Husbandry Manual

for the

Sandhill Dunnart (Sminthopsis psammophila)

(Mammalia: DASYURIDAE)

Written by Jasmine Ferguson Perth Zoo 9 October 2008 Box Hill Institute of TAFE, Box Hill Develop an Institutional Husbandry Manual RUV3405A Course Coordinator: Heidi Wenk Reproduced for use by Certificate III in Captive Animals students with kind permission Graeme Phipps – Western Institute of TAFE, Richmond Front cover picture: http://www.environment.sa.gov.au/biodiversity/images/yellabinna_biosurv_contents4.jpg

2 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 TAXONOMY ...... 5 1.1 NOMENCLATURE ...... 5 1.2 SUBSPECIES ...... 5 2 NATURAL HISTORY ...... 5 2.1 MORPHOMETRICS ...... 6 2.1.1 Mass And Basic Body Measurements ...... 6 2.1.2 Sexual Dimorphism ...... 6 2.1.3 Distinguishing Features ...... 7 2.2 DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT ...... 7 2.3 CONSERVATION STATUS ...... 8 2.4 DIET IN THE WILD ...... 8 3 HOUSING REQUIREMENTS...... 8 3.1 EXHIBIT/ENCLOSURE DESIGN ...... 8 3.2 SPATIAL REQUIREMENTS ...... 9 3.3 ENCLOSURE FURNISHINGS ...... 10 4 GENERAL HUSBANDRY...... 10 4.1 HYGIENE AND CLEANING ...... 10 5 FEEDING REQUIREMENTS ...... 11 5.1 CAPTIVE DIET ...... 11 5.2 SUPPLEMENTS ...... 13 5.3 PRESENTATION OF FOOD ...... 13 6 HANDLING AND TRANSPORT ...... 13 6.1 TIMING OF CAPTURE AND HANDLING ...... 13 6.2 CAPTURE AND RESTRAINT TECHNIQUES ...... 13 6.3 RELEASE...... 15 6.4 TRANSPORT REQUIREMENTS ...... 15 6.4.1 Box Design ...... 15 6.4.2 Furnishings ...... 16 6.4.3 Water and Food ...... 16 6.4.4 Animals per Box ...... 16 6.4.5 Timing of Transportation ...... 16 6.4.6 Release from Box ...... 16 7 HEALTH REQUIREMENTS ...... 17 7.1 DAILY HEALTH CHECKS ...... 17 7.2 ROUTINE TREATMENTS ...... 18 7.3 KNOWN HEALTH PROBLEMS ...... 18 7.3.1 Hair-ball blockages ...... 18 7.3.2 Trauma during pairing ...... 18 7.4 QUARANTINE REQUIREMENTS ...... 19 8 BEHAVIOUR ...... 19 8.1 ACTIVITY ...... 19 8.2 SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR ...... 19 8.3 REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOUR ...... 19 8.4 BEHAVIOURAL PROBLEMS ...... 20

3 8.5 SIGNS OF STRESS ...... 20 8.6 BEHAVIOURAL ENRICHMENT ...... 20 8.7 INTRODUCTIONS AND REMOVALS ...... 21 8.8 INTRASPECIFIC COMPATIBILITY ...... 21 8.9 INTERSPECIFIC COMPATIBILITY ...... 21 9 BREEDING ...... 21 9.1 MATING SYSTEM ...... 21 9.2 REPRODUCTIVE CONDITION ...... 21 9.2.1 Females ...... 21 9.2.2 Males ...... 23 9.3 TECHNIQUES USED TO CONTROL BREEDING ...... 23 9.4 AGE AT FIRST BREEDING AND LAST BREEDING ...... 23 9.5 ABILITY TO BREED EVERY YEAR ...... 23 9.6 ABILITY TO BREED MORE THAN ONCE PER YEAR ...... 24 9.7 NESTING, HOLLOW OR OTHER REQUIREMENTS ...... 24 9.8 BREEDING DIET ...... 24 9.9 OESTROUS CYCLE AND GESTATION PERIOD ...... 24 9.10 LITTER SIZE ...... 24 9.11 AGE AT WEANING AND REMOVAL FROM MOTHER ...... 24 9.12 GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT ...... 25 10 ARTIFICIAL REARING ...... 26 10.1 HOUSING ...... 26 10.2 TEMPERATURE REQUIREMENTS ...... 27 10.3 DIET AND FEEDING ROUTINE ...... 27 10.4 USE OF FOSTER SPECIES ...... 27 11 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... 28 12 REFERENCES ...... 29 13 GLOSSARY ...... 31 14 APPENDICES...... 32

4 1 Taxonomy First described by Spencer in 1895, it was discovered in the Northern Territory, at Lake Amadeus during a Horn Scientific Exhibition in 1894 (Pearson 1995).

1.1 Nomenclature Class: Mammalia (Subclass Marsupialia) Order: Dasyuromorphia Family: Dasyuridae Genus: Sminthopsis Species: Sminthopsis psammophila

Etymology: Photo: J. Ferguson Sminthopsis: mouse-like (animal) psammophila: sand-loving

1.2 Subspecies None.

2 Natural History

The Sandhill Dunnart was first described in 1895 from a specimen found at Lake Amadeus in the south-west of the Northern Territory, Australia (Pearson 1995). Since then it has not been captured again in the Northern Territory but has been caught in a few scattered localities in Western and South Australia. In 1969, the first specimens in South Australia were collected on the Eyre Peninsula near Mamblyn and Boonerdoo (Aitken 1971). Over 15 years later, more Sandhill Dunnarts were collected near Ooldea and Mount Christie in South Australia (Pearson 1995). In Western Australia, specimens have been caught in a few sites in the Great Victorian Desert, the first in 1985 (Hart and Kitchener 1986). The current range of the species includes a few small area within the Grea Victorian Desert in Western Australia; near Whyalla in the Eyre Peninsula, South Australia; and in Yellabinna Regional Reserve, South Australia (Churchill 2001a).

The Sandhill Dunnart is a small carnivorous (primarily insectivorous) marsupial belonging to the family Dasyuridae. It is solitary and nocturnal in nature, and is one of the largest species of Dunnarts, weighing between 30 and 55g (Pearson 1995). An arid or semi-arid adapted species, its natural habitat consists of sandy soils, commonly near dunes, with a good cover of spinifex (Triodia spp.) and a mallee or mixed shrubland overstory (Churchill 2001a). Field surveys indicate that Sandhill Dunnart habitat has been unburnt for 10-26 years, resulting in the

5 large, dense clumps of spinifex required for cover and nesting (Churchill 2001a; Gaikhorst and Lambert 2006).

