i
WEEDS OF VEGETABLES AND OTHER CASH CROPS IN THE PHILIPPINES
Dindo King M. Donayre Salvacion E. Santiago Edwin C. Martin Rizal G. Corales Philippine Rice Research Institute Science City of Muñoz, 3119 Nueva Ecija
Jeong Taek Lee KOPIA Center, Philippines PhilRice Compound Science City of Muñoz, 3119 Nueva Ecija
Virender Kumar Joel D. Janiya International Rice Research Institute College, Los Baños, 4030 Laguna
2019 © 2019 by Philippine Rice Research Institute
All rights reserved. No part of this booklet may be reproduced or translated in any form without the written permission of the copyright owner, except for citations and references, which shall be duly credited to this publication.
Published by: Philippine Rice Research Institute Maligaya, Science City of Muñoz 3119 Nueva Ecija, Philippines
Funded by: Korea Program on International Agriculture (KOPIA) PhilRice Compound, Maligaya, Science City of Muñoz 3119 Nueva Ecija, Philippines
ISBN: 978-621-8022-44-7 ISBN (pdf): 978-621-8022-45-4
Suggested citation:
Donayre DKM, SE Santiago, EC Martin, JT Lee, RG Corales, JD Janiya, and V Kumar. 2019. Weeds of Vegetables and other Cash Crops in the Philippines. Philippine Rice Research Institute, Maligaya, Science City of Muñoz, Nueva Ecija, Philippines. 141p Contents vii Foreword viii Messages x Preface xi Guide to Weed Species Listed xiii Rationale
1 Grasses 2 Axonopus compressus (Sw.) Beauv. 4 Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. 6 Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) 8 Digitaria ciliaris (Retz.) Koel. 10 Echinochloa colona (L.) Link 12 Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. 14 Eragrostis tenella (L.) Roem. & Schult. 16 Panicum repens L. 18 Paspalum conjugatum Berg. 20 Polytrias amaura (Miq.) Kuntze. 22 Rottboellia cochinchinensis (Lour.) W. D. Clayton
25 Sedges 26 Cyperus iria L. 28 Cyperus rotundus L. 30 Fimbristylis miliacea (L.) Vahl
33 Broadleaves 34 Ageratum conyzoides L. 36 Aeschynomene indica L. 38 Alysicarpus vaginalis (L.) DC. 40 Amaranthus spinosus L. 42 Amaranthus viridis L. 44 Boerhavia erecta L. 46 Borreria laevis (Lam.) Griseb. 48 Borreria ocymoides (Burm. f.) DC. 50 Calopogonium mucunoides Desv. 52 Cardiospermum halicacabum L. 54 Centrosema pubescens Benth. 56 Cleome rutidosperma DC. 58 Cleome viscosa L. 60 Commelina benghalensis L. 62 Commelina diffusa Burm. f. 64 Corchorus aestuans L. 66 Corchorus olitorius L. 68 Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. 70 Eclipta zippeliana Bl. 72 Euphorbia heterophylla L. 74 Euphorbia hirta L. 76 Euphorbia hypericifolia L. 78 Euphorbia prostrata Ait. 80 Gomphrena celosioides C. Mart. 82 Hedyotis corymbosa (L.) Lam. 84 Heliotropium indicum L. 86 Ipomoea triloba L. 88 Macroptilium atropurpureum (DC.) Urb. 90 Macroptilium lathyroides (L.) Urb. 92 Melochia concatenata L. 94 Merremia emarginata (Burm. F) 96 Mimosa diplotricha C. Wright ex Sauvalle 98 Mimosa pudica L. 100 Murdannia nodiflora (L.) Brenan 102 Phyllanthus debilis Klein ex Willd. 104 Phyllanthus urinaria L. 106 Physalis angulata L. 108 Portulaca oleracea L. 110 Scoparia dulcis L. 112 Spilanthes paniculata Wall. ex DC. 114 Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl. 116 Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn. 118 Trianthema portulacastrum L.
121 Weed Management Options
130 Bibliography
131 References
135 Terminologies
139 Acknowledgments
vi Foreword
Weeds are among the most unwanted pests in Philippine agriculture. They compete against rice and rice-based crops for land and water resources, including the nutrients and sunlight that are needed for maximum growth. Weeds also escalate pest and disease incidence as they can serve as alternate host. Ultimately, weeds, if not properly managed, can reduce the yield of crops and quality of soil to grow food.
In this handbook, PhilRice, in collaboration with the Korea Program on International Agriculture, presents the common weeds, their characteristics, and known effects on rice-based crops in the Philippines.
We hope that through this product of research, the main players of the agriculture industry – the farmers – will have basic knowledge on how to handle the pest that bothers them every single cropping season. May it serve its purpose for the betterment of the Filipino rice and rice-based farmers.
We thank the people behind this material for continually advancing their research-for-development agenda to make the agriculture industry competitive.
Sailila E. Abdula, PhD Acting Executive Director, PhilRice
vii Message
Weeds cause higher rice yield loss (5-90%) than insect pests by competing for nutrient, sunlight, and water. They can contaminate the harvest aside from serving as habitat of rice black bugs, golden apple snails, rats, etc.
Several strategies have been developed to address the weed problem: culturally through crop rotation; mechanically through mowing or tillage; biologically through the use of bio-agents such as insects, disease organisms, herbivorous fish, snails, and even competitive plants; and chemically through the application of herbicides.
Rice is most vulnerable to weed competition within 0-40 days after sowing/transplanting. Hence, timely and appropriate weed management can help the rice farmer save on costly expenses such as hiring labor for manual weeding and purchasing herbicides. The information in this booklet is most helpful to farmers who want to shift to a more sustainable farming system and improve their overall competitiveness.
It is hoped that this booklet will help readers come to more deeply appreciate the wisdom behind the integrated pest management approach and how resilient the natural environment is.
Congratulations to the team for coming up with this handy compilation on weeds.
Flordeliza H. Bordey, PhD Deputy Executive Director for Research, PhilRice
viii KOPIA is glad to again partner with PhilRice in serving the Filipino farmers through the production of this handbook. From the first and second editions of a related material on weeds in irrigated and rainfed lowland ricefields, we move toward exploring the common weeds of vegetables and other cash crops in the country.
We hope that the information shared here will improve the farmers’ decision-making skills in managing their crops; the extension workers to enhance their knowledge in addressing the needs of our farmers; and for the policymakers to continuously look at ways to help the agriculture industry.
We are grateful to all those who took part in producing this handbook, from the authors to all involved personnel. We also thank in advance the end-users who will put this material into good use.
Jeong Taek Lee, PhD Center Director, KOPIA Philippines
ix Preface
I strongly believe that correct identification of weeds is a prerequisite to the right selection and proper execution of weed control measures that are effective, economical, environment-friendly, and acceptable to farmers. Thus, this booklet was written to provide all farmers, extension workers, researchers, students, professors, policymakers, and other interested readers the list of weeds (11 grasses, 3 sedges, and 43 broadleaves) that are common in many vegetable areas particularly in rice-based cropping regions in the Philippines. Images, distinguishing characteristics, impacts on infested crops, and management options were also included to raise the usefulness of the book.
In behalf of my co-authors, I am very thankful for the financial support of the Korea Program on International Agriculture (KOPIA) and Rural Development Administration (RDA) of Korea. Because of their trust and generosity, our team has thus far developed and shared three books, 3 posters, 12 handouts, and a mobile app (in thousands of copies) all over the country. I am also grateful for the support of the management of PhilRice; managing and language editors, and layout artists of the Development Communication Division; and support from our colleagues at the Crop Protection Division.
I would like also to thank all farmers, barangay officials, and local government units who accompanied and allowed us to take pictures of different weeds in their rice-based farms. Mabuhay po kayo!
