls' 2 1 The London County Council is not responsible in any way either 64 24 for this article or for the enquiry and nothing expressed here is to be tak«n as reflecting the council's policy. 19 FORUM

Factors influencing stream­ JM JM&I B G 4. Difficulties affecting ing (40) (37) (8) (3) streaming JM JM&I B G Reading 33 20 8 2 None 10 5 2 — English 31 16 5 2 Age, ability, accommoda­ Arithmetic 27 12 5 2 tion 13 6 4 1 Intelligence 27 13 6 2 Staff changes .. 5 4 — 1 Other factors: Questions of the kind set in this enquiry can Diligence 13 8 3 1 rarely be adequately answered with a plain, Junior Leaving examin­ unadorned " Yes " or " No." We are dealing ation 6 7 — — with human problems and the way in which Social 3 — 1 — human beings set out to solve these problems; Infant Head's Assess­ the reasons they give for their solutions, their ment 22 2 3 1 comments on success or failure, are at least as interesting and important as the solutions them­ Perhaps the distinction between " reading " selves. I propose to give here, therefore, some and " English" was not clear enough to be of the additional comments of those who helpful; but these two factors obviously carry answered the questionnaire. the greatest weight. It is evident, as one would expect, that streaming is influenced by a com­ Other aspects bination of factors rather than by any one facet of the pupil's progress or personality. Many heads said that classes were unstreamed in the first year of junior school life; or that "Are the children in the same stream for all streaming was " not sharply defined" at this subjects ? " To this 58 heads answered " Yes," stage. Some said that their schools would be 14 " No "; 16 schools being unstreamed. Few more fully streamed if the number of pupils primary schools are so generously staffed and permitted; obviously, when a school has only accommodated that the head can vary the enough children in any one year to form one streaming for different subjects, as is the custom class, streaming is impossible. The fluctuation for some subjects in many secondary schools. of school population, owing to a falling or rising The answers to this question, therefore, probably birth-rate or—more frequently—to local re­ reflect what heads find necessary, rather than housing schemes, can cause serious problems what they think is desirable; though it is likely which are more acute in a school where classes that divergences in ability as between one subject are streamed. and another are less evident in the primary A few heads of the unstreamed schools said school than they later become. that they would apply a streaming policy if numbers warranted it; but there was an equal Transfers favoured number of heads who declared that " in ideal conditions" they would abandon streaming. Heads evidently find it both desirable and It is clear, however, that the compulsion arises possible to transfer children. To the question from the situation as each individual head " Do you transfer children from one stream to views it: the decision to use streaming is the another?" 70 answered " Yes," only two "No"; head's decision, when he or she has considered both the latter being heads of junior mixed and all the relevant factors. Whether all these infants' schools. factors are regarded as educationally desirable The final question was—" What special diffi­ is another matter. culties do you encounter in maintaining the Many reasons were given for preferring streaming organisation ? " The answers do not streaming. It provides the only arrangement lend themselves to tabulation and they will be for ' stretching' the able children without dis­ discussed later in this article; but it is pleasant couraging the slower ones. It appears bene­ to note that a fair-sized group of heads declared ficial to the interests of both children and staff. that they met no special difficulties in this aspect Experience suggests that streaming is necessary of their organising work. for basic work in reading and arithmetic. The 20 JUNIOR SCHOOL STREAMING brighter children work more keenly when pitted that streaming gives them some indication of against their peers, while the slower children are the child's progress and relative ability. One not given the feeling of inferiority which must said that parents were impressed by the fairness follow from finding children in the same class of non-streaming. Another (perhaps more per­ always out-distancing them in the basic subjects. ceptive) head declared that parents of 'A' It is better for the slower children to have plenty stream children are in favour of streaming but of time for repetition and careful practice which others are against it; and, of course, there are may be unnecessary for the brighter children. the objections of parents who are quite sure that their 'B' stream children are really 'AY— A few heads were quite blunt about the effect if only the school could understand them as well of the junior leaving examination, declaring as Mum did. One headmaster asserted roundly that they had " a duty to the parents of grammar that there is " much wrong thinking by parents." school children to see that they get their chance." Many heads made the point that inexperienced Most of the schools from which replies came teachers find a large unstreamed class difficult listed the same kind of difficulties in maintaining to handle because it calls for real skill to teach the organisation of streaming. The problem of several groups of varying ability within one class. obtaining suitable teachers was mentioned over Others pointed out that working in groups with­ and over again, accentuated in some cases by in a class is only " concealed streaming." frequent staff changes. A few heads complained of over-frequent visits from the parents of ' borderline ' children who were placed in the Case against streaming ' B ' stream. Some heads of schools in poor The opponents of streaming maintained that areas found that they had insufficient pupils of the system is followed only as a convenience for good quality to make one class which could be members of the staff and that it is " very bad regarded as an 'A' stream; therefore, in a two- socially." Streaming may be necessary because stream school, they had one class of slow children of large numbers but it still remains educationally and one class of mixed ability—which had to be and socially undesirable. Children of varying called the 'A' class—at the top of the school. abilities " have much to give each other," pro­ Several heads were concerned about nomencla­ vided the brighter pupils can be ' stretched.' It ture; not wishing any class to be dubbed 'B' is undemocratic (this word was frequently used) they used such devices as giving a class the and against the basic principle of doing one's initial of the teacher—but " the children always best for all the children. One head described the know." system as " pernicious." It would appear that The " general comments " given at the end of emotional reasons play as large a part in the the questionnaire provided additional evidence decision as any other. that junior school heads give a vast amount of In elaborating on the question, "Are you time and thought to the planning of school work obliged to stream ? "—one head said that the so that the children may derive the maximum influx of overseas children made it necessary. benefit from what the school has to offer. Another felt that his sense of fairness to the slower child " obliged " him to use streaming; Acknowledgment while a third felt impelled to stream older pupils because of the anxiety of parents and It remains to be said that the enquiry was teachers that their children should forge ahead. conducted by Mr. K. G. Condict and Mr. C. H. A few heads said that the bright children could Zoeftig, the chairman and secretary respectively make the best possible progress only with skil­ of the educational research committee of the ful and experienced teachers. (But, of course, London head teachers' association, and it is the same thing is true of all children). their hard work that has made available this information on junior school practice. While the majority of parents seemed to be in favour of the scheme adopted by the school, it might be more accurate to say that parents In our next issue the head of a very successful un­ streamed junior school will discuss his methods. Readers' had not voiced any objection to the system in views—preferably based on experience—concerning this being. Three heads said that the parents feel controversial subject will be particularly welcomed.—Ed. 21 Developing Advanced Courses in the Modern Secondary Schools