Field research conducted by the Department of Environment and Heritage, South Australia from 1999-2001 was the first extended survey of the historical localities of the species in Western Australian and South Australia (Churchill 2001b). It provided data on the current distribution of the species, the habitat composition of currently occupied sites as well as ecological data including nest use, home range, movement, activity, diet, behaviour and reproduction (Churchill 2001b). From this study, the Sandhill Dunnart is known to be a solitary species and a generalist insectivore that occupies an average home range size of 7.8 ha (Churchill 2001b). Field studies conducted by Gaikhorst and Lambert from 2000 until 2008 have extended the known range of the species in the Great Victorian Desert, Western Australia (G. Gaikhorst pers. comm.). In 2005, they also collected a number of individuals from the wild, bringing them into captivity at Perth Zoo in what has been the primary captive research study for this species. It has provided comprehensive data on diet, reproduction and health in captivity and forms the basis of the information contained in this manual (C. Lambert pers. comm.). In 2007 and 2008, animals kept and bred at Perth Zoo were sent to Alice Springs Desert Park (NT) and Cleland Wildlife Park (SA) to continue husbandry and breeding studies (G. Gaikhorst pers. comm.).

2.1 Morphometrics

2.1.1 Mass And Basic Body Measurements In the wild:

Head and body length: 85 – 114 mm (Average: 97) Tail length: 106 – 133 mm (Average: 118) Weight: Males 26 – 55 g (Average: 36) Females 25 – 42 g (Average: 33) (Pearson and Churchill 2008)

Long Pes: 21 – 26 mm (Average: 23.7) (Gaikhorst and Lambert 2006)

In captivity, males may reach weights of more than 70g and females with young may reach weights (including attached young) around 60-65g (Lambert et al. 2008). Under “maintenance” conditions (see Glossary) weights that may be considered ideal for males are 50-60 g while for females they are 40-50 g, though this depends on the age of the animal and its build (C. Lambert pers. comm.)

2.1.2 Sexual Dimorphism Male Sandhill Dunnarts are, on average, larger than females with sexual dimorphism in terms of weight shown above. Sexual weight dimorphism is

6 evident in captive-born individuals from the age of 136 days (Lambert et al. 2008).

2.1.3 Distinguishing Features The Sandhill Dunnart is one of 19 Sminthopsis that occurs in arid and semi-arid parts of Australia. Like all dasyurids it has sharp, cutting teeth and like other members of the Sminthopsis it has a long pointed snout, large eyes and ears and relatively long slender feet (Churchill 2001a). It is typically grey-buff in colour with brindling (see Glossary), black eye rings and white feet and underbelly (Pearson and Churchill 2008). It has a poorly-defined pouch with 8 teats which develops during breeding (Pearson 1995). It is best distinguished from other member of the genus by its larger size and distinctive crest of black hairs on the ventral surface of the tail (Churchill 2001b).

2.2 Distribution and Habitat The Sandhill Dunnart occurs in three areas of arid and semi-arid Western Australia and South Australia (Figure 1): the Great Victoria Desert (WA), the Eyre Peninsula near Whyalla (SA) and in Yellabinna Regional Reserve near Ooldea (SA). It has not been seen in the Northern Territory since the type specimen was collected in 1894 and is no longer considered present in this state, though without comprehensive surveys looking for this species it is possible that a remnant population still exists (Churchill 2001a).

Figure 1. Current distribution of the Sandhill Dunnart (Note: the location of the type specimen collected in 1984 is not shown here) (Source: http://www.environment.gov.au/cgi-bin/sprat/public/displaydistmap.pl?type=species;id=291)

Sandhill Dunnarts have been found in sandy dune habitat dominated by spinifex (Triodia spp.) hummock grassland. Habitat often contains a mallee or mixed shrubland overstory commonly including Eucalyptus gongylocarpa and Callitris verrucosa (Churchill 2001a). The quality of the spinifex is likely crucial to the presence of Sandhill Dunnarts with large, dense and unbroken hummocks needed for cover and nesting. Thus optimum habitat has been unburnt for a number of

7 years, at some sites for 17-26 years, resulting in this type of spinifex (Gaikhorst and Lambert 2006).

2.3 Conservation Status The Sandhill Dunnart is currently listed as Endangered (assessed in 1996) on the 2007 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species due to its limited, fluctuating and decreasing occurrence and occupancy (IUCN 2007). It is listed as Endangered under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999, Endangered under Schedule 7 of the South Australian National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972 (NPWSA Act 1972) (Department of Environment and Heritage 2008). It is considered rare or likely to become extinct in Western Australia under Schedule 1 of the Wildlife Conservation Act 1950 (Government of Western Australia 2008). It is Vulnerable according to the 2001 Sandhill Dunnart Recovery Plan (Churchill 2001a).

2.4 Diet in the Wild Primarily insectivorous, the Sandhill Dunnart is a generalist feeder of small insects, taking species in a similar proportion to their availability, including ants, beetles, spiders, grasshoppers, termites (when seasonally available), wasps and centipedes. They will also feed on vegetation and small vertebrates such as reptiles and probably small rodents (Churchill 2001a).

3 Housing Requirements 3.1 Exhibit/Enclosure Design Housing requirements for this species are described in Lambert et al. (2008) and are similar to those for another dasyurid kept at Perth Zoo, the Dibbler (Parantechinus apicalis) (Lambert and Mills 2006). Animals (off-display) are housed individually in glass aquaria (1200 x 350 x 450 mm) with a wire mesh (2- 6mm) and wooden framed lid (see Figure 2). Lids may have a small wooden flip door (220 – 250 mm) to allow easy access for servicing but are completely removable for tank changes and animal capture. Aquaria are fitted with 2-3 metal brackets, which are glued to the walls in one corner of the enclosure so that when bowls are placed in bracket, the lip sits no more than 1600mm above the inner base of the tank. Aquaria are kept on benches at a height that allows good keeper-access in a climate-controlled room with a reverse cycle air conditioner. It is best to aim for ambient temperatures 20 - 25 °C during Summer and between 15 – 20°C degrees during Winter (C. Lambert pers. comm.).

8

Figure 2. Sandhill Dunnart enclosure at Perth Zoo (Photo: C. Lambert)

A substrate layer of white-washed river sand (60-80mm deep) covers the entire base of the tank (Lambert et al. 2008). Being carnivorous/insectivorous, left-over food may attract ants and precautions should be taken to avoid infestation. If infestation is likely, Execute Aerosol Residual Insecticide (see Appendix B) can be used to create a barrier by rubbing it around bench legs, along table edges and any other “bridges” to the enclosure with a paper towel. This should be done on a three weekly basis. Care should be taken not to spray surfaces/tools which come into contact with the dunnarts or their food.

Being nocturnal, this species is best displayed for visitors in a Nocturnal House where it is subjected to opposite day-night light regimes. While the set-up and furnishings will be the same, a larger enclosure than described here will likely increase the animal activity, especially foraging for live insects, and therefore the opportunity for visitors to view the animal.