Dindo King M. Donayre Main author
x Guide to weed species listed
Scientific name – universal name of a weed, e.g., Axonopus compressus, Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers., Eleusine indica
Local names – names used by rice farmers in different parts of the Philippines
EPPO Code – formerly known as Bayer code; computer codes developed for plants, pests (including pathogens) which are important in agriculture and plant protection
Poaceae (Graminae) – family name
Life cycle – life span in the field
Means of propagation – method of reproduction
Distinguishing characteristics – morphological traits that immediately describe the weed species
Importance – negative effects of weed species on the growth and development of cultivated crops; biology and ecology are included in this part; weed species lacking this part means that no information was available
xi xii Weeds of Vegetables and other Cash Crops in the Philippines Rationale
Rice-based farming system (RBFS) is a major production approach in both irrigated and rainfed ecosystems in the Philippines. Rice is the major and predominant crop in the irrigated ecosystem, grown two to three times a year. In rainfed areas, rice is planted during the rainy season and, to some extent, during the dry season (DS) under a favorable environment. Some rainfed and irrigated lowland areas with supplemental irrigation are planted to cash crops, root crops, and vegetables (onion, corn, squash, tomato, mungbean, bitter gourd, hot pepper, water melon, and yam bean) during the DS.
Livestock and fishery are also integrated into the RBFS for household consumption and additional income. Many farm families depend on RBFS for their entire livelihood. Enhancing RBFS through crop diversification and intensification can sustainably help attain food and nutrition security and higher income. RBFS, however, is also influenced by production constraints related to climate change, natural resources degradation, and pest occurrences. Thus, it is important to develop management strategies to overcome these challenges to achieve higher productivity and greater sustainability of income.
Weeds are one of the limiting factors of many vegetables and cash crops farming systems. If not controlled properly, weeds will undeniably reduce the quantity and quality of harvests by way of competition for the sunlight, nutrients, and water that are needed for the growth and development of cultivated plants. There are many methods to control weeds. To achieve effective, economical, environmentally sound, and socially acceptable weed control, knowledge on correct identification as well as deep understanding on the biology and ecology of target weeds are necessary.
xiii internode
leaf
node
leafblade
leafsheath
xiv Weeds of Vegetables and other Cash Crops in the Philippines Grasses • Leaves are long and narrow, which usually arise alternately in two rows from the nodes.
• Ligules and sometimes auricles are present.
• Leaf veins are in parallel while leaf sheaths are split around the stem.
• Stems are called culms with well-defined nodes and internodes.
• Stems are round and hollow inside.
Axonopus compressus (Sw.) Beauv. Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) Digitaria ciliaris (Retz.) Koel. Echinochloa colona (L.) Link Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. Eragrostis tenella (L.) Roem. & Schult. Panicum repens L. Paspalum conjugatum Berg. Polytrias amaura (Miq.) Kuntze. Rottboellia cochinchinensis (Lour.) W. D. Clayton
1 Grasses
Axonopus compressus (Sw.) Beauv.
Local name: kulape EPPO Code: AXOCO Family: Poaceae (Graminae)
Life cycle: creeping perennial Means of propagation: seeds and stolons
Distinguishing characteristics: it has stems that are solid, laterally compressed, creeping, and nodes that are rooting. It also has leaf sheaths that are fine and hairy along the outer margins; very short ligule; and lanceolate, flat, short, broadly rounded-based leaf blade. Inflorescence bears two to three long and slender spikelets.
Importance: A. compressus is difficult to control especially when its stems had already formed and established thick, dense mats in the soil.
2 3 Grasses
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.
Local names: bakbaka, bermuda grass, buku-buku, galud-galud, kawad-kawad EPPO Code: CYNDA Family: Poaceae (Graminae)
Life cycle: creeping perennial Means of propagation: primarily by rhizomes and stolons, seeds
Distinguishing characteristics: stems are branching, spreading on the ground, and rooting at the nodes; leaves are thin and long with white hairs around the ligules; each inflorescence has three to four finger-like purple spikes.
Importance: C. dactylon is a C4 plant and is well-adapted to moist and drier conditions. The weed can also withstand prolonged submergence in the field. It can cause significant yield loss when allowed to grow with cultivated crops at high population. It is also difficult to control owing to its perennial growth habit. The weed, on the other hand, is easily affected by shading.
4 5 Grasses
Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) Beauv.
Local names: kabit-kabit, sabong-sabungan, barangan EPPO Code: DTTAE Family: Poaceae (Graminae)
Life cycle: annual, sometimes perennial Means of propagation: seeds, sometimes through stolons
Distinguishing characteristics: basal stems are creeping, rooting, and dichotomously branching; leaves have loose sheaths; each inflorescence is digitately arranged appearing like a starfish or bird’s foot.
Importance: D. aegyptium is a C4 plant that can produce 65,800 seeds per plant. Although the competitive ability of the weed is not known, it has been observed growing with many agronomic and vegetable crops in the country.
6 7 Grasses
Digitaria ciliaris (Retz.) Koel.
Local names: baludgangan, halos, saka-saka EPPO Code: DIGAD Family: Poaceae (Graminae)
Life cycle: creeping perennial Means of propagation: primarily by rhizomes and stolons, seeds
Distinguishing characteristics: smooth, flat, and creeping stems are generally lying on the ground while the upper parts are rising; leaves are thin and narrow-lanceolate in shape; leaf sheaths are hairy; inflorescence is composed of 3-6 pseudo-spikes digitally arranged as pseudo-whorls at the apical portion.
Importance: D. ciliaris is a C4 plant. A single plant can produce an average of 1,700 seeds. Information on its competitive ability against agronomic and vegetable crops, however, is still not known. In rice, however, it can reduce yield by as much as 62%.
8 9 Grasses
Echinochloa colona (L.) Link
Local names: dukayang, lau-lau, pulang puwit EPPO Code: ECHCO Family: Poaceae (Graminae)
Life cycle: annual Means of propagation: seeds
Distinguishing characteristics: stems usually grow flat on top of the soil surface while the uppermost portions grow in upward position. Most stems are purple or reddish. Spikelets are ovate to broad ovate, closely crowded in four rows along one side of the branch, awnless or sometimes with awn (less than 1mm).
Importance: E. colona is one of the top 10 weed species
in rice-based cropping systems. It is a C4 weed that can produce more than 8,000 seeds/plant, which germinate best at the soil surface over a wide range of moisture and temperature levels. Allowing E. colona to compete all throughout the growing season was reported to reduce yield by 90% on rice and 53% for bushbean.
10 11 Grasses
Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn.
Local names: bakis-bakisan, bang-angan, bikad-bikad, bila- bila, palagtiki, parangis, paragis, sabung-sabungan, sambali EPPO Code: ELEIN Family: Poaceae (Graminae)
Life cycle: annual Means of propagation: seeds
Distinguishing characteristics: stems are flat, whitish at the base and pale green toward the upper part; and smooth or with long hairs on the edges. Leaves have sheaths that are flat and moderately hairy at the collar; leaf blades flat, linear-lanceolate, and hairy at the upper surface; ligule membranous; long hairs at the junction of the blades and sheaths. Auricles are absent. Inflorescences are digitate with terminal whorls consisting of 3 to 6 spikes.
Importance: E. indica can produce as much as 50,000 seeds. Although reports on its competitive ability against any crops in the Philippines are not known, documents in other countries show that it can reduce yield of corn by 15% when its population is at 133 plants/m2.
12 13 Grasses
Eragrostis tenella (L.) Roem. & Schult.
Local names: bakinuk, kaliraurau, balisbis, pagay-billit, pulpulut, sigsigid EPPO Code: ERAAM Family: Poaceae (Graminae)
Life cycle: annual Means of propagation: seeds
Distinguishing characteristics: E. tenella is small and has very slender stem. It has leaves that are linear; oblong panicles; solitary branches; pale, long, and pedicel spikelets.
