visualJournal of communication in medicine

Guidelines for of cutaneous marks and injuries: a multi-professional perspective

Sam Evans 1,10 , Sonya Baylis 2 , Romina Carabott3 , Michael Jones4 , Zoe Kelson 5 , Nick Marsh6 , Jason Payne-James 7 , Jona Ramadani8 , Peter Vanezis 9 and Alison Kemp10

1 Dental Illustration Unit, School of Dentistry, Cardiff University, Cardiff, U.K. Email: [email protected] 2 Serious Organised Crime Agency, Bedford, U.K 3 Expert Forensics LTD, Cardiff, U.K 4 Institute of Medical Engineering and Medical Physics, Cardiff School of Engineering, Cardiff University, Cardiff, U.K 5 Smith Institute for Industrial Mathematics and System Engineering, Cardiff, U.K 6 Metropolitan Police, London, U.K 7 Forensic Healthcare Services Ltd and Cameron Forensic Medical Sciences Barts & the London School of Medicine & Dentistry, London, UK 8 Home Offi ce Science - Centre for Applied Science and Technology. U.K 9 Cameron Forensic Medical Sciences Clinical Pharmacology Barts and the LondonSchool of Medicine & Dentistry, London, U.K 10 Institute of Primary Care & Public Health, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, U.K

For personal use only. Investigators assessing the likelihood of Introduction physical abuse, must make a decision as to whether the injury seen matches An investigator who is involved in assessing the explanation given. In some instances the likelihood of physical abuse, must make the pattern of these injuries can give the a decision as to whether the injury seen investigator a possible link to the cause of matches the explanation given. In some the injury. Thus, matching an injury pattern instances the pattern of these injuries can to an implement or weapon used has forensic give the investigator a possible link to the implications. The current method of capturing cause of the injury 1 – 8 . This link can be made patterned injuries together with poor scale by careful analysis of the patterns that are J Vis Commun Med Downloaded from informahealthcare.com by HINARI on 05/29/14 placement often result in some form of present in the injury and the extent to which distortion that causes a change to the shape the pattern mirrors the alleged implement of the patterned injury. used to injure the victim (e.g belt, hairbrush), The aim of this guideline is to assist the slap mark from an alleged perpetrator or individuals dealing with the capture of refl ects an unintentional injury (e.g corner photographic evidence for the investigation of or edge of a piece of furniture). Matching an suspected non-accidental patterned cutaneous injury pattern to an implement or weapon injuries (PCI), and to ensure high standards used has forensic implications, with regard of quality are met for both evidential to the likelihood of physical abuse, thus records and for forensic analysis. The technical informing both the investigating team and any equipment specifi ed within these guidelines legal proceedings. All bruises and cutaneous are recommended by the authors as a basic injuries are photographed as part of the requirement for imaging best practice, due medical and forensic record, child protection to their ability to capture detailed and critical and legal record. Photographic imaging is data. For precise pattern matching analysis, it used to record the pattern of the injury, and is vital that both the injury and the suspected to facilitate forensic interpretation, not least, implement are photographed in accordance it is inappropriate to subject the victim to with this guidance. multiple examinations unnecessarily.

3 visJournal omualo m can be presented for secondary expert photographers within the UK. The authors are mediu c opinion and are presented as legal evidence of the opinion that a baseline standardised in court decision making. It is essential that protocol is necessary as an initial step, before these images are of an optimal quality and considering additional imaging modalities free of operator error or induced that might further enhance forensic analysis distortion to maximize their usefulness. potential, such as cross-polarized 18 – 23 , The current method of capturing patterned infra-red23,25 , 26 – 28 , and 3D image injuries often results in some form of capture29, 30 . distortion that causes a change to the shape Furthermore, these guidelines have been of the patterned injury 4,9,10 Further error produced with accessibility and adherence in is introduced by the use of inappropriate mind. This guide will instruct professionally measuring scales and poor placement trained forensic and clinical photographers of the correct scale next to the injury. how to obtain the most accurate and precise Many investigators and photographers are evidence possible, with the current gold unaware of the errors that are attained by standard techniques and technologies the current 2D photographic method 2 . There available. Best practice is to use the services are signifi cant challenges in representing a of a professional photographer (http://www. 3D structure (human body) in a 2D space imi.org.uk/ or the police) to ensure images (conventional ). Injuries are of suffi cient standard for the courts, SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL frequently occur on curved surfaces and however this is not always feasible; hence, are immediately distorted by 2D imaging, this document also aims to assist non- chiefl y if multiple images are not taken. professional photographers by describing These errors are easily introduced even by basic imaging rules, procedures, and the most experienced and knowledgeable of principles to follow. practitioner. The errors that are introduced This paper has been produced by can make it impossible for the investigator a research group, which is comprised to measure the features within the injury of collaborators from a wide range of with any precision. To signifi cantly reduce disciplines, including law enforcement this photographic distortion in assessment of professionals, forensic investigators, health professionals and photographers. The aims