3.2 Spatial Requirements Guidelines for the enclosure requirements of species kept in captivity in many states of Australia are generally based on the New South Wales Exhibited Animals Protection Act 1986 (EAPA). For carnivorous marsupials this stipulates that animals should be kept in fully enclosed enclosures with smooth-sided walls, and if wire mesh is included that it is small enough to prevent animals pushing their heads through the holes (EAPA 1986). Basking sites and access to natural sunlight is also considered important to some dasyurids, though for the strictly nocturnal Sandhill Dunnart, this is not considered essential.

In terms of physical space, the EAPA suggests the minimum enclosure size for one Sminthopsis individual is 0.25m2. This includes a minimum height of 40 cm

9 (EAPA 1986). As the Sandhill Dunnart is solitary, larger enclosures are not used to house multiple individuals.

3.3 Enclosure Furnishings Leaf litter and Acacia spp. branches are essential furnishings for Sandhill Dunnart enclosures. Eucalyptus leaves are freeze-treated for 4 days before being scattered over half the sand substrate to a depth of 150 mm (C. Lambert pers. comm.). A single wooden nest-box (230 x 150 x 150mm) made from 10mm thick plywood with a single side entry and removable lid is filled with dried grass and placed in the leaf litter half of the enclosure. The other half of the enclosure is the designated feeding area and is kept clear of vegetation to allow easy spotting of footprints and faecal matter and other indicators of the animal’s health such as traces of hair or blood. Acacia spp. branches can be collected from areas known to be free of pesticides (trees within the zoo are ideal). They are broken to an appropriate length to cover half the enclosure and are placed over next-box with stick ends placed like a loose curtain around nest box entry and leaves hanging over the top of nest-box. Several small PVC tubes (approximate diameter 60mm) are placed around enclosure as hides and runs for enrichment and cover (Lambert et al. 2008).

4 General Husbandry

4.1 Hygiene and Cleaning Branches can be changed regularly (up to every two weeks) to maintain good climbing structures and cover. Other furnishings (including leaf litter and nest- box) are changed less often to allow build up of the animal scent and their sense of territory and to avoid undue stress for the animals (C. Lambert pers. comm.). Instead, the daily cleaning regime involves removal of old food bowls, rinsing out the water bowl to remove sand and debris and semi-daily sieving of faecals and left-over food out of the sand area. The sieving of faecals prevents build-up of waste material and allows collection of the freshest faecals for sampling when needed. Servicing is best done early in the morning as this means that anything abnormal will be seen as early as possible by keepers.

Dunnarts are shifted into clean enclosures (with fresh sand, leaf litter and branches) at least every 3 months (or after weaning) to remove built up faecal material, urine and left-over food (particularly in the leaf litter) (C. Lambert pers. comm.). Sand in the open half of the enclosure should be changed more regularly as the build up of urine significantly reduces sand quality. For males, this may need to be done every three weeks and can be done whilst animal is in bag during

10 weighing (C. Lambert pers. comm.). Old enclosures are rid of all the contents and given a sponge clean with warm soapy water (containing LemSan Disinfectant (see Appendix B) and then a rinse clean with tap water. All used contents of the enclosure are put in refuse except the nest-box and PVC pipes which are washed with Surgidet Premium Grade Detergent (see Appendix B) in water, rinsed and allowed to dry in the sun. No other cleaning products should be used on the inside of aquaria, though commercial window cleaning products can be used on the outside glass surface for display purposes.

5 Feeding Requirements 5.1 Captive Diet

The captive diet of the Sandhill Dunnart has been adapted from the Dibbler (Parantechinus apicalis) captive diet at Perth Zoo (Lambert and Mills 2006). Table 1 below shows the typical weekly diet for an individual in “maintenance mode” (see Glossary) at Perth Zoo.

Table 1: Weekly diet of Sandhill Dunnarts in captivity (C. Lambert, Perth Zoo May 2008) Day Food - Item Preparation Weight Total Weight (g) (g) Monday Mealworms Live 3 11 Pinkie rats Raw, diced 4 Kangaroo Raw, diced 4 Tuesday Crickets Live 3 11 Pinkie rats Raw, diced 5 Wombaroo Small Made up into sloppy paste with water 3 Carnivore Food (see and drizzled on top of meat. Appendix B) Wednesday Mealworms Live 3 11 Minced meat mix See recipe (Appendix A) 8 Thursday Termites Live 3 13 Pinkie rats Raw, diced 4 Chicken Raw breast meat, diced – no fat, skin 4 or bone. Egg Boiled, shell removed, diced 2 Friday Mealworms Live 3 11 Pinkie rats Raw, diced 5 Wombaroo Small Made up into sloppy paste with water 3 Carnivore Food and drizzled on top of meat. Saturday Crickets Live 3 11

11 Pinkie rats Raw, diced 4 Kangaroo Raw, diced 4 Sunday Termites Live 3 11 Kangaroo Raw, diced 4 Chicken Raw breast meat, diced – no fat, skin 4 or bone.

Storage and Preparation: Hairless pinkie rats (Rattus norvegicus) are kept frozen and defrosted as need. They should be chopped finely into pieces no bigger than a 5c coin with no large sinewy pieces of skin as this can lead to choking in small individuals. Pinkie rats constitute the main meat offered and tend to be favoured by the dunnarts over other items such as chicken (C. Lambert pers. comm.). Kangaroo (Macropus spp.) meat and chicken breast is best kept frozen and defrosted as needed, then diced into 4 x 4mm cubes. A prepared minced meat mix is also fed out once a week. This is made up according to the recipe in Appendix A and is frozen in 500 g blocks for defrosting when needed. All food should be weighed out carefully (to the nearest gram) before serving and left-over food should be weighed the next day to calculate and record the consumption of each individual, so that consumption is carefully monitored.

For enrichment, 3 cat kibble pellets (Hill’s Science Diet Feline Senior is favoured – see Appendix B) and 1 piece of sultana, raisin or fig can be offered simultaneously twice a week, in a bowl with the mealworms. Cockroaches (Panesthia laevicollis), termites (Coptotermes spp.) and fly pupae are also sometimes offered on a single day in place of mealworms or crickets as enrichment or in the case of individual preference. When crickets (Acheta domestica) are fed out they should be lightly dusted with calcium carbonate (Lambert et al. 2008).

Adjustments: This diet is considered “maintenance” for adults, with each individual being offered approximately 3 g live-food (alternating daily between crickets and mealwoms) and between 8-14 g of meat per day. Adjustments to daily amounts are made in 2 g increments and may be done to avoid weight loss or weight gain (Lambert et al. 2008). The amount offered to a particular individual depends on the size and sex of the animal (males typically consume more than females), its level of activity, age (older animals are prone to obesity if overfed) and the time of year. Both sexes are fed more in the build up to the mating season (beginning in June) and females with young are then fed ad-lib during the lactation phase (approximately 3 months), sometimes up to 8 g live-food and 30 g meat per day. Males, however, are cut back to the maintenance diet after mating (Lambert et al. 2008).