F. A. CROFTS

wo of my old girls have just completed their gence tests, has ranged from 120+, overlapping Tteacher training, one with distinction in needle­ the grammar school scatter, to 70, the border­ work and crafts. An old boy is about to enter line of ineducability. Pupil interview and sub­ training college, and others have qualified for sequent pupil performance, too, have under­ county awards and have taken full time courses in lined the fact that attainment at 11 has only been colleges of art and agriculture successfully. Yet partly tested, so that other, and perhaps others, via late transfer without examination, have greater, abilities have not yet been fully revealed. passed into other secondary schools offering Moreover, there has been evidence that what courses more appropriate to their own particular has been seen and been recorded has, in many needs. For all these, as for scores of others, full instances, been distorted by retardation. A boy stature at 16 has in no way been limited by the who worked with a " B " set in mathematics outlook at 11 plus, and it is against a background and English until the end of his second year, and of histories of this kind that the whole question of who subsequently took both subjects at G.C.E. the development of advanced courses in the new ordinary level, springs to mind as a case in secondary schools might, perhaps, be best con­ point. sidered. Three parallel courses Facts and instances such as these are of A White Paper on educational reconstruction importance when one is considering the nature published in 1943 said of the proposed new of the courses to be offered by the schools, the secondary schools that their future was their own timing of entry into the courses, and the stand­ to make. The Act of 1944 required that all ards which might well be attempted. There is, children should be educated according to their however, a danger. Advanced courses are age, ability and aptitude. The development of attractive, so that it is particularly important advanced courses in the new secondary schools that we should remind ourselves that they are has been one aspect of the response of educat­ part, and part only, of the full pattern of oppor­ ionists to the challenge, both of the central tunity offered by a school. My own experience problem of the schools as thus set out, and of the leads me to feel that, subject to a general large measure of freedom accorded to them in emphasis on the removal of small retardations dealing with it. In acknowledging this freedom during the first year, a school might best meet it is important to remind ourselves, in passing, the situation by providing three parallel courses that it still exists to a large degree. with much common content at appropriate levels. There should be, in the first place, a Two main needs sound general course to 15 years, with links with Advanced courses have been initiated for a further education, for the majority, who are variety of reasons, but most people will agree around the average in ability. The second that only one criterion, the needs of pupils, is demand, surely, is for a thorough remedial valid in the ultimate issue. Two needs in parti­ course for the handicapped, and finally in terms cular are significant. First of these is the need of claims upon the school's resources, advanced for satisfaction, and it is in relation to this need courses for pupils of superior ability. All in all pupils that advanced courses take their pupils need purpose, and, in making provision proper place. In my own area, where more for a triple course in this way, a school can than one fifth of the pupils of 11 are allocated satisfy this, the second basic need in school, of places in the older secondary schools, it has been all its pupils. noted consistently that the scatter of ability in There is, as most of us know, a strong con­ modern school pupils, as measured by intelli­ nection between opportunity, attitude to school 22 ADVANCED COURSES IN THE MODERN SECONDARY SCHOOL work, and ultimate scholastic success. For school forgets that there is more to living than abler boys and girls advanced courses, of suitable earning a living. Nor does it mean that the type and seeking suitable standards, are helpful school permits a girl, for example, to neglect in replacing the notion that the modern school the home-making skills for those of the office. is a " dead-end " for the " also-rans " with the What it does mean is that the course is realistic knowledge that it is indeed a place of oppor­ in terms of local employment but that it is tunity. In human terms I have found this to conceived, too, as part of the full educational mean the difference between a child arriving in development of the pupil. 1943 with an expressed feeling of disappoint­ ment—" I do wish I were going to a better It is when a school considers advanced school "—and a similar one, one of six in 1953, courses of this kind in relation to full develop­ rejecting a grammar school opportunity for a ment that the search for appropriate standards more appropriate one in terms of predominant begins, and it is because the search for standards interests and ability, and with equal scholastic leads to the use of external examinations that possibilities in terms of her own potentialities. controversy arises. It is a fact that an increasing number of schools is making use of an increas­ So dramatic a change of attitude among the ing number of examinations, and that something abler pupils has not yet spread throughout the approaching 10,000 entrants from the new modern secondary field, and the change will not secondary schools are now attempting the Gen­ come easily. In many ways the problem is eral Certificate of Education examinations with akin to that of the chicken and the egg. Some considerable success. There is insufficient space authorities are still reluctant to provide staff and in a short article to discuss the advantages and equipment until they can see results, and such drawbacks of such examinations in detail, but results cannot come without the teachers, the equipment and the pupils to use both. Parents, there seems no valid reason for assuming that, for their part, will not make a decision involving because they are, perhaps, inappropriate for an extended school life, with its sacrifices in most pupils in the new secondary schools, they are terms of wages lost, unless they can see that the therefore inappropriate for all. Moreover, one effort will be worth their while. cannot help feeling that it is perhaps unrealistic to expect that able pupils will be sufficiently stimulated in school, or even allowed to stay on Two experiments at all, unless some recognised qualification is to I have been fortunate in having been able to be gained. Accordingly external examinations, try two solutions. In Chesterfield, immediately singly or in combination, have been used having after the war and in the face of shortages, but regard to the claims of vocation and of full with full official support, advanced courses development, and taking account, too, of the started from a few girls learning shorthand and amount of strain to be borne in each individual typewriting in a small spare room, and developed case. into courses which reached good standards and gave the school a sixth form. In my present The first three years school, built with a five-year course in mind, and It is not the policy of the school to accept growing from the bottom, a comparable develop­ pupils into an express stream offering a definite ment is proving possible more quickly, with course leading to a pre-selected examination 30 boys and girls from a three-stream year from 11 onwards. This does not mean that anxious to stay on, and with courses more the question of possible future examination broadly based from the outset. syllabuses is ignored when schemes of work are Two things have seemed important in both drawn up. What it does mean, however, is that instances. The first has been the fostering of a it is the policy of the school that the first nine right attitude in parents and pupils towards the terms of a ten-to-twelve term compulsory school opportunity being offered and towards the life in the secondary stage shall be spent in effort required of both. The second has been exploratory and developmental work covering the thought and enquiry needed to make sure the whole curriculum. Informed guidance and that the courses lead to worthwhile vocational informed choice of course then become possible opportunities. This does not mean that the with a minimum chance of error. 23 FORUM