For personal use only. bite marks , and thus improve the supportive evidence that is provided by medical are to assist individuals dealing with the and forensic photographers, it has been capture of photographic evidence for the proposed that 3D image capture would be investigation of suspected non-accidental more precise, accurate and robust than any patterned cutaneous injuries (PCI), and to ensure high standards of image quality other form of recording the bite mark injury. are met for both evidential records and for Proponents of 3D imaging technology and forensic analysis. The authors recommend many forensic odontologists throughout the following these guidelines for the imaging of world have supported the potential benefi ts of patterned cutaneous injuries. 3D devices to record bite marks10,11,12 .

J Vis Commun Med Downloaded from informahealthcare.com by HINARI on 05/29/14 Whilst guidelines have been made available by the British Association of Forensic Odontology (BAFO) and the Protocol Guidelines American Board of Forensic Odontology The following sections of this paper detail a (ABFO) for the imaging of bite marks13,14 , and step-by-by guide for the imaging of patterned image capture literature has been produced injuries. internally by the Association of Chief Police Offi cers (ACPO) and the National 1. Equipment Policing Improvement Agency (NPIA), the For best practice in obtaining suffi cient Home Offi ce, and the Federal Bureau of images, there are basic equipment Investigation (FBI) 15 – 17, there are currently no requirements. published peer-reviewed protocols specifi c to the imaging of patterned injuries. The focus of • Digital Single Lens Refl ex (DSLR) camera. these guidelines is the recommended use of Professional or semi - professional grade current 2D digital photographic technologies. (e.g Nikon D3, D700, D80) NB. (DSLRs are The equipment required for conventional advisable as smartphones in general photography, as detailed within this paper, is produce Images that are of poor quality. The available to all imaging units and professional use of smartphones or other in

4 visJournal omualo inexperienced hands has the potential for a) demonstrating the integrity of the image m mediu failing to convict the guilty, or conversely, as evidence. c b) causing miscarriages of justice.) The recommended fi le format for capturing • Lens. images of injuries is the RAW fi le, where the ○ Prime (macro) e.g Nikon 60mm image captured by the is stored or 105mm. with minimal processing. This ‘ as captured ’ • Flashguns. data is essentially a digital equivalent of the ○ Ideally two balanced, dual mounted ‘ ’ in conventional photography. fl ashguns on either side of the camera Each camera will have its own RAW fi le to ensure even illumination. However format and therefore Adobe Photoshop ® or reasonable results can be obtained with specialist software (supplied with the camera) a suitable single fl ashgun or ringfl ash if is required to open and process these images. properly positioned. RAW fi les contain greater bit depth colour • Metric scale. information than alternative fi le formats, and ○ A rigid L shaped scale (ABFO No.2)30 can therefore undergo far greater adjustments and longer straight one if required for (e.g. contrast, brightness, levels) without large patterns. All scales should have a signifi cant image degradation. matt fi nish to reduce refl ections. Recent As RAW fi les hold the greatest possible research has indicated that the

information for the user, they are the preferred SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL measurements on scales are not con- fi le format for demonstrating the integrity of sistent among the various brands36 . the image. A rigid scale (such as the previously If RAW fi les are not supported by the mentioned) is essential for the camera being used and/or the organisation photography of a PCI. Without this scale taking the images, a TIFF (tagged image fi le being placed correctly and photographed format) fi le format should be used instead. with the injury, further analysis is This is a widely supported fi le format that affected and, results in inadmissible includes metadata describing the attributes evidence for court. The use of tape or of the image, and has minimal processing or adhesive scales should be avoided. compression applied to it. • An accurate colour chart or grey scale

