Limerick Southern Ring Road, Phase II E2080, Coonagh West Site 1, Co. Limerick

Final Archaeological Excavation Report

for

Limerick County Council

Fiona Reilly

Job J04/20

(NGR 152775 156610)

Limerick Southern Ring Road, Phase II E2080, Coonagh West Site 1, Co. Limerick

Final Archaeological Excavation Report

for Limerick County Council

Fiona Reilly TVAS Ireland Ltd

Job J04/20

14th July 2010

Summary

Scheme name: Limerick Southern Ring Road, Phase II

Ministerial Directions reference number: A005/000

Site name: E2080, Coonagh West Site 1, Co. Limerick

Scheme sub-no: A005/2010

Record number: E2080

Townland: Coonagh West

Parish: Killeely

Barony: North Liberties

County: Limerick

NGR: 152775 156610

OS 6” Sheet No: Co. Limerick Sheet 005

Chainage: n/a (dispersal area)

Client: Limerick County Council, Mid West National Road Design Office, Lissanalta House, Dooradoyle Road, Dooradoyle, Co. Limerick

Landowner: Limerick County Council, County Hall, Dooradoyle, Limerick

Naturally occurring geology: Grey alluvial clay, at deeper levels it has a blue hue

TVAS Ireland Job No: J04/20

Licence Eligible Director: Fiona Reilly

Report author: Fiona Reilly

Site activity: Excavation

Site area: 2080m2

Date of fieldwork: 11th - 26th April 2005

Date of report: 14th July 2010

Summary of results: Several phases of brick-making kilns from the late 18th to late 19th century, were found and a large pit that was filled with broken brick and may have been a backfilled ‘brick-hole’ from which clay was quarried for the manufacture of bricks.

Monuments identified: Unknown number of brick kilns.

Location and reference of archive: The primary records (written, drawn and photographic) are currently held at TVAS Ireland Ltd, Ahish, Ballinruan, Crusheen, Co. Clare.

This report may be copied for bona fide research or planning purposes without the explicit permission of the copyright holder Limerick Southern Ring Road, Phase II E2080, Coonagh West Site 1, Co. Limerick Final Archaeological Excavation Report

by Fiona Reilly

Introduction

This report documents the final results of an archaeological excavation of an unknown number of brick kilns (E2080) on the route of the Limerick Southern Ring Road Phase II, Coonagh West, Co. Limerick (NGR 152775 156610) (Fig. 1). The excavation forms part of the Limerick Southern Ring Road, Phase II, Northern Archaeological Contract.

A preliminary report of the site was previously submitted (Hull and Reilly 2005).

The National Monuments Act 1930 (as amended) provides the legislative framework within which archaeological excavation can take place and the following government publications set out many of the procedures relating to planning/development and archaeology:

Framework and Principles for the Protection of the Archaeological Heritage (DAHGI 1999a)

Policy and Guidelines on Archaeological Excavation (DAHGI 1999b)

Code of Practice between the National Roads Authority and the Minister for Arts, Heritage, Gaeltacht and the Islands (NRA/MAHGI 2000)

The archaeological work was carried out following Ministerial Direction given under the National Monuments (Amendment) Act 2004.

Project background

The Limerick Southern Ring Road Phase II (LSRR II) will extend west from the end of the Limerick Southern Ring Road Phase I at Rossbrien, to the existing N18 near Cratloe Castle. Once completed, LSRR II will form the final part of a southern bypass network around Limerick City, linking all converging routes.

LSRR II will incorporate a fourth crossing of the River Shannon and will involve the construction of approximately 10 km of new dual carriageway and 2 km of associated link roads and side roads. The planned PPP (Public Private Partnership) project will involve an immersed tube tunnel, approximately 900 m in length, linking the townland of Coonagh West, on the northern bank, with the townland of Bunlicky on the southern bank of the Shannon. Material extracted from the river during tunnel construction will be deposited across 27ha of ground in Coonagh West.

The road scheme is in accordance with European, national and regional roads objectives and forms part of the development strategy for National Primary Roads as outlined in the National Development Plan (2007-2013). LSRR II is a joint project of Limerick County Council, Clare County Council and Limerick City Council in partnership with the National Roads Authority (NRA).

NRA Project Archaeologist Celie O Rahilly requested a series of archaeological investigations along the route of the new road. This archaeological work included assessment of sites previously recognised and prospection for sites without surface expression by means of mechanical test trenching. A number of archaeological sites were confirmed or recognised during this testing. As preservation in

1 situ was not a reasonable option, the resolution strategy for these sites was preservation by record, i.e. full archaeological excavation.

For the purposes of the archaeological component of the road scheme the project was divided into two contract lots: Southern and Northern Archaeological Services Contracts with the River Shannon separating the two elements.

The archaeological fieldwork and post-excavation work were funded by Limerick County Council through the National Roads Authority under the National Development Plan.

Location, topography and geology

The site was located in the townland of Coonagh West, parish of Killeely, barony of North Liberties, Co. Limerick and was centred on NGR 152775 156610 (Figs 1 and 2). The site was situated west of the end of a lane (locally known as the marsh road) leading south from the entrance to the Shannon Rugby Club car park.

The general topography of the area is flat pasture with reeds, intersected by deep ditches draining into the River Shannon. A thin layer of topsoil overlies fine dark blue/grey alluvial clay that deepens toward the River Shannon. The ground on the north bank of the river that will be used by the road and the dispersal area for material extracted during tunnel construction has been formed by the receding Shannon and by relatively modern reclamation (Deery 2003, Healy and Hickey 2002, Hull 2005a). The modern ground surface, in most of the northern portion of the road route, lies between 0.50 m below and 2 m above Ordnance Datum (OD). Slightly higher ground (up to 4 m above OD) was encountered adjacent to the village of Coonagh, at the Clonmacken roundabout and at Cratloe Castle. In these locations a pinkish sandy clay with gravel (glacial till) was observed.

Site E2080 lay in the southern area of a field of rough pasture and immediately to the north of a water channel. This channel was probably associated with an ‘Old Embankment’ marked here on the 1st Edition Ordnance Survey (OS) map of 1841 (Fig. 3). This embankment was part of the reclamation and drainage works protecting the area. On this map the embankment continued along the southern extremity of a brick yard lying less than 50 m north-west of E2080. Though the channel was not clearly depicted on the map it is likely that it continued along the line of the embankment to the quay to the northwest. At the time of the excavation, such a channel stopped a short distance to the south of the location of the quay and an in-filled section continued to the quay. Long linear pits, where clay had been extracted for brick production, were visible to the north and north-west of the site.

The topsoil (50) overlying the archaeological deposits was 0.15-0.20 m deep. The underlying natural deposit was a grey alluvial clay that had a blue hue at deeper levels. At the time of the excavation the land was under rough pasture.

The site lay at approximately 1 m above Ordnance Datum (OD).

Archaeological and historical background

As part of the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) for this road project, a Cultural Heritage and Archaeology Report (Deery 2003) was commissioned. This assessment of archaeology and built/cultural heritage was based on a desktop study of published and unpublished documentary and cartographic sources, supported by a field inspection and aerial inspection of the proposed route and an underwater archaeological assessment of Ballinacurra Creek, the River Shannon, Meelick Creek, and Cratloe Creek.

2 As well as noting previously recognised monuments ranging in date from the prehistoric to modern periods, the EIS indicated the potential for further archaeological deposits to be found along the road route. The following is a summary, by period, taken in part, from the EIS:

Prehistoric Archaeological research, and the distribution of sites on the Shannon Estuary, suggests that the estuary was the focus of settlement and of traffic/trading during the prehistoric period. Intertidal and dry land surveys indicate that quite significant Bronze Age populations were active along the river shoreline and its hinterland, with settlements extending far inland. The earliest evidence for prehistoric activity in the study area is found adjacent to Coonagh East where a Neolithic submerged forest was exposed in peats on the upper foreshore at Meelick Rocks (approx. 200 m west of the proposed route). A possible Neolithic stone axe was also found (NMI 95E0228:3) with a variety of animal bones on the lower part of this foreshore in peats that were dated to the Mesolithic.

