Woodland Boswell Site, Kingston, Nova Scotia

A paleoenvironmental and paleogeographic reconstruction of the Terminal Archaic – Woodland Boswell site, Kingston, Nova Scotia

Erin M. McKee

Thesis in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the Degree of

Bachelor of Science with

Honours in Environmental Science

Acadia University

April, 2015

This thesis by Erin M. McKee

is accepted in its present form by the

Department of Earth and Environmental Science

as satisfying the thesis requirements for the degree of

Bachelor of Science with Honours

Approved by the Thesis Supervisors

______Dr. Ian Spooner Date

______Dr. Michael Deal Date

Approved by the Head of the Department

______Dr. Ian Spooner Date

Approved by the Honours Committee

______Dr. Anthony Thomson Date

I, Erin McKee, grant permission to the University Librarian at Acadia University to

reproduce, loan or distribute copies of my thesis in microform, paper or electronic

formats on a non-profit basis. I, however, retain the copyright in my thesis.

______Erin McKee

______Date

iii

Acknowledgments

I would first like to recognize the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research

Council, and Acadia University for funding this project. I am grateful to have worked alongside Michael Deal, Jodi Howe, Heather MacLeod-Leslie, Josh McLearn, and John

Campbell throughout the three week long excavation. Not only did they provide great help in determining the context of the excavation, but they provided some valuable life lessons and memories I will never forget. An enormous thank you to Dr. Ian Spooner and

Dr. Michael Deal for their advice and guidance throughout this process. This was a fun, if stressful, experience from the start, and I am very grateful to have gained the skills I learned in the field. I have learned a great quantity from this experience, both about the project, and in which area of study I want to continue my education. Finally, I would like to thank Acadia’s Department of Earth and Environmental Science for their support throughout my degree, and my friends and family for all of their love and support as well as for putting up with me during this process.

Table of Contents

Acknowledgments…………………………………………………………………..iv Table of Contents…………………………………………………………………...v List of Tables………………………………………………………………………..vi List of Figures………………………………………………………………………vii Abstract……………………………………………………………………………..viii Chapter 1 : Introduction………………………………………………………….....1 1.1 Purpose……………………………………………………………...... 1 1.2 Site Description……………………………………………………...…2 1.3 Glacial History……………………………………………………...... 4 1.4 Aboriginal History……………………………………………………..6 1.5 Local Ecology…………………………………………………………11 1.6 Site Geomorphology………………………………………………...... 13 1.7 Local Geology…………………………………………………………14 1.8 Vegetation……………………………………………………………..17 1.9 Climate Change………………………………………………………..18 Chapter 2 : Materials and Methods………………………………………………...19 2.1 Study Site Excavation History………………………………………...19 2.2 2014 Site Excavation……………………………………………….….20 2.3 Sediment Collection and Description……………………………….....22 2.4 Site Geology and Geomorphology…………………………………….23 2.5 Paleoenvironmental Literature Review………………………………..24 2.6 Significance and habitat of potential food sources…………………….25 Chapter 3 : Results and Interpretation….……………………………………..…….27 3.1 Paleohydrology ………………………………………………………..27 3.2 Paleovegetation and temperature reconstruction………………………31 3.3 Site geomorphology: Terrace development and preservation…….……34 3.4 River bathymetry: development and significance of the Fish Hole.…...37 Chapter 4 : Discussion………………………………………………………….…...39 4.1 Importance of vegetation………………………………………………40 4.2 Impact of climate change and increased precipitation on site suitability and food availability…………………………………...... 41 4.3 Importance of access to resources……………………………………...45 4.4 Regional conditions of Late Holocene occupation of the Boswell site and sea level dynamics in the Gulf of Maine…………………..….49 4.5 Future research and management………………………………………50 Chapter 5 : Conclusions……………………………………………………………..52 References…………………………………………………………………………...53

List of Tables

No. Description Page

3.1 A description of the sediment samples collected to 28 determine the provenance of the sediment located at the Boswell site

List of Figures

No. Description Page

1.1 Location of Boswell site in Nova Scotia 3 1.2 Artist’s conception of St. Croix camp 4 1.3 Base of a broad-bladed stemmed projectile 10 1.4 A complete biface found at Boswell 10 1.5 Locations of Paleoindian 11 1.6 Bedrock geology of the Annapolis Valley 16 1.7 Surficial sediment in the vicinity of the Boswell site 17 2.1 Boswell site in July, 2014 19 2.2 Completed excavation grid of the Boswell site 20 2.3 Completed excavation of main grid of Boswell site 23 3.1 Profile of the south facing wall of units 5, 22, and 18 29 3.2 Data from Baltzer Bog and Big Meadow Bog 30 3.3 Site plan showing location of the excavation sites and 30 Fish Hole 3.4 Data from Pleasant River Fen 32 3.5 Environmental reconstruction form 33 3.6 Lawrencetown till 35 3.7 Annapolis River dynamics around Boswell site 36 4.1 Artist’s reconstruction of Boswell site 44 4.2 Modeling results showing changes in tidal amplitude 45 4.3 An example of a local fish harvesting site 48

vii

Abstract

In 2009, artifacts were found at the Boswell archaeological site which is located near Kingston, Nova Scotia next to the Annapolis River. From 2011 until present excavations at the site have uncovered potsherds, lithics and ecofacts which collectively indicate Terminal Archaic to Late Woodland occupation. Although the site was likely intermittently occupied from the Terminal Archaic to the Late Woodland (ca. 3800 -1000

BP), the environmental and ecological conditions which made this location appealing for native occupants are unknown.

High resolution paleoenvironmental data from southwestern Nova Scotia indicate that at about 3000 BP forest composition changed rapidly as cooler and moister conditions developed. From 3000 BP till 1000 BP, cool and moist conditions were punctuated by occasional droughts, resulting in increased flow of the Annapolis River. The Boswell site is located on a reach of the Annapolis River that has been relatively stable for the last

3000 years, a condition which facilitated site preservation. The river terrace at the excavation site was formed by 3000 BP due to increased river discharge and sediment aggradation facilitated by the development of bedrock and till strath. A prominent, permanent pool in the river near the site may have been where in habitants harvested various anadromous fish species.

Changing forest composition and increased river discharge associated with changing climate precipitation, bank stability, and the presence of a harvesting site nearby have made the Boswell site desirable for continued seasonal use over a long period of time.

viii

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 Purpose

The Boswell site is an archaeological site that is located near Kingston, Nova

Scotia, and contains lithics and artifacts from the Woodland and Terminal Archaic periods (3800-1000 BP; Figure 1.1). Excavation of this site has provided evidence that there was continual, seasonal, occupation at this location during these periods. The purpose of this study was to determine the environmental and geological conditions of the Boswell site during the time of occupation. One of the goals of this study was to produce a paleoenvironmental analysis of sufficient detail to produce a visual reconstruction of the Boswell site, similar to that in Figure 1.2, but with more emphasis on the surrounding environment. The knowledge gained in this study will aid in the understanding of the types of sites that Native Americans occupied in Nova Scotia during this time and why these sites were occupied, and will aid in locating new archaeological sites from the same period.

The following questions will be addressed in this study:

 What was the regional forest composition during occupation?

 What were the climate conditions during the time of occupation (warmer, wetter,

etc.)?

 What were the geomorphic conditions at the site during this period?

 Why was the archaeological site preserved?

 What were the benefits for aboriginals to live in this location?

1.2 Site Description

The Boswell site is located west of Kingston, Nova Scotia on farm land next to the Annapolis River. This site is found approximately 80km upstream from the head of the Annapolis River. The watershed for the Annapolis River covers an area of 2279 km2 and the total length of the river is 120km (“Freshwater,” n.d.). The river flows over

Triassic sandstones (the Wolfville Formation); in some stretches the river flows over bedrock, while in other stretches it flows over sediment or glacial till in a low gradient

(Rivard et al., 2004). In 2011 the Annapolis River had 31,877 people living within its watershed (“Browse Data,” 2011).