Importance: E. tenella is a C4 plant that can produce more than 140,000 seeds per plant. Together with other weed species, it can cause yield loss to cultivated plants. The weed has been reported susceptible to tungro and rice grassy stunt viruses; and nematode such as Meloidogyne spp.
14 15 Grasses
Panicum repens L.
Local names: tagik-tagik, buwag-buwag, murag bermuda, maralaya, luy-a-luy-a, sabilau, luya-luyahan EPPO Code: PANRE Family: Poaceae (Graminae)
Life cycle: creeping perennial Means of propagation: seeds and rootstocks
Distinguishing characteristics: stem is erect and rooting at the hairless nodes. Leaves are linear-lanceolate, flat, and slightly hairy. Inflorescence has an open panicle, slender and erect branches, oval to elliptic spikelets, and slender stalks.
Importance: It is difficult to control when its stems and roots had already formed and established thick, dense mats in the soil.
16 17 Grasses
Paspalum conjugatum Berg.
Local names: kauat-kauat, lakatan, maligoy, pad-pad, kolokawayan, bantotan, kulape, laau-laau, carabao grass EPPO Code: PASCO Family: Poaceae (Graminae)
Life cycle: creeping perennial Means of propagation: seeds, stolons
Distinguishing characteristics: stems are long-creeping, reddish-purple, have flattened runners, and hairy nodes. Leaves are flat, linear-lanceolate, hairy at the blades and sheaths. Leaf sheaths are flat, membranous, and with a collar of fine hairs below the blade. Ligules are membranous, truncate, and fringed with ring of hairs at the back. Inflorescences have obtuse spikelets, and two terminal spike-like, slender branches.
Importance: It is difficult to control when its stems and roots had already formed and established thick, dense mats in the soil.
18 19 Grasses
Polytrias amaura (Miq.) Kuntze Syn: Polytrias praemorsa Hackel
Local name: karpet grass EPPO Code: POBAM Family: Poaceae (Graminae)
Life cycle: creeping perennial Means of propagation: seeds, stolons
Distinguishing characteristics: P. amaura has nodes that are rooting; hairy sheaths; narrow leaf blades; and distinctive brownish, hairy inflorescence with slender awns appressed to the spikelets.
Importance: It is difficult to control when its stems and roots had already formed and established thick, dense mats in the soil.
20 21 Grasses
Rottboellia cochinchinensis (Lour.) W. D. Clayton
Local names: aguingay, bugang, sagisi, dupawan, gaho EPPO Code: ROOEX Family: Poaceae (Graminae)
Life cycle: annual Means of propagation: seeds
Distinguishing characteristics: it has an erect growth. Its stems are hairy; leaves are flat, linear-lanceolate in shape with itchy hairs covering the leaf blades and sheaths. Inflorescence has smooth, cylindrical, and solitary spikes that break up when mature.
Importance: R. cochinchinensis is commonly called itchgrass
in English. It is a C4 weed that can produce 2,000 seeds per plant. It is a very competitive weed against any agronomic and vegetable crops owing to its rapid growth, tillering capacity, and formation of numerous adventitious roots. Studies have shown that 50 and 142 plants/m² of it were enough to reduce yield of corn by 50 and 71%, respectively.
22 23 24 Weeds of Vegetables and other Cash Crops in the Philippines Sedges
• Leaves are also long and narrow but do not have ligules and auricles.
• Leaf veins are also parallel but the leaf sheaths are continuous around the stem.
• Stems are triangular in shape and have no nodes and internodes.
Cyperus iria L. Cyperus rotundus L. Fimbristylis miliacea (L.) Vahl
25 Sedges
Cyperus iria L.
Local names: payong-payong, siraw-siraw, taga-taga EPPO Code: CYPIR Family: Cyperaceae
Life cycle: annual Means of propagation: seeds
Distinguishing characteristics: its stems are smooth and triangular; linear-lanceolate leaves; umbel-shaped inflorescence; and numerous, spreading, erect spikelets that are yellow to yellow-brown.
Importance: C. iria is a C4 weed that can produce 3,000 seeds per plant; mainly a weed of rice but also of other crops especially those that are planted under rice-based cropping systems such as onion, corn, tomato, chilli pepper, etc. Under rice cropping systems, the weed can establish quickly in the field soon after rice plants are transplanted or direct-seeded. When not controlled, it can reduce yield of rice by as much as 40%.
26 27 Sedges
Cyperus rotundus L.
Local names: barsanga, mutha, sudsud EPPO Code: CYPRO Family: Cyperaceae
Life cycle: annual Means of propagation: seeds
Distinguishing characteristics: erect with smooth unbranched three-sided stem, dark green leaves, and flowers in red-brown spikelets. It has extensive underground parts called the basal bulb, rhizomes, tubers, and roots which permit rapid production of multiple young sprouts in the soil.
Importance: C. rotundus, a C4 plant, has been considered as the world’s worst weed. It is a problem to many cultivated crops due to its prolific behavior in the soil, persistence in harsh environments, and competitive ability. Full competition of C. rotundus has been reported to reduce yields of different crops from 6 to 100%; of upland rice by 42%.
28 29 Sedges
Fimbristylis miliacea (L.) Vahl
Local names: bungot-bungot, buntot-pusa, gumi, siraw-siraw, sirisibayas, sumpana-balik EPPO Code: FIMMI Family: Cyperaceae
Life cycle: annual Means of propagation: seeds
Distinguishing characteristics: erect with flattened stems that bear 2-4 unequal bracts that are shorter than the inflorescence. Leaves are linear, flat, soft, and overlapping in two rows. Spikelets are numerous, globose to ovoid in shape, and brown to brown-orange.
Importance: F. miliacea, a C4 weed, can produce more than 40,000 seeds per plant. It is mainly a weed of rice but it has been also observed growing and infesting rice-based crops.
30 31 32 Weeds of Vegetables and other Cash Crops in the Philippines Broadleaves • Members belong to many families. • Leaves are fully expanded with netted veins for dicots, and parallel veins for monocots. • Leaves, flowers, stems, and branches are broadly arranged in various shapes, colors, and structures.
Ageratum conyzoides L. Euphorbia prostrata Ait. Aeschynomene indica L. Gomphrena celosioides C. Mart. Alysicarpus vaginalis (L.) DC. Hedyotis corymbosa (L.) Lam. Amaranthus spinosus L. Heliotropium indicum L. Amaranthus viridis L. Ipomoea triloba L. Boerhavia erecta L. Macroptilium atropurpureum (DC.) Urb. Borreria laevis (Lam.) Griseb. Macroptilium lathyroides (L.) Urb. Borreria ocymoides (Burm. f.) DC. Melochia concatenata L. Calopogonium mucunoides Desv. Merremia emarginata (Burm. F) Cardiospermum halicacabum L. Mimosa diplotricha C. Wright ex Sauvalle Centrosema pubescens Benth. Mimosa pudica L. Cleome rutidosperma DC. Murdannia nodiflora (L.) Brenan Cleome viscosa L. Phyllanthus debilis Klein ex Willd. Commelina benghalensis L. Phyllanthus urinaria L. Commelina diffusa Burm. f. Physalis angulata L. Corchorus aestuans L. Portulaca oleracea L. Corchorus olitorius L. Scoparia dulcis L. Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. Spilanthes paniculata Wall. ex DC. Eclipta zippeliana Bl. Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl. Euphorbia heterophylla L. Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn. Euphorbia hirta L. Trianthema portulacastrum L. Euphorbia hypericifolia L.
33 Broadleaves
Ageratum conyzoides L.
Local names: asipukpuk, bahu-bahu, kulong-kogong babae, kanding-kanding, bangbangsit, damong mabaho EPPO Code: AGECO Family: Asteraceae
Life cycle: annual Means of propagation: seeds
Distinguishing characteristics: an erect, branched, aromatic, hairy, slender annual herb that grows up to 60 cm tall. Leaves are ovate, crenate, acute, 5-13 cm long. Inflorescence has small heads, dense terminal corymb, and numerous white, purple or pale blue flowers.