The Bronze Age (c. 2500–700 BC) saw new developments in agriculture including the introduction of tillage. This period also saw new developments in ritual activity. A variety of burial monuments date to this period including wedge tombs, cairns, tumuli and barrows. Evidence for Late Bronze Age (1100–700BC) activity is also found in the study area to the north of the Shannon in Clonmacken, where a fragmented Bronze Age sword was found during the construction of the Ennis Road. An isolated cremation burial dated to Late Bronze Age was excavated at Clonmacken during this road project (E2109, Ruttle and Taylor 2010).

Fulachtaí fia (or burnt stone mounds) were also recognised as probable monuments likely to be found on the low-lying wetlands adjacent to the River Shannon. Indeed, a number of fulachtaí fia and burnt stone spreads were excavated as part of this road project. Sites E2086 (Taylor 2010a), E2093 (Reilly 2010a) and E2092 (Reilly 2010b) lay within 500 m to the north and two examples were found within E2091 450 m to the north-east (Taylor 2010b).

A single Iron Age feature was excavated at Site E2083 (Reilly 2010c) 2.2 km to the north-west.

Early Medieval (c. AD 450–1169) An enclosure thought to be of this period is located in Coonagh East (LI005:056) 70 m north of the proposed route. Aerial photography in the vicinity of the site revealed the presence of possible associated rectilinear field systems, which radiate from the site in a south-south-east direction.

A circular ditched enclosure was excavated 500 m to the north-east of E2080 during this project. E2091 produced artefactual material that dates it to the early medieval period (Taylor 2010b).

Medieval (AD 1169–1600) There are several later castles and ‘sites of’ castles situated in the vicinity of the proposed route, testifying to the intensity of Anglo-Norman and later medieval settlement in the East Limerick area. These castles take the form of tower houses - the small, fortified residences of the gentry from the 14th to 16th centuries. Examples of tower houses in the vicinity of the proposed road on the north side of the Shannon include the sites or ruins of Coreen Castle (LI005:001) in Coonagh West in County Limerick and Cratloekeel (CL062:018), Cratloemore (CL062:014) and Cratloemoyle (CL062:021) which lie in County Clare.

Children’s burial grounds, sometimes known as killeens (cillín) or caldraghs (ceallúrach), are patches of unconsecrated ground where unbaptised babies or victims of suicide or drowning were buried. There is a children’s/infant’s burial ground (LI005:004) approximately 100 m north of the proposed Clonmacken Link Road in the townland of Coonagh West.

Post-medieval and Modern Brick manufacturing on land reclaimed in the modern period on both the north and south banks of the Shannon estuary has been recognised from documentary and cartographic sources (Deery 2003). Brick

3 holes and Brick fields are marked on the 1841 OS 1st edition map and these indicate the exploitation of the underlying clay. The bricks for the buildings of later 18th and 19th century Limerick are very likely to have been sourced from the area described in this report. Indeed, Barrington’s Pier (2.5 km to the east) was built for boats to bring bricks from the Coonagh brick fields to the city in the 18th century (Anon 1976, 99).

Other brick clamps (or kilns) and brick deposits were excavated during this road project at E2089 (Reilly 2010c), 200 m to the north-west of E2080 and E2106 (Ruttle 2008) 1.6 km north-east.

A Bord Gáis pipeline crosses the field that is the subject of this report. Despite archaeological monitoring (02E1649, Wiggins 2002), nothing of note was found at that time.

Cartographic evidence depicting the local landscape The changing landscape of the area can be traced in the maps of the 18th, 19th and early 20th centuries. Prior to the construction of the outer embankment, the area to the south of the brick fields E2080 and E2089 was marsh and dry land running in an almost straight east west line. According to 19th century maps the area was protected from the River Shannon by the ‘Old Embankment’. After the second embankment was built the land formed a large curve protruding into the River Shannon. It can be suggested that the second embankment was constructed in the 1820s for the following reasons: the 1787 Grand Jury map of County Clare by Henry Phelham shows the area to the south of the brick fields as mud flats (Hull 2005a, fig. 17). In 1808 the Laurie & Whittle map also depicts a pre-second embankment landscape (Hull 2005a, fig. 18). In the c.1832 map, by Thomas Larcom, the bend in the river is gentler and suggests that the second embankment had been constructed (Hull 2005a, fig. 21). Finally Eugene Curry is said to have worked as an overseer on the construction of the embankment at Coonagh (Walsh 1996, 7) and this was likely to have been in the 1820s.

This brick kiln is not marked on any map but the earliest depiction of the neighbouring ‘brickfield/brickyard’ (E2089) is on two 1839 maps, the OS Fair Plan (Reilly 2010c, fig. 4) and the Fair Copy obtained from the UK Hydrographic Office (Reilly 2010c, fig. 5). On the OS Fair Plan (Reilly 2010c, fig. 4) that area is marked as a ‘Brick Yard’ and the bricks are depicted in stacks, which is interesting because footings for possible stacks were found in the excavation this site. On the Hydrographic Office map the area is marked as a ‘Brickfield’. Both plans show a structure and a quay to the west of the brickfield between the old river embankment and the new embankment. On the Hydrographic Office map a road is depicted running from the village of Coonagh to the south-west (known as the ‘Marsh road’) and running along the line of the old embankment terminating at the quay. The 1st edition OS map (Fig. 3) shows a similar scene with the brickyard depicted with what may be bricks set in rows or perhaps representations of clamps. The road is shown terminating to the east of the marked ‘Brick Yard’ with the old embankment running parallel to the south of it and curving going north

By 1861 however the new embankment north of the quay had failed and was realigned as seen in the Fisher’s Stent map (Reilly 2010c, fig. 7). In an 1885 map (ibid., fig. 6) the original cottage beside the quay is not shown, it was probably abandoned before the new realigned embankment was built. A new structure marked ‘cottage’ had been erected to the south-east behind the later embankment. The brickfield is not indicated on this map but since the chart is of the Shannon River itself it might not necessarily have been marked. The quay is also not marked and would not have been in use to load bricks at this point since access to it had been blocked by the realignment of the embankment.

By the map 1903 the once marshy reclaimed land had been subdivided into fields and there is no sign of the once extensive brick manufacturing area (1903 6” OS map).The brick kilns had gone out of use by this stage, as had the quay. One local resident however remembers his grandmother talking about cutting the clay so bricks were still in production in the vicinity in the early 20th century. It seems that the ‘Marsh road’ then terminated at the old embankment and did not branch to the east and west as in the 19th century. The old embankment had been replaced by a ditch. The 3rd edition maps (ibid., Fig. 8)

4 are interesting because on Sheet 5 (1938) the individual ditches and drains are represented by double lines while the same features on Sheet 4 (1924) are represented by single lines.

Earlier test excavations

Site E2080 was identified during centre-line and offset testing of the road route (E2813, Hull and Taylor 2009). An earthwork, identified during the EIS and given the Site ID number A6, was the target of test trenching in the same field and Registration Number E2080 was used for both this and the brick kilns described below. Test trenching across the earthwork demonstrated that it was not of archaeological significance and it was not included in the subsequent excavation.

The terminology associated with brick-making is explained in the discussion section of this report (below).

Brick kilns (Figs 4-6)

The brick kiln area was visible as a low mound south-west of the earthwork. Eight test trenches were mechanically excavated across the mound (Hull and Reilly 2005) (Fig. 4). Seven were excavated to the top of the highest deposit (52) and one was excavated through the archaeological deposits to determine their depth (Trench 7) (Please note Trench 7 was renumbered Trench 1 in the excavation). At least six firing events were identified in the southern end of Trench 7 and one in the northern.

The southern end of the trench had evidence of at least four firings visible in section (56, 59, 82 and 79 from bottom to top) (phases 1-4) and two others in plan (65/67 and 76) (phases 5-6). One burning event was evident in the northern half of the trench (69, 71 and 72).

Southern end

An irregular pit or posthole, 0.90 m long (3), was found in the southern end of the trench and was also recorded in the baulk. The pit cut the natural grey clay (51) and did not seem to cut any of the burnt material that overlay the natural clay in the vicinity. Pit/posthole 3 was filled with soft, grey clay mixed with scorched orange clay and brick fragments.

Phase 1. The earliest firing was represented by a scorched (oxidised) orange layer (56) and was recorded in section. A layer of loose red sand (78 – not illustrated) was found above layer 56 and a deposit of grey clay (74) above this sand. This laminated pattern was repeated in the later firing episodes.