12 5.2 Supplements Several nutritional supplements are used in the Sandhill Dunnart captive diet (Lambert et al. 2008) (see Table 2 below).

Table 2: Supplements for Sandhill Dunnarts in captivity (see Appendix B for Suppliers) Supplement Added to: Amount Calcium Meat feed on Wednesdays and Sundays ¼ teaspoon per 100g carbonate / SF51 (2:1) SF51 Meat feed on Mondays, Thursday and Saturdays ¼ teaspoon per 100g multivitamin Paraffin Oil Daily meat feed during moulting season from early 10 drops (~0.15ml) Oct until April (or as needed) Calcium Crickets (lightly dusted) Enough to coat carbonate exoskeleton

5.3 Presentation of Food Live-food and meat are offered towards the end of the day (3.30 – 4pm) in line with the nocturnal nature of the species. Mealworms, termites, cat kibble and fruit are offered in small 125ml metal bowls (approximately 30-40mm deep and 70mm in diameter) and placed in a metal bracket on enclosure wall. Crickets and cockroaches are scattered in the enclosure as they will not remain in bowl and provide foraging enrichment for dunnarts. All meat is presented in a separate metal bowl of the same size, also in a metal bracket. Water is available at all times in a third small metal bowl (half-full) in a bracket. Water is changed daily during morning servicing.

6 Handling and Transport 6.1 Timing of Capture and Handling Sandhill Dunnarts are best captured and handled in the early part of the day, to allow time for individuals to recover before their nocturnal activity. Those kept on an opposite light cycle should be weighed in the late afternoon to avoid upsetting food consumption during the active period. This species is aggressive and easily stressed, so handling time should be minimised. Also, attention should be paid to the temperature during handling with cool temperatures preferred to avoid heat stress. Females with young should not be handled except when absolutely necessary as they may abandon or cannabilise young if stressed (G. Gaikhorst pers. comm.).

6.2 Capture and Restraint Techniques Animals are best caught when in nest-boxes by blocking entry with hand, securing lid with other hand and then tipping contents of nest-box out entry hole

13 into a calico bag (small bags 1500 x 1500mm with a tie are best). Care should be taken to ensure the calico bag encloses hole completely before the nest-box is gently tipped to allow dunnart to fall into bag (suspended in air). A hand should then be used to seal it in before it has an opportunity to climb up and out of bag. Tie should then be tied tightly. Animals not in their nest-box can be gently ushered in with hands or can be encouraged to run through PVC pipe with calico bag covering one end. If absolutely necessary, Sandhill Dunnarts can be hand- caught by placing inside-out calico bag over hand and quickly but carefully placing hand on top of animal. The tail can be grasped (at least half way up) to get a first hold on the animal (C. Lambert pers. comm.). Animals are fast-moving and hand-catching may require practice so should only be attempted for a short period each time.

Once captured, animals are best restrained with head facing into a corner of the bag, depending on the area that is to be examined (normally cloaca, pouch or rump) (see Figure 3). This can be done by encouraging animals to climb up bag or by using hands to guide animals from the outside of the bag. One hand is then placed over animal securing the head and upper torso. The other hand can be used to untie tie and pull bag back to expose lower half of the animal. Cloaca and pouch can be examined by using spare hand to separate and secure legs, which animal will use to kick quite vigorously. Alternatively, if a visual is needed of the animal’s face, it can be secured with head facing outward with one hand being used to secure animal around the shoulders and upper torso (see Figure 4).

Figure 3. Restraint for examining animal’s lower half Figure 4. Restraint for examining animal’s face (Photo: J. Ferguson) (Photo: J. Ferguson) Weighing should be done on scales accurate to 0.01g and should be done on a three weekly basis (C. Lambert pers. comm.). Animals may be handled and weighed more frequently if needed. During oestrus (see Glossary) monitoring of females, cloacal swabs should be taken every 1-2 days to ensure an oestrus event is not missed (see 9. Females Reproductive Condition). For females with young,

14 handling should be ceased to avoid undue stress and abandonment or canabilisation of young (G. Gaikhorst pers. comm.).

Sandhill Dunnarts have a sharp bite and handlers need to be aware of the possibility of a bite in the restraining hand. They are also very flexible and fast- moving, so the building should be locked from the inside before any attempt is made at capture, so that escaped individuals are limited to the floor of the building and will not escape if the door is opened from the outside.

6.3 Release Animals should be released as soon as possible after handling. If an extended time is needed e.g. awaiting a vet check or checking cells under microscope (see 9.2.1 Females Reproductive Condition) animals should be secured in bag and placed in nest-box so as to allow them to relax. When released, Sandhill Dunnarts will run quickly so release need not be made in nest-box. Lid should be secured over aquarium with small flip lid open to place animal back in enclosure. Bag can be untied and animal allowed to exit bag in its own timing. Keeper should then let animal recover by quietly shutting lid and leaving building if possible.

6.4 Transport Requirements

Requirements for transporting live animals are detailed in the International Air Transport Association’s (IATA) Live Animal Regulations (LAR). Whenever Sandhill Dunnarts are being transported by air they should be placed in wooden transport boxes similar to those suggested by IATA (IATA2005). The animal should be secured in a small secure bag with a double-knotted tie and placed in box.

6.4.1 Box Design Container requirement 81 (IATA 2005) provides the transport requirements for Dunnarts (see Figure 5) Materials: Lined wood, fiberglass, fibreboard, rigid plastic wire-mesh, metal foil Dimensions: Large enough to allow the animal to move around freely with adequate air-flow above highest body part. Height of box: at least 1500mm Other: Floor covered with a layer of absorbent non-consumable bedding material

15

Figure 5. Diagram for Sandhill Dunnart transport container (IATA 2005)

6.4.2 Furnishings Shredded paper is used as a substitute for natural nesting material to prevent the spread of pathogens. There should be enough paper provided to cushion animal against knocks to the box, whilst allowing good ventilation at all times.

6.4.3 Water and Food No food or water is required for short-term transport (C. Lambert pers. comm.).

6.4.4 Animals per Box One animal per box is recommended, however a larger box with divisions to isolate individual animals may be used to transport several animals. Females with pouch young should not be transported as they may cannabilise the young if stressed (C. Lambert pers. comm.)

6.4.5 Timing of Transportation Where possible, Sandhill Dunnarts should be transported during the early morning, when they would typically be resting in the nest. Special attention should be paid to the temperature during transport to avoid animals becoming overheated in the box. As a general rule, the maximum transport period should not exceed 24 hours (C. Lambert pers. comm.)

6.4.6 Release from Box Animals should be removed from box whilst still in restraint bag and released into new enclosure facing nest box or hide to allow the animal to quickly retreat to a position of perceived safety.