The Boswell site can be found on a sandy terrace within a metre of an eroding bank of the Annapolis River, and is near a private walking trail maintained by the property owner. On the other side of the river, there is a public park with forested walking trails, and one of the trails passes close to the river (~3m from bank). The surface condition of the site is sandy, and this is typical of the locality as sand is found on non- vegetative ground from the Annapolis River to the paved road (Hwy 1; Evangeline Trail), which is approximately 500m from the river.

The Wolfville Formation is overlain by extensive glacial deposits of clay, sand, and gravel, with slow moving meandering streams and rivers surrounded by extensive marshes where they drain into tidal waters. The head of the tide for the Annapolis River is at Paradise, NS, which is located about 37km from the mouth of the river. The soils below Paradise are poorly drained silty loam and silty clay loam, while upstream soils, including those at the Boswell site, are well drained sands and gravels (Deal, 2013a).

Figure 1.1 Location of Boswell Site in Nova Scotia in relation to three paleoenvironmental records referred to in the text.

The forest in the Annapolis Valley is composed of mixed hardwoods and softwoods, with very little undisturbed forest. The area forms part of Louck’s Red

Spruce-Hemlock-Pine zone, and also features red oak (Quercus rubra), white pine (Pinus strobus), and black spruce (Picea mariana) in the east (Simmons et al., 1984). The non- tidal portions of the river have fauna typical of slow moving water. The modern faunal population includes mammals often associated with agricultural areas, including raccoon

(Procyon lotor), fox (Canidae), woodchuck (Marmota monax), skunk (Mephitidae), muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus), and mink (Neovison vison) (Deal, 2013a). Avifauna includes pheasant (Phasianidae), snipe (Scolopacidae), woodcock (Scolopax), and hawks

(Accipitridae). The important fish species in the river include striped bass (Morone saxatilis), white perch (Morone americana), and American shad (Alosa sapidissima).

Adjacent oxbow lakes have a different flora and fauna, including turtles (Testudines), sticklebacks (Gasterosteidae), and muskrats (Ondatra zibethicus).

Figure 1.2 Artist’s conception of camp at the St. Croix site around 2000 BP. Original watercolour drawing (By Brittany Roberts, commissioned by M. Deal).

1.3 Glacial History

All of Nova Scotia was covered in a thick sheet of ice during the last glacial maximum (LGM), which was approximately 20 ka BP (Shaw et al., 2006). The ice sheet covering Nova Scotia was part of the Appalachian Ice Complex composed of a number of regional ice accumulation centres that fluctuated in extent (Shaw et al., 2006; Dyke,

2004). After the LGM, warming global temperatures initiated a retreat of the glaciers, exposing land in Nova Scotia for migrating aboriginals. Around 14 kya the disintegrating ice margin had reached the south west portion of Nova Scotia, and by 12 kya the

Annapolis Valley was free of ice (Shaw et al., 2006).

Till and glaciofluvial sediments cover most of the valley floor. Lodgement till is found in till ‘islands’ on the floor of the Annapolis Valley, and is characteristically unsorted and unstratified (Hickox, 1962). Till can be found sporadically in the area, beneath the aggraded banks, and is from 3 to >10 metres thick. The till is dominated by reddish-brown coloured, gravelly, sandy, mud and silt. Overland flow would be higher on this unit and rates of river incision would be much lower due the low permeability that results from the high clay and silt content of the till. Till is the most widespread glacial deposit, but glaciofluvial sediments are especially significant in the study region

(Trescott, 1968). Locally the site is dominated by well-developed ice contact stratified outwash and kame deposits that were formed during deglaciation of the study site (Stea,

Conley, & Brown, 1992). Ice-contact deposits are pervasive in the region; the thickness of the well sorted sand and gravel is variable but field observations indicate at least 14 m.

Trescott (1968) reported that as much as 28 m of sand and gravel may exist near the site, though wells nearby record unconsolidated sediment thicknesses in excess of 30 m in length. Little surface water is present at the site due to the excessive drainage of the ice contact and outwash sediments and the relatively thin organic mat and underlying soil.

Glaciofluvial deposits are thinner in the upland areas of the Annapolis Valley (rarely exceeding 10 m), and thicker in the valley (up to 20 m) (Trescott, 1968). Most of the

surficial sediments were deposited during the last glacial/deglacial episode (Trescott,

1968).

1.4 Aboriginal History

Humans (Homo sapiens) first came to the Maritime Provinces approximately 11

000 years BP, and were referred to by the modern Mi’kmaq as the ‘Ancient People’, but are called the Paleoindians by archaeologists. Paleoindian artifacts have been found throughout Maine and Maritime Canada, but only a few sites have been excavated, including the Debert and Belmont sites in Nova Scotia (Figure 1.5). People of the North

Eastern Paleoindian tradition are generally depicted as mobile hunter-gatherers. They probably had at least two residential ‘base camps’ (warm and cold season camps), and camps for subsistence tasks and quarrying sites. (Gramly & Funk, 1990). Paleoindians may have hunted caribou (Rangifer tarandus) seasonally and other fauna that have been associated with Paleoindian sites are beaver (Castor), arctic fox (Vulpes lagopus), hare

(Lepus), and unidentified species of mammal, fish, and birds (Spiess, Curran, & Grimes,

1985). It is assumed, however, that the Paleoindians also hunted seals (Pinnipedia) and hares (Lepus) (Keenlyside & Anderson, 2009). Remnant ice sheets on the Maritime peninsula may have attracted both caribou (Rangifer tarandus) and humans, and the ice may have facilitated the storage of meat for the early hunters (Hare et al., 2004; Stea &

Mott, 1998). Generally, little is known about the Late Paleoindian culture (11,000 to

9,000 B.P.), and this is usually attributed to either a near depopulation of the area, or the more likely scenario that most sites were located along the now inundated shoreline.

Very little is known about aboriginal lifeways during the Early and Middle

Archaic periods (ca. 9500 to 6000 years ago) in the Canadian Maritime Provinces. These years are often referred to as “the Great Hiatus” and there is considerable discussion as to why there were no archaeological sites dating to these periods (Sanger, 1979). One hypothesis as to why there is a lack of evidence of occupation is that the boreal forest was unproductive with a low carrying capacity for significant human population, which would mean that there would be few archaeological sites to be found, though some reviews of palynological data call this hypothesis into question (Cleland & Fitting, 1968). Another hypothesis is that the Gulf of Maine and the Bay of Fundy were too shallow to allow circulation of sea water, which would have resulted in a relatively low level of marine resources in this region during the Early Holocene (Sanger, 1979). As a result, there likely would not have been enough resources in the area for aboriginals to subsist, and therefore they would not make long term camps in the area. Another plausible argument for the lack of archaeological sites is that there were numerous coastal populations during the Late Holocene, but rising sea levels have inundated the sites throughout the region

(Tuck, 1975).

A variety of artifacts have been associated with Late Archaic and more recent paleocultures. Late Archaic (5000 – 3800 BP) populations probably used barbed and toggling harpoons to hunt seals (Pinnipedia) and swordfish (Xiphias gladius), and short stemmed projectile points were most likely used to hunt deer (Cervidae), moose (Alces alces), and possibly caribou (Rangifer tarandus) in Nova Scotia. The earliest evidence of a coastal Late Archaic habitation site comes from the Turner Farm and Stanley sites in

Maine (Bourque, 1975; 1995). Five human burials and five dog burials were excavated at

Turner Farm. This site also provided the first faunal assemblage from a Late Archaic site in the Maritime Peninsula (i.e. northern Maine and the Maritime Provinces). It included swordfish (Xiphias gladius), seal (Pinnipedia), white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), sea mink (Neovison macrodon), a herring-sized fish, and soft shell clam.