Advanced courses begin, then, after the third of staffing and accommodation which will affect year and continue for a further full two years. the new secondary schools as the increased Pupils from neighbouring schools, under a numbers of pupils pass through them. Many reciprocal arrangement, are admitted on head schools will find it impossible to organise com­ teachers' recommendation at this stage. The plete advanced courses, at least for the next few courses are best considered in two separate years, and many others will find it difficult to years, the first of which involves a trend, the hold their ground. Yet much of value has been second a bias. already gained. Some areas have extended Woodwork, mechanical drawing, gardening, their courses so that pupils complete a full art and craft, housecraft, needlework, commer­ fourth year, and are relying upon close co­ cial studies, additional mathematics and addi­ operation with further education to complete tional English are offered to all fourth year the work started in the secondary stage. Others pupils on three half-days a week, so that each have concentrated their advanced courses in a pupil can give his timetable a trend towards his few selected schools. Yet others, like Chester­ own particular interests, abilities and vocational field and Southampton in particular, have needs. The first year of a two-year advanced arranged that each secondary school shall have course fits well within such a framework in that a single advanced course forming part of a a girl seeking a commercial career, a boy in­ comprehensive pattern for the area. The im­ terested in a technical course or a pupil pur­ pressive thing is the variety and vigour of the suing art and craft or agriculture can make a experimentation still going on. significant beginning to the work in mind with­ out real loss to other aspects of general education, since these are in fact maintained for all. New opportunities Regular formal homework is done throughout The result is that in many places there is a the two years. new air breathing through the secondary schools today. It is an air of purpose resulting from The fifth year the presence of older pupils who have shown, by In the fifth year, in 1959, as in my last school, staying, that the school has something it is each pupil will have an individual timetable, worth their while to get. These pupils are doing, under guidance from the careers master or for the new secondary schools, something of mistress. This will be made up to meet the what a sixth form does in older schools. It student's own particular abilities and vocational shows in improved standards of work. It is needs, but English will be compulsory in each apparent in the quality of both the teaching and case for reasons which will be easily apparent. the learning. It shows in many ways in the Wherever possible, appropriate examinations corporate life of the school. And for the pupils will be taken. The kind of thing one has in themselves there are opportunities formerly mind for an able student is perhaps best illus- beyond their reach in business, banking, engin­ strated by the programme of a girl interested in eering, nursing, teaching. There will be many clerical work. This girl took the fourth year who will feel that if the new secondary schools curriculum with personal modifications as set out above and, at the end of the fifth year, took can continue to offer opportunity of this order not only the Pitman speed examinations which to the able, without loss to the average or the were the expressed limit of her mother's ambi­ retarded, then the future that was theirs to make tion for her, but G.C.E. examinations in will indeed be full of promise. English language, art, domestic subjects (needle­ work), commercial subjects and arithmetic (only). Newport Education Committee, undeterred by the Minister's rejection of their scheme for comprehensive Although many of the minor problems con­ education, have re-affirmed " their intention, in keeping nected with the development of advanced with their powers, to move towards abolition of the 11 courses have been dealt with, at least by impli­ plus and the segregation of pupils and to establish the cation, in what has by now been said, no men­ full comprehensive system as and when opportunities tion has as yet been made of the twin difficulties offer." 24 Science Teaching in the Nuclear Age (1) PETER ASTBURY

HE URGENT NEED for reform of school curricula young mind think, and think correctly, as the Tarises from an obvious fact—that children action of those (scientific) laws.'X1). born today will be 42 in the year 2,000. If as The teaching of science should start in the men and women they are to play a useful part, first year of the primary school. Scientific even in the day to day life of their generation, method can be applied to the most elementary they will need a far deeper understanding of problems, questions far less abstract than those scientific method than is possessed by the posed in the 11+ examination. The subjects average cabinet minister of our time. Within studied should be based on simple concepts; the next 50 years, to take but one instance, the they should involve inductive arguments; and principle of negative feed-back is likely to play they should be directed towards establishing an essential part in nearly every factory. Yet important general principles, e.g., the conserva­ today barely one per cent, of the population has tion of energy, the periodic table of elements even heard of it. and natural selection. Scientists who work at the frontiers of know­ If half-a-dozen first rate scientists were to ledge should be familiar with a fairly wide meet half-a-dozen first rate primary school sector of the territory behind them. It is al­ teachers they could certainly draw up a course ready becoming increasingly difficult to produce which would awaken and stimulate interest; an adequately qualified Ph.D. by the age of 25. which would ensure that children entering The frontiers are moving out at an ever-increas­ secondary school had both a sound under­ ing pace and if a child born today is to reach standing of the elements of scientific method and them by 1983 he will have to travel by different experience of such techniques as photography, means on a new route. glass blowing, soldering and dissection. I have not had enough experience of school teaching to claim that the changes I suggest here The secondary stage are practicable, or even desirable. The pro­ It is doubtful whether the present division of posals are inspired, rather, by experience of subjects—physics, history, geography and so teaching first-year students in university physics on—is the classification of modern knowledge laboratories, supplemented only by some dis­ most suitable for presentation in secondary cussions with schoolmasters and children. Nor schools. But even if it is retained, boundaries am I so much concerned with what can be done must be much less rigidly defined. Scientific in the schools of today as with what could be laws have a place in such subjects as geography, done in adequately staffed and equipped com­ history, music, as well as crafts and architec­ prehensive schools. ture. History, for example, is not merely con­ cerned with politics but also with the develop­ Early science teaching ment of human skill and techniques which pro­ Faraday, drawing on his experience of lectur­ vide the material basis for different forms of ing at the Royal Institution, argued that quite social organisation. If it is to be so taught, young children, under the age of 12, could study science and mathematics must take a much more science seriously, given proper teaching; but important place in teachers' training courses. " do not let a man go to teach who is a pedant At present it would be as unreasonable to expect in his science and delights in abstract terms." a history teacher to understand the principles of His evidence to the Public Schools Commission metallurgy familiar to bronze age coppersmiths of 1864 continued: as to expect him to solve the equations set as " I am incompetent to compare the training problems in the schools of Old Babylon. power of classical with physical instruction, So far as the science subjects themselves are because I have never been brought through a concerned, curricula urgently need revision to course of scholastic education; but it appears to me that nothing is so competent to make a (l) Report of the Public Schools' Commission, Vol. iv, p. 378. 25 FORUM make place for the science of the twentieth Here again, there is room for much serious century. For instance, from the physics course discussion, including contributions from leading could be pruned some of the more abstract scientists, if a satisfactory curriculum is to be theorems in electrostatics, details in techniques devised(2). of measurement of specific heat, vapour pres­ sure, surface tension and viscosity, descriptions Methods and examinations of such obsolete instruments as tangent galvano­ Whatever the curriculum, there must certainly meters and grease spot photometers. The be changes in the method of instruction. Much whole course should be designed anew so that a more stress should be laid on inductive argu­ mass of relatively less significant material does ment, and children should learn to rely on not obscure fundamental general principles. observation rather than on authority. First year university students can produce the most At present atomic physics is precariously sophisticated argument to explain the result attached to the sixth form curriculum as an which they ought to have obtained from an appendix to electricity. It should rather be experiment; they find real difficulty in interpret­ introduced at a very early stage and play a ing the actual result they did obtain. Wherever prominent part throughout the whole course possible laboratory work should precede the of science teaching. The argument that a complementary lectures. In this way children thorough understanding of nineteenth century would learn from experiments, rather than re­ physics is a necessary prerequisite is invalid. garding them merely as proofs of statements in Atomic physics, properly taught, can be intro­ text-books. duced to children who know nothing about the Last, but far from least, it is essential that the second law of thermodynamics or the construc­ control now exercised by universities over tion of achromatic lenses. Both in the primary grammar schools should not extend to compre­ schools and in the first years of the secondary hensive schools. Only a tiny fraction of those course, prominence can be given to those aspects who sit ' O ' level mathematics will become of physics and chemistry which lead up to the professional mathematicians. Examination concept of the atomic structure of matter. This boards in mathematics and the sciences should requires the equipment of school laboratories include a strong representation from such with such instruments as Geiger counters, bodies as the Amalgamated Engineering Union, simple cloud chambers, cathode ray tubes, the Electrical Trades Union, the British Medical photocells and more spectrometers. All child­ Association, the engineering institutes. In addi­ ren should be able to examine prints of classic tion, if the excessive scholasticism of the gram­ cloud chamber and nuclear emulsion photo­ mar schools is to be avoided in the comprehen­ graphs; films and television could be much more sive school, many university faculties must also extensively used to supplement laboratory reconsider their curricula and introduce four workO). year courses.