16 7 Health Requirements

7.1 Daily Health Checks On a daily basis, checks should be done of each individual’s enclosure (without disturbing animal) to look for indicators of the animal’s health. This should be done first thing in the morning so as to avoid problems going unnoticed for an extended period of time. Keepers should look for:

• Food consumption: has the animal eaten well overnight? How does this compare to normal consumption rates and previous night’s consumption?

• Faecals: has the animal defaecated overnight? Are the faecals of normal consistency, amount, size and do they contain hair or sand?

• Footprints: has the animal moved around the enclosure as much as they normally do? Are there signs of pacing or laboured movement?

• Substrate/ Top of nest box: is there any blood to suggest an injury or a large amount of hair? (particularly important during mating season, rearing phase or after handling). Is there a significant amount of hair in the enclosure to suggest moulting? (See 7.3.1 Hair-ball blockages)

Sandhill Dunnarts should not be visible during the daytime but may venture out at the end of the day when feeding or if kept in an opposite day/night cycle. This is a good time to examine the animal itself, looking at:

• Posture: is the animal distressed? Is it hunched over or moribund in appearance? • Coat condition: is coat full and fluffy in appearance? • Eyes, ears and mouth: are there any discharges? • Movement: is the animal moving normally? • Injuries: is there any sign of an injury? (Particularly to the rump or back of females after mating).

During three-weekly weighings or reproductive monitoring of animals, a quick physical check should be undertaken while the animal is restrained by hand. This check should include eyes, ears and snout, cloaca and rump, coat condition and the pouch of females. It is recommended to feel over the animal’s body as well as a visual check because a thick coat can obscure scabs and small injuries on the body (C. Lambert pers. comm.).

17 7.2 Routine Treatments There are no routine health treatments for this species. However, paraffin oil is added to the daily diet as a prevention measure against hair-ball blockages during the moulting season, typically from Oct until April (C. Lambert pers. comm.).

7.3 Known Health Problems

7.3.1 Hair-ball blockages Hair-ball blockages of the gastrointestinal tract are the primary health problem for Sandhill Dunnarts in captivity (C. Lambert pers. comm.). This is believed to be because the species has a natural moult when the weather warms up and in captivity this hair is not readily removed without self-grooming. In the wild, it is suggested that moulting hair would be lost when the animal moves through spinifex for nesting and hunting (C. Lambert pers. comm.). However, food is more readily found in captivity and vegetation is not as thick. This leads to loose hairs staying embedded in the coat and large amounts of self-grooming and ingestion of hair. Signs of this condition include rapid weight loss, loss of appetite and a reduction in the size and number of faecal pellets (C. Lambert pers. comm.). However, these symptoms may only arise once the condition has progressed somewhat. X-ray and palpation can reveal the presence of a hairball but, again, the hairball must be of a certain size before it will be detected. Surgical removal of the hair-ball is possible, provided the animal has not weakened too much by the time surgery is done. Supportive therapy in the form of heat and sub- cutaneous fluids has not helped dislodge blockages in the past (Lambert et al. 2008). Preventative treatment is therefore best. During the moulting season (beginning October and ending in April, but sometimes extending through until May or June) 10 drops (0.15ml) of paraffin oil can be added routinely to the meat meal of each individual to aid in the passage of hair through the gut. Other suggested measures include:

• fortnightly grooming of the animals by hand pulling hair or using a toothbrush or small grooming rake to remove excess hair; • the provision of harsher and thicker vegetation to make foraging more time-consuming; • provision of furniture designed to strip loose hair; • the more frequent cleaning of enclosure to remove shed hair from the environment (Lambert et al. 2008).

7.3.2 Trauma during pairing Male Sandhill Dunnarts have been known to cause significant injury to females during pairing (C. Lambert pers. comm.). While males may have to exert dominance over the female during natural copulation in the wild, pairing in

18 captivity reduces the female’s ability to resist and rebuff the male and injuries such as tail trauma and hair loss may occur. Tufts of hair may be pulled from the female’s neck, rump and legs and in one case a female died after receiving significant wounds and deep bruising to her rump and back of the legs (Lambert et al. 2008). On the occasion that this happened, there were no signs that this aggression was likely, highlighting the need to pair animals during daylight hours only so as to keep a close watch for any aggressive behaviour.

7.4 Quarantine Requirements A 30-day quarantine period is required for Sandhill Dunnarts when they are received at a new captive institution. They should be weighed and examined under manual restraint upon arrival, weighed again at the end of the period and possibly a third time in the middle of the quarantine period, particularly if there is cause for concern regarding the animal’s health (C. Lambert pers. comm.).

8 Behaviour

8.1 Activity Sandhill Dunnarts are strictly nocturnal in the wild and this is largely reflected in captivity. They are typically inactive throughout the day, resting in the nest box, and rarely venture out before late afternoon. Animals have been observed emerging to feed when food bowls are placed in the enclosure at 3.30pm and after capture may take some time to settle, scuttling around enclosure for a few minutes. Observations in nocturnal set-ups and radio-tracking in the wild suggests they are active from a few minutes after sunset throughout the night, with one or two periods of activity (Churchill 2001a; Pearson and Churchill 2008).

8.2 Social Behaviour Sandhill Dunnarts, like other dasyurids, are solitary in nature, coming together only to breed (Pearson and Churchill 2008). Therefore, individuals are housed singularly in captivity and only paired when both male and female are showing the appropriate reproductive condition (see 9 Breeding). From observations of antagonistic behaviour between males and females during pairing, it is expected that neither females nor males would live amicably together in a group situation.

8.3 Reproductive Behaviour During pairing, the male is placed in the female’s enclosure together with his nest box. Individuals often nest alone in their nest boxes but have been observed to nest together for a number of nights (C. Lambert pers. comm.). Aggression is possible during this time (see 7.3.2 Trauma during pairing) and therefore, pairing is recommended during daylight hours only, when keepers can intervene if

19 needed. Other behaviours that have been noted between males and females during pairing include chasing and vocalizing by the female (which was seen to quickly lead to copulation), chasing by both individuals and mutual staring from a distance (Lambert et al. 2008). Males may scout around female’s enclosure, sniffing urine and faeces, though this has not often been observed in captivity. Mating may take anywhere from 45 minutes to more than 3.5 hours and is evidenced by a very wet neck, shoulders and back on the female as well as a damp cloaca and back of legs (Lambert et al. 2008). It appears that some pairs are incompatible, evidenced by a lack of interest in mating despite extended opportunities. It is possible that mate selection is important for this species, as with some other dasyurids, though limited numbers in the captive breeding program thus far have prevented testing for female choice (Lambert et al 2008). It is also possible that some of the wild founders used to start reproductive research in captivity were related and so reluctant to mate.