Phase 2. The second phase of firing recorded in section was represented by a black deposit (57) and oxidised deposit (59). Heating had caused deposit 59 to be scorched. The positions of bricks were visible on deposit 59 in an area measuring 1.95 m by 0.36 m. The material directly under an individual brick did not scorch as intensely as the surrounding material leaving dark ‘shadows’ where the bricks had been placed. This has been interpreted as the location of a ‘bench’. The intensity of the scorching lessened to the north where deposit 63 was visible. Deposit 63 was probably the same material as deposit 59 but was not as oxidised.

Phase 3. The third phase visible in section was over the second phase (57 and 59) and was represented by deposits 82 and 83. A thin layer of sand (81) lay above these deposits. Two possible postholes (1 and 2) were seen to post-date deposit 81 and were respectively 0.25 m and 0.30 m in diameter and 0.20 m and 0.25 m deep. Both were filled with a thick layer of broken brick and scorched and unburnt grey clay (77). This extensive layer might have been the destruction layer of a kiln which was flattened to form a working surface for the phase 4 activity.

5 Phase 4. The fourth phase seen in section was above layer 77 and was represented by deposit 80 and the scorched orange layer 79. This activity indicated the last firing in this trench.

Phase 5. Deposit 63 of Phase 2 overlay another phase of firing on its northern side (represented by deposits 65 and 67). These contexts (Phase 5) survived in plan 4.60 m to the north of the ‘bench’ represented by deposit 58. Deposit 65 was black and had lumps of wood charcoal in it while deposit 67 was red and scorched. The outline of another ‘bench’ was visible in these contexts. This firing occurred on deposit 66 that could be seen in an unburnt state to the north-west of the ‘bench’.

Phase 6. The sixth phase (seen in plan) in the southern half of the trench was found over the north- eastern end of deposit 59 and was represented by deposits 61 and 76. Deposit 76 was scorched but there was no evidence for a ‘bench’.

Northern end

Scorching was seen in three large patches (69, 71 and 72) in the northern half of the trench. These deposits were originally one context but were truncated by the digger during testing. The best preserved evidence for the placement of bricks in ‘benches’ was seen in deposit 71 where two parallel lines of brick impressions orange in colour and 0.58 m apart survived in the scorched earth. At least eleven bricks had been placed side by side. Individual bricks measured 230 mm by 80 mm by 70 mm and were hand-made, unfrogged (i.e. without an indentation for mortar characteristic of most modern bricks) and orange/red in colour. Other bricks had been placed on their ends along the western side of this row. The sand in which the bricks were placed still survived. The continuation of this ‘bench’ was seen to the north-east (deposit 72). Deposit 69 was an area of scorching to the south of the brick ‘bench’ but no evidence for ‘benches’ was visible in it.

Several areas of brick rubble were seen in plan along the trench (60, 62, 64 and 73).

Other trenches

Patches of brick rubble were observed in other trenches across the field. These did not appear to be in situ evidence of brick production but rather had been used to consolidate areas of wet ground.

Linear earthwork

The earthwork was orientated from south-west to north-east and was approximately 100 m long, 5 m wide and 0.60-0.80 m high (Fig. 3). Aerial photography suggested that parallel ditches flanked the earthwork; however on the ground inspection did not support this impression. Cultivation ridges were seen to overlie the earthwork.

The body of the bank was shown by excavation to be composed of brown and grey clayey silts overlying naturally deposited blue/grey clay. No artefacts were found but it was clear from the mixed nature of the bank that it was man-made. Interestingly, no brick fragments were seen in the embankment. All the test trenches in the fields nearby had small pieces of brick in them and the absence of such material in the earthwork suggests that it pre-dates the brick manufacturing.

Objectives and methodology

The aims of the excavation were to:

1) Preserve by record all archaeological deposits and features within the excavation area 2) Produce a high quality report of the findings

6 The fieldwork took place between the 11th and 26th April 2005 and was directed by Fiona Reilly, supervised by Roy Krakowicz and assisted by Deirdre Forde, Vincent Hanley, Jim McKeon and Aisling Mulcahy.

An approximately rectangular area measuring 61 m by 45 m (2080 m2) was stripped of topsoil by machine in an area identified during archaeological testing (Fig. 4, Plate 1). The site was primarily identified by an extensive spread of topsoil and red brick rubble mix (52). This deposit was left in situ except where more detailed investigations were undertaken. Individual features were also identified in the west and north-east of the site.

Since the archaeological deposits were relatively late in date and the activities represented by these deposits were extensive and repetitive it was decided that full excavation of the entire site was not warranted. Eight trenches and a 13 m by 10 m area (Area K) were therefore excavated in targeted locations within the site.

The entire area was divided into 10 m by 10 m grids A-MM (Fig. 4). Artefacts uncovered during initial cleaning were assigned to the relevant grids.

Trench 1 This trench was excavated during testing. At least six firing events were identified in the southern end of the trench and one in the northern (as described above). Although located adjacent to Area K, no correlation was sought between features in the two areas.

Trench 2 Dug by hand, orientated from north to south at the south-eastern extremity of the brick rubble (52), in an attempt to identify any boundary or retaining features associated with the kiln activity.

Trench 3 This trench was excavated by machine, orientated north to south and located through the centre of the site to identify the depth and nature of the stratigraphy.

Trench 4 This trench was excavated by machine along the southern side of the site parallel to the stream channel to identify the edge of the kiln activity and any features associated with the channel.

Trenches 5 and 6 These trenches were excavated by machine in the north-eastern part of the site through pit 200.

Trench 7 This trench was excavated through Area K in an attempt to identify the number of firings in the area.

Trench 8 Located at the western extremity of (52), this trench was dug to identify boundary features.

Area K This area was identified as an area of high potential during cleaning. It was hoped to identify the full extent of a single kiln firing in this area. Reduced and oxidised areas indicated the location of the brick clamps. Reduced areas were black and oxidised areas red or orange. During firing, if enough oxygen is present, oxidising conditions occur allowing carbon and sulphur in the clay to oxidise and diffuse as gas. If insufficient oxygen is present reducing conditions exist, this also causes black cores in bricks.

All machine work was carried out by a tracked machine with a toothless grading bucket and was operated under direct and continuous archaeological supervision.

7 A full written, drawn and photographic record was made following procedures outlined in the TVAS Ireland Field Recording Manual (First Edition 2003). Plans were made at scales of 1:100 of the entire site, 1:20 of detailed areas and sections were drawn at 1:10.

Excavation results (Figs 7-16, Plates 2-10)

The excavation revealed several phases of brick-making activity including clay extraction and firing. A context list is given as Appendix 1.

The site will be discussed as a whole and within each area from earliest to latest deposits. The area was divided into the north-east (clay extraction area), the central area and Area K (firing area), the southern area (firing and possible storage area) and the western area (possible storage area).

Evidence for firing activity in clamps usually took the following order: unoxidised alluvium, slightly reduced layer, black reduced layer and red oxidised material. In places, above the reduced alluvium was yellow, hard but crumbly alluvium, which had hardened in extreme heat. In other areas of the site this level was often oxidised to red. Loose and non-heat-affected sand was sometimes found associated with the final firing. Firing levels were sealed by a destruction layer of clay and brick rubble. It is not known whether several clamps were burned simultaneously therefore phases in trenches are confined to the immediate area in which they occur and cannot be equated with phases in other trenches.

The north-eastern area (Fig. 11, Plate 7)

Trenches 5 and 6

A large, angular, irregular shaped pit 200 (maximum 10 m by 5 m and 1 m deep) orientated NW/SE was found in the north-eastern area of the site (Fig. 11). The pit was filled with loose red bricks (255). This pit may have been a back-filled ‘brick-hole’ (a pit from which clay was extracted for the manufacture of bricks).

The central area (Fig. 4, Plates 3-4)

This area was defined by the rubble and topsoil spread (52) and two brick features (290 and 291). The area measured 42 m east to west by 26.50 m. Area K and the southern area were located within the central part of the site but will be discussed in detail separately (see below). Trenches 2, 3 and 8 will be discussed here. It was found that several levels of kiln activity overlay each other throughout the area.