(*) Some films have already been made by the Mullard Company and (2) For a brief account of the work of the Physical Science Study the Educational Foundation for Visual Aids, but many more are Committee organised by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, needed. see W. C. Michels, The Scientific American, April, 1958.

(2) R. J. SCAMMELL

T ASKED ONE of my brighter first year classes, even had this at the top of their list, explaining towards the beginning of their first term, to it in a rough and ready way; for instance— write down all that they knew about water; then, " Water is made of two of hydrogen and one of in a separate paragraph, to list any questions oxygen." Nobody, however, wrote down in the about water which they would like to investigate, second list that they wanted to know why or any points about which they wanted to know scientists called water H20. more. This seems to me to raise an important ques­ Quite a number wrote something like—" The tion; what is to be done about the subject of scientist's name for water is H20." One or two atoms and molecules? It is no use ignoring the 26 SCIENCE TEACHING fact that quite young children hear a great deal nature of matter, warrant time in school; not about atoms, and that some go on to read only in the timetable of children taking science elementary accounts of atomic theory in popular subjects but also in that of sixth form pupils science surveys or children's encyclopaedias. who are not taking science. The great danger, from our point of view, is that most of this information is presented in the New approaches form of pure dogma. It consists chiefly of facts about atoms and electrons with practically Examination syllabuses must take a share of nothing about how and when these facts were the blame for the lack of attention to new dis­ discovered, nor any evidence for them. coveries. They could certainly be brought up The purely factual content of science, the mere to date at more frequent intervals. But the end-product, is now so enormous, and bears on fact must be faced that, even if the present our everyday life at so many points, that we are deplorable chasm is narrowed, a noticeable gap in danger of being swamped by sheer weight of will inevitably remain. Nor must syllabuses be numbers. Here is a case of the price of liberty brought up to date simply by adding to them, being eternal vigilance. The end-product must or we shall soon pass the point where it is pos­ never be mistaken for the process. Teachers sible to find any time at all for discussion, or should always be alive to the danger of dogma­ thinking, or fringe-of-the-syllabus work. tism and, wherever possible, the children them­ One feels that, to an almost frightening extent, selves should be aware when they are accepting the degree work of yesterday is the 6A' level something without proof. Above all, pieces of work of today and, presumably, the ' O ' level work should be chosen which can actually be work of tomorrow. If this is allowed to happen dealt with scientifically, in however simple a form, in terms of the subject matter and factual con­ it is alarming that the majority of children, even tent of science subjects, the only possible result when performing an experiment well within will be a worse version of the overcrowded, their limits, would much rather be right than superficially treated syllabus than we at present honest. This is very human, and very conveni­ have. If, however, we can bring it about in the ent for the teacher who is trying to cover an more subtle and elusive field of ideas and con­ extensive subject in a very short space of time, cepts, and most of all in attitudes, then we shall but it is not science. make the kind of progress that really matters. There is only space here to deal with three Be frank! possible methods of approach, in an attempt to To return to the problem of teaching about illustrate how the shadowy but discernible atoms and chemical formulae, it seems that the " spirit " of modern science might enter in some only method is to be frank with the children; degree into the ordinary teaching of average to explain that, as the class cannot do the experi­ children. ments needed to find out all about atoms, the The first is by no means new, but perhaps still only thing to do is to learn how scientists set too little used. It is the simple statistical about it and what they discovered. treatment of results of quite simple quantitative What children read about science, apart from experiments. An experiment in which each their lessons, introduces a quite different ques­ pair of children obtains a different result can tion. This arose at a recent conference in the be followed by a bringing together of these form of a plea for more time for science, allow­ results. Perhaps the children will learn some­ ing for occasional excursions beyond the thing about the meaning of terms like ' average,' boundaries of the syllabus to discuss what was ' scatter,'' even distribution.' But more impor­ described, with cheerful informality, as " Sput­ tant by far is the possibility that they may begin niks and Zetas and things." to develop a feeling about results (something hard to put into words but which is the very It can be argued that this should be left to the essence of science), a realisation that " all facts children's spare-time reading, but many teachers are equal." think that these topical and spectacular applica­ tions of science, as also such broad scientific The second possibility is to encourage children generalisations as the theory of evolution or the to draw analogies; broad, even daring, analogies. 27 FORUM