Importance: A. conyzoides is a short-lived weed completing its life cycle in less than 2 months. It is highly adaptive to extreme conditions and can easily colonize cultivated areas. Out of 40,000 seeds produced by a mature plant, 20,000 may germinate immediately after shedding. It is one of the major weeds of upland rice and rice-based crops in the country. Full competition of the weed at 1:1 to 1:3 crop- weed ratio has been reported to reduce height, number of leaves and tillers, shoot and root weights of upland rice.
34 35 Broadleaves
Aeschynomene indica L.
Local name: makahiyang-lalaki EPPO Code: AESIN Family: Fabaceae
Life cycle: annual Means of propagation: seeds
Distinguishing characteristics: erect and robust, and can grow up to 1 m tall. Stems are branching and woody at the base. Leaves are even-pinnately arranged with numerous leaflets that are linear or oblong. Flowers are light yellow. Pods are linear oblong, straight or curved, and composed of 4-8 joints with ridge-like appearance.
36 37 Broadleaves
Alysicarpus vaginalis (L.) DC.
Local names: banig-usa, mani-manihan, maramani EPPO Code: ALZVA Family: Papilionaceae
Life cycle: annual Means of propagation: seeds
Distinguishing characteristics: has ascending erect growth. Stems are branched, stout, and hairless; leaves are ovoid, usually cordate at the base, round at the tip with spines, hairy at the lower surface; flowers are usually red with two basal yellow stripes; and pods are yellowish.
38 39 Broadleaves
Amaranthus spinosus L.
Local names: alayon, ayang lalaki, ayantoto, baoan, bayambang, harum, gitingiting, kalitis, kalunay, kuantong, kudiapa, kulitis, taikada, uray EPPO Code: AMASP Family: Amaranthaceae
Life cycle: annual Means of propagation: seeds
Distinguishing characteristics: stems are branched, pale green, with pairs of slender sharp-pointed spines along the axils of the leaves and branches. Leaves are simple, alternate, ovate to broadly lanceolate, and narrow at the base to a petiole. Inflorescences have spikes that are closely packed in clusters of small, green flowers.
Importance: A. spinosus is a C4 weed that can produce 117,000 seeds/plant. Its competitive ability against rice and rice-based crops has yet to be reported. It is reputed as an alternative host of Meloidogyne graminicola and M. incognita that cause root galls to cultivated crops.
40 41 Broadleaves
Amaranthus viridis L.
Local names: alom-alom, ayang babae, halom, kilitis, kalunay, kudiapa, kulitis, uray babae EPPO Code: AMAVI Family: Amaranthaceae
Life cycle: annual Means of propagation: seeds
Distinguishing characteristics: stems are multi-branched, slender, fleshy and reddish, and have no spines along the axils of the leaves and branches. Leaves are simple, alternate, broadly ovate, and indented with a short bristle. Inflorescences have flowers that are green or greenish- white, in axillary clusters, and dense-flowered spikes.
Importance: A. viridis is a C4 weed that can produce 7,000 seeds/plant. The weed is reported as an alternative host of Meloidogyne graminicola and M. incognita that cause root galls.
42 43 Broadleaves
Boerhavia erecta L.
Local name: paanbalisbis EPPO Code: BOEER Family: Nyctaginaceae
Life cycle: annual Means of propagation: seeds
Distinguishing characteristics: it has an erect or decumbent growth habit that reaches up to 1 meter. Stems are often viscid while leaves have variable sizes and shapes from ovate to oblong-lanceolate. Inflorescence is an axillary panicle, branched, and leafy at the base. Flowers are white or pale pink, and funnel-shaped.
44 45 Broadleaves
Borreria laevis (Lam.) Griseb. Syn: Spermacoce laevis Lam.
Local name: akupao EPPO Code: BOILA Family: Rubiaceae
Life cycle: annual Means of propagation: seeds
Distinguishing characteristics: it has a spreading or ascending growth habit that can reach up to 60 cm. Its stems are slender, branched, wiry, slightly hairy, angular, and purplish all over. Its leaves are oppositely arranged, oblong to oval-lanceolate in shape, and narrowed at the base to a short petiole. Flowers are white, tubular, and clustered in leaf axils.
46 47 Broadleaves
Borreria ocymoides (Burm. f.) DC. Syn: Spermacoce ocymoides N. Burm.
Local names: landrina, siksik-parang EPPO Code: BOIOC Family: Rubiaceae
Life cycle: annual Means of propagation: seeds
Distinguishing characteristics: it has an erect to decumbent growth habit. Stems are slender, branched, glabrous, and 4-angled. Leaves are oppositely arranged, ovate to elliptical or oblong, with short stalk. Flowers are numerous, small, crowded, and white.
48 49 Broadleaves
Calopogonium mucunoides Desv.
Local names: balatong-aso, iping-iping, nipay-nipay, kalopogonium, mungo-mungo EPPO Code: CLOMU Family: Pallionaceae (Leguminosae)
Life cycle: annual, sometimes perennial Means of propagation: seeds and cuttings
Distinguishing characteristics: it is a creeping, trailing, and fast-growing vine. It has stems that are covered with dense, numerous, brown hairs; leaves are hairy, petiolate, diamond- shaped, and divided into three leaflets. Flowers are few, clustered at thickened nodes, purple to blue. Pods are linear, straight or curved, densely covered with brown hairs.
Importance: Difficult to control when its stems and roots had already formed and established thick, dense mats on the soil surface.
50 51 Broadleaves
Cardiospermum halicacabum L.
Local names: lubo-lobohan, alalayon, bangkolon, parol-parolan, paltu-paltukan, paria-aso, paspalya EPPO Code: CRIHA Family: Sapindaceae
Life cycle: annual, sometimes perennial Means of propagation: seeds and cuttings
Distinguishing characteristics: a climbing herb; has long stems that are slightly hairy; alternating leaves with slender petioles; leaflets that are biternate, ovate to lanceolate, and serrate at the margins and sometimes lobes. Flowers are white and very small while fruits are lantern-shaped.
Importance: It is difficult to control when its stems and roots had already established thick, dense mats in the soil.
52 53 Broadleaves
Centrosema pubescens Benth.
Local names: bagon-bagon, balagon, balbalaten, dilang-butiki EPPO Code: COSPU Family: Papilionaceae (Leguminosae)
Life cycle: simple perennial Means of reproduction: seeds and cuttings
Distinguishing characteristics: a climbing and trailing herb that has slender, pubescent stems; trifoliate (3), ovate to oblong leaves; bright or pale lilac, with numerous dark violet-striped flowers; straight or twisted pods; and red- brown to brown seeds with black streaks.
Importance: Difficult to control manually when its stems had already multiplied and formed thick, dense canopies.
54 55 Broadleaves
Cleome rutidosperma DC.
Local names: apoy-apoyan, bala-balanoyan, tantandok, sili-silihan EPPO Code: CLERT Family: Cleomaceae
Life cycle: annual Means of reproduction: seeds
Distinguishing characteristics: stems are green to purple, and angular with thin, firm hairs. Leaves have long petioles; three ovate to oblong-lanceolate and ciliate leaflets; center leaflet is larger than the other two. Inflorescences have flowers that are solitary at the upper leaves; slender stalks; and lilac to pink petals. The weed has green, thin, long capsules that split into two valves.
56 57 Broadleaves
Cleome viscosa L.
Local names: apoy-apoyan, bala-balanoyan, hulaya, kabau, lampotaki, tantandok, sili-silihan EPPO Code: CLEVI Family: Cleomaceae
Life cycle: annual Means of reproduction: seeds
Distinguishing characteristics: stems are green, cylindrical, and with hairs; leaves have long petioles and three oblong to obovate-oblong leaflets; yellow and solitary flowers. The weed also has green and long capsules that split into two valves.