Two brick features (290 and 291), similar to features 253 and 271 in the western area, were found at the western limit of kiln activity (Fig. 4, Plates 3-4). Both were formed of single courses of red brick. Brick feature 290 (2.30 m by 1.27 m and 0.07 m deep) appeared to sit on the rubble and topsoil layer 52 which overlay a redeposited alluvium with orange brick fleck inclusions (297 – not illustrated). This redeposited alluvium overlay a deposit with red brick rubble (298 – not illustrated). Brick feature 291 (1.30 m by 0.74 m and 0.10 m deep) was surrounded by a reduced deposit (257 – not illustrated). It was unclear whether feature 291 had sunk into the soft deposits or whether deposit 257 had occurred later. A linear cut (226 – described below in the western end) lay to the west of feature 291 and was sealed by deposit 257.

Trench 8 (Fig. 8)

No evidence for a structural boundary to the area or to the clamp was found, although scorching of the alluvium resulting from the kiln activity faded out at the western end of the trench. At least three separate overlying firings were identified in the east of the trench and two in the west. The western firings may be contemporary with the later two events in the east of the trench but it is not possible to

8 be definite since the deposits were cut by a pit (223). Pit 223, which was recorded in section, was U- shaped in profile with a rounded base, gradual sides and sharp breaks of slope at the top and base. It was filled with brick rubble and clay (497).

As in other areas, evidence for the firing activity was seen in the following order: unoxidised alluvium (51), slightly reduced layer (495, 491 and 552), black reduced layer (494, 492, 488, 499 and 551) and red oxidised material (493, 489, 486 and 550). In places, above the reduced alluvium, a yellow, hard but crumbly alluvium was recorded, which had hardened in extreme heat (487 and 490). In other areas of the site this level was often oxidised to red. Loose and non-heat-affected sand (496), was found associated with the final firing. The firing levels were sealed by a destruction layer (485/498). This destruction layer was then cut by pit 223.

Trench 3 (Fig. 9)

Four phases of clamps were visible in this trench.

Phase 1: The earliest phase in the trench is a reduced black layer (479) overlying a less reduced layer (480). A red sandy layer (481) overlay black deposit 479. Lenses of yellow and red scorched, oxidised material were also associated (483, 484 and 482). The deposits of this phase were cut by a large rubble-filled pit (218). A deep cut, (217) filled with rubble and clay was seen in the base of pit 218. Over red sandy layer 481 was a destruction level of grey silty clay and brick fragments (596) that was in turn cut by a large rubble-filled pit (219). Pit 219 was sealed by a clay and rubble layer (467). Subsequently deposit 52 overlay the rubble level.

Phase 2: Phase 2 was noted in the central area, represented by a reduced layer (557) and a red sandy layer (556). The southern sides of the deposits sealed a small pit (220). This pit also cut a destruction layer (565) on its southern side and was sealed by a reduced firing deposit (559). A second rubble and clay feature (221) was cut into the surface of layer 565 which was also cut by 222.

Phase 3: This phase was represented by an reduced and oxidised layer (566) which was over phase 2 firing deposit 559. Once more, the oxidised layer was covered in a clay and rubble destruction or preparation layer (560). Another rubble and clay filled pit (222) cut this layer.

Phase 4: The final phase of burning occurred on top of phase 3 rubble layer 560 and was represented by an oxidised layer (561).

A spread of clay and brick rubble (568) was found stretching from the stream/canal bank northwards. The rubble and topsoil spread (52) was found throughout the area.

Trench 2 (Fig. 10, Plates 5-6)

This trench was excavated in the south-eastern part of the site. Deposit 252 was a compacted brick and soil layer that covered much of the trench. The layer was removed to reveal a concentration of activity, related to brick firing, 1.50 m wide in the northern part of trench. No kiln-delimiting features were found but the activity clearly ceased close to the northern baulk. The sequence of events was not as clear as in other areas. From the trench section it can be estimated that at least three phases of firing occurred in the area.

Phase 1: The earliest reduced layers (283 and 288) were probably contemporary but in section were truncated by a rubble and clay filled cut (234). A sandy layer (280) was associated with deposit 288.

Phase 2: Overlying cut 234 was another reduced level (279, 261 and 278) so were four other sandy and oxidised layers (262, 286, 277 and 282).

9 Phase 3: The third phase was represented by two reduced layers (257 and 259) and two oxidised sandy deposits (284 and 258).

Two other phases may have been represented by localised reduced deposits 285 (no associated sand layer) and 266 (associated sandy layer 265). At the eastern end of the section a layer (263) was probably laid down at the same time as the reduced deposit 266 but since no firing occurred on it, it was not reduced by heat. As in other areas, a clay- and rubble-filled cut (203) truncated the eastern deposits. The destruction of the final clamp was represented in the western part of the section by deposit 281. Two unfired or ‘green bricks’ were found embedded into layer 263.

Area K (Figs 15-16, Plate 10)

A 13 m by 10 m area was excavated by hand in an attempt to determine the full area of a single firing. Evidence for three and possibly four phases of clamps were found overlying each other. The uppermost phase seems to preserve evidence for two separate clamps separated by an unburned area discussed below.

Evidence for brick benches (linear brick features on which green bricks were placed for firing) (375, 378 etc.) was found running west-north-west/east-south-east through the area. Trench 7 was subsequently excavated to determine how many phases of activity were present.

Phase 1: In a hand dug investigation trench in the south-west of Area K alternate bands of red (oxidised) (456) and black (reduced) (457) deposits could be seen running perpendicular to the later clamps mentioned above and represented an earlier brick clamp.

Phase 2: At least one early phase was evident in Trench 7, represented by oxidised materials 355, 651, 652, 655 & 658.

Phase 3: Possibly a third phase was also evident in Trench 7, represented by a reduced layer (598) and sand layer (597).

Phase 4: No brick benches were found but because of differential heating of the surface of the ground, alternating bands of reduced and oxidised earth indicated where the benches had been. In the final phase of activity the locations of two areas of benches were visible representing two separate clamps, separated by an unburnt strip (458). The linear impressions and colour changes were orientated in a west-north-west/east-south-east direction. Each colour change was given a context number and recorded, however only a representative sample of these contexts is described here. The locations of ten benches were found in the eastern half of the area and the locations of bricks were visible in six of them (375, 378, 381, 385, 387 and 392). The benches were between 0.30-0.40 m wide and narrower than the strips between, which were 0.50-0.70 m wide. The longest bench (381) was just over 6 m long though there were no definite terminals. These bench width dimensions are comparable with other excavated examples: at Clare Abbey, Co. Clare benches in the best preserved brick clamp measured 0.35-0.45 m in width (Taylor 2004 and 2006 and Hull 2005b, 32) and one at Conigar, Co. Limerick which was approximately 0.40 m wide (Wiggins 2002). The benches from Conigar were however longer than those at Clare Abbey which were 4.5-4.7 m long. The Conigar example was not fully excavated so the total length is unknown. The length of the benches was probably related to the number of bricks to be fired. The faint traces of five benches (395, 397, 399, 454 and between 450 and 451) were visible on the western side of the area with brick impressions visible only in 399 and 454. It is possible that these two clamps were fired at the same time or at least within a short time period.

Five cut features (227, 228, 229, 230 and 231), presumably pits or postholes, were recorded in the section of Trench 7 that was excavated to investigate the stratigraphy of the clamps. It was not entirely clear what these features represented, nor their place in the sequence. Features 228 and 229 may have preceded Phase 2, whilst features 227, 230 and 231 appeared to post-date Phase 2. All these features pre-dated the Phase 4 clamps.

10

Curiously, in the north-western quadrant, north-west of unburnt strip 458, nine pits were found dug into the surface (204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 210, 211, 212 and 213). These pits were filled with clay and brick rubble. It was not clear whether pits 206 and 207 cut this level or a later localised fire hardened surface (292 – not illustrated). Two other pits (209 and 215) were found on the south-western side of unburnt strip 458. The latter cut the unburnt deposit, while the former cut the fire hardened surface (292). The function of the pits, which were recorded are all across the site, is unknown but it can be suggested that they carried posts for some kind of temporary structures connected with the storage of bricks perhaps platforms on raised piles built after the clamps were broken open.

Southern area (Figs 12-14, Plates 8-9)

Trench 4

This trench was excavated to investigate whether any features were associated with the water channel to the south of the site. Since brick is a bulky commodity it is likely that it was transported by water, and it is possible that this channel was used to transport the brick to larger vessels on the Shannon.