When the right note is luckily struck, youngsters cope with complexity. Modern science has enjoy an experiment with ideas as much as an lost, probably permanently, the reassuring faith experiment with test-tubes. A whole new branch that a final formula is always beautifully simple. of science, since named cybernetics, sprang into Complexity has its own more difficult form of being as a result of brilliant, daring, fruitful beauty, as also perhaps have very large numbers. analogy. It has given us words for ideas which High-flown philosophy of this kind is not for enrich amazingly diverse spheres of thought; children, but it is perhaps germane to the words like positive and negative feedback, question of how best to teach those future hunting, noise-level, " bit " of information. technologists of whom we hear so much. Though our children are unlikely to found new What sort of person, ideally, should this branches of science, we can help them to develop technologist be? His portrait is to be found, flexible minds; by suggesting some similarity albeit larger than life, in the pages of some of between a wages-prices spiral and a loud-speaker the better science fiction. One of the most not­ howling because it is too near its own micro­ able characteristics of his thinking—especially phone, or noting that fashionable trends in the when he is escaping from that impossible situa­ length of skirts (or, indeed, in strictness of school tion by rewiring his intergalactic hyperdrive unit discipline) over the years may exhibit hunting into something quite different—is that, coupled or damped oscillations. Similarly, resonance with an enormous depth and breadth of theoreti­ must be more than just 44 something to do with cal knowledge and practical skill, he is able to tuning forks." The children's own attempts at take that overall view of pure and applied analogies, however far-fetched or irritatingly science whereby mere complexity holds no half-true, are even more important and must be terrors. assured of a sympathetic hearing. People like this are not the products of cram­ A third avenue worth exploring is the degree ming, coaching, or being lectured at. They to which children can be deliberately helped to have to be taught.

(3) MICHAEL ROBINSON

T is NOT often enough said that science claims standards for 99% of our children, we sfrall fail I a central place in modern education because, in our social duty. It is primarily by the use on the basis of hard won facts and established of a wide variety of materials that an analytical theories, it has created the most powerful and flexible quality of mind can be fostered in intellectual methodology yet produced by man. many more children. Practical sense experience For four centuries English education has been is the basis on which vocabulary can be extended directed towards producing a synthetic quality of and oral and written synthesis rapidly improved. mind in a minority by contact with the best of Several years' experience in comprehensive mathematics, literature and art. Such an schools has convinced many of us that consider­ 4 intuitive' methodology may be enormously able intellectual strides can be taken by children powerful but, even if it could be spread widely working in carefully planned structuralised enough, it will not suffice for a society under­ conditions. Backward children in the third going increasingly rapid scientific and social year, the majority of them girls, can grapple change. with Ohm's Law and induction, once the target The spread of rational understanding may has been made clear by showing them a range well present fewer problems. The role of science of electrical appliances and books based on these is to infuse the curriculum with the habit of ideas. The emotional and intellectual barriers analysis and objectivity, using the widest range created by social conditions (4 this is a boys' of materials to stimulate interest and satisfy subject') must be broken down and confidence emotion. To those who feel this to be irrelevant built up. Ideas must be introduced very or high-faluting I would say that, unless we systematically. A great deal of research into begin to concern ourselves with intellectual sequence is needed, but at present I use :

28 SCIENCE TEACHING

(1) Electricity as a flow of negatively charged Why is there now such a gulf between methods particles, at the primary and secondary level; such a (2) Current as the number flowing per second, divorce between play way and formal methods? (3) Voltage as the pressure they exert, Why the sudden idea that it is degrading to explain a theory concretely? Bragg's Cavendish (4) Resistance as hindrance to flow. lectures never suggested this. The older the 1 use water and human analogies, and even children we teach, the less psychology we use. kinaesthetic drama with pupils as electrons. Could this account for the increasing lack of Most children then find it fairly obvious that the faith in children's potential as their age increases? more current must pass through the larger At present teachers are very like Marconi resistance, the more force is needed—ixR=V; fiddling with his first transmitters, and there and are prepared to tackle formal problems and were the Jeremiahs then. However, within practical determination of unknown resistances. thirty years, the electronics industry has won the day, advancing on the basis of a vast pro­ A common approach gramme of organised research. Such a pro­ gramme does not exist in education. If we are If certain words—particle, current, pressure, serious about raising the standard of the resistance—have become familiar lower down the average child, about the needs of retarded and school, progress is more rapid. A common backward children, we must rapidly create an definition of such fundamentals should be agreed organisation capable of co-ordinating experience upon, and standard experiments used, such as and research. Brownian movement, potassium permanganate convection and the fountain experiment. The A good start might be the fusion of the concepts of particles and pressure recur through­ science masters' and the science mistresses' out life and the vast majority of children can be associations, and the opening of the joint body clear about these by the age of thirteen. to non-graduates, possibly on an associate basis. One of its first tasks: to make new The greater the number of variables in a given suggestions on curricula so that an extensive learning situation, the smaller the number of body of field workers could start experiments children who will benefit. The increasing turn­ on method in the laboratories. But this would over of teachers, and the growing number of only be a beginning. With the increasing pupils transferred as the mobility of labour adoption of specialisation in secondary schools, rises, makes the adoption of some standardisa­ we must strive for a common approach to the tion of learning situations and methods highly whole school curriculum, based not only on the desirable. To neglect this task is to make a rod structure of the different subjects but also on an for our own backs. ever widening knowledge of children's intellec­ Some particular examples may be given. tual and emotional development. Children who have seen the fountain experiment with steam, and who understand the term A science of education? solubility, find little difficulty in understanding Can we doubt that conditioning plays an the fountain obtained with ammonia or hydro­ enormous role in learning and that for most chloric acid. The idea of Units can be suggested children continuity of method is the pre­ in the first year, using their primary school requisite for steady advance? The ability to vocabulary. My classes make up their own see connections between apparently discon­ units for all sorts of things: irritability of nected facts; the emergence of intellectual order teachers, 1 Rit = l Detention, or Unit sharpness and pattern from juvenile jumble and subjective of drawing pins will raise 1 child by 1 foot. intution; seeing how to tackle problems in Better design of demonstration material and, general—all these can undoubtedly be condi­ still more, of class apparatus, could aid this tioned, by exercises in the sort of patterns to process and transform our laboratory results. look for, training in classification, vocabulary The link between cylinder, piston, valve and work. Simple tricks, such as changing the eccentric is mechanically fundamental, yet form of a question to bring oneself back to a apparatus designed for variable demonstration concrete situation, can be effective; for instance, of this principle is very poor. " What causes light to bend? " " What sub- 21 FORUM stances make light bend? "—"Glass, water." Perhaps some heads would oblige? The " Why?"—" Because they slow down the breakdown according to subjects would be waves." " Why? "—" Because they are denser even more interesting. The way in which I than air." teach our four year science course could be It may be thought that I take liberties with reduced to a rough table, giving the percentage my subject. But I believe that many of our of time allotted to each aspect (average of all difficulties have arisen because we have all been streams). too parochial. Under the slogan of freedom Year %P %A %s %R and variety, cross currents have endangered the 1. Air, water, fire, plants, educational ship. We need to work towards an animals 30 20 40 10 educational science. 2. Heat, earth, plants, This requires a descriptive method which chemistry 30 20 30 20 facilitates comparisons. We need to define our 3. Light, sound, magnetism, terms more carefully, to standardise the form electricity 30 10 30 30 and content of our tests at different levels. 4. Mechanics, electricity, chemistry, biology 20 10 30 40 Discussion of time allowances for different subjects is important but can be frustrating. The future presents many problems, in some What would be interesting is a breakdown on ways qualitatively different from those of the other lines, for instance: past. The reward for their solution will be very (P) Physical—physical education, the part of great: for the first time in our history an educated practical subjects spent physically. nation could emerge. But, if they are to be (A) Aesthetic—art, music, drama, poetry, etc. successfully solved, we need a nationwide dis­ (S) Skills—practice, spelling, punctuation, com­ cussion on teaching methods and on the inter- putation. penetration of subject content, throughout the (R) Relational Thinking—factual essay, prob­ schools, particularly at the secondary stage. I lem solving, experiment design. hope FORUM will act as a catalyst.