58 59 Broadleaves
Commelina benghalensis L.
Local names: alikbangon, gatilang, kulasi EPPO Code: COMDI Family: Commelinaceae
Life cycle: annual, sometimes perennial Means of reproduction: seeds and vegetative fragments
Distinguishing characteristics: fleshy stems are creeping to ascending. Leaves are wide in the center, elliptic-ovate and alternately arranged. Petals of the flowers are three to four, and are blue. Petals have different sizes (two to three are large, while one is small).
60 61 Broadleaves
Commelina diffusaBurm. f.
Local names: alikbangon, gatilang, kulasi EPPO Code: COMBE Family: Commelinaceae
Life cycle: annual, sometimes perennial Means of reproduction: seeds and vegetative fragments
Distinguishing characteristics: fleshy stems are creeping to ascending, heavily branched, and rooting at the nodes. Leaves are narrow, alternately arranged, lanceolate to broadly lanceolate-shaped, and with stem-clasping sheath. Petals of the flowers are three (two large and 1 small), and are blue.
Importance: C. diffusa has been reported to reduce the number of leaves, chlorophyll content as well as nitrogen, phosphorus and iron contents of grains when allowed to compete with bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). On drilled- seeded rice planted at 215 to 270 plants/m2, it also reduced yield by 18% when allowed to compete all throughout the crop’s growing season at 22 plants/m2.
62 63 Broadleaves
Corchorus aestuans L.
Local name: salsaluyot EPPO Code: CRGAE Family: Tiliaceae
Life cycle: annual Means of reproduction: seeds
Distinguishing characteristics: it is an erect plant with woody stem and grows smaller than C. olitorius. It has leaves that are ovate or ovate-oblong, finely toothed with rounded base. Flowers are yellow; capsules have 6 to 8 wings, elongated, and trifid beaks.
64 65 Broadleaves
Corchorus olitorius L.
Local names: saluyot, tagabang, tugabang EPPO Code: CRGOL Family: Tiliaceae
Life cycle: annual Means of reproduction: seeds
Distinguishing characteristics: it is an erect plant with woody stem. It has leaves that are ovate or ovate- lanceolate, margins serrated, toothed, with clusters of small leaves near the axils. Flowers are yellow and its ten-ribbed capsules are elongated and entirely beaked.
66 67 Broadleaves
Eclipta prostrata (L.) L.
Local names: higis-manok, tultulisan, tinta-tinta EPPO Code: ECLAL Family: Asteraceae (Compositae)
Life cycle: annual Means of reproduction: seeds
Distinguishing characteristics: a C3 weed; its stems are fleshy, reddish, hairy, and rooting at the nodes. Leaves are dark green and oppositely arranged, and are linear-oblong to lanceolate, with distinct toothed margins. Flower heads measuring 1-cm-diameter bear small white flowers (florets).
68 69 Broadleaves
Eclipta zippeliana Bl.
Local names: higis-manok, tultulisan, tinta-tinta EPPO Code: ECLPZ Family: Asteraceae (Compositae)
Life cycle: annual Means of reproduction: seeds
Distinguishing characteristics: a C3 weed; has the same morphological characteristics as E. prostrata except that its leaves are light green, oblong-obovate to lanceolate, has margins that are coarsely spinulose-toothed. In addition, stems and leaves are much covered with many hairs.
70 71 Broadleaves
Euphorbia heterophylla L.
Local name: kanaka EPPO Code: EPHHL Family: Euphorbiaceae
Life cycle: annual Means of reproduction: seeds
Distinguishing characteristics: it has an erect growth habit; stems are hollow with milky sap, single or branched, hairy or sometimes no hairs; leaves are alternately arranged, petiolate, ovate to elliptic; flowers are grouped in a cyathium consisting of several male flowers and one female enclosed in a cup with a funnel-shaped gland on one side.
72 73 Broadleaves
Euphorbia hirta L. Syn: Chamaesyce hirta (L.) Millsp.
Local names: banbanilag, botonis, bolobotonis, boto- botonis, butobutonisan, gatas-gatas, maragatas, pansi- pansi, patik-patik, piliak, soro-soro, tairas, tawa-tawa, teta EPPO Code: EPHHI Family: Euphorbiaceae
Life cycle: annual Means of propagation: seeds
Distinguishing characteristics: it has a creeping or ascending growth habit that can reach up to 50 cm tall. It has stems that are semi-erect, reddish with yellowish hairs, much branched, and produce white milky sap when snapped intentionally. It has leaves that are oppositely arranged, elliptic-oblong to oblong-lanceolate, with a pointed tip, toothed, and with purple blotches in the middle. Inflorescences are numerous, dense, axillary, short- stalked without petals.
74 75 Broadleaves
Euphorbia hypericifolia L. Syn: Chamaesyce hypericifolia (L.) Millsp.
Local name: gatas-gatas EPPO Code: EPHHY Family: Euphorbiaceae
Life cycle: annual Means of propagation: seeds
Distinguishing characteristics: it has erect, thin, branched, and reddish stems. Young stems are glabrous or sometimes with hairs that become thin when mature. Stems produce white milky sap when snapped. Leaves have short petioles, oblong to wide lanceolate with an acute tip.
76 77 Broadleaves
Euphorbia prostrata Ait. Syn: Chamaesyce prostrata (Ait.) Small
Local names: kaliskis, maragatas EPPO Code: EPHPT Family: Euphorbiaceae
Life cycle: annual Means of propagation: seeds
Distinguishing characteristics: it has a spreading, branched, nearly glabrous appearance. It has reddish stems lined with hairs on the upper surface; dark green to reddish, oppositely arranged, oblong to obovate leaves with short stalk and fine-toothed margins; greenish, minute flowers with short stalks in groups of 2 or 3 in the leaf axils.
78 79 Broadleaves
Gomphrena celosioides C. Mart. Syn: Gomphrena decumbens Jacq
Local names: botonsilyong-gapang, malauray EPPO Code: GOMCE Family: Amaranthaceae
Life cycle: annual Means of propagation: seeds
Distinguishing characteristics: G. celosioides has a creeping or ascending growth habit. Its stems are multi- branched from the base; leaves are oppositely arranged, hairy on the blades, ovate-shaped with a shiny surface, and short petioles. Flowers are terminal bearing white florets in dense clusters.
80 81 Broadleaves
Hedyotis corymbosa (L.) Lam.
Local names: dalumbang, kaddok-na-kalinga, palarapdap, pisak, pisek EPPO Code: HYOFR Family: Rubiaceae
Life cycle: annual Means of reproduction: seeds
Distinguishing characteristics: it has erect or spreading growth; its leaves are linear-oblonceolate to linear-oblong and are gradually narrow to the apex. Stems are branched and slender; inflorescence has 2-8 small flowered umbels.
82 83 Broadleaves
Heliotropium indicum L.
Local names: ar-aritos, bahu-baho, buntot-leon, elepante, kambra-kambra, higad-higaran EPPO Code: HEOIN Family: Heliotropiaceae (Boraginaceae)
Life cycle: annual Means of reproduction: seeds
Distinguishing characteristics: it has an erect and branched growth habit. It has a stem that is covered with hairs; leaves that are ovate to oblong-ovate with rough surfaces; and flowers that are positioned on one side with lavender to white corolla.
84 85 Broadleaves
Ipomoea triloba L.
Local names: aurora, bangbangau, kamkamote, koskusipa, kupit-kupit, halobagbug, muti-muti EPPO Code: IPOTR Family: Convolvulaceae
Life cycle: simple perennial Means of reproduction: seeds
Distinguishing characteristics: it is a vine that has slender, twining or crawling stems. Its leaves are broadly ovate, entire or somewhat 3-lobed, acuminate with broadly cordate base. Flowers have pink to purple corolla.