For personal use only. The fi nal fi le format available for capturing chart. images is the JPEG (joint photographic experts ○ A colour chart should be employed group) fi le, which is most commonly used. when photographing the bruising. A It is not a format recommended for primary small mini colour checker will be the capture of images that will be used for forensic most practical to use31 . casework because of the compression loss that is associated with these images16,17,32 . 2. Preparation JPEGs may be created from a RAW fi le for There are a few basic steps to follow prior subsequent ease of transmission and display, to photography, required for best practice in but the RAW fi le should always be retained as gathering photographic evidence. J Vis Commun Med Downloaded from informahealthcare.com by HINARI on 05/29/14 the primary evidence. If JPEG images are to • The compact fl ash card should be be used they must be captured at the highest formatted. possible image quality with no additional ○ There should not be any mixing of compression applied. forensic cases on the compact fl ash Compression is applied to the image a card. It is very important to maintain the multitude of times when it is fi rst captured, integrity of the sequence of images. when it is processed and every time it is re- Therefore the operator must not delete saved, so there are potential issues with image any of images, even if errors are made degradation. These may not be immediately in or composition etc. evident, but may remove important detail or • Verify camera date & time lead to the image integrity being questioned ○ This will ensure that the correct date and therefore the sole use of JPEG format for and time is embedded within the imaging of injuries in not recommended. metadata of the digital images • Image fi le formats 3. Correct positioning of camera ○ This determines the safe level of to injury adjustments that can be made to the Forensic analysis of PCI is severely affected by image and it may also be important in distortion. This distortion can be categorised

5 visJournal omualo m mediu c

Figure 1. The correct positioning-No distortion produced.

into two types of distortion, primary and avoid such error the following steps in correct secondary, as described by Sheasby and ‘ camera to scale to injury ’ placement should 9

SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL MacDonald . Primary distortion is due to be adhered to. the process in action at the time of impact, which includes two categories, dynamic (the • Type 1. interaction of the implement and skin) and ○ When taking the , the fi lm tissue (stretching and swelling of the skin etc.). plane (CCD or CMOS sensor) of the Secondary distortion is broken down into three camera must be perpendicular to categories: time-related changes, body position, the plane of the injury (Fig 1.). If the and photographic distortion. Photographic photographer fails to do this then Type 1 distortion is one of the few controllable (Fig 2.) distortion will take place. This is variables in the whole process of the forensic called angular distortion. analysis. • Type 2. ○

For personal use only. Any distortion in the image may hamper The scale must be placed on the surface attempts to produce viable evidence for court. of the skin. This will ensure the scale is Research has shown that if a wound or a on the same plane as the injury (Fig 3.). feature on the body is photographed at more If the scale is not on the same plane as than a 15 degree angle29 to the perpendicular, the injury then there will be Type 2 then distortion would be visible within the distortion. (Fig 4.) image. An angle of less than 15 degrees will • Types 3 and 4. still. ○ Applying too much pressure when it is There are three main types of placed next to the injury can warp a photographic distortion that are prevalent portion of the scale. (Fig 5.) Furthermore 33 J Vis Commun Med Downloaded from informahealthcare.com by HINARI on 05/29/14 in photographing PCI, detailed . To try and if the scale is tilted it will cause error.

Figure 2. Incorrect positioning-Type 1distortion (angular).

6 visJournal omualo offer the ability to control the image with m mediu mathematical algorithms for a safe geometric c restoration.

4. Sequence of images of injury This list of images to capture, and in what order, should be followed for best practice: 1. Image of person’ s I.D (patient label, consent form, etc.) 2. Image of person ’ s face 3. Location shot showing injury and identifying anatomical area, without a Figure 3. Correct position-No distortion scale (for example, the whole arm or full produced. face or leg) 4. Close up shots of the injury, including the whole of the scale (all 3 circles of ABFO No. 2 scale must be shown, helping Incorrect orientation (a) and bending (b) identify any angular distortion)