8.4 Behavioural Problems The Sandhill Dunnart is a shy, elusive animal that does not exhibit aggression towards people, except during capture and handling when they may adopt a crouch position, gape their mouth open and make small hissing sounds. They can give a sharp bite. Stereotypic behaviour may take the form of pacing, which can be observed directly or indirectly via footprints and trails. This behaviour is best treated by creating a more complex vegetation structure in the enclosure by adding and moving branches to break up pacing area and by providing plenty of opportunities for live-feeding by scattering crickets and cockroaches. Some individuals have been known to become fearful of venturing out onto open sanded area of enclosure and, for these individuals, bowls have been moved to sit in thickly covered area near nest box to prevent weight-loss due to failure to eat in the open (C. Lambert pers. comm.).

8.5 Signs of Stress During capture, animals can become easily stressed, particularly if hand-caught whilst running around enclosure. They will race around enclosure, attempting to run up walls, and will overheat, pant and become easily fatigued. Hand-capture should therefore only be attempted for a short time. If stressed over a period of days, signs of stress may include a sudden drop in appetite and activity (C. Lambert pers. comm.).

8.6 Behavioural Enrichment Sandhill Dunnarts do not suffer many behavioural problems in captivity (C. Lambert pers. comm.). However behavioural enrichment will promote natural behaviour. Live-food (in the form of scattered crickets and cockroaches) encourages natural exploratory, foraging and hunting behaviour and will occupy animals longer than if presented in a bowl. The provision of other varied live- food and a wide variety of meats as well as some fruit will encourage a varied

20 diet and feeding behaviour. The provision and change of branches and leaf litter will encourage exploration of the enclosure, scent-marking, the use of new material in the nest, and an overall increase in activity. Scent trails through the bushiest part of the enclosure may also increase exploratory behaviour (Lambert et al 2008).

8.7 Introductions and Removals Introductions of new individuals to the captive group should only be done after a 30-day quarantine period (Lambert et al. 2008). Introductions of individuals for mating should only be done on a pair-by-pair basis after both individuals have had their reproductive condition confirmed by the presence of sperm in the urine of males and 90% cornified cells in the cloacal swab of females (see 9. Breeding) (Lambert et al 2008). Pairing should be done in the morning to allow time for the animals to mate during daylight hours. Both sexes should be weighed before introduction and the male should be placed into the female’s enclosure to give her the advantage of home territory. Pairs should be monitored regularly throughout the day (every hour) for signs of aggression and, if observed, the male should be removed (C. Lambert pers. comm.).

8.8 Intraspecific Compatibility Due to the solitary nature of the species, animals should not be housed together except for short, supervised periods during mating season.

8.9 Interspecific Compatibility Due to their carnivorous diet and intraspecific aggression, it is not recommended to house this species with other species.

9 Breeding

9.1 Mating System Sandhill Dunnarts presumably adopt a promiscuous mating system in the wild, mating from mid August until late September (Churchill 2001b). In captivity, animals are paired according to their relatedness, age and condition. A male may be paired with a number of females over the season, which in captivity extends from mid June until November (Gaikhorst and Lambert 2006; Lambert et al. 2008).

9.2 Reproductive Condition

9.2.1 Females The reproductive condition of female Sandhill Dunnarts is assessed through a number of measures:

21 1) Cellular analysis of cloacal swabs (primary measure) (following McCracken 1990) 2) Pouch condition 3) Weight

The technique of cloacal swabbing in female Sandhill Dunnarts is described in Gaikhorst and Lambert (2006). Swabs are taken only during the period when males are producing sperm, as this extends further than female reproductive receptivity, typically mid-June to mid-January (Lambert et al. 2008). Females are caught up every 1-2 days, weighed, swabbed and pouch checked. They are secured in a calico bag with back end exposed and underside facing upwards. A small cotton-tipped swab is moistened with sterile water and inserted no more than 1-2mm into the cloaca and rotated a few times (Gaikhorst and Lambert 2006). The swab is then rubbed on a microscope slide to transfer vaginal epithelial cells shed in the cloaca. The slide is air-dried and stained with Diff- Quick and viewed under brightfield optics (Gaikhorst and Lamber t2006). The composition of the stained epithelial cells indicates the stage of the reproductive cycle of the swabbed female. When 90% of the epithelial cells are cornified (see Glossary), the female is in oestrus and ready for pairing (see Figure 6). If less than 90% are cornified and nucleated cells (see Glossary) are abundant, the female is reswabbed in a day or two (see Figure 7) (Lambert et al. 2008).

Figure 6. Stained slide showing female in oestrus Figure 7. Stained slide showing female in pro-oestrus with 100% cornified epithelial cells (angular in shape with many nucleated cells (x 10) with no nucleus, resembling small fish scales) (x 10) (Photo: C. Lambert) (Photo: C. Lambert)

Weight and pouch condition will help verify reproductive condition as a drop in weight is often noted the day before females give birth. The pouch will also exhibit cycles in condition in terms of moisture, swelling, pigmentation and texture (Woolley 1990).

22 A suspected mating event can be confirmed by means of a cloacal lavage to wash out sperm from female’s reproductive tract (See Lambert et al. 2008 for details).

In captivity, females may cycle from June until the end of November. Numerous females have been noted to come into oestrus within 20 days of one another (Lambert et al. 2008).

9.2.2 Males Males are assessed for reproductive condition by sampling urine for the presence of sperm (Gaikhorst and Lambert 2006). Urine can be collected:

1) Off a tray placed on sand beneath feeding bowls 2) Off leaves or the top of nest-box 3) By placing male in small plastic box with mesh floor to allow a sample to drip through 4) Opportunistically during handling

The urine is then sampled with a glass pipette and a small drop placed on a microscope slide. Under the microscope at low power, sperm can easily be confirmed as present or absent. Males typically produce sperm from mid June to mid January in captivity (Lambert et al. 2008).

9.3 Techniques Used to Control Breeding As Sandhill Dunnarts are housed individually, breeding is limited to arranged pairings. The methods described above are used to determine the appropriate time for pairing and pairs are given every opportunity to mate within this time, paired on a daily basis for as long as the female is in oestrus (usually 1-3 days) (C. Lambert pers. comm.).

9.4 Age at First Breeding and Last Breeding In captivity, females have bred from the age of 10 months and 17 days and males from the age of 12 months and 9 days old (Lambert et al. 2008). However, most individuals do not breed in their first year. The oldest female to breed at Perth Zoo was 3 years old. However, in the three years that this female bred, she raised 6 out of 7 young in her first year, 3 out of 8 in her second and only 2 out of 4 in her third (Lambert et al. 2008). This suggests that females may be most fecund in their first year. A male sired two litters as a 3-year old and produced sperm at 4 years of age but was not paired (Lambert et al. 2008).

9.5 Ability to Breed Every Year Sandhill Dunnarts are capable of breeding in successive breeding seasons as evidenced by two individuals who bred together in their first, second and third season (Lambert et al. 2008).

23 9.6 Ability to Breed More than Once Per Year Sandhill Dunnarts are polyoestrous, which means females may come into oestrus numerous times in a breeding season. However, if a female gives birth to and raises a litter, it is unlikely she will breed again in the same season (Lambert et al. 2008). Males produce sperm for a number of months so may be paired with numerous females in a breeding season.