Importance: Difficult to control manually when its stems had already multiplied and formed thick, dense mats.
86 87 Broadleaves
Macroptilium atropurpureum (DC.) Urb. Syn: Phaseolus atropurpureus Moc. et Sesse ex DC.
Local names: bala-balatong, mala-sitaw EPPO Code: PHSAT Family: Papilionaceae (Leguminosae)
Life cycle: simple perennial Means of propagation: seeds
Distinguishing characteristics: it is a vine that has slender, twining or crawling stems. Its young stems are pubescent with white hairs and sometimes form nodal roots under ideal conditions. Mature stems, on the other hand, are fibrous at the base. Its leaves are alternately arranged, ternately palmate with obovate leaflets and rotundate or obtuse tips. The lower part of leaves is greenish-white. Long peduncles arise from axils bearing raceme with several dark purple and papilionaceous flowers. Pods are straight and linear-cylindrical containing 12-15 seeds.
Importance: Difficult to control manually when its stems had already multiplied and formed thick, dense mats.
88 89 Broadleaves
Macroptilium lathyroides (L.) Urb. Syn: Phaseolus lathyroides L.
Local name: bala-balatong EPPO Code: PHSLY Family: Papilionaceae (Leguminosae)
Life cycle: annual Means of propagation: seeds
Distinguishing characteristics: an erect legume that has branchy and woody stems. Leaves are three (trifoliate) and are ovate to lanceolate. Flowers are red-purple. The weed also has green (young) to brown (mature), long and slender pods that bear seeds.
90 91 Broadleaves
Melochia concatenata L.
Local names: bankalanan, kaliñgan, marasaluyot EPPO Code: MEOCO Family: Sterculiaceae
Life cycle: simple perennial Means of reproduction: seeds
Distinguishing characteristics: stems are erect or spreading, and branched with scattered stellate hairs. It has leaves that are oblong to ovate, long, acute, broad base, and rounded or cordate. Inflorescences are terminal or axillary heads with the flowers somewhat crowded, intermixed with linear bracteoles; petals are obovate, white, sometimes pink or pale purple. Fruits are depressed- globose capsules.
Importance: M. concatenata is an alternate host of plant parasitic nematodes such as Pratylenchus and Rotylenchus.
92 93 Broadleaves
Merremia emarginata (Burm. F) Hallier f
Local name: kupit-kupit EPPO Code: MRREM Family: Convolvulaceae
Life cycle: annual Means of reproduction: vegetative parts
Distinguishing characteristics: a slender, twining, sparsely hairy to glabrescent weed. Stems are reddish and rooting at the nodes; leaves are kidney to heart-shaped, often wider than long, and irregularly toothed. Flowers have yellow corolla, and rounded sepals with few to many white weak hairs.
Importance: Difficult to control manually when its stems had already multiplied and formed thick, dense mats on the soil.
94 95 Broadleaves
Mimosa diplotricha C. Wright ex Sauvalle
Local names: aroma, kapit-kabag, kipi-kipi, makahiya, makahiyang-lalaki EPPO Code: MIMIN Family: Mimosaceae
Life cycle: perennial Means of reproduction: seeds
Distinguishing characteristics: it is a spreading shrub that turns woody when mature. It has angular stems that are densely covered by numerous reflexed spines. Leaves are alternate, petioled, and bi-pinnate; pinnae have 4-8 pairs; leaflets are oblong-linear in many pairs. Petals of the flowers are pink to purple, while pods are linear-oblong.
96 97 Broadleaves
Mimosa pudica L.
Local names: bain-bain, hibi-hibi, huya-huya, kipi-kipi, makahiya, makahiyang-babae EPPO Code: MIMPU Family: Mimosaceae
Life cycle: perennial Means of reproduction: seeds
Distinguishing characteristics: M. pudica is a branched, low or erect-trailing shrub. It has reddish-brown stems that are covered by less numerous spines. Leaves close when touched, digitately arranged at the end of each petiole; leaflets are narrowly oblong. Petals of the flowers are pink to purple while pods are flat, slightly curved, and numerous.
98 99 Broadleaves
Murdannia nodiflora (L.) Brenan
Local names: kulasi, kulkulasi, alikbangon EPPO Code: MUDNU Family: Commelinaceae
Life cycle: perennial Means of reproduction: seeds and vegetative parts
Distinguishing characteristics: has branched and creeping stems. Its leaves are long, narrow, and lanceolate. Its flowers are small and purple. Flower-stolons are long, measuring 3 to 7 cm.
100 101 Broadleaves
Phyllanthus debilis Klein ex Willd.
Local names: kuru-kalunggai, malakirum-kirum, ngingihel, sampa-sampalukan, san pedro, sursampalok, talikod, taltalikod, turutalikod EPPO Code: PYLDE Family: Euphorbiaceae
Life cycle: perennial Means of reproduction: seeds and vegetative parts
Distinguishing characteristics: P. debilis is an erect, slender, branched, and glabrous herb. Its leaves are numerous, arranged in vertical ranks, oblong to elliptic-oblong, and shortly petioled. It has anthers that are dehiscing horizontally; distinct pedicelled flowers; and smooth capsules. This weed has been called P. niruri and P. amarus in other literatures. However, the two are American species with limited areas of distribution. The correct name of the Asian species is P. debilis.
102 103 Broadleaves
Phyllanthus urinaria L.
Local names: apoy-apoyan, ibaiba-an, lurulaioan, minuh-minuh, payog, sursampalok, tabi, takum-takum, talindanon, turutalikod EPPO Code: PYLUR Family: Euphorbiaceae
Life cycle: annual Means of reproduction: seeds
Distinguishing characteristics: P. urinaria is an erect, slender, branched, and glabrous herb but is smaller than P. debilis. It also has leaves that are numerous, arranged in vertical ranks, oblong to elliptic-oblong, and shortly petioled; has reddish stem and branches. It has anthers that are dehiscing vertically; flowers that have no pedicels or some shortly pedicelled; and rough capsules.
104 105 Broadleaves
Physalis angulata L.
Local names: asisiu, kugut, potokan, sisiu, tutulakak, tino-tino EPPO Code: PHYAN Family: Solanaceae
Life cycle: annual Means of reproduction: seeds
Distinguishing characteristics: an erect and branched weed. It has ovate to oblong leaves and pale yellowish flowers. Fruits are oblong to ovoid.
106 107 Broadleaves
Portulaca oleracea L.
Local names: alusiman, kantataba, ngalug, olasiman EPPO Code: POROL Family: Portulacaceae
Life cycle: annual, sometimes perennial Means of reproduction: seeds and stem cuttings
Distinguishing characteristics: an herb with prostrate or spreading growth. It has stems that are branched, succulent, smooth, and reddish. Its leaves are fleshy, alternately arranged, obtuse, oblong-obovate, sessile, and base is cuneate. Flowers are yellow with 5 petals.
108 109 Broadleaves
Scoparia dulcis L.
Local names: kabug, isisa, mala-anis, saang-kabayo, sampalokan, tachin-karnero EPPO Code: SCFDU Family: Scrophulariaceae
Life cycle: annual Means of reproduction: seeds
Distinguishing characteristics: it is an erect, much- branched herb that can grow as tall as 80 cm. Its leaves are opposite and whorled; lanceolate to elliptic in shape; and toothed margins. Flowers are numerous, small, and in pairs with slender, short pedicels.
110 111 Broadleaves
Spilanthes paniculata Wall. ex DC. Syn: Acmella paniculata (de Condolle) Jansen
Local name: (not known) EPPO Code: SPLPA Family: Asteraceae
Life cycle: annual Means of propagation: seeds
Distinguishing characteristics: it is an erect herb that can grow as tall as 40 cm. Its stems are soft, reddish, and branching. It has leaves that are oppositely arranged, ovate lanceolate-shaped with wavy margins. Flowers are bright yellow and usually solitary.