A substantial layer of redeposited alluvium with occasional brick fragments (464) covered the natural alluvium (51) at the lowest level throughout the trench. This material was likely dredged up from the water channel either during cleaning of the channel itself or to build up the area for brick manufacture. Three pits (224, 216 and 233) cut this layer. The pit fills all contained red brick rubble. Three brick features which directly overlay 464 were also found. Two (463 and 461) were deliberately placed brick ‘structures’ while the third (232) was a linear cut filled with brick rubble that continued northwards into the baulk and ran into the water channel to the south. Brick features 463 (0.80 m by 0.60 m) and 461 (approximately 1.10 m by 0.90 m) were similar to other such features on site being one course high and constructed of complete and fragmented bricks. This rubble to the south of brick feature 461 may have formed a second course. A fourth pit (225) was seen in section dug into this earliest, pre-firing phase. The pit, in common with other pits, was filled with a grey clay and brick rubble mix.

The south-facing section showed at least four and possibly five or six phases of firing (Fig. 14). Unlike in other areas, many layers of ash survived.

Phase 1: The earliest phase of firing was represented by a reduced layer (582), an ash layer (586) and a red oxidised layer (585 and 594).

Phase 2: The second phase was sealed from the first by a sandy silt layer (581) and an oxidised layer (591). Grey sand (584) was associated with this phase as well as a silty clay layer (589) and yellow ash layers (588 and 580). The only brick bench (570) found on site partially survived in this section (Plate 8). The bench was one course high and three or four rows wide and was surrounded by coarse red, oxidised material (579). The irregular size and fragmented nature of the bricks suggests that the green bricks were not placed directly on the prepared level ground but on courses of fired brick. This phase was sealed by the reduced layer (578) associated with Phase 3.

Phase 3: This phase was represented by two yellow ash layers (587 and 577), two oxidised layers (583 and 576) and a sandy clay with some stone and brick inclusions (578).

Phase 4: The fourth phase was visible at the western end of the section and was represented by two ash layers (575 and 574) and an oxidised layer (573).

Phases 5&6: Finally a possible fifth phase between phases 1 and 2 was represented by reduced layers (592 and 593) and a possible sixth phase by oxidised layer (591) and ash layer (590).

11 The entire area was covered by the topsoil and brick rubble mix (571) and (572). One linear brick feature (275) was found on this layer. This deposit is of interest because some of the bricks used were so badly fired that they are oxidised red at one end and unfired grey clay at the other (Plate 9).

The western end (Fig. 7, Plate 2)

The site as a whole was mostly defined by the extent of deposit 52, a brick rubble and topsoil mix. This spread of material was absent from the western end of the site where brick features were found set into alluvium. These features were: three narrow parallel cuts with associated brick features and fills, three brick settings and one large linear spread of rubble.

The first two linear cuts 202 (5.20 m long by 0.30 m and 0.10 m deep) and 201 (7.00 m long by 0.28 m and 0.13 m deep), were orientated from north-west to south-east. The linear features were parallel and 2.50 m apart. The third cut, 226, was not recorded in plan. At the south-eastern end of linear cut 202 was a row of five red and orange bricks (250) set end to end (header to header). It was not possible to determine whether the bricks had slipped into the cut or whether they were intentionally set along its edge. The very soft nature of the alluvium had resulted in some bricks sinking into it.

Other brick features in the area were 271, 253 and 254. Feature 271 was 0.90 m south-east of brick row 250. Three parallel rows of bricks were set perpendicularly to the brick row with overall dimensions of 1.27 m by 0.30 m and 0.09 m deep. Slate fragments were found immediately to the north. Feature 253, 5 m south of feature 271 was more substantial but still only one course high (1.30 m by 0.80 m and 0.09 m deep). The bricks were set in two almost square features and as with the other brick features they had sunk into the alluvium. The third and smallest brick feature in the area (254), consisted of only four bricks set in a rough square (approximately 0.45 m by 0.30 m).

The final feature in this area (270) was an 11.40 m long spread of rubble that continued into the northern baulk and may have been a causeway leading to other brick firing areas and brick-holes to the north. There were depressions to the east and west of this feature which may have been water-logged during the period of the brickworks.

Finds

An assemblage of domestic and industrial artefacts was recovered from the site (Appendix 2). The majority of artefacts were found from cleaning the surface of the site and were assigned to the relevant grid co-ordinates.

Domestic detritus found on the site included 70 sherds of post-medieval/modern pottery, nine fragments of clay tobacco pipe, three shards of glass, a piece of metal, a broken stone flag and a piece of animal bone. Most of this material was found on the surface of the site.

Industrial finds included two unfired or ‘green’ bricks in Trench 2 and six fired red bricks. Two fragments of coal were also found during the excavation but were not retained.

A lithic item was also found.

Archaeometry of the brick by Dr S Pavía (Figs 17-22, Plates 11-32)

Summary

This work applies analytical techniques of the physical sciences to Irish brick and raw clay in order to gather evidence of ceramic technologies, provenance and sources of raw materials. Six bricks gathered from the archaeological excavation at E2080, Coonagh West, Co. Limerick were analysed. In addition, two unfired bricks found in the excavation, as well as raw clay gathered from the site were studied.

12

The unfired brick and the local raw clay were fired in the laboratory at a range of firing temperatures, and their mineral composition compared to that of the brick.

Petrographic microscopy and X-Ray diffractometry were used to study the brick, the unfired brick and the local raw clay. Firing experiments and loss on ignition tests were also carried out.

According to the results obtained, the following has been concluded:

The Coonagh West brick was made with silicate-based, non-calcareous clay gathered locally. Organic matter (probably turf) was added to the brick in order to assist firing. The Coonagh West brick, as well as the raw brick found fired in the laboratory and the local fired clay, are silicate based materials that include a significant amount of quartz and smaller amounts of filosilicates, feldspar and hematite. The mineralogical assemblages in the bricks and the fired clay, determined with XRD, and the occasional presence of organic matter suggest that the firing temperature ranged from 500 to 1000ºC. Sintering and new-formation of mineral phases recorded under the petrographic microscope evidenced firing temperatures of, at least, 850 ºC; consistent with those deduced from the XRD analysis. The wide range of firing temperatures together with the wide variation in the physical properties of the brick, and the presence of black core and diffuse dark areas suggest that, rather than using kilns, the bricks were fired in clamps. The red shades that colour the brick are due to the presence of finely-grained ferric iron oxide (hematite) and suggest that the brick was fired in a predominantly oxidising atmosphere. The black core and reduction areas are due to the presence of organic matter, which was added to the brick to assist firing and was responsible for the generation of local reducing conditions during firing.

Introduction

Ceramic material constitutes a historic record. Physical sciences applied to products of the clay and silicate industries analyses ceramic technologies, provenance, sources of raw materials and trade or exchange patterns.

This work applies analytical techniques of the physical sciences to Irish brick and raw clay in order to gather evidence of ceramic technologies, provenance and sources of raw materials.

Materials

Six bricks, two unfired bricks and local raw clay were analysed. The details of the samples analysed, as supplied by TVAS, can be found in the table below. The sample letters used here are solely for the purpose of the archaeometry report.

Table 1: Details of brick and clay samples sent for archaeometry

Sample no. Find No Deposit Description A E2080:263:1 263 Unfired brick, co-jointing B E2080:263:2 263 Unfired brick, co-jointing C E2080:677:1 677 Brick D E2080:677:2 677 Brick E E2080:677:3 677 Brick F E2080:677:4 677 Brick G E2080:677:5 677 Brick H E2080:677:6 677 Brick I - 51 Clay

Methodology

13 X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis

The samples were analysed with a diffractometer Philips PW 1830 /40 using Cu  radiation with a voltage of 40 Kv and intensity of 40 ma. The area was scanned between 3 and 40 degrees 2. The method used was the powder method.

The mineralogy of the six bricks and that of the unfired bricks and the raw clay were analysed, studied and compared. The XRD patterns resulting from the analysis can be found in Figures 17-22.

Raw clay collected locally was fired in a furnace, in an oxidizing atmosphere, at temperatures of 440, 600 and 800ºC. The mineralogy of the clay fired at the above temperatures was also analysed.

In order to study ceramic provenance, the mineralogy of the brick was compared to that of the fired clay.

The mineralogy of unfired brick found in the excavation was also analysed with the methods aforementioned, and compared to that of the brick and the local fired clay.

This technique was essential to identify the type and source of raw clay used to make the bricks and whether the bricks were locally made or imported.