Bourque (1975) suggested a settlement pattern consisting of summer maritime hunting and fishing, fall and spring riverine fishing, and winter interior hunting. It should be noted that only a few Late Archaic sites have been excavated in the Canadian Maritime

Provinces. Towards the end of the Late Archaic there is a new cultural presence in the

Maritime peninsula. There was a movement of people into the region as early as 4000

B.P. (Bourque, 1975). There are at least 20 sites in Nova Scotia with evidence of

Terminal Archaic occupation, and based on the site locations it is suggested that there was a preference for river outlets on large lakes, though rising sea levels may have inundated coastal sites (Deal, 2013b). The broad-bladed point found at the Boswell site in

2009, and chipped stone celt with a ground bit, are similar to specimens retrieved from sites in southwestern New Brunswick and northern Maine in Terminal Archaic or Early

Woodland contexts (Sanger, 2008). The Annapolis River has been a preferred corridor for the movement of people and trade between central and southwest Nova Scotia for a long time, and it is likely to have provided an important connection between clusters of

Terminal Archaic peoples (Deal, 2013b).

The Terminal Archaic was a transitional period to the Woodland Period (c. 3000 to 500 years ago), which is distinguished by the full adaptation of pottery by people in

Northeast North America. Pottery vessels were durable, could be made from local materials, and could be used for a variety of functions, including cooking, serving, and

vermin-proof storage (Deal, 2013b). The Early Woodland in the Canadian Maritime

Provinces was marked by the arrival of pointed-based vessels covered with fabric impressions (Deal, 2013b). The Woodland people used lithic quarries in the region and consumed a wide variety of berries, grapes, nuts, and groundnut tubers. The Woodland people’s main form of subsistence is believed to have been a riverine/lacustrine foraging, hunting and fishing pattern. Not only did the geology/geography contribute to what was considered a desirable location, but access to resources was important as well. Access to food, fresh water, and stone was a necessity during prehistoric times. Agriculture was not an option in Nova Scotia at this time since it was too far north for inhabitants to depend on native aboriginal crops such as corn, beans, and squash, so, hunting, fishing, and foraging were the methods of obtaining food (Pastore, 1998). The record of Father Biard, a French Jesuit missionary who was in Nova Scotia from 1611 to 1613 provides some insight into the behaviours of the Mi’kmaq shortly after European contact, which can then be assumed to be partially applicable to their ancestors as well (Pastore, 1998). The aboriginals of Nova Scotia moved their camps throughout the year to take advantage of the best sources of food available at that point in the annual cycle.

Excavations at various locations indicate that freshwater and anadromous fish were important resources to Woodland people. Plant fibre mats, bags, and baskets, as well as birch bark items have been recovered in archaeological sites (Deal, 2013b). It is also known that they used grease and oils from various animals (e.g. beaver (Castor), moose (Alces alces), seal (Pinnipedia)), and animal pelts (moose (Alces alces), deer

(Cervidae), caribou (Rangifer tarandus), beaver (Castor), mink (Neovison vison), etc.).

McEachen (1996) suggested that Woodland populations in the Maritimes were linked to

the continental wide exchange of goods and religious ideas. McEachen (1996) also noted that many habitation sites are located on terraces beside major river systems, while cemeteries are located near habitation sites, or on the coast, which could be a reason why human burials have not been commonly found.

Figure 1.3 Base of a broad-bladed stemmed projectile point found on Annapolis River bank at the Boswell site in 2009 (Photo credit: Nova Scotia Museum).

Figure 1.4 A complete biface found at the Boswell site in 2009 (Photo credit: Nova Scotia Museum).

100 km

Figure 1.5 Locations of Archaic sites along the North Atlantic coast representing the shoreline around 6000 BP : 1. L’Anse Amour, 2. Port au Choix, 3. Canavoy, 4. Savage Harbour, 5. Rix and Wedge sites, 6. Steele’s Island, 7. Upper Bay, Sackville, 8. Gerrish, 9. Ruisseau-des-Caps, 10. Big Clearwater, 11. Cow Point, 12. Gaspereau Lake, 13. Boswell, 14. Bear River, 15. Eel Weir, 16. Indian Gardens, 17. Tusket Falls, 18. Bain, 19. Mill Lake, 20. Rum Beach, 21. Teacher’s Cove, 22. Rouen Island, 23. Diggity, 24. Mud Lake Stream, 25. Sharrow and Brigham sites, 26. Hirundo and Young sites, 27. Nevin, 28. Turner Farm, 29. Stanley, 30. Neville. (Deal, 2013b).

1.5 Local Ecology

At 18 000 years BP mainland Nova Scotia was completely covered in ice. A cooling period known as the Younger Dryas stadial (11,000 – 10,000 BP) roughly coincides with the peopling of the Maritimes. Climatic changes coincident with the

Younger Dryas resulted in changes in floral and faunal populations that directly impacted human resource procurement strategies (Newby et al., 2005). Newby et al. (2005) used fossil pollen records of species that provide the best indication of the overall vegetation change to reconstruct vegetation patterns for 1000 year intervals. Climatic conditions during the younger Dryas coincided with large areas of tundra-like vegetation located north of spruce (Picea) woodlands (Newby et al. 2005). The spruce (Picea) population in the Maritimes shifted southward, while sedges (open tundra vegetation) and any remaining glaciers expanded (Newby et al., 2005). At the end of the period, the tundra- like vegetation was replaced by widespread closed forests, including temperate conifer and deciduous populations (Newby et al. 2005). The mixed deciduous forests following the Younger Dryas were probably suitable for solitary cervids like moose (Alces alces) and deer (Cervidae) (Newby et al., 2005).

The Late Paleoindian period roughly coincides with the beginning of the

Holocene Epoch (ca. 10,000 to 8000 BP), which brought warmer weather and the gradual development of a woodland flora and fauna to the region. A pine (Pinus), birch (Betula), and oak (Quercus) forest dominated the region during the early Archaic (Anderson,

Mathews, & Schweger, 1989). By Late Archaic times, a hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) and oak (Quercus) forest had developed in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick (Anderson et al.,

1989). As temperatures cooled around 4000 years ago a spruce (Picea), birch (Betula), and beech (Fagus) forest developed in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. During this time

Georges Bank had submerged, resulting in increased tidal activity in the Gulf of Maine and the Bay of Fundy. Cooler water in the Bay of Fundy likely attracted new species of fish, sea mammals, and sea birds. At the same time sea level rise and an increase in tidal

range resulted in the development of deeper estuaries that attracted anadromous fish,

(Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar), Atlantic shad (Alosa sapidissima), and alewife (Alosa pseudoharengus)), and bogs that accumulated water (Keenlyside and Anderson, 2009).

Marine biologists from Acadia University have documented a 4400 year old forest and an extensive oyster (Bivalvia) bed off Long Island, in the Minas Basin

(Bleakney & Davis, 1983). Oyster (Bivalvia) shells measuring up to 20 cm in length have been recovered, and three specimens produced an average radio carbon date of around

3800 BP (Bleakney & Davis, 1983). Today, oyster (Bivalvia) beds are only found in the warmer waters of northeastern Nova Scotia and Cape Breton Island (Stewart, 1984).

Bourque (1975) suggests that Native overfishing is an important factor in the disappearance of swordfish (Xiphias gladius) in the Bay of Fundy and decline in large cod (Gadius) by 3600 BP, which were replaced by meso-predators like flounder

(Paralichthys), sculpin (Cottoidea), and dogfish (Squalus acanthias).

During the most recent archaeological period (the Woodland Period) there was a variety of edible wild berry fruits. Grapes, nuts including acorns, butternuts, beechnuts, walnuts, and groundnut tubers became prominent at this time. Beaver (Castor), moose

(Alces alces), seal (Pinnipedia), deer (Cervidae), caribou (Rangifer tarandus), and mink

(Neovison vison) were present in the area and were accessible to the ancestral Mi’kmaq.