112 113 Broadleaves
Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl.
Local names: albaka, bolomaros, garem-garem, kanding- kandingan, limbagat, sentemiento EPPO Code: STCJA Family: Verbenaceae
Life cycle: annual Means of reproduction: seeds
Distinguishing characteristics: it is an erect or spreading herb with stems that are four-angled, branched, and woody at the base. It has leaves that are oppositely arranged, elliptic to oblong ovate-shaped, serrate margins, short pedicels, and prominent veins. Its inflorescence has terminal green spikes; toothed narrow calyx; lavender to blue flowers; and corolla with 5 petals.
114 115 Broadleaves
Synedrella nodiflora(L.) Gaertn.
Local names: bukarkag nga kahoy, fantakuen, kanding- kanding, kalintunhod, tuhod-manok EPPO Code: SYDNO Family: Asteraceae
Life cycle: annual Means of reproduction: seeds
Distinguishing characteristics: it is an erect, branched, glabrous or hairy plant. It has leaves that are oppositely arranged, ovate lanceolate to elliptic ovate-shaped, acute, and finely toothed. Its inflorescence has sessile, axillary or terminal heads; and yellow flowers.
Importance: S. nodiflora is a host of many plant parasitic nematodes such as Meloidogyne, Pratylenchus, Rotylenchus, and Xiphinema.
116 117 Broadleaves
Trianthema portulacastrum L.
Local names: alusiman, ayam, kantataba, tabtabukol, toston EPPO Code: TRTPO Family: Aizoaceae
Life cycle: annual Means of reproduction: seeds
Distinguishing characteristics: it is a succulent and prostrate herb that has flat, fleshy, and green or purplish stems. Its leaves are opposite in unequal pairs, ovate to almost round, glabrous, with slightly wavy margins. Flowers usually are white or pale pink to purple.
Importance: T. potulacastrum, a C4 weed, has the ability to produce seeds at 6,940 per plant. Growing with other weeds had been reported to reduce yield of onion by as much as 90%. It also reduced by 50 to 60% yield of mungbean when left untreated in the field.
118 119 120 Weeds of Vegetables and other Cash Crops in the Philippines Weed management options
No single weed management technique is effective against all types of weeds. Therefore, it is important to use two or more techniques to achieve better weed control that is cost-effective, environment-friendly, and acceptable to farmers. Practice integrated weed management.
Use high-quality seeds Practice thorough land preparation Practice field sanitation Do mulching Do manual and mechanical weeding Enhance natural weed control by beneficial organisms Use herbicides
121 Weed Management Options
Use high-quality seeds
Using high-quality seeds that are clean helps prevent entries of seeds and other asexual parts of the weeds into the field. High- quality seeds also ensure high germination rate and better growth of healthy seedlings.
122 Weed Management Options
Practice thorough land preparation
This technique helps suppress growth of weeds by burying them in the soil or exposing their seeds and other asexual parts under the heat of the sun, which eventually kills them by desiccation. Thorough land preparation also helps destroy weeds by separating their shoots and roots; and encouraging the germination or sprouting of their dormant seeds and asexual propagules buried in the soil.
Recommended steps for the stale seedbed technique: • Plow and harrow the field during fallow period • Enhance/allow germination of weed seeds and other asexual parts by light irrigation or after rainfall • Destroy germinating seeds and asexual parts through another round of harrowing, up to 3 times. Pre-plant herbicides can also be used to eliminate or suppress growing weeds.
123 Weed Management Options
Practice field sanitation
Cleaning the seedling nurseries, irrigation canals, field bunds, and areas in-between plots helps prevent growth of volunteer weeds that would later infest the crops, and shed more seeds and asexual propagules in the field. Cleaning the tools and equipment that had been used also helps prevent further contamination and entries of weed propagules in the field.
124 Weed Management Options
Do mulching
Mulching using rice straw or any plastic cover helps suppress growth by covering and depriving the weeds from accessing sunlight that they need for germination and sprouting. This technique also helps retain moisture needed by cultivated crops.
125 Weed Management Options
Do manual and mechanical weeding
Manual is basically handweeding or use of small hand tools such as sickles or bolos. This technique is very effective and efficient in removing weeds that grow within rows and hills of growing crops. It is also effective in preventing the spread of resistant weed biotypes by uprooting the whole weed plant or removing the inflorescence that carries the weed seeds. Mechanical weeding, on the other hand, involves bigger tools and is best accomplished by inter-row cultivation (off-barring) or hilling-up using an animal- or tractor-drawn mechanical weeder. Growth of weeds is suppressed by cutting, trampling, burying, or exposing weeds under the heat of the sun.
126 Weed Management Options
Enhance natural weed control by beneficial organisms
This technique capitalizes on the use of biological control agents against weeds such as insects and microorganisms. It helps minimize the time, effort, and money of farmers spent for weed control. This option, however, requires correct identification, and knowledge on the biology and ecology of host-specific beneficial organisms to effectively control the target weeds. Examples of such organisms are Spoladea recurvalis (insect) foraging on the leaves of Trianthema portulacastrum, and Puccinia philippinensis (fungus) infecting the leaves of Cyperus rotundus.
127 Weed Management Options
128 Weed Management Options
Use herbicides
Herbicide application is the last recourse when other techniques cannot control the target weeds. Proper use of herbicides, however, is strictly advised because incorrect usage will endanger the health of the user as well as the people, domesticated animals, and the environment surrounding him. Prolonged and continuous use of the same kind, incorrect dosage, and wrong timing will also result in herbicide-resistant weeds.
Reminders on the use of herbicides: • Read, understand, and follow instructions written on the bottle/box of the herbicide. • Always wear protective equipment. Use appropriate cover for head, eyes, nose, mouth, and hands. Wear hat, sunglasses, face mask, long-sleeved shirts, long pants, gloves, and field boots. • Avoid mixing herbicides when the direction of the wind is going toward you. • Wash contaminated clothes separately after use. • Never use the mouth to blow or sip clogged nozzles. • Wash thoroughly the knapsack sprayer using clean water. • Wash hands and other parts of the body after cleaning the sprayer.
129 Bibliography
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CABI. 2018. Invasive species compendium. https://www.cabi.org/ isc/
EPPO. 2018. EPPO Global Database (available online). https:// gd.eppo.int
Galinato MI, K Moody, and CM Piggin. 1999. Upland Rice Weeds of South and Southeast Asia. International Rice Research Institute, College, Laguna. 156p.
Koo SJ, DV Chin, YW Kwon, and HA Cung. 2005. Common Weeds in Vietnam. 2nd Edition. Khang Thai Printing, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. 488p.
Moody K, CE Munroe, RT Lubigan, EC Paller Jr, PM Barcial, LE Fabro, JD Janiya, GL Magsino. 2014. Major Weeds of the Philippines. 2nd Edition. University of the Philippines Los Baños, Philippines. 345p.
Pancho JV and SR Obien. 1995. Manual of Ricefield Weeds in the Philippines. Philippine Rice Research Institute, Maligaya, Science City of Muñoz, Nueva Ecija, Philippines. 543p.
130 References
Baltazar AM, EC Martin, MC Casimero, FV Bariuan, SR Obien, and SK de Datta. 1999. Reducing herbicide use with agronomic practices in onion (Allium cepa) grown after rice (Oryza sativa). Philippine Agricultural Scientist 83 (1): 34-44.
Baltazar AM, JM Ramos, EC Martin, MC Casimero, AM Mortimer, and SK de Datta. 2003. IPM-CRSP (ed). Integrated weed management strategies in rice-onion systems. IPM-CRSP: Ninth Annual Report (2001-2002). Asia Site: Philippines. pp. 1-6.