Comprehensive Conference JOHN WALTON

upporters of the tripartite system must look talks were given by people engaged in the day to day Sforward to the future with considerable trepidation. administration of comprehensive schools, and consider­ The comprehensive school is surviving, indeed thriving, able opportunity was given for discussion and question­ under the attacks of its critics, and is more than holding ing. Undoubtedly one was impressed by the very hard its own under the close examination of informed people work that is demanded of the staff of the comprehensive from many branches of education. For a week in school. Yet the results in all spheres of school activity London it was dissected and held under the microscope appeared to have more than justified the tremendous by members of the course on " The Comprehensive effort that has been expended. Some point, however, is School in English Education Today," organised by the given to Mr. R. G. K. Hickman's plea earlier in the London Institute of Education. This course was well course for a better staffing ratio in the comprehensive attended. Its members were drawn not only from this school than in other types of secondary school. country; many other parts of the world were also repre­ One of the highlights was the address given by Miss sented. Teachers, government inspectors, local govern­ Y. B. Giuseppi on what would appear to be a most ment officials, members of education committees, were uninteresting topic—" Constructing the Timetable." all obviously eager for inside information about the Without doubt the charm of her delivery played a part working of these schools. in the success of this talk. But this was not all. What In his opening remarks Professor A. V. Judges stated was really appreciated was capable presentation and that the course was not intended to be " a defensive or exposition of a real problem. Here at last people felt an offensive operation." It sought only " to examine that they were getting down to brass tacks. Perhaps this the problems of the non-selective school on their own success of Miss Giuseppi points to some deficiency in the merits." Indeed these remarks as it were set the tone addresses of the other speakers. However this may be, for the whole series of meetingsC1). The majority of the the course must have helped many to place comprehen­ sive schools in their correct perspective and served as a (*) Professor Judges' address will be published in the next issue of stimulant to those who are contemplating a closer FORUM. association with this type of school in the future. 30 Education in the Soviet Union