1.6 Site Geomorphology

The Boswell site is located on a sandy terrace next to a relatively stable portion of the Annapolis River. The terrace is on a relatively straight section of the river, with the river being unstable and meandering both upstream and downstream from the site. These

features suggest, along with the preservation of the site, that the banks of the river at that location were aggrading for the several thousand years that the site was occupied. One reason as to why the river was aggrading is that a rise in the sea level likely decreased the overall gradient of the river, decreasing rates of incision. The limited down cutting as a result of a decreased gradient, and bedrock being at or near the river bed, would aid the aggradation of the Boswell site during times of high flow. Instead of the river incising into sediments, an increase in precipitation would increase river stage due to elevated local water tables. Under these conditions where the river was laterally mobile, it could move laterally as opposed to vertically, cutting into its outside banks and transporting that sediment to its inside banks further down the river. When the river flooded, the increased sediment load could be deposited on the river flood plain, resulting in an aggrading terrace.

1.7 Local Geology

The Annapolis Valley contains the Mesozoic Triassic Fundy Group, which underlie the valley proper and also forms the North Mountain. In Nova Scotia, the Fundy

Group comprises of: the Wolfville, Blomidon, North Mountain, Scots Bay, and McCoy

Brook formations in ascending order. The Wolfville Formation underlies most of the valley floor and is comprised of reddish thickly bedded medium to coarse grained arenitic to subarkosic sandstone (Trescott, 1968). This formation represents the most important bedrock aquifer of the Annapolis Valley and is known for its heterogeneity (Trescott,

1968). The Wolfville Formation is assigned a Late Triassic age, and generally dips 5⁰ to

10⁰ NW towards the Bay of Fundy.

The Scots Bay Formation, near Scots Bay and the Blomidon Peninsula has several major outcrops of chalcedony; one of the sub varieties of chert distinguished by a structure of well-defined polyhedral blocks, few or no water-filled cavities, and is colourless or light brown in translucent light (Deal, 2013b). This chalcedony has been used by Native Americans as a source of material to make tools, such as fluted points, projectiles, and scrapers used for hunting, fishing, and maintenance of their homes (Deal,

2013b).

The middle and eastern portion of the Annapolis Valley is generally covered by ice contact sandy sediments, but some varved clays have been observed in the field. In general, the sediments are sandier and better sorted in the centre of the valley, whereas gravel and boulders are found along the flank of South Mountain (Trescott, 1969). An extensive outwash plain occupies much of the central part of the valley between Berwick and Lawrencetown. West from Wilmot, outwash sediments, consisting of well-stratified and cross-bedded fine grained to coarse grained sand, commonly overlie estuarine deposits of silt and clay (Trescott, 1969). The ends of the Annapolis Valley are dominated by intertidal sediments.

Figure 1.6 Bedrock geology of the Annapolis Valley. Orange: Wolfville Formation, Beige: Blomidon Formation, Grey: North Mountain Formation, Purple: Halifax Formation, Green: Kentville Formation, Yellow: Horton Bluff Formation, Pink: South Mountain Batholith. Modified from Webster & French (2009).

Figure 1.7 Surficial sediment in the vicinity of the Boswell site. The yellow sediments are of fluvial origin. The light orange sediments are glaciofluvial, the dark orange are coarser kame sands and gravels and the dark green areas denote till. Modified from Stea et al. (1992).

1.8 Vegetation

One of the most common proxies used to determine the climatic conditions in the past are the palynological records obtained from sediment cores. The species of vegetation growing in an area can be used to determine the relative air temperature and precipitation. Pollen samples from sediment cores can be used to reconstruct past temperature and moisture regimes. Maps of changing pollen percentages in eastern North

America since the last glacial maximum show a complex vegetation history (Thompson,

1974). The dynamic equilibrium hypothesis explains how vegetation changes as a response to continuous climatic forcing (Solomon, 1986). It implies that the processes by which ecosystems adjust to climatic changes must be fast enough for the broad scale vegetation patterns to have kept up with the changes (Webb, 1986). As a result, sediment

cores can be taken from bogs, lakes, etc., where pollen grains tend to accumulate from wind dispersal and surface run-off, and the pollen record can be used to approximate what the environmental conditions were like at the time the pollen was distributed (Mott,

Walker, Palmer, & Lavoie, 2009). This method can also be used to determine the relative amount of precipitation there was by employing the same concepts.

1.9 Climate Change

The climate of North America has changed significantly over the past 20,000 years.

The beginning of the Holocene Epoch (ca. 10,000 to 8000 BP) was characterised by warmer weather and the gradual development of woodland flora and fauna (Deal, 2013b).

After about 8000 years ago, there was a rapid climatic warming to as much as 2.5⁰ C above present annual temperatures, though this temperature increase did not coincide with sea level rise which could explain why so many archaeological sites have been inundated (Deal, 2013b). Wanner et al. (2008) suggests that at 6000 years BP was much drier and warmer when compared with records from the 1700s, meaning that whether it was a gradual or rapid cooling, there has been significant cooling in the past 6000 years.

Temperatures continued to be higher than present day values until about 4000 years ago when the temperatures began to fall to modern levels (Deal, 2013b). The theory that many archaeological sites have been inundated stems from the evidence which shows that sea levels at 5000 years ago were 15 m below the present level at which point the land link between PEI, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia was broken (Keenlyside &

Anderson, 2009). Sea levels continued to rise, Georges Bank was submerged around

4000 years ago, and the modern shoreline was established by 3000 years ago.

Chapter 2 Materials and Methods

2.1 Study Site Excavation History

In 2009 a projectile point was found by a couple fishing on the bank of the

Annapolis River (Figure 1.1). This find initiated an excavation of the area next to the find spot to determine if more extensive archaeological investigation was required and the possible extent of aboriginal occupation. The first year of excavation at the site (2011) was initiated to determine if an archaeological site existed and the second year of excavation (2012) was to determine how large the site was. The project was not completed in 2012, and was continued in the summer of 2014.

Figure 2.1 Boswell site in July, 2014; beginning of site excavation on sandy terrace. From left to right: John C., Erin M., Josh M., Jodi H. (Photo credit: Michael Deal)

Figure 2.2 Completed excavation grid of the Boswell site.

2.2 2014 Site Excavation

Participation in the excavations commenced in late July, 2014 in order to better understand the sediments at the site and the context of archaeological material to these sediments. It also provided the opportunity to liaise with archeologists on matters

concerning the effects of specific geomorphic conditions on site residency. On July 22nd,

2014, excavation was initiated at the Boswell site. Reorientation of the grid established during previous excavations was initiated and a 1 m2 grid was surveyed using datum 1 and the datum 2 (see Figure 2.2) and a total station. John Campbell (M.A. candidate,

Memorial University) completed the total station survey. The latter part of the day 1 on the site was spent laying out metal pins every metre along the established grid, starting at two (2) metres south, and one (1) metre east of datum 2 (the northeast corner of the excavation, Figure 2.2). Sod was then cut into 1 m x 1 m squares (a standard archaeological unit excavation size) in units 12, 8, 9, and 5 and put aside until the excavation was complete so the excavation site could be returned to its undisturbed condition after excavation was completed. Units 5, 8, and 9 were then excavated to ~40 cm below the surface which was the maximum depth of the prior investigation of these units in 2012. As the excavation continued, unit 7 and units 13-21 were initiated (sods removed and excavated to 40 cm) and further excavated by trowel to about 50 cm depth below surface (DBS). Ceramic material, flakes, charcoal, and bones were collected and labelled according to the unit they were collected from, the depth they were found at and the soil description. Bones, charcoal, and ceramics were stored in aluminum foil and then placed in plastic Ziploc bags which were also labelled. During the second week of excavation an additional four units 23-26 were excavated. Unit 26 (Figure 2.2) was a 50 cm2 unit placed over a surface find on the bank of the Annapolis River near the main excavation site where a scraper had been found there by the property owner, Terry

Wilkins (T. Wilkins, personal communication, July 22, 2014). At the end of the second

week of excavation units 8 and 9 were shovel shined (shovelling small layers 3-5 cm horizontally) to 1 metre below the surface in order to facilitate detailed investigation.