Petrographic microscope analysis

Thin sections of brick were polished to the standard thickness of 20 μm, covered with a glass slip, and examined with a petrographic microscope. The samples were impregnated in a deep blue coloured resin under vacuum before thin sectioning. This resin appears a deep blue colour in the petrographic microscope photographs (Plates 11-32). Petrographic examination was carried out using polarized transmitted light and crossed polars, with eye pieces of 2, 10, 20 and 40 magnifications, using both natural and polarised light.

Petrographic microscope analysis of the brick temper was undertaken. Temper includes all phases with a diameter greater than 0.015 mm. It can be added artificially (artificial temper) or can be present in the clay (natural temper). The use of temper analysis to identify local or foreign ceramic production is a powerful method especially for coarse-grained ceramics. However, it was evidenced under the microscope that the Coonagh West brick contained very scarce temper, therefore, this could not be used to investigate provenance.

Petrographic microscopy was also used to analyse the brick matrix. Petrographic analysis also focused on features which allow quantifying sintering and vitrification including birefringence of brick matrices, amount of pores and cements, segregation and new-formation of mineral phases.

Determination of the mass loss on ignition (LOI)

The mass loss on ignition is related to the organic content of certain soils, such as sandy soils that contain little or no clay, or chalky material, peats and organic clays containing more than about 10% organic matter.

The proportion of material (by mass) that is lost from a soil by ignition was calculated at specific temperatures.

The samples were prepared and weighted according to the laboratory procedures for this specific test. The crucible with soil was placed in the unheated muffle furnace and heated to 440 +/- 25 degree Celsius. This temperature was maintained for a period of not less than three hours, or until constant mass was achieved. The crucible and contents were removed from the furnace and allowed cooling to

14 room temperature in the desiccators. The crucible and contents were then weighed to the nearest 0.001 g (m2).

The mass loss on ignition, LOI, was calculated, as a percentage of the dry mass from the equation:

LOI = (M1 - M2) / (M1 – Mc) * 100

Where:

M1 is the mass of the crucible and dry soil (g) M2 is the mass of the crucible and specimen after ignition (g) Mc is the mass of the crucible (g)

Results

Brick provenance

The mineralogical assemblage and colour of the brick are similar to those of the local clay fired in the laboratory. This arguments support local production. Therefore, the brick was probably made with clay gathered locally. According to the X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis results (Figs 17-22), the Coonagh West brick is a silicate based material that includes a significant amount of quartz and smaller amounts of filosilicates, feldspar (mainly sodium plagioclase, occasionally potassium feldspar) and hematite.

The raw brick found in the excavation and the local fired clay display a very similar mineral assemblage to that of the brick, with slight variations that are related to the firing temperature as explained below.

Firing temperature

As aforementioned, the brick was made with silicate-based, non-calcareous, raw clay. As a result, diagnostic minerals were not produced during firing. The lack of diagnostic minerals made it difficult to establish a firing temperature range. However, firing temperature estimates were deduced from petrographic and XRD analyses as well as from the firing experiments.

X-Ray diffraction analysis of firing temperatures: The mineralogical assemblages in the bricks and the fired clay, determined with XRD, and the occasional presence of organic matter suggest that, the firing temperature ranged from 500 to 1000ºC. This deduction is explained below.

As it can be seen from the XRD patterns in Figures 17-22, the reflection 4.45-4.50 Å at approximately 20 degrees 2θ was taken as the representative reflection in order to assess the total of the filosilicates (total clay). This reflection appeared in all samples except for Bricks C-G. The main clay mineral constituent illite starts to decompose between 650 and 700 ºC, its amount decreases rapidly between 800 and 850 ºC and disappears completely at 950ºC (Peters and Iberg 1978). As aforementioned of samples C-H analysed, only one brick (Brick H) includes a significant amount of clay, therefore, this brick was fired under 800ºC. In the remaining five samples the total clay reflection has disappeared. According to the above, these bricks reached a firing temperature above 950ºC. This suggests that approximately 15% of the brick was probably fired under 800ºC.

The absence of new-formed phases of high temperature, including high temperature silica (such as mullite), muscovite and spinel (clay minerals form new silicates mullite and spinel above 900°C); together with the absence of significant new-formed hematite (except in Brick F) and plagioclase, which require temperatures above 1000°C, suggest that the brick rarely reached temperatures above 1000°C. From the amount of samples studied, we can conclude that approximately 15% of the brick was probably fired just above 1000 ºC.

15

The presence of the remains of unburned organic matter in at least two brick specimens suggests that approximately 30% of the brick, locally, did not reach 500ºC.

The findings below further support firing temperatures between 500 and 1000ºC.

All bricks except for Brick B contained hematite in varying amounts. Hematite is also present in the raw clay and brick, when fired at 800°C.

A characteristic blunt reflection of 9.2-10 Å is present in the X-ray diffraction trace at 2θ = 9.05-9.38. It appears in the fired clay, the brick fired in the laboratory and Brick H, and disappears in Bricks C-G. This reflection is supposed to indicate the presence of either potassium mica (muscovite) or iron plus magnesium mica (biotite) while illite reflections are in the range 9.92-10.02 Å. It is often considered the result of the combination of illite and mica and reflects thermally treated clay. In the samples analysed, this reflection is clearly linked to the 4.45-4.50 Å reflection representative of the total clay. Therefore, rather than mica it can be deduced that it represent illite (clay).

The temperatures above refer to the behaviour of pure minerals while, in contrast, the raw clay used to make the brick was a complex sediment containing alkalis (Na-feldspar) and ferrous oxide, and it is possible that these have acted as fluxes lowering the onset of liquid-state sintering. This means that the firing temperature can be slightly over-estimated.

The firing experiments evidenced that increasing temperature causes the disappearance of the filosilicates peak (total clay content). No other outstanding changes in the brick’s mineral association can be evidenced between the lower and higher temperature bricks (with the exception of the disappearance of the clay content). However, the depletion of the clay seems to be coupled with a slight increase of Na-plagioclase and mica (muscovite). This means that, as the firing temperature raises, the clay minerals decompose and mica and plagioclase are sintered (new formed).

The limit of detection of XRD is 5%. Therefore, the fact that not many outstanding changes in the brick’s mineral association can be evidenced between the lower and higher temperature bricks does not mean that transformation did not occur.

Petrographic microscope analysis of firing temperatures: As it can be seen from the microphotographs (Plates 11-32) transformation during firing was clear under the petrographic microscope. Petrographic microscope analysis showed abundant examples of sintering and new formation in all bricks.

Through the microscope, sintering and new-formation of new mineral phases as a result of firing was clearly evidenced in both the brick matrix and as transformation of temper and fuel additions. The following microscope findings support the firing temperatures deduced from X-Ray diffraction analysis.

In the brick matrix, illite flakes often showed overgrowths sintered during firing. In addition, the fragments of opaque fuel often displayed segregated silica. It was evidenced under the microscope that this silica is often either amorphous or of a low-crystallinity. New formed crystals were also recorded interspersed in the matrix, however, their low crystallinity made optical identification difficult. As aforementioned, the temper is scarce, however, fragments of temper consisting of polycrystalline quartz, feldspar, possible sandstone and chert were occasionally recorded. In most instances, these showed that some transformation had taken place during firing, displaying overgrowths and/or segregated silica of low crystallinity.

Petrographic analysis evidenced firing temperatures of, at least, 850ºC, based on the presence of transformed filosilicates (illite and mica-muscovite), new formed silicates (Na-plagioclase) and segregated, amorphous silica. This is consistent with the firing temperatures deduced from the XRD analysis results above.

16

Firing technology

Three facts suggest that, rather than using kilns, the bricks were probably fired in clamps:

1 The wide range of firing temperatures (under 500 to approximately 1000ºC) deduced from the firing experiments and XRD/microscope/hand sample analyses suggests that, rather than using kilns, the bricks were fired in clamps. According to Tite (1995) open fires or clamps are characterised by fast heating rates and very short times at maximum temperature. ‘Maximum temperatures range from 500- 900°C with a high proportion in the range 600-800°C and temperature variations of several hundred degrees are observed within a single firing’ (ibid).

2 The variability in the physical properties of the brick including colour, hardness and cohesion agree with the wide range of firing temperatures and can also be associated to clamp firing.