of the scale. 5. If on a curved surface, then multiple views SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL The scale should be close to the injury, but (at least 3) will be needed not so close as to obscure any outlying less 6. If on an area like the chest the position of obvious marks. the body should be taken into account. It is important to include all of the circles 7. Detail shots if required to identify any angular distortion. It has been 8. Images using photographic fi lters, different mentioned in some research studies that wavelengths (IR, UV), or alternate methods such distortion can be digitally corrected. of illumination may be used to record However, any digital “ correction ” of an the injury in addition to unfi ltered image with angular distortion may result in photographs the interpolation of the . If interpolation 9. Image of person ’ s I.D For personal use only. takes place, then the digital evidence falls For further information, the next section under the banner of “ Reconstruction ” . discusses each aspect of the list in greater detail. According to National Policing Improvement Agency (NPIA) guidance 15 reconstruction can only be applied as a graphical interpretation 4.1 Image of person ’ s I.D and cannot be presented as a true image. The image of I.D is needed to link images of However, when geometric restoration is injuries to the person being photographed. applied, if used correctly, it can be said to be admissible as evidence. As mentioned 4.2 Image of person ’ s face by Sheets and Bush 34 . Many standard The image of the face crucially links images J Vis Commun Med Downloaded from informahealthcare.com by HINARI on 05/29/14 image processing software packages do not of injuries to the subject being photographed.

Figure 4. Incorrect position - Type 2 distortion. Figure 5. Warping of the scale.

7 visJournal omualo m In some situations the subject may object 4.7 Detail shots if required mediu c to having their face photographed. The Detail shots might need to be taken if professional staff trying to obtain this image individual marks can be seen, and are of good should explain why this image needs to be evidential value. Areas on small parts of the taken. body such as fi ngers, ears, and nose might benefi t from more detailed views. Any advice 4.3 Location shot showing injury and should be sought from the forensic specialist identifying anatomical area, without a scale supporting the case. This image should illustrate the bruising with the surrounding area, so the viewer will be 4.8 Images using photographic fi lters, specialty able to ascertain the anatomical position of fi lm, and alternate methods of illumination the injuries. may be used to record patterned injury in addition to unfi ltered photographs 4.4 Close up shots of the image, including the whole of the scale 4.9 Image of persons I.D It is crucial that any angular distortion This image is helpful to maintain the integrity is reduced by following the positioning of the sequence. suggested previously, enabling accurate pattern analysis to be performed on these 5. Photography of implement

SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL images. In many situations it is relevant to the investigation to forensically examine the 4.5 If on curved surface then multiple implement that may have caused the PCI. In views will be needed this case the striking edge of the implement When photographing a PCI on a curved should be photographed employing the same surface, such as the edge of a forearm or technique used for the injury. This will enable bicep35 . it is vital that the photographer takes the relevantly trained professional to conduct images from at least three different angles pattern-matching analysis to a safe standard. (Fig 6.). The camera must remain perpendicular to the injury and scale for all images. For example, if the injury is curved around 6. Audit trail of digital images an arm then the scale must be moved around It is important to maintain an audit trail of For personal use only. the curve, ensuring that it is on the same focal every change that is made to an image from plane as the impact site. As demonstrated the moment it is fi rst captured on a camera to below: the time when it is presented in court. In this way, it can be demonstrated that the image 4.6 If on an area like the chest the position of presented in court can be reproduced from the the body should be taken into account original image using a sequence of repeatable, Any area of the body that is affected recognised processes that represents the audit signifi cantly by position (e.g. the skin being trail. Many professional software packages are stretched) should be taken into account9 . For equipped with the facility to store changes example, if the injury is on the chest, arms, or made in the image via the metadata. J Vis Commun Med Downloaded from informahealthcare.com by HINARI on 05/29/14 torso, then the body should be moved into Guidance relating to starting and various positions (Fig 7.) that may be consistent maintaining an audit trail is provided by the with how the injury might have been obtained. Home Offi ce and ACPO / NPIA guidance15,16 .

Figure 6. Example of photographing a PCI on a curved surface.

8 visJournal omualo m mediu c SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL For personal use only.

Figure 7. Example positions.

J Vis Commun Med Downloaded from informahealthcare.com by HINARI on 05/29/14 In summary, the recommended procedure is Working Copy, and both the Master Copy and to save a ‘ Master Copy ’ of the fi le from the the Working Copy and audit trail must then camera in the original fi le format (RAW is be archived for the period of time dictated by recommended). This Master Copy may be the requirements of the case. With all of these stored as a Write Once Read Many (WORM) pieces of evidence in place it will be possible format such as a CD, or on a secure server. to demonstrate that the Working Copy has This Master Copy must remain unchanged been legitimately obtained by progressively from its original format, but copies may be adjusting the Master Copy image using taken from it for subsequent image processing. recognised procedures, and that the image These are defi ned as ‘ Working Copies ’ . shown in court is a true representation of what Every time an adjustment is made to the was photographed. Working Copy (e.g. changes in contrast and/ or brightness, adjustments to colour saturation) they must be recorded either manually or Discussion and Conclusion by the software being used to carry out the adjustments. All adjustments should be in When physical abuse is suspected, it is accordance with best practice15 . imperative that the corresponding visible This audit trail must be stored with the injuries are recorded as precisely as possible.