At the beginning of the third week of excavation unit 27 (Figure 2.2), which is located at the edge of the lower terrace to the south of the main excavation was opened and a number of flakes were discovered. As a result units 28-32 were opened and excavated. During the third week units 5, 7, 13, 15, 17, and 18 were excavated to 1 metre depth and units 14 and 22 were excavated to 2 metres depth. The southeast corner of unit

22 was excavated an additional 50 cm in depth in a 50 cm2 square. The last days on site were spent completing final excavations on units 23, 24, 25 (Figure 2.2). When this work was completed the screened sediment was shovelled back into the open units, and the sods were placed on top of the filled units once again. The last day of excavation on the

Boswell site was August 11th, 2014.

2.3 Sediment Collection and Description

On Friday, August 8th, 2014, 12 sediment samples (with duplicates) were taken from the south profile of unit 22 (Figure 3.1) as it was the deepest unit. Each sample was collected with a trowel and placed in a plastic Ziploc bag which were labelled with the site number, unit number, the date, the soil lot, and the depth from which the sediment sample was taken. The samples were taken for study by Dr. Michael Deal (Memorial

University) and Erin McKee (Acadia University) for further analysis. Two additional soil samples were collected from the Archaic Period layer which was located on one of the units on the lower terrace near where the original projectile point was found. These samples were also transported to Memorial University and Acadia University. Samples

were described in order to establish the degree of variability in soil composition and texture and to determine the provenance of the sediment.

Figure 2.3 Completed excavation of main grid of the Boswell site. The maximum depth of the units visible here is 2 metres. (Photo credit: John Campbell)

2.4 Site Geology and Geomorphology

One objective of this study was to determine the environmental conditions at the site at present as well as provide a reconstruction of environmental conditions at the time of site occupation. As the site is located on the side of a river that is laterally mobile and yet artifacts were found that could be dated to at least 3000 BP, it was hypothesized that the fluvial geomorphology at the Boswell site may have been a condition that led to preservation but also might have been a condition that led to occupation. Given this hypothesis an investigation of the morphology of the Annapolis River both upstream and downstream of the Boswell site as well as sediment stratigraphy was undertaken.

A survey of the substrate over which the river flows was undertaken visually both upstream and downstream of the site for approximately 100 metres. Sediment samples taken from the excavation were examined and moisture content was determined visually; soils were classified as dry, moist or wet. A Munsell color chart was used to record the color for each sediment sample, the matrix color (dominant) and the mottle color (sub- dominant) were both described and percentages recorded of each. The percentage of coarse fragmentation was determined by noting how much rock was found within each sample with a rock defined as being larger than 2 mm in size. Organics, if present, were noted and the percentage of the sample that contains rooted material was recorded.

The larger scale stratigraphy of the sediment at the site was investigated by surveying streams that flow into the Annapolis River and recording the exposed stratigraphy made evident by stream incision. Airphotos (1968) and imagery from Google

Earth (2012) were used to determine whether significant change had occurred in the river morphology, especially lateral movement, over that time. Historical records (maps, 1950-

1960) were also reviewed to determine if significant change in the river had occurred over the period of record.

2.5 Paleoenvironmental Literature Review

A requirement of this study was the reconstruction of environmental conditions

(moisture and temperature regimes, paleohydrology and local and regional vegetation) at the Boswell site during the time of occupation. The immediate site contains no suitable archive (lake or bog) that might provide a local paleoenvironmental record. However recent research at nearby locations was deemed adequate to reconstruct local forest

composition and regional paleoclimate conditions. Conditions of interest for this study were obtained primarily from recent work by Spooner, White, Principato, Stolze, & Hill,

(2014) in an investigation of environmental change from Pleasant River Fen which is located about 60 km south of the Boswell site (Figure 1.1). Other paleoenvironmental records were also consulted including work by Mott et al. (2009). Mott et al. (2009) examined late-glacial Holocene paleoecological conditions in a record from Pye Lake, located on the eastern shore of Nova Scotia using pollen, chironomid analyses and radiocarbon dating to outline regional vegetation and climatic change. Spooner et al.

(2014) conducted a palynological and stratigraphic study at Pleasant River, Nova Scotia to determine the environmental variability at that site and produced a record of moisture fluctuations during the Late Holocene (Figure 3.4). Another record of note is research being conducted by Spooner et al. (2014) on Baltzer’s Bog wetland located about 40 km east of the Boswell site and Big Meadow wetland located 100 km west of the site (Figure

1.1). This record focusses on the dating of drowned forest preserved in the wetland as a proxy for varying moisture regime during the Late Holocene. Other paleoenvironmental records by Ogden (1986) and Putnam (1994) will also be considered in this study.

2.6 Significance and habitat of potential food sources

A variety of research sources were accessed to determine the potential significance of various food sources known to have been accessed by Native Americans in the region during the Late Holocene. In particular, anadromous fish species including

Shad (Alosa sapidissima), Striped bass (Morone saxatilis), Salmon (Salmo salar), and

Smelt (Osmeridae) are known to have been accessed by people at this time. The

conditions required for these species to occupy the Annapolis River at present were determined through literature review so an assessment could be made as to whether suitable environmental conditions existed in the past.

Chapter 3: Results and Interpretation

3.1 Paleohydrology

At Baltzer Bog, Brier Island Bog and Pleasant River Fen, Nova Scotia (see Figure

1.1), data from excavated sections and core samples were used to elucidate the timing of effective moisture variability during the Late Holocene (Spooner et al 2014). Baltzer Bog is located in an elevated, closed basin on an extensive Wisconsinan glacial deposit. A 2.3 m thick peat deposit at the site contains three distinct wood mats that are interbedded with sphagnum-dominated organic deposits (Figure 3.2). An upright stump at the base of the section was dated at 3260 cal BP. A rapid transition to wood-free sphagnum and an increase in the bog surface wetness index indicates an increase in local water table occurred shortly after this time (Spooner et al., 2014). Two other woodland – wetland transitions were dated at 1640 cal BP and 1045 cal BP. Sphagnum humification data indicate that these paleobotanical transitions were also associated with significant effective moisture variability. At Brier Island Bog a thin wood mat in sphagnum at 90 cm depth was dated at 1760 cal BP. At Pleasant River Fen, pollen and stratigraphic data indicate that around 1950 cal BP a transition from open water to fen environment occurred which is broadly correlative with woodland development at Brier Island Bog and Baltzer Bog; an increase in local arboreal pollen at 1050 cal BP is correlative with woodland development at Baltzer Bog. Though other high resolution paleoclimate records from the region indicate that the Late Holocene was a time of increasing precipitation and cooler air temperatures, these wetland records demonstrate that in southwestern Nova Scotia this time period was characterized by rapid variations in

effective moisture and that occasional significant and sustained dry periods likely occurred.

Table 3.1 A description of the sediment samples collected to determine the provenance of the sediment located at the Boswell site. The low percentage of organic content and rocks, along with the sediment moisture indicate the sediments are of a fluvial origin. Sample Soil Munsell Sediment Grain Organic Amount of Depth Horizon Colour Moisture size content rocks in below (mm) (%) sediment surface (cm) (%) 5 A 5 YR 5/4 Moist Medium >75 <5 20 A 10 YR 5/6 Moist Fine <75 <5 30 A 10 YR 4/3 Moist Coarse <30 <5 38 B 7.5 YR 5/8 Moist Coarse <5 <5 105 B 7.5 YR 5/6 Moist Coarse <5 <5 155 B 5 YR 4/6 Moist Medium <5 <5 210 B 5 YR 4/6 Wet medium <5 <5

Figure 3.1 Profile of the south facing wall of units 5, 22, and 18. Red squares indicate where samples were taken from (Deal, 2015).