3 The presence of black core and diffuse dark areas in the Coonagh West brick have been linked to the presence of organic matter, added as a fuel to assist firing. However, black core and diffuse dark areas may also relate to clamp firing as, in clamp firing, the ware is only very rarely fully oxidised because of two reasons: a) the firing atmosphere in open fires can change rapidly from reducing to oxidizing subject to fluctuations in wind and weather, and b) the ware is in contact with the fuel and there is insufficient firing time for organic material within the clay to be burnt out.

The red shades that colour the brick evidences that the brick was fired in a predominantly oxidising atmosphere. Shades of red predominate, with occasional patches of grey-black and blue colour. It is generally accepted that red or brown colour is due to the presence of finely-grained ferric iron oxide (hematite), in an oxygen-rich atmosphere, from iron-bearing minerals in the raw clay.

In the brick studied, the continuous presence of Fe, mainly in the form of hematite, determined with XRD and microscopy agrees with the above confirming that the colour is due to the hematite content.

Petrographic examination evidenced that the patches of grey-black and blue colour are black core and reduction areas due to the presence of Carbon in organic matter. Black core and reduction areas are due to the reduction of iron in local areas where the organic matter (added to the brick to assist firing) was partially burned.

Chemical composition of the brick and the fired clay

The chemical composition of the brick, derived from the results of mineralogical analysis by X-Ray diffraction is as follows:

Quartz SiO2 Feldspar (Na-plagioclase) (Na) (Al, Si) Si2O8 Clay minerals- (illite) Si3 AlO10 (OH, F) 4 K Al (Mg, Si) Mica- (muscovite) Si3 AlO10 (OH, F) 4 K Al Hematite Fe2O3

Loss on ignition

According to the loss on ignition results shown below (Table 2), both the local raw clay and the unfired brick found in the excavation display a similar organic matter content. This further agrees with a local origin for the Coonagh West brick.

17 Table 2: Loss on ignition results

Material M1 (g) Mass of Mc (g) Mass of M2 (g) Mass of LOI, as percentage of crucible and dry crucible crucible and soil the dry mass % sample after ignition Clay 21.6454 15.0550 21.3625 4.29 Unfired Brick 22.8442 16.1251 22.5614 4.21 263-1 Unfired Brick 23.0395 15.7244 22.7569 3.86 263-2

Conclusion

The Coonagh West brick is a silicate based material that includes a significant amount of quartz and smaller amounts of filosilicates, feldspar and hematite.

The raw brick found in the excavation and fired in the laboratory and the local fired clay display a very similar mineral assemblage to that of the brick. Therefore, the brick was probably made with clay gathered locally.

The mineralogical assemblages in the bricks and the fired clay, determined with XRD, and the occasional presence of organic matter suggest that, the firing temperature ranged from 500 to 1000ºC.

The presence/disappearance of the total clay reflection with rising temperature indicates that 15% of the brick was probably fired under 800ºC, while the scarce amount of new-formed phases of high temperature suggests that approximately 15% of the brick was probably fired just above 1000ºC. In addition, the presence of the remains of unburned organic matter evidenced that approximately 30% of the brick, locally, did not reach 500ºC.

Sintering and new formation of new mineral phases as a result of firing was clearly evidenced under the petrographic microscope. Petrographic analysis evidenced firing temperatures of, at least, 850ºC; consistent with the firing temperatures deduced from the XRD analysis, and based on the presence of transformed filosilicates (illite and mica-muscovite), new formed silicates (Na-plagioclase) and segregated, amorphous silica.

The wide range of firing temperatures together with the wide variation in the physical properties of the brick and the presence of black core and diffuse dark areas suggest that, rather than using kilns, the bricks were fired in clamps.

The red shades that colour the brick are due to the presence of finely-grained ferric iron oxide (hematite) and suggest that the brick was fired in a predominantly oxidising atmosphere.

The black core and reduction areas are due to the presence of organic matter, which was added to the brick to assist firing and was responsible for the generation of local reducing conditions during firing.

Pottery by Edel Ruttle

A total of 70 sherds were presented for study. Following identification and reassembly this was reduced to 58 sherds of pottery and one pipe. All the material was collected by hand with the highest quantity of material coming from deposit 52 (mid-grey brown clayey silt) yielding 29 finds, closely followed by 27 finds from deposit 50 (topsoil).

Methodology

18 The sherds were identified visually and the results are shown in Table 3 below, showing the context and finds number; the identification of the fabric type; the diagnostic description i.e. rim, handle etc; the link of certain sherds within and with other contexts and a date.

Discussion

Five distinct groups of pottery emerged from the study; creamware, pearlware, transfer print ware, glazed red earthenware and stoneware.

Creamware This ware was made in factories in the United Kingdom, mainly in Staffordshire, from the late 18th century and was developed by Josiah Wedgwood to compete with porcelain. This mass produced tableware replaced tin glazed earthernware as the everyday tableware (Savage and Newman 1985, 88). Its proliferation in the archaeological record indicates that it was easily obtainable and inexpensive (Meenan 2007). Creamware is well represented through out the assemblage.

Pearlware Pearlware was a development of creamware which included adding cobalt to the glaze to produce a blue tinge and forms the basis for a variety of decorative techniques. These include transfer printing and overglaze painting. There is just one piece of pearlware represented here.

Transfer printed ware Transfer print was a decorative technique developed in the mid-18th century and used on creamwares, pearlwares and stonewares. This process consisted of inking engraved copper plate, transferring the design to paper and then pressing it onto the vessel when still wet (Savage and Newman 1985, 296). There is a good assortment of transfer printed ware in the assemblage; floral motifs, horizontal striped decoration and at least five different Willow pattern designs are represented.

Glazed red earthenware Glazed red earthenware is a coarseware that may have been locally produced. The fabric of the piece in this collection is sandy and oxidised to a light orange to red colour. The clear lead glaze in the interior takes its colour from the fabric (Jennings 1981, 157). These are also known as brownwares and were made widely in England and Ireland in the later 17th and 18th centuries (Dunlevy 1988, 24-5). A typical 18th century kiln was excavated at Tuam, Co. Galway with milk pans and dishes comprising a majority of the vessels (Carey and Meenan 2004).

Stoneware Stoneware originated in Germany from the 16th to 17th centuries. Stoneware was developed in the later 17th century in England to compete with imported German wares. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, stoneware bottles were widely used for storage (for example ink bottles) and food and drink processing (for example beers and whiskeys). The two pieces from this group have a grey fabric with a mixture of grey and brown glaze. Both rim sherds are necks of jars or jugs.

Asbestos cement pipe Asbestos was largely used in Ireland in the mid-20th century. The fragments retrieved from this site appear to be part of a pipe.

19 Table 3: Identification of post-medieval pottery

Find No. Cut Deposit Identification Description Link Date E2080:50:4 50 Pearlware Base Co-joins with 50:5 19th / 20th c E2080:50:5 50 Pearlware Base Co-joins with 50:4 19th / 20th c E2080:50:6 50 Creamware Body 19th / 20th c E2080:50:7 50 Transfer printed ware Body; blue flower decoration 19th / 20th c E2080:50:8 50 Transfer printed ware Body; blue speckled decoration 19th / 20th c E2080:50:9 50 Creamware Body Similar colouration to 52:10- 19th / 20th c 12, 15, 18 E2080:50:10 50 Willow pattern Body; blue decoration Same print as 50:30 19th / 20th c E2080:50:11 50 Transfer printed ware plate Rim; blue decoration 19th / 20th c E2080:50:12 50 Transfer printed ware Body; blue, dark brown and light Same print as 50:14 & 52:7 19th / 20th c brown horizontal stripe decoration E2080:50:14 50 Transfer printed ware Body; blue and light brown Same print as 50:12 & 52:7 19th / 20th c horizontal stripe decoration E2080:50:15 50 Creamware Body 19th / 20th c E2080:50:17 50 Transfer printed plate Rim; blue and impressed decoration Same as 270:1 19th / 20th c on scalloped rim E2080:50:18 50 Transfer printed vessel Rim & body; blue horizontal stripe Same as 50:25, similar to 19th / 20th c decoration 50:22 E2080:50:19 50 Creamware Body 19th / 20th c E2080:50:20 50 Creamware plate/shallow dish Base Co-joins with 50:24, same as 19th / 20th c 52:3 E2080:50:21 50 Creamware Body 19th / 20th c E2080:50:22 50 Transfer printed ware Body; blue and green horizontal Similar to 50:18 & 50:25 19th / 20th c stripe decoration E2080:50:23 50 Willow pattern vessel Base & body; blue decoration Same print as 52:5 19th / 20th c E2080:50:24 50 Creamware plate/shallow dish Base Co-joins with 50:20, same as 19th / 20th c 52:3 E2080:50:25 50 Transfer printed vessel Body; blue horizontal stripe Same as 50:18, similar to 19th / 20th c decoration 50:22 E2080:50:26 50 Transfer printed ware Rim; embossed and blue decoration Same decoration as 50:27 19th / 20th c E2080:50:27 50 Transfer printed ware Body; blue decoration Same decoration as 50:26 19th / 20th c E2080:50:28 50 Creamware handle Handle 19th / 20th c E2080:50:29 50 Creamware Body 19th / 20th c E2080:50:30 50 Willow pattern Rim, blue decoration Same print as 50:10 19th / 20th c