SHENA D. SIMON T is ONLY recently that most people in this country and demand for technologists and their supply. The fact I the United States have become aware of the remark­ that the Minister of Higher Education is himself a pro­ able educational progress which has been taking place in fessor of engineering also makes for good relations. the Soviet Union for the past thirty years. Technological students are exempt from military service, The first detailed information was provided by the and standards of entry to the less popular specialisations Report on Soviet Professional Manpower by N. de Witt, of are less severe while these also attract higher stipends. Harvard University, published in 1955. This report Teachers earn more than they could in industry and may stimulated a succession of specialist delegations from this earn an additional 50% of their salaries in research work country to find out for themselves about Soviet education. or industrial consultancy. Such incentives mean that Two reports may be considered here; one on techno­ there is no shortage of teachers of science and mathe­ logical education, the other concerned chiefly with the matics. schools^). The School System Education of Engineers The educational delegation spent two weeks in In the autumn of 1956 a delegation of ten engineers, Moscow, one in Leningrad and one in Baku in 1956. led by Professor Giffen, visited nine institutions in It was led by the late Dr. Jeffery, then Director of the Moscow and six in Leningrad. The group included London Institute of Education, and included two teachers, administrators, lecturers and industrialists and drew up a a chief education officer, an inspector and the principal comprehensive report covering the background and of an adult education college. The greater part of its administration of technological education, selection of report has to do with schools but there are shorter students, content of courses, graduation standards, references to higher education, the training and salaries training of technicians. of teachers, and other topics. This report gives the best There are some interesting comparisons with this picture that has yet appeared here of school education country. In England the age of entry to higher technolo­ in the u.s.s.r. gical education is 18£ years, the level of attainment is "An educational system must inevitably reflect the 'A' level of G.C.E., the duration of a broad foundation society it serves " and the report attempts primarily to course is one to two years and the total course three present Soviet education against the social background years. In the Soviet Union age of entry is 17+, level of of the Soviet Union. Nevertheless comparisons are attainment somewhere between ' O * and *A' level, the made. For instance, the uniform curriculum and the duration of a broad course two to three years and the central control of text-books is contrasted with the free­ total course five years. dom enjoyed by English teachers. Though realising The impression received is that the Russian graduate that the contrast would not seem so great to teachers engineer stands higher on average than the British; but from most other Western European countries, and that that to compare him with the British student who has Russia might well not have progressed so rapidly towards done two years of an industrial apprenticeship (which universal education by any other means, the group has no parallel in the u.s.s.r.) is to give the latter prior stresses the desirability of more professional freedom. place. The delegation was startled to find that 50% of engin­ The other striking difference found was " the complete eering students were women, by comparison with less than absence of any grading of children according to their one per cent, here, the conclusion being that we neglect ability." All but a limited number of educationally a large source of supply. The course involves a higher subnormal children attend the same school and " any degree of specialisation than is the case here, which may attempt to stream ... is strictly forbidden." It would be necessary in the present stage of the Russian economy. be superficial to dismiss this as " a doctrinaire refusal to But it includes a compulsory foreign language. This face the fact of the wide differences of ability between accounts for the amount of translation of technical children." The Russians strongly criticise intelligence literature; clearly Russian technologists able to read testing and insist that " in the great majority of cases . . . English publications far outnumber British technologists apparent retardment is due to ascertainable causes which capable of reading Russian. Individual consultation are capable of remedy " precisely by positiveveducational between staff and students prevails throughout the course means. and a staff member accompanies students during their This apart, Russian teachers admit to " a social pur­ training in industry. pose behind their common school curriculum." They The report notes that state control of both industry have not abolished old class distinctions to replace them and education makes for good co-ordination between the by new based on different forms of education. " They think that a common educational experience up to the 0) "Report presented to the Councils of the Institutions of Civil age of seventeen is the right kind of foundation for the Engineers, Mechanical Engineers, and Electrical Engineers, to the kind of society they are trying to build." The group Minister of Education and to the British Council by the team of engineers who visited Russia in September, 1956"; Proceedings concludes that the question of individual differences of the Institute of Electrical Engineers, Vol. 124, Part A, 1957. between children and of the right educational attitude " Education in the Soviet Union, a Report of a Study Tour " (a towards these is " pre-eminently a field in which a fuller limited number of copies of the latter report are still available, price three shillings, from The Educational Interchange Council, and freer exchange of views and experience would be of 43 Parliament Street, London, S.W.I.). great benefit to education in both countries." 31 FORUM The same point is made after a brief summary of re­ ballet and theatre schools which bear witness to the search conducted by the Academy of Educational Sciences, encouragement of individual gifts in a field much neg­ in particular by its Institute of Defectology where " a lected here. staff highly qualified in the medical and educational Sixth form and industry aspects of psychology " carries out work " at a very high scientific level." The views they hold about the nature There is an interesting section on co-operation between and treatment of backwardness contrast so strongly home and school and the new boarding schools are with those of educational psychologists outside Russia, briefly described. Developments have taken place so fast 44 that new tasks are always arising and the Soviet Union particularly on intelligence ratings, that there is a does not hesitate to experiment. New changes are manifest and urgent need for a fuller exchange of scien­ under way even since this group's visit. Some degree of tific data." bias in what approximates to our secondary school sixth In practice, the attainment of the average child in the forms is under discussion. Meanwhile achievements at Soviet Union has been raised to a point which we have work in industry and agriculture already count towards been told is impossible, without neglecting the child entrance to higher education. Next year 80% of places whose abilities are above or below average. The report in higher educational institutes will be reserved for pupils sets out to explain how such good results have been who have two or more years' experience at work, leaving achieved in the absence of measures here thought only 20% for those entering straight from school. This essential to a high standard for the few, but hardly does step, again, has been taken on educational as well as so. Perhaps the authors underestimate the effect of a social grounds and the more mature students are already positive approach, the belief that abilities can be devel­ reaching higher standards. oped. More might also have been said about out of It is clear that if we want to keep up with what is school learning. In the various pioneer and youth happening in this amazing country, we should send clubs a wide choice of activities, supervised by teachers, competent delegations every year. The cumulative is available, but school subjects also figure in the pro­ effect of reading these reports is to suggest that, unless grammes. Here a pupil behind in any school subject we are prepared to become a third-rate power, education­ can get help, while the advanced pupil may range more ally and otherwise, we must undertake an 44 agonising widely. reappraisal" of our own system. As the report just This is also part of the answer to the criticism that the considered concludes:44 In the measure of social priority single curriculum infers an interest only in future citi­ accorded to it, and in rapidity of development, Soviet zens and not in individuals, though this dichotomy is education is forging ahead to meet the technical and surely false. One might add that the group did not social needs of an expanding dynamic society. It pre­ visit any music schools, where instruction in every sents a challenge that those responsible for education in instrument is combined with the normal curriculum, nor Western democracies should be prepared to meet."

Inside the Comprehensive School EDWARD BLISHEN

BOY IN one of my classes recently discovered that his to a boy who was soon leaving. His English had never brother, a grammar school boy, was doing some­ been good, but he was the school philosopher, a boy A 44 thing called precis." He was at my desk the morning with a sceptical passion for R.I. and for fundamental after this discovery, half a dozen of his cronies with him. discussion. What sort of job should he go for, he asked. 44 Sir," he said, 44 why don't you give us precis ?" Because I knew it would tickle him, I suggested he might 44 They do it at the grammar schools," said another. become a parson. For a few seconds the idea convulsed 44 You tell us about it," decreed a third. 44 Well . . ." him, and then he gave me his favourite piercing look— I said. It was really no moment to tell them what I which always meant that there was more in what you'd thought of precis. It was not even a moment to tell said than you thought there was—and said with dignity them that certain activities we had regularly engaged in that he wouldn't make a bad parson at all. And I felt were in fact roughly and gaily describable as precis. again the curious falsity of the tripartite label that we 44 Come and see me in the dinner hour," I said. had hung on a boy like this; a label that simply denies I thought then, as I have thought often, that tripartism the mysterious and marvellous nature of human potenti­ is quite the most stupid and frustrating concept that alities. He resented, and he had every right to resent, education has ever stumbled upon. Not because second­ the ungenerous outlook that had chopped off, for him, ary modern boys become naively interested in precis; but the scragend of education. because of the excitement which is aroused in them by There are, of course, more formal ways of saying all anything they conceive to be a symbol of superior this; and they are to be found on page after page of education. And because of the resentment one feels in Inside the Comprehensive School.i1) " The degree of them, the contempt for the way one has chopped educa­ comprehensiveness in most secondary schools is increas­ tion up. It is we who have labelled them low-flyers, not ing year by year." (More and more children are in- they. The undertone of resentment is sometimes difficult to bear. I felt it again not long ago when I was talking (M Schoolmaster Publishing Co. Ltd., 12/6. 32 INSIDE THE COMPREHENSIVE SCHOOL quiring about precis). 44 It is clear beyond question that must laughingly toss one's hopes of advancement aside tripartism is breaking down through its inherent contra­ and say that it's shocking that so many distinguished dictions." (Into which of the three parts do you put the heads should write so wretchedly. Is there really— boy whose English is poor—his verbal environment dreadful thought!—a style that has to be called head­ happens to be a wretched one—but who is a most earnest masterese? It is sad, this, because one wants the book philosopher ?) . . . to be widely read. It is an odd thing: here is a quiet, awkward, unpre­ And yet the book glows. All the great, menacing possessing book which is quite the warmest and most questions are answered, and answered both confidently exciting contribution to be made to our educational and in a manner, and with a degree of detail, that inspire literature for a long time. When you've finished it— confidence. Is the comprehensive school too big? No though no contributor has raised his voice or allowed one who reads Chapter VII, with its three different and himself the faintest eloquence—you are left with a vivid equally persuasive solutions of the problem of size, will picture of educational sanity and wholeness. Here des­ ask the question seriously again. Indeed, as Mr. Raymond cribed are schools that offer to all the children under their King says in his most impressive summary, " Precisely roofs a great variety of experiences and opportunities because the problems have been so clearly foreseen and —with no labels at all. Or rather, here are schools specifically planned for, it may well be that the individual where—having been exposed to the experiences and the opportunities—the children label themselves. is better looked after than in many schools of smaller size." Does the more able child suffer ? Does the less One would, perhaps, hardly have expected to feel so able child suffer ? To these sore questions, again, the excited by such a book. For here are head teachers book provides a striking unanimity of quiet answers. talking about their schools. One expects difficulty in The contributors fall over backwards to point out that distinguishing what is aspired at from what is achieved. these are only, statistically, the beginnings of answers. There is no difficulty of that sort here. One essay only But one sees already that it isn't merely that children are is vague and hollow-sounding, and seems to clutch, doing well who would have been identified as able child­ every three or four sentences, at its lapels. None of the ren under the three-part system. Presented with a wider other contributors becomes for one moment rapturously range of subjects than they could have expected in a nor­ vague. Each describes, patiently and with a great effect mal grammar school, they are doing more variously well. of truth, how some comprehensive problem is being What is more, they are being joined by children who tackled. under the other system would not have been in the " Headmasterese " running at all. As for the less able child, he is being It must be said, however, and sadly, that they are educated in an atmosphere far richer and more provoca­ nearly all most tortuously difficult to read. Indeed, one tive and less conclusive than he could hope for in a