Figure 3.2 Data from Baltzer Bog and Big Meadow Bog indicating that during the Late Holocene wet conditions were punctuated by drier periods (drought) that led to substantially lowered water tables

Figure 3.3 Site plan showing location of the excavation sites and “Fish Hole”

3.2 Paleovegetation and temperature reconstruction

Mott et al. (2009) used a pollen and chironomid record from Pye Lake, on the eastern shore of Nova Scotia to elucidate Late Holocene vegetation history. They note that during the Late Holocene transition an eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) forest was gradually replaced by a forest with significant birch (Betula) and beech (Fagus grandifolia), indicating that a slow cooling and possibly wetter trend had established itself, favouring the formation of closed forests. Closed forests are defined as forest formations where trees in the various storeys and the undergrowth cover a high proportion (> 40 percent) of the ground and do not have a continuous dense grass layer.

Spooner et al. (2014) conducted a study at Pleasant River, Nova Scotia to determine the environmental variability in southwestern Nova Scotia. Though this study was directed at determining habitat suitability for Blanding’s Turtle (Emys blandingii), an endangered species in Nova Scotia, the data also provides insight into regional forest composition during the late Holocene. From 3400 cal BP to present, pine (Pinus) decreased from 54%-11%, birch (Betula) increased in abundance from 4-17.4%, and beech (Fagus grandifolia) began increasing in abundance around 1050 cal BP. Also noted were increases in speckled alder (Alnus incana) at 1950 cal BP. These changes in forest composition were attributed to slow cooling and possibly wetter conditions. As there were coarse grained minerogenic sediments deposited at the coring site from 5250 to 1950 cal BP the authors implied that there was an increase in precipitation, a theory supported by an increase in total pollen concentrations.

Figure 3.4 Data from Pleasant River Fen that indicates that during the time of Boswell site occupation (about 3000 – 1000 BP) a mixed deciduous forest likely existed in the region (Spooner et al, 2014)

Ogden (1986) studied three lakes in Nova Scotia, all within a 10 km radius of

Halifax, on the eastern shore; Penhorn Lake, Bluff Lake, and Silver Lake. Cores taken from each of these lakes have pollen records which indicate that hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) reached its maximum abundance about 7500 BP, but declined substantially around 5500 BP. Following this decline birch (Betula) and spruce (Picea) increased in abundance. Collectively, the paleovegetation data suggests that during the initial time of occupation of the Boswell site temperatures were likely somewhat warmer than they are at present, under these conditions regionally a hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) dominated forest likely prevailed (Figure 3.6). Cooling commenced at about 3000 BP and has continued throughout the Late Holocene. This cooling trend has resulted in the hemlock

(Tsuga canadensis) forest changing to a spruce (Picea) dominated forest. In lower and

warmer elevations such as the Annapolis valley, change was likely more subtle and resulted in the development of a mixed deciduous forest.

Figure 3.5 Environmental reconstruction form that provides general trends in climate change in Nova Scotia over the last 8000 years. Modified from Miller, Mudie, & Scott (1982).

3.3 Site geomorphology: Terrace development and preservation

The river terrace developed along the banks of the Annapolis River at the Boswell site is underlain by alluvial deposits which themselves overlie till and bedrock. These terraces, which can be found on both the north and south side of the river are distinguished from Annapolis River floodplains in that they are not inundated frequently and contain relatively small amounts of silt and clay. Like many other rivers, the terraces along the Annapolis River are not continuous, where they are absent it is because either they have not accumulated or have been removed by erosion.

The terrace and terrace alluvium at the Boswell site are best described as allostratigraphic units (Blum, 1993; Pazzaglia and Brandon, 2001) where the underlying bounding unconformity is either the flat terrace surface formed on (Lawrencetown) till

(the tread) or the erosional terrace base formed on (Wolfville Formation) bedrock (the strath). Most strath terraces are characterized by a distinct, subhorizontal erosional base, commonly carved into bedrock, with a relatively thin alluvial cover. The Boswell site terraces conform to this model. At the Boswell site the Wolfville Formation bedrock is buried by Lawrencetown till which is a clay rich, red-coloured, well-indurated lodgment till best described as an over consolidated clay rich diamicton. The contact between the

Lawrencetown till tread and the overlying alluvium (which contains the artifacts) is defined by a thin fine gravel lag which was likely thalweg bedload (Table 3.1).

The development of terraces at the Boswell site is likely linked to the process of erosion into bedrock however this process is poorly understood. Wolfville Formation bedrock prominently outcrops in the river bed adjacent to and upstream of the Boswell site. Downstream of the site the Annapolis River is underlain by overconsolidated till

which, if resistant enough can act similarly to bedrock. Observations in many rivers of different scales and tectonic and climatic settings indicate that bedrock channel erosion processes result in a generally sub-horizontal channel floor. The deposition of

Lawrencetown till during glaciation complicates the process of strath development

(Figure 3.6). The carving of wide straths (into till, which may be considered similarly to bedrock), a largely lateral incision process that widens valley bottoms, and their subsequent abandonment by vertical incision into the till that deepens the river valley are the ultimate causes for the formation of the strath and the strath terraces that formed at the Boswell site.

Figure 3.6 Lawrencetown till exposed at the junction of a small unnamed creek and the Annapolis River, downstream of the Boswell site. The till is compact, overconsolidated and forms a horizontal strath surface overlain by fluvial sediment. Erosion of the till provides the Annapolis River with its coarse bedload and may have also provided tool material for occupants of the Boswell site. (Photo credit: Ian Spooner)

Figure 3.7 Annapolis River dynamics upstream and downstream of the Boswell site.

The timing of terrace development on top of the strath was likely linked to changes both in base level of the Annapolis River and changes in river discharge volume and timing. A local base level fall can be caused by a geomorphic process that introduces a step into a long profile, called a knickpoint, that migrates upstream and declines in relief in response to specific bed shear stress conditions directly above and below the step

(Gardner, 1983). The result of migrating knickpoints are terraces parallel to the steady state profile that are born at the knickpoint and increase in age downstream proportional to the rate of knickpoint migration.

The development of the horizontal surface (strath) over which the terraces were deposited likely took place during periods when the river was in a steady state (graded) condition (Gilbert, 1877; Mackin, 1948). River incision, narrowing, and terrace formation and preservation was likely a response to Late Holocene increases in moisture and discharge that appear to be supported by paleoenvironmental data from Baltzer’s Bog and

Pleasant River (Spooner et al., 2014). If, as is the case at the Boswell site, bedrock locally

lies close to the level of the river, an alluvial channel can develop and stabilize in the reach underlain by bedrock (Figure 3.7) (Frankel et al., 2007). Erosion occurs downstream of the bedrock “high point” creating a knickpoint that migrates rapidly headward through the bedrock reach. The knickpoint is halted temporarily at the bedrock reach carving a narrow and usually straight reach. As soon as the knickpoint propagates past the bedrock reach, the upstream alluvial reach responds to the base level fall, delivering a pulse of sediment to the bedrock reach. This pulse of sediment can create the sediment aggradation required to form a terrace. Eventually, base level stability is re- established at the bedrock reach and sediment delivery from the alluvial reach upstream wanes (Frankel et al., 2007). If there is a coincident increase in river discharge the river will likely narrow and vertically incise with little lateral migration. These are conditions that likely govern fluvial geomorphology on the reach of the upper Annapolis River where the Boswell site is located.

3.4 River bathymetry: development and significance of the Fish Hole

The Fish Hole is the colloquial name for a relatively deep but localized pool in the

Annapolis River that covers about 60 m2 in area and is located about 20 m upstream of the Boswell site (Figure 3.3). This steep sided pool was likely developed by quarrying or plucking of blocks of the jointed Wolfville Formation sandstones and, as the pool does not coincide with a prominent ledge or waterfall, it is likely that this process was associated with glaciation as till overlies bedrock in this location. The pool is kept sediment free by high spring and fall discharge which may remove any sand and gravel sized bedload that has accumulated during low flow periods. The significance of the pool

is that it is the only significant pool that is located along the stable (terraced) reach of the

Annapolis River. Several fish species including the alewife (Alosa pseudoharengus) and smelt (Osmeridae) use pools in rivers as holding spots during migration. Each species apparently has slightly different requirements of a holding pool. In general, a good holding pool will dissipate the energy of water and offer resting and protection for fish.