9 visJournal omualo m Photographic Images are invaluable for produce by a mobile phone mediu c both evidential records and for forensic will reduce the quality of the photographic comparitive analysis of the injury with features evidence. In order to capture as much detail or confi gurations that may be indicative of within the image as possible, and such that the implement used, or the physical contact the image can be used for evidential records surface of a perpetrator). Furthermore, in and forensic analysis, the guidelines depicted order to capture the full extent of any pattern within this paper must be adhered to. distribution, the injury requires imaging Once the photographs have been taken, as soon as possible. Thus, a professional it is important to follow the guidance within photographer should be recruited at the this paper for data storage, access, and earliest possible convenience. In some auditing purposes. All ethical implications instences it may be relevant to re- need to be considered with regards to the PCI at 48, 72 hours or in a few days to consent, anonyminity, and data protection record any signifi cant changes. in accordance with local and/or national Most regional based hospitals will have an procedures. imaging unit that can be contacted to attain This paper considers the current technical the services of a professional photographer. equipment available only; whilst further The local police service will also have developments in imaging technology are photography expertise and can be contacted underway, the tools for 3D image capture are SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL for imaging. If a professional photographer not yet readily available to most professional is unavailable at the time required, it is photographers and/or institutions. The recommended that photography take place authors are aware that these guidelines will using the next best available resource. require updating as and when these future This may be an individual with or without technologies are introduced. Furthermore, experience in photography, who can follow other digital imaging modalities (such as the guidelines detailed within this paper. It refl ective ultraviolet and near infra-red) is imperative that this protocol is adhered to have undergone some initial investigative as much as possible, to ensure the images research 4,23 – 28 , and currently require further captured can be used for evidential records work to fully demonstrate any possible and forensic analysis. To adhere to best potential to provide additional information For personal use only. practice and to obtain the highest quality for PCI that are not apparent in the visible photographic evidence, it is advised that a spectrum. professional photographer be requested when When using current 2D cameras they are next available. (DSLRs) for the image capture of PCI, it is The technical equipment specifi ed within important to consider the limitations of such these guidelines are recommended by the technology. It is well known how diffi cult authors as a basic requirement for imaging it is to maintain the correct orientation (the best practice, due to their ability to capture camera perpendicular to the injury and detailed and critical data. However, whilst scale) in certain conditions, such as when the standard of equipment is important, it is photographing very young children. This J Vis Commun Med Downloaded from informahealthcare.com by HINARI on 05/29/14 appreciated that under some circumstances practical problem can reduce the level of the recommended equipment may not be precision in regard to faithfully reproducing available to the individual capturing the the injury for analysis. Another consideration images at the time required. Since injuries are is the issue of accuracy. It is diffi cult to identify time sensitive, with visible patterns of injury the true known value of an object, such as a diffusing over time, (espeicaly bruises) the bruise or other dermatological injury. If that authors suggest capturing images with sub- true value is unknown, it is not possible to optimal equipment when necessary to do so. determine how accurate your measurement is. However caution should be used, especially To compound this issue, 2D devices reduce the use of mobile phones as cameras. In spite the 3D structure (the human body) into a 2D of the fact that these devices have sensors with space, which will cause further deviation large counts the lenses used are likely to from being able to assess the true value of the have short focal lengths. (The on object. many mobile phones is equivalent to around This collaborative guide has been produced 30mm in a SLR camera, which will cause lens for both professional and non-professional distortion). The lens distortion, the likelihood photographers, to ensure suffi cient evidence of pixel noise and lack of tonal range in a for the analysis of patterned dermatological