Balyan RS and PK Malik. 1989. Control of horse purslane (Trianthema portulacastrum) and barnyard grass (Echinochloa crusgalli) in mungbean (Vigna radiata). Weed Science 37: 695-699.
Barsalote EB. 1996. Pathogenicity of the rice root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne graminicala Golden and Birchfield) on upland rice and weeds. Undergraduate Thesis available at the Visayas State University Library, Visca, Baybay City, Leyte, Philippines. 36p.
Bridge J, RA Plowright, and D Peng. 2005. Nematode parasites of rice. In: Plant Parasitic Nematodes in Subtropical and Tropical Agriculture. Luc M, RA Sikora, and J Bridge (eds.). CABI Publishing. pp. 87-130.
Chauhan BS. 2013. Seed Germination ecology of feather lovegrass [Eragrostis tenella (L.) Beauv. Ex Roemer & J.A. Schultes]. PLoS ONE 8(11): e79398. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0079398
Chauhan BS, SB Abugho, JC Amas, and GB Gregorio. 2013. Effect of Salinity on Growth of barnyardgrass (Echinochloa crusgalli), horse purslane (Trianthema portulacastrum), jungle rice (Echinochloa colona), and rice. Weed Science 61(2):244-248.
Chauhan BS and DE Johnson. 2010. Relative importance of shoot and root competition in dry-seeded rice growing with jungle rice (Echinochloa colona) and Ludwigia (Ludwigia hyssopifolia). Weed Science 58: 295-29. 131 References
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Donayre DKM, EC Martin, SE Santiago, and JT Lee. 2018. Weeds in Irrigated and Rainfed Lowland Ricefields in the Philippines. 2nd Edition. Philippine Rice Research Institute, Maligaya, Science City of Muñoz, Nueva Ecija, Philippines. 197 p.
Fabro LE and PM Barcial. 2015. Weeds of vegetables. In Pests and Diseases of Economically Important Crops in the Philippines. Dela Cueva FM, CB Pascual, CM Bajet, and TU Dalisay (eds). Pest Management Council of the Philippines, Inc. c/o Crop Protection Cluster, University of the Philippines Los Banos, College, Laguna. pp. 554 - 580.
Guzman MP and LM Noriel. 2005. Competition of tropic ageratum (Ageratum conyzoides L.) with upland rice (Oryza sativa L.). Philippine Journal of Weed Science 23: 47 – 53.
Guzman MP and LM Noriel. 2005. Allelopathic effects of tropic ageratum (Ageratum conyzoides L.) against upland rice (Oryza sativa L.). Philippine Journal of Weed Science 23: 54 – 63.
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Holm LG, DL Plucknett, JV Pancho, and JP Herberger. 1977. The World’s Worst Weeds. Honolulu (Haw., USA): East-West Center. University Press of Hawaii. 609p.
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Magsino G. 2015. Weeds of banana and corn. In Pests and Diseases of Economically Important Crops in the Philippines. Dela Cueva
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Martin, E.C., AM Baltazar, RP Robles, JM Ramos, EG Rajotte, LT Koh and SK De Datta. 2005. Life cycle and efficacy of Hawaiian beet webworm (Spoladea recurvalis Fabricius) as potential biological control agent against horse purselane (Trianthema portulacastrum L.) Philipp. J. Weed Sci. 23: 1-15
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134 Terminologies
Acute – distinctly and sharply pointed out, but not drawn out
Alternate – arranged at different levels on opposite sides along an axis
Annual – a weed or group of weeds that completes the life cycle from seed to seed in less than one year or in one growing season
Ascending – curving upwards
Auricle – claw-like or ear-like appendage
Awn – a bristle-like appendage
Axil – the angle between a leaf or a branch and the stem from which it arises
Bristle – stiff hair
Bulb – a modified underground bud
C3 plants – group of plants or weeds that employ a photosynthetic pathway where a 3-carbon compound is the first stable product. Weeds belonging to this group prefer environments where temperature and sunlight intensity are moderate, and water supply is plenty. C3 weeds, however, cannot tolerate very high temperatures since they are prone to the wasteful biochemical process called photorespiration. Thus, most of them are dominant in ricefields that are under submerged conditions.
C4 plants – group of plants or weeds that employ a more efficient photosynthetic pathway in which a 4-carbon compound is the first stable product. Weeds under this group have physiological adaptations that allow them to thrive in very hot and drier areas (dry land or rainfed conditions), and where concentrations of carbon dioxide are limited.
135 Terminologies
Calyx – the outer ring of a flower made up of separate or joined sepals; usually green and leaf-like
Capsule – a dry, dehiscent fruit composed of two or more carpels, having many seeds, and usually opening at maturity by valves or teeth
Ciliate – bearing a fringe of hairs on the margins
Collar – the junction of root and shoot
Cordate – heart-shaped
Corolla – the ring of usually showy flower structures inside the calyx made up of separate or joined petals
Creeping perennials – weeds that reproduce by seeds and vegetative organs such as stolons (creeping above-ground stems), rhizomes (creeping below-ground stems), tubers, aerial bulblets, and bulbs
Cyathium – an inflorescence that is reduced to look like a single flower
Digitate – a compound structure whose members arise and diverge from the same point; like the fingers of the hand
Elliptical – oval-shaped
Entire – with an even margin
Glabrous – smooth, without hairs
Globose – almost spherical
Herb – any plant that is not woody
Inflorescence – the arrangement of the flowers on a plant
Lanceolate – lance-shaped, several times longer than wide; widest toward the base and tapering at both ends
136 Terminologies
Ligule – a thin membranous appendage at the junction of the leaf sheath and the blade in grasses
Linear – long and narrow with parallel edges
Node – the joint of a stem from which leaves or branches arise
Oblong – longer than broad, with nearly parallel sides
Obovate - ovate, but the widest part is toward the apex
Oval – broadly elliptical
Ovate – egg-shaped, widest toward the base
Ovoid – ovate or oval-solid
Pedicel – the stalk of each individual flower
Perennial – weeds or group of weeds that complete their life cycle in more than a year
Petal – one of the divisions of a flower
Petiole – the leaf stalk
Pinnate – a compound leaf having the leaflets or segments arranged on either side of a common axis
Pod – a dry, dehiscent, usually elongated fruit
Raceme – a more or less conical inflorescence with flowers arising laterally from a common axis, the youngest toward the tip
Rhizome – an underground stem with bud and scales
Sessile – without a stalk
Serrate – a toothed margin where the teeth are pointed and project forwards (saw-toothed)
Simple – not divided, single
137 Terminologies
Simple perennials – weeds that spread through seeds and by vegetative propagations. They may regenerate vegetatively into a new plant if their shoots are injured or cut off from the mother plant
Spike – an unbranched elongated inflorescence with sessile or nearly sessile flowers
Spikelet – a secondary spike of one or more flowers surrounded by bracts
Spinulose – having small spines
Stalk – any lengthened support of an organ
Stellate – with star-shaped hairs
Stolon – a modified above-ground stem creeping and rooting at the nodes
Terminal – at the end of a branch or a stem
Truncate – cut-off more or less squarely at the end
Tuber – a short thickened underground stem
Tubular – cylindrical and hollow
Umbel – an inflorescence in which a number of divergent flowers arise from the same point
Viscid – sticky
Whorl – a ring of similar organs arising from a node
138 Acknowledgments
The authors sincerely thank the Korea Program on International Agriculture (KOPIA) for the financial support and production of this booklet. Thank you also to the managing, language, and technical editors; layout and graphic artist. Huge gratitude is also extended to all Filipino farmers who allowed the authors to take photos in their fields.
Technical Reviewer Roel R. Suralta
Photographers Dindo King M. Donayre Salvacion E. Santiago
Layout artist Anna Marie F. Bautista
Language Editor Constante T. Briones
Editorial Advisers Sailila E. Abdula Jeong Taek Lee Flordeliza H. Bordey
139 Notes
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