The steep sided and deep nature of the “Fish Hole”, as well the rarity of other similar features along this reach of the Annapolis River likely indicate that this site was a significant holding site for a variety of fish species.

It appears likely then that any Native Americans familiar with this reach of the

Annapolis River would have known about the “Fish Hole” and its ability to concentrate migrating fish. As well, water depths after the spring freshet were about 50 cm around the perimeter of the “Fish Hole” which would have enabled ready access.

Chapter 4: Discussion

The means of understanding the history of aboriginal culture in North America comes from locating habitation sites and excavating these sites to better understand the context of the site. Finding these sites, however, can be quite difficult for a number of reasons. They may be altered or covered by anthropogenic activity, they may have eroded away with floods and river movements, or they may have been inundated by rising sea levels or by artificial lakes. It is for these reasons that so little is known about aboriginal culture in Maritime Canada during the Archaic Period, a period which is also known as the Great Hiatus. There are a number of theories as to why there is very little evidence of habitation in Nova Scotia during this time, and while some of these theories are more feasible than others, there is currently no way of knowing which theory has the most credibility. There is, however, some evidence of aboriginals living in Nova Scotia towards the end of the Terminal Archaic period. It is possible that a better understanding of the context of the Terminal Archaic sites in the Maritimes will provide insight into cultural development during the Archaic period.

This study was focussed on determining the environmental conditions present over the time of occupation as defined by the artifacts recovered at the site and radiometric dating of the site. Of particular interest were the reasons why the Boswell site was chosen as a site for continued habitation over a seemingly extended period of time and, importantly, why the site was preserved when it is located in an otherwise dynamic geomorphic environment. The answers to both of these questions should provide researchers with guidance to more efficiently locate other potential sites of interest.

There are currently nine Archaic sites that have been identified in Nova Scotia

(Deal, 2013b). Gaspereau Lake, Boswell site, and Bear River are a few locations of these sites, all of which are next to a source of fresh water. If it is possible to understand what the environment was like at sites when they were occupied, as was attempted in this study of the Boswell site, then other sites might more efficiently be located. As the Boswell site was located on an alluvial terrace, next to a river that at present overtops its banks regularly, there may be other archaeological sites in other locations that have been preserved under similar conditions. Other factors that likely enhanced the suitability of the sites in Nova Scotia for habitation were access to food resources such as migrating fish and outcrops of usable stone (such as chert or chalcedony) (Lutins, 1992). Locating these sites could provide archaeologists with the opportunity to uncover more Archaic

Period artifacts, which would provide a richer perspective on Native American cultures in

Nova Scotia at this time. An understanding of the specific tools that were used to hunt and maintain a camp on a river could aid in reconstructing where the peoples living in

Nova Scotia had migrated from and whether they were descendants of the Paleoindians who migrated to Nova Scotia after the LGM, or if they had come from a specific region of mainland North America (Deal, 2013b).

4.1 Importance of Vegetation

The changing forest composition around 3000 BP was an important reason as to why the Boswell site had been occupied. As close to the river as the site is, bank stability played a role in the preservation of the site. The boreal forest, dominated by coniferous trees, would have made river banks more vulnerable to erosion than they are today as

conifers typically have shallow root systems. Coniferous tree roots do not penetrate the soil with sufficient depth to prevent erosion or bank failure during times of high river flow or storms. Deciduous trees, however, possess deeper root systems, which would stabilize the bank and offer some resistance to lateral migration. A stable bank would have been necessary for continuous, seasonal occupation at the same location for the time span observed at Boswell site.

Changing forest composition would have also created more food sources.

Coniferous forests do not provide the variety of berries, nuts, and herbs offered by deciduous forests. Deciduous forests have more understory growth than coniferous forests, meaning that a wider variety of plants can be accessed as sources of food and material (e.g. covering wigwams with birch bark, or making rope out of herbaceous stems). Not only does the understory growth provide food for animals as well, but it also increases habitat for animals. Coniferous forests, which generally lack a dense understory, cannot provide the same habitat variance and density as deciduous forests.

When the forest composition changed from being coniferous dominated to deciduous dominated, animal populations, such as raccoons (Procyon lotor), skunks (Mephitidae), squirrels (Sciuridae), mice (Mus), and deer (Cervidae), would likely have increased

(“Deciduous Forests,” 2005), providing more hunting opportunities for the Native group occupying the Boswell site.

4.2 Impact of climate change and increased precipitation on site suitability habitation and food availability

The reason that the Boswell site was both occupied and preserved for over 3000 years is due to the unique environmental and geological conditions at the site. The conditions at the Boswell site (sandy strath terrace next to a stable portion of a river) are ideal for site preservation given the present hydraulic regime of the Annapolis River. It is very likely that many other river corridor archaeological sites existed that had much lower preservation potential that consequently may have been destroyed by lateral migration, flooding and erosion or have contained artifacts that were damaged or destroyed by acidic soils or biologic processes.

With so many archaeological sites potentially removed, those that remain are important for understanding prehistoric cultures, and, for sites that contain long, continuous records, how cultures have transitioned throughout time. This study has shown that recognition of geomorphic element dynamics is a very important factor in determining whether a particular location has the potential to contain (or have preserved) an archeological site. A common point of discussion in archeological investigations is whether the lack of site discovery was because the test pits that were dug “missed” (in depth or extent) all the artifacts that may have been on the site. The guidelines for archaeological test pitting indicate that the pits do not need to go more than a few centimetres below ‘subsoil’ or the B soil horizon (Ministry of Tourism, 2011). At the

Boswell site, the first evidence of occupation appeared more than 15 cm below the apparent top of B horizon. The Boswell site, however, is located on an aggrading alluvial surface, a surface that is unique with respect to most surfaces investigated. While the

guidelines for archeological investigation are probably suitable for the majority of archaeological sites, in areas where the active aggradation, test pits cannot be guided by the established criteria and need to go deeper in order to provide a more accurate representation of the archeological potential of the site.

One of the theories as to why there is little evidence of occupation in Nova Scotia during the Archaic Period is that the climate was not conducive to the biodiversity and bio-productivity needed to sustain human populations (Fitting, 1986). Towards the end of the Archaic Period the unproductive boreal forest environment changed into a deciduous dominated environment (Mott et al. 2009). A deciduous dominant environment would have been more productive than the boreal forest environment, creating more favourable conditions for the flora and fauna the aboriginals would have used. Since the evidence points towards the climate becoming wetter at this point as well (Spooner et al., 2014) these conditions could also be hypothesised to contribute to the observed increase in human occupation. A wetter environment would have gradually raised the local water tables, which would have increased discharge in rivers and produced springs where the elevated water table intersected the surface. This is an ideal situation for a local increase in fish productivity/availability.

It is also possible that there were people living in Nova Scotia during the Archaic period, but their populations were not sufficient to produce a recognizable archaeological footprint. Population would have been limited by the productivity of the boreal forest environment. When the climate became cooler and wetter human populations may have increased in step with increases in bio-productivity.

Putnam (1994) studied archaeological sites in central Maine where there was evidence of native occupation of Holocene strath terraces which were similar to the terraces at the Boswell site. The people at the sites in Maine were attracted to these locations to exploit the anadromous and catadromous fishes, and resident aquatic fish, birds, and mammals (Spiess, 1992). They made their camps on the narrow terraces around the water source shortly after the initiation of terrace deposition in the terminal

Pleistocene and continued to do so until the Historic period (Petersen, & Sanger, 1991).

These observations indicate that people desired these types of locations for establishing summer camps. The Boswell site has similar features and thus might have offered similar advantages.