9.7 Nesting, Hollow or Other Requirements When mating pairs are put together, males should be put in female’s enclosure with his nest-box to allow pair to separate and find retreat in their own resting place. All branches are removed leaving only the leaf-litter layer and nest-boxes so that interactions can easily be observed (Gaikhorst and Lambert 2006). When females have young they are best left alone as much as possible. The weighing schedule should be ceased until babies are eating solid food to avoid stressing the animal and causing it to canabilise young (C. Lambert pers. comm.). Food is increased for lactating females ad-lib with increasing appetite a good indicator that she is still carrying growing young. When females are expected to deposit young, fresh leaves can be added to the enclosure and she will use these to create a fuller nest in the nest-box (Lambert et al. 2008).

9.8 Breeding Diet There is no special breeding diet for Sandhill Dunnarts though individuals can be fed an elevated diet in the build up to the mating season to allow them to put on condition and size (C. Lambert pers. comm.).

9.9 Oestrous Cycle and Gestation Period The oestrous cycle of female Sandhill Dunnarts is approximately 28 days and females typically come into oestrus between June and November. The gestation period is, on average, 18 days with young are typically born in August until early October (Lambert et al. 2008).

9.10 Litter Size Females have eight teats in a pouch that develops with the onset of pregnancy to form a wide flap of skin protecting the young attached to the nipples (Pearson and Churchill 2008). In captivity, females have been observed with 4 - 8 young attached early after birth (average 7.5), though more supernumerary young (see Glossary) may be born and fail to make it to a vacant nipple. Females have raised as many as six young to weaning age, though the average is 3.5 (Lambert et al. 2008).

9.11 Age at Weaning and removal from mother In captivity, young appear to first eat solid foods at the approximate age of 77 days (Lambert et al. 2008). Soon after this is observed (approximately 10 days later), weaning from the mother can be attempted. Weaning from the mother and her milk is staggered to imitate the gradual dispersal that is presumed in the wild

24 and to allow the mother to gradual scale down her milk production (Lambert et al. 2008). All joeys should be checked and weighed and the heaviest half (usually males) removed and placed in a separate enclosure together. Weaned juveniles should be monitored carefully during this time to ensure they are eating well independently and steadily putting on weight (with fortnightly weighings) (C. Lambert pers. comm.). The other half can be weaned 4-5 days later, monitoring their success closely after weaning.

9.12 Growth and Development Table 3 below shows the developmental timeline of Sandhill Dunnarts born in captivity at Perth Zoo and Figure 8 shows juvenile weights from the time they are temporarily detaching from the teat until they are one year of age (Lambert et al. 2008). Young are typically born in August until early October, and stay attached to the teat until 45 days of age. Measurements such as crown-rump length, head- length and short pes length can be made with Vernier calipers (to the nearest 0.1mm) if needed (Lambert et al. 2008).

Table 3. Developmental timeline of captive-born Sandhill Dunnarts at Perth Zoo (Lambert et al. 2008) AGE (days) OBSERVATION 6 Eye-spot just visible. Ear definition visible. Forelimbs well defined. 9 Back legs well defined. 21 Eye-spot very dark. 24 Young still completely enclosed within pouch. 27 Young large enough not to be completely enclosed within pouch. 30 Front feet well developed – fingers well defined. 33 Skin losing its shiny pinkness and starting to develop a light grey fuzziness – more noticeable on the head. 36 Hair becoming more obvious on the back now as well as the head. 39 Hair obvious all over body. Ears free of head. 42 Whiskers present on nose. Mouth slits formed. Hair thickening and claws obvious on feet. 45 Young begin to detach. 57 Eyes just opening. Young still on and off the teat. 60 Eyes completely open. Youngsters becoming very active. Last time any young observed attached to mother’s teat. 64 Begin to cling to mother’s back. 68 Begin to groom themselves. 73 Feathering on tip of tail now obvious, and youngsters becoming extremely active. 74 Youngsters active outside nest-box at night (small faecals seen in sand). 76 Youngsters eat mealworms taken into nest-box by mother.

25

Figure 8. Weight gain in captive-born Sandhill Dunnarts at Perth Zoo (Lambert et al. 2008)

10 Artificial Rearing

Young have been abandoned by females in the past and artificial rearing was attempted on one occasion with four young that were repeatedly left out on the bare sandy area at the age of 48 to 53 days (Lambert et al. 2008). This attempt was unsuccessful with all four young dying by Day 19 of artificial rearing. Thus, the conditions described below are not necessarily the best for artificial rearing of this species but do provide some lessons for future attempts.

10.1 Housing Young were housed with a surrogate mouse mother (pathogen-free) in a white plastic tub (600 x 380 x 400 mm) with a wire mesh lid containing a small open- topped nest-box (120 x 120 x 130 mm) filled with dried grass (C. Lambert pers. comm.).

26 10.2 Temperature Requirements On the previous occasion, the enclosure was kept in a climate-controlled room similar to the adults. A 100-Watt Infrared heat lamp was positioned on enclosure lid to maintain the temperature in the nest box (Lambert et al. 2008). Temperature should be monitored regularly to ensure conditions are optimal and previous artificial rearing temperatures at the nest-box were 28-30°C.

10.3 Diet and Feeding Routine On the previous attempt, young were fed an artificial milk formula (Wombaroo >0.7 Kangaroo Milk Replacer – see Appendix B) from a syringe and small teat on a three-hourly basis. Vytrate oral electrolytes (see Appendix B) (0.62ml to 7.8ml water) were also offered as a feed in between milk feeds when joeys showed signs of dehydration (Lambert et al. 2008).

At Day 10 of artificial rearing (age 58 days), despite eating well (around 50% of their body weight daily) and urinating, joeys started becoming wrinkly across the rump, a problem which increased over the entire body and suggested dehydration. Vytrate electrolyte formula was used instead of water when preparing the milk formula as an attempt to counter the dehydration symptoms exhibited by the joeys. Subcutaneous fluids were also administered as needed, sometimes on a daily basis and increased humidity in the enclosure was also trialed (Lambert et al. 2008).

Unfortunately, rearing failed and all young perished. Causes of death for these four joeys was kidney damage suggestive of dehydration, pneumonia and terminal enteritis from diarrhoea starting after the introduction of mealworms to diet (Lambert et al. 2008). It appears from this attempt that the joeys were unable to digest the formula properly so future attempts may trial alternatives to Wombaroo including Di-Vetelact or Biolac (see Appendix B) It is also possible that the joeys had an inherent defective condition which caused their failure to survive (Lambert et al. 2008).

10.4 Use of Foster Species The surrogate mouse mother used previously provided some maternal contact including toileting joeys, cleaning them and keeping them warm. She did not suckle them however and despite looking for teats, the young were unable to locate and attach to her teats (Lambert et al. 2008). While this was the best option in the previous attempt, it is expected that a foster species in the same family would be more successful, as has been done with some other dasyurids (C. Lambert pers. comm.).