10 visJournal omualo injuries is captured during imaging. For precise 13. BAFO (British Association of Forensic m mediu pattern matching analysis, it is vital that both Odontology) Guidelines Bite Mark c the injury and the suspected implement Methodology (2001) http://www.bafo.org.uk/ are photographed in accordance with this resources/bitemarks.php guidance. 14. ABFO (American Board of Forensic Odontology) Bite mark Guidelines http://www. abfo.org/id_mark_guidelines.htm 15. ACPO & NPIA (2007) Practice advice on Declaration of interest police use of digital images. Produced on behalf of the Association of Chief Police The authors report no confl icts of interest. The Offi cers by the National Policing Improvement authors alone are responsible for the content Agency. Professional Practice. Available and writing of the paper. on-line at [Accessed: October 2011]: http://www.acpo.police.uk/documents/ crime/2007/200712CRIADI01.pdf 16. Cohen N , MacLennan-Brown K (2007) References Digital Imaging Procedure . Home Offi ce Scientifi c Development Branch, version 2.1, 1. Evans S. et al . (2014) Focussing on the future: November 2007, Publication No. 58/07. Survey results on the image capture of ISBN: 978-1-84726-559-3 . patterned cutaneous injuries . Journal of 17. FBI Laboratory (2005) Digital Imaging SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL Forensic and Legal Medicine 24 : 7 – 11 . Guidelines . Photographic Operations & 2. Child Protection Companion (2006) Guidance Imaging Services Unit, Federal Bureau of for clinicians on how to recognise and manage Investigation. child abuse and neglect . Royal College of 18. Benson PE , Shah AA , Willmot DR (2008) Paediatrics and Child Health, London, Polarized Versus Nonpolarized Digital Images 1st Edition . http://www.rcpch.ac.uk/Policy/ Child-Protection/Child-Protection-Publications. for the Measurement of Demineralization 3. Wright FD (1998) Photography in Bite Mark Surrounding Orthodontic Brackets . and Patterned Injury Documentation – Part 1 . Angle Orthodontist 78 : 2 : 288 – 293 . Journal of Forensic Sciences 43 : 4 : 877 – 880. doi: 10.2319/121306-511.1 . 4. Marsh . (2010) Injury Photography: Is it more 19. Robertson AJ , Toumba KJ (1999) Cross-polarized than skin deep? The Journal of Homicide and photography in the study of enamel defects in

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11 visJournal omualo m 26. Krauss TC , Warlen SC (1985) The Forensic 31. Hyzer, and Krauss, (1998) The bite mark mediu c Science Use of Refl ective Ultraviolet standard reference scale ABFO No. 2, Photography . Journal of Forensic Sciences, Journal of Forensic Science . 33 (2). JFSCA 30 :1: 262 – 268. 32. Scientifi c Working Group on Imaging 27. David TJ , Sobel MN (1994) Recapturing a Technologies (SWGIT) Version 1.2 June 2002 . Five-Month-Old Bite Mark by Means Forensic Science Communications Vol 5 No . 1 of Refl ective Ultraviolet Photography . 2003. Journal of Forensic Sciences, JFSCA 33. Bowers and R J Johansen , (2000) Digital analysis 39 :6: 1560 – 1567. of bite mark evidence (Using Adobe ® Photoshop ® ) 28. David TJ (1990) Documentation of a Seven 1st Ed. USA. Forensic Imaging Services. USA. Month Old Bite Mark with Ultraviolet 34. Sheets HD , Bush MA (2010) , Mathematical Photography . Presented to the Annual Meeting matching of a dentition to bitemarks: Use and of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences, evaluation of affi ne methods, Forensic Sci . Int. Cincinnati, February 1990 . doi: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2010.09.013 . 29. Evans S et al . (2010) 3D imaging in forensic 35. Freeman et al . (2005) . Seven Hundred Seventy odontology . Journal of Visual Communication Eight Bite Marks: Analysis by Anatomic in Medicine Vol. 33 (2). Location, Victim and Bitter Demographics, 30. Blackwell SA , Taylor RV , Gordon I , Ogleby CL , Type of Crime, and Legal Disposition. Tanijiri T , Yoshino M et al . (2005) 3-D Journal of Forensic Science . 50(6). Imaging and quantitative comparison of 36. J. Jason Payne-James, (2012) Rules and scales

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Journal of Visual Communication in Medicine May 2014; 37, No. 1–2, pp. 3–12 ISSN 1745-3054 Print/ISSN 1745-3062 online © 2014 The Institute of Medical Illustrators DOI: 10.3109/17453054.2014.911152 12