Figure 4.1 Artist’s Reconstruction of Environmental conditions at the Boswell site 2000 BP (By S. Effenberger, commissioned by I. Spooner).

4.3 Importance of access to resources

Boswell site is believed to have been a seasonal camp (Figure 4.1). The occupants would have taken advantage of fish, (American shad (Alosa sapidissima), alewife (Alosa pseudoharengus)), which likely started migrating up the Annapolis River in the Archaic period in response to changing temperature and tidal regimes in the Gulf of Maine and

Bay of Fundy. Models for the Bay of Fundy suggest that tidal amplification began in the early Holocene and by ca. 5000 BP the range was almost 80% of the present range. Shaw et al. (2010), however, have shown that that rapid tidal expansion began ca. 3400 BP, coincident with the first appearances of Terminal Archaic archeological sites in Nova

Scotia. Shaw et al. (2010) believe that this tidal expansion was accompanied by water temperature decline, an increase in tidal currents and turbidity, and a change in form of the inner estuary from lagoonal–mesotidal to macrotidal. Under these conditions it is likely that new fish species would have begun to enter into the Gulf of Maine and establish spawning runs in local rivers.

Figure 4.2 Modeling results showing changes in tidal amplitude at five locations in the Gulf of Maine – Bay of Fundy (Shaw et al., 2010).

If indeed the establishment of new species coincided with the occupation of the

Boswell site it is likely that inhabitants at the Boswell site would harvest species such as shad (Alosa sapidissima) and smelt (Osmeridae) in the spring, and continued to fish at the site until temperatures began to drop in autumn (Pastore, 1998). During the winter they would likely have moved inland to hunt moose (Alces alces), caribou (Rangifer tarandus), and beaver (Castor) (Pastore, 1998).

The “Fish Hole” is located about 20m from the Boswell site and represents a favourable site from which to harvest a wide variety of fish species. Lutin (1992) examined fishweirs in prehistoric eastern North America in order to investigate the relationship between the location of a habitation site and the availability of fish as a food

source. Lutin (1992) discussed the importance of fish in the diet of peoples living in the vicinity of lakes, rivers, and the Atlantic coast. Fish were an attractive food source because there was little risk and effort involved in catching them. In hunter-gatherer societies the only food that provided as high yields for the amount of effort were deer

(Cervidae) and nuts (Perlman, 1980). Fish were also an attractive resource to those who had access to them because their spawning runs occur within a highly predictable time frame; the runs can be predicted to within a few days (Schalk, 1977). Heiltsuk archaeologist Elroy White (2008) described the use of stone traps to form holding pools for migrating chum salmon (Oncorhynchus keta). White (2008) indicates that increasingly such ancient indigenous structures are used to prove aboriginal Title and

Rights. It appears likely that the “Fish Hole” represented an environment where food could be easily concentrated and harvested and thus may represent an important archeological component of the landscape. The location of the “Fish Hole” close by a relatively stable, well drained and elevated location represents the advantageous proximity of both a living and harvesting space.

Having access to a local stone outcrop or quarry was also important during this period. As is the case with the Gaspereau Lake site, lithic tools and debris showing evidence of use were found at the Boswell site. The Wolfville Formation outcrops in the bed of the river and is one of the few bedrock outcrops in an extensive reach of the

Annapolis River. As well, few bedrock outcrops exist within the Annapolis Valley which is otherwise covered by till and glacial outwash sediment. During low water periods the rock is readily accessible along with cobbles in the river that have eroded out of till exposed along its banks. Under these conditions occupants of the site might have had

sufficient stone resources at hand but alternatively might have traded with others who had access to the stone sources. It is likely that it is a combination of the two scenarios as flakes and bifaces (worked stone) made of rhyolite, jasper, quartzite, agate, chert, and chalcedony were found during the excavation and there are no outcrops of these rock types within 50 km of the site though all rock compositions can be found in

Lawrencetown till (Graves & Finck, 1988).

The viability of the site as a transportation route is also important. A summer camp located next to a major river in Nova Scotia would have provided an opportunity for rapid movement. The Boswell site location provides relatively easy access to both the

Cornwallis River watershed (and the Minas Basin), as well as the Annapolis Basin and the Bay of Fundy downstream from the site. This location may have provided trading opportunities as the occupants would have had access to the entire coastline of the Bay of

Fundy and the Gulf of Maine. Deal (2013) stated that “The Annapolis River has long been a highway for the movement of people and trade between central and southwest

Nova Scotia and it provides an important link between clusters of Terminal Archaic sites in these two regions of the province.”

The Boswell site appears to be ideally situated on a relatively stable and well- drained reach of the Annapolis River close by a pool that would have provided easy access to a wide variety of migrating fish species. Though the river likely overtopped its banks in early spring and fall it likely experienced sustained low levels during the warmer seasons again facilitating both habitation and harvesting on a continuing basis.

Figure 4.3 An example of a local fish harvesting site. Seining sockeye in a holding pool on Namu Creek, BC c. 1915. Photo: BC Archives

4.4 Regional conditions of the Late Holocene occupation of the Boswell site and sea level dynamics in the Gulf of Maine/Bay of Fundy

The regional conditions of the Late Holocene occupation of the Boswell site were similar to present day conditions. Though the temperatures were cooler than they had been during the Mid-Holocene (ca. 6000 BP), they were still slightly warmer than present day levels. It was this temperature, along with intervals of increased precipitation, which instigated the change in forest composition to a more productive deciduous forest and provided some of the resources favourable for occupation. Evidence from Baltzer’s Bog indicates that there were intermittent dry periods, which would have lowered the local water table, among periods of increased precipitation, which would have raised the local water table (Spooner et al, 2014). Not only did the periods of increased precipitation likely increase discharge in the Annapolis River, but they also produced a more

productive environment in terms of flora and fauna. Regular flooding of the Annapolis

River during times of high flow is likely responsible for the aggradation and preservation at the Boswell site, though the site may still have been occupied during the dry periods as well.

Though there has been some change in the tidal range in the Bay of Fundy, the local sea levels have remained relatively stable since 3000 BP. This means that the archaeological sites were no longer being inundated, and the gradient of the Annapolis

River remained stable, increasing the stability of the river, and therefore increasing the stability of the Boswell site.

4.5 Future Research and Management

Locating sites that have high potential to contain a prehistoric archaeological site is a goal for many archaeologists. This goal can be achieved by reconstructing environmental conditions at known prehistoric sites to create an idea of the ideal range of environments in which Native groups established camps. As demonstrated in this paper, a wide variety of factors need to be taken into account when reconstructing past environments. Paleoenvironmental data can be collected on site if that is a feasible option, or the data can often be found in other studies which had been conducted in the area. However, there needs to be an understanding of the geomorphological conditions at the site location before any paleoenvironmental or archeological testing is done. An archive has to be present at the site; significant erosion or non-depositional periods can greatly reduce the potential for both habitation and preservation. If the potential site is investigated in an aggrading environment the initial test pits need to go down

significantly deeper to ascertain if artifacts are present than if the potential site was in an erosional or stable environment. Otherwise, there would be a high probability that the site would not be found for the simple reason that the test pits were not excavated deep enough.

Chapter 5: Conclusions

 It is possible to reconstruct past environmental conditions at the Boswell site to both

characterise Terminal Archaic to Woodland habitation conditions as well as provide

insight as to where other sites of similar age might be.

 Sites located along reaches of major rivers that have not laterally migrated and have

not been subject to deflation during the Late Holocene are more likely to have been

occupied in the past and also are likely to have been preserved. Identifying river

reaches with suitable geomorphological conditions is a strategy for finding other pre-

contact habitation sites.

 The cooling climate around 3000 BP created an environment with greater floral and

faunal diversity and productivity than before the cooling.

 The increased precipitation at about 3000 BP increased river discharge and changing

tidal regime in the Bay of Fundy likely led to the introduction of new anadromous

species to the region’s rivers. Both factors likely increased habitation duration and

density in the region.

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