27 11 Acknowledgements

Many thanks to Cathy Lambert and Glen Gaikhorst for their assistance in formulating this husbandry manual. Cathy provided a great deal of information, both in terms of previous research and husbandry experience and both Glen and Cathy provide valuable feedback on the draft. Thankyou also to Heidi Wenk and Jan-Willem de Milliano for reviewing draft versions of this manual. Acknowledgements go to the staff at the Native Species Breeding Program, Perth Zoo, for their involvement with, and dedication to, the captive husbandry of this special species.

28 12 References

Aitken, P.F. (1971). Rediscovery of the Large Desert Sminthopsis (Sminthopsis psammophila Spencer) on the Eyre Peninsula, South Australia in Victorian Naturalist 88, pp103-111.

Churchill, S. (2001a). Recovery plan for the endangered Sandhill Dunnart (Sminthopsis psammophila). Biodiversity Conservation Program, Department for the Environment and Heritage, South Australia.

Churchill, S. (2001b). Survey and Ecological study of the Sandhill Dunnart (Sminthopsis psammophila). Biodiversity Conservation Program, Department for the Environment and Heritage, South Australia.

Department for Environment and Heritage (2008). Threatened Fauna of Eyre Peninsula Action Statement Sandhill Dunnart 2008. Government of South Australia.

Gaikhorst, G.S. and Lambert, C. A. (2006). Preliminary results on the reproductive biology and ecology of the Sandhill Dunnart (Sminthopsis psammophila) a presentation at the Australasian Regional Association of Zoos and Aquaria Conference 2006, Perth Zoo, Western Australia.

Government of Western Australia (2008). Wildlife Conservation (Specially Protected Fauna) Notice 2008(2) in Government Gazette 5 August 2008, p 3478

Hart, R. P. and Kitchener, D. J. (1986). First record of Sminthopsis psammophila (Marsupialia: Dasyuridae) from Western Australia in Records of the Western Australian Museum 13, pp139-144

International Air Transport Association (2005). Live Animal Regulations. 32nd edition. Effective 1st October 2005.

International Union for the Conservation of Nature (2007) Australasian Marsupial & Monotreme Specialist Group (1996). Sminthopsis psammophila in IUCN 2007. 2007 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. . Downloaded on 05 October 2008.

Jackson, S.M. (2002). Standardizing captive-management manuals: guidelines for terrestrial vertebrates revised, in International Zoo Yearbook (2003) 38: 229-243, The Zoological Society of London, London.

29 Lambert, C. and Mills, H. (2006). Husbandry and breeding of the Dibbler (Parantechinus apicalis). International ZooYearbook 40: 290-301, The Zoological Society of London, London.

Lambert, C., Gaikhorst, G. and Matson, P. (2008). Husbandry of the Sandhill Dunnart (Sminthopsis psammophila): diet, health and reproduction in captivity in Australian Mammalogy in press

McCracken, H.E. (1990). Reproduction in the Greater Bilby, Macrotis lagotis (Reid) – a comparison with other perameloids, in J.H. Seebeck, P.R. Brown, R.L. Wallis, C.M. Kemper (eds.). Bandicoots and Bilbies, pp199-204, Surrey Beatty and Sons, Sydney.

Pearson, D.J. (1995). Sandhill Dunnart (Sminthopsis psammophila) in R. Strahan (ed.). Mammals of Australia, Reed Books, Chatswood, NSW.

Pearson, D.J. and Churchill, S.K. (2008). Sandhill Dunnart (Sminthopsis psammophila) Spencer, 1895 in S. Van Dyck and R. Strahan (eds.) The Mammals of Australia, Third Edition, Reed New Holland, Australia.

Woolley, P. (1990). Reproduction in Sminthopsis macroura (Marsupialia: Dasyuridae) 1. The Female in Australian Journal of Zoology 38, pp187-205

30

13 Glossary

Term Explanation Brindling Coat has hairs of different colour interspersed with one another Cloaca Posterior opening through which urination, defaecation and reproduction occurs in marsupials and monotremes Hummocks “Maintenance” Animals are kept to maintain current weight and conditions condition. i.e. not in breeding mode Nucleated cells Cells containing a nucleus (seen as dense centre) Oestrus Period in female mammalian cycle when female is at her peak in sexual receptivity Sub-cutaneous Under the skin Supernumerary When more marsupial young are born than there are young nipples, those that do not make it to a teat will die. May be common amoungst some marsupials

31 14 Appendices

Appendix A: Minced meat mix recipe (extract from Perth Zoo 2008)

1.25kg eggs (boiled, shell removed, chopped finely) 1kg low fat minced beef 375g Hills Science Diet Adult cat kibble (ground) 75g Wombaroo small carnivore mix (dry)

Mix all ingredients together well and freeze in small portions (~ 500g)

Appendix B: Products used at Perth Zoo for Sandhill Dunnart Husbandry

Biolac (Advanced Milk formula) PO Box 93 Bonnyrigg New South Wales 2177 Ph. (02) 9823 9874 [email protected]

Calcium Carbonate (5kg) Bio-John Animal Health BIO-JOHN PTY LTD ABN 80 009 141 379 Ph (08) 9277 6122 13 Camden Street Belmont WA 6104

DiffQuick (Differential staining solutions) Lab. Aids PTY. Ltd. 3 Gondola Rd Narrabeen New South Wales 2101

Di-Vetelact (Low lactose milk replacer) Sharpe Bros Labs 3-12 Hope St Ermington New South Wales 2115

Execute Aerosol Residual Insecticide Tasman Chemical Pty Ltd 1-7 Bell Grove

32 Braeside Victoria 3195 Ph. (03) 9587 6777

Hill’s Science Diet Dry Cat food for Seniors Hill’s Pet Nutrition Pty Ltd POB 148, Topeka, KS 66601 USA

LemSan (General purpose disinfectant) Challenge Chemicals Australia ABN: 68 059 129 568 6 Butcher Street Kwinana Perth Western Australia 6167

SF51 Multivitamin and mineral supplement Glen Forrest Stockfeeds 3150 Great Eastern Highway Glen Forrest Western Australia 6071

Surgidet (Manual dishwashing liquid) Challenge Chemicals Australia ABN: 68 059 129 568 6 Butcher Street Kwinana Perth Western Australia 6167

Vytrate (Differential staining solutions) Lab. Aids PTY. Ltd. 3 Gondola Rd Narrabeen New South Wales 2101

Wombaroo Small Carnivore Food (Powdered food preparation) Wombaroo Food Products 8 Oborn Road Mount Barker South Australia 5251 www.wombaroo.com.au

Wombaroo >0.7 Kangaroo Milk Replacer Wombaroo Food Products 8 Oborn Road Mount Barker South Australia 5251

33 www.wombaroo.com.au

34