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33 FORUM secondary modern school: and he is being most scrupu­ difficulties, not invalidating defects. One is left, in the lously cared for. end, with a sense of enormous achievement. There are statements here that carry discussion about one aspect Tn fact, out of these dry and unbeguiling pages emerges or another of the comprehensive schools further than it a vision of secondary education as something socially and has been carried before. One will go back, often, to intellectually and emotionally whole, not something to Mr. G. A. Rogers on the common syllabus (" We are chopped up. There emerges also—all the more impress­ learning that perhaps there are not such great differences ive for the quietness with which it is given—the answer to in the quality of children's minds as in the nature of them those who claim that the comprehensive school is a . . ."), to Mrs. H. R. Chetwynd on the relation of the political device for concealing differences. This book school and the community, and especially to Mr. King's makes it clear that the comprehensive school is in fact wise sketch of a view of children that sees them in an educational device for avoiding the imposition of flexible terms of " polarities " rather than in fixed terms hopelessly false and debilitating notions of difference. of " types." Great variety No ' guilty men ' One last overwhelming impression. There is no such I write here, let me say, with far more assertiveness thing as the comprehensive school. Most loyally these than the contributors to this book allow themselves. heads speak for one another: but sometimes it is chalk These are the voices of people who are using all the intel­ speaking for cheese. There are still people who think lectual checks the importance of which we are sometimes of the comprehensive school as a vast educational told it is the unique task of the grammar school to instil. monolith, dominated by a single basaltic head teacher. One lesson the book must embody for all but the most Anyone who will take a bit of a literary deep breath and cantankerous of doubters: the comprehensive schools let himself down into the cloudy verbal waters of Inside are in the hands of men and women who are fully the Comprehensive School will come out on the other side conscious of our intellectual traditions. They sound having made the cheerful discovery that the common singularly unlike a group of assassins stained with the school is by no means the uniform school. blood of grammar school achievement. The N.U.T. is to be congratulated on having promoted Not that all is calm. One gathers that the staffing this immensely valuable study. One would ask only ratio is not always what it must be if the comprehensive that next time it does some promoting it will remember school is to realise its own special advantages. One that a touch of glamour and liveliness doesn't come amiss. detects here and there a phrase that may be a pointer to More carefully written, less stolidly presented, a valuable discomforts within the staffs. But these are inevitable book might have become an invaluable one.

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34 New Trends in English Education BRIAN SIMON (Editor) * Some very readable accounts of recent developments in secondary education.' Higher Education Journal. 'The articles are not only clearly written but derive from creative experience and much understanding.' Times Literary Supplement. 25s Speech & the Development of Mental Processes in the Child A. R. LURIA F. I. YUDOVICH Introduction by Professor Oliver Zangwill—Edited by Joan Simon. The authors of this book report a systematic study of the development of speech in a pair of identical twins and also throw interesting light on the parts played by heredity and environment respectively in the growth of mental life. 12s 6d Soviet Education DEANNA LEVIN Based on first-hand experience over many years, this book describes how Soviet education works in practice. An invaluable survey of teaching methods in the U.S.S.R. at every level from primary school to university. With complete syllabuses. Illustrated 15s

MACGIBBON & KEE & STAPLES PRESS 50 MARGARET STREET, LONDON, W.I

35 ^= 1768 JOHN MURRAY 1958 ^=

Getting Our Ideas in Focus

What are we, as educational publishers, trying to do? The appearance of a new educational journal prompts this self-questioning. First and foremost our aim has been to produce books for secondary schools—without any qualification such as ' grammar' or * technical' or ' comprehensive ' to follow the word ' secondary \ Many of these books are ' tailored' carefully to fit the existing examinations—the GENERAL SCIENCE FOR SCHOOLS series by Ashhurst, Wellings and Green, for instance, or the little books of test papers in English Language by Finn and Oxtoby. And if sales are any guide, these are remarkably successful in achieving their objectives. But there are many others of our recent text books which owe little or nothing to examination syllabuses. Their general aim has been to give expression to new ideas on the teaching of a subject, and to appeal to (and stimu­ late) as wide a range of intelligence as possible. As part of this latter purpose we have put everything we could into perfecting their production, and we have welcomed the many appreciative comments received from teachers on our efforts. It has been even more gratifying, however, to find that such books as THE MAKING OF MODERN BRIT­ AIN by Derry and Jarman, THE LIFE AND LIVELIHOOD GEOGRAPHIES edited by Shave, and A SCOTTISH HISTORY FOR TODAY by Gould and Thompson are widely used in all ' types' of secondary school— that we have been right, in fact, in our unitarian approach to secondary education. Secondly, we take pride in the help that we have been able to give— mainly through the publications we have issued on behalf of the Science Masters' Association—to teachers themselves. Our list of books for science teachers is, we believe, the most comprehensive of its kind in the world, ranging from the three-shilling pamphlet series SCIENCE TEACHING TECHNIQUES to the full-scale reports such as THE TEACHING OF ELECTRICITY and the newly-published TEACHING OF SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS.

JOHN MURRAY FIFTY ALBEMARLE STREET LONDON

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