20 Find No. Cut Deposit Identification Description Link Date E2080:50:31 50 Stoneware jar/jug? Curved rim Same as 50:32 19th / 20th c E2080:50:32 50 Stoneware jar/jug? Curved rim Same as 50:31 19th / 20th c E2080:52:3 52 Creamware plate/shallow dish Base Same as 50:20 & 50:24 19th / 20th c E2080:52:4 52 Creamware Body 19th / 20th c E2080:52:5 52 Willow pattern vessel Base; blue decoration Same print as 50:23 19th / 20th c E2080:52:6 52 Transfer print plate Base; blue decoration 19th / 20th c E2080:52:7 52 Transfer printed ware Rim & body; blue and light brown Same print as 50:12 & 50:14 19th / 20th c horizontal stripe with impressed decoration E2080:52:8 52 Creamware Rim 19th / 20th c E2080:52:9 52 Creamware Body 19th / 20th c E2080:52:10 52 Creamware Rim Similar colouration to 50:9, 19th / 20th c 52:11-12, 15, 18 E2080:52:11 52 Creamware Body Similar colouration to 50:9, 19th / 20th c 52:10, 12, 15, 18 E2080:52:12 52 Creamware Body Similar colouration to 50:9, 19th / 20th c 52:10-11, 15, 18 E2080:52:13 52 Willow pattern plate/shallow Body; blue decoration Same as 52:14 & 52:16 19th / 20th c dish E2080:52:14 52 Willow pattern plate/shallow Rim; blue decoration Same as 52:13 & 52:16 19th / 20th c dish E2080:52:15 52 Creamware Body Similar colouration to 50:9, 19th / 20th c 52:10-12, 18 E2080:52:16 52 Willow pattern plate/shallow Base; blue decoration Same as 52:13 & 52:14 19th / 20th c dish E2080:52:17 52 Transfer print ware Rim; scalloped rim, blue, brown, Co-joins with 52:19 19th / 20th c green & yellow decoration E2080:52:18 52 Creamware Body Similar colouration to 50:9, 19th / 20th c 52:10-12, 15 E2080:52:19 52 Transfer print ware Rim; scalloped rim, green & blue Co-join with 52:17 19th / 20th c decoration E2080:52:20a-g 52 Transfer print bowl Rim & body; brown horizontal 7 pieces co-joining 19th / 20th c stripes and blue flower decoration E2080:52:21 52 Transfer print ware Body; blue decoration (possible Same as 52:22-24 19th / 20th c willow pattern) E2080:52:22 52 Transfer print ware Body; blue decoration (possible Same as 52:21, 23-24 19th / 20th c

21 Find No. Cut Deposit Identification Description Link Date willow pattern) E2080:52:23 52 Transfer print ware Body; blue decoration (possible Same as 52:21-22, 24 19th / 20th c willow pattern) E2080:52:24 52 Transfer print ware Body; blue decoration (possible Same as 52:21-23 19th / 20th c willow pattern) E2080:52:25 52 Creamware Rim; raised decoration at scalloped Same as 355:2 19th / 20th c edge E2080:252:1 252 Glazed red earthernware Base; glazed on the interior 17th – 20th c E2080:255:1 200 255 Creamware Rim 19th / 20th c E2080:270:1 270 Transfer printed plate Rim; blue and impressed decoration Same as 50:17 19th / 20th c on scalloped rim E2080:270:2 270 Creamware Body 19th / 20th c E2080:270:3a-b 270 Asbestos cement pipe fragment Body 20th c E2080:291:1 291 Creamware Body 19th / 20th c E2080:355:1 355 Transfer print plate Rim; Raised decoration, with blue Same as 458:5-7 19th / 20th c decoration and scalloped rim E2080:355:2 355 Creamware Rim; raised decoration at scalloped Same as 52:25 19th / 20th c edge E2080:458:5 458 Transfer print plate Rim; Raised decoration, with blue Same as 355:1, 458:6-7 19th / 20th c decoration and scalloped rim E2080:458:6 458 Transfer print plate Body Same as 355:1, 458:5, 7 19th / 20th c E2080:458:7 458 Transfer print plate Body Same as 355:1, 458:5-6 19th / 20th c E2080:655:1 655 Transfer print ware Body; blue decoration (possible 19th / 20th c willow pattern) E2080:676:1 676 Transfer print ware Rim; blue decoration 19th / 20th c

22 Clay tobacco pipe by Edel Ruttle (Fig. 23, Plate 33)

Nine pieces of clay tobacco pipe were examined (Table 4). All the material was collected by hand with the highest quantity of material coming from deposit 50 (topsoil) yielding four finds. A maximum number of nine clay tobacco pipes are represented in this assemblage.

Two complete bowls are present in the assemblage (Plate 33). E2080:51:1 has a thin walled bowl and a shallow pedestal spur parallel to the rim, placing it in the 18th century (Ayto 2002, 8). E2080:52:2 is a highly decorated bowl (Fig. 23). The base of the bowl is scalloped with three raised lines with beads and letters in between on the front and rear of bowl and the mouth is outlined. On the left of the bowl (looking down the stem) is a crowned harp and on the right a human form. A pipe with this type of decoration is from the late 19th century to 20th century.

There are five bowl fragments with features datable to the late 17th to early 19th century. Milled rims and pedestal spurs first appear in the record in the late 17th century (as seen on E2080:50:1) (ibid, 4). E2080:50:3 is an almost complete bowl (the rim is missing), is ornamented with close spaced raised longitudinal ridges and grooves all around the bowl and has a shallow pedestal spur (Fig. 23, Plate 33). The decoration indicates an 18th century date. E2080:290:1 is also of 18th century date with a pedestal spur parallel to the rim (ibid, 8) (Fig. 23, Plate 33). There is raised decoration on both sides of the spur of a crest with a central line and three beads either side. E2080 459:1 has a thin brittle wall and pedestal spur dating it to late 18th to early 19th century (ibid). E2080:458:4 has a milled rim and an oval stamp on the rear of the bowl but is too worn to see the motif.

The remaining finds are a bowl fragment and a stem fragment with no diagnostic features.

Discussion

The clay tobacco pipes in this assemblage date from the earliest 17th century to the 20th century. This supports the evidence of the brick making activities at site E2080.

23 Table 4: Catalogue of clay tobacco pipe

Dimensions (mm) Wgt Find no. Cut Deposit Identification L H Cross-sec Bore Bowl Spur Pcs Comment (g) Th Diam L E2080:50:1 - 50 Bowl fragment 23 2 1 2 Milled below the rim E2080:50:2 - 50 Stem fragment 22 circular 6 2 1 <1 E2080:50:3 - 50 Bowl with stem 8 15 circular 7 2 2 13 x 4 1 3 Decorated bowl and fragment 15 pedestal spur E2080:50:16 - 50 Bowl with stem 4 26 2 2.5 1 1 fragment E2080:51:1 - 51 Bowl with stem 22 40 oval 10 x 2.50 2 17 3 1 12 Pedestal spur fragment 8 E2080:52:2 - 52 Bowl 34 2 14 1 7 Raised decoration E2080:290:1a-f - 290 Bowl with stem 40 oval 10 x 2 1-4 5 6 7 Raised decoration on fragments 7 pedestal spur, Pieces co- joining E2080:458:4 - 458 Bowl fragment 36 28 2 1 2 Milled rim, stamp E2080:459:1 215 459 Bowl fragment 36 33 1.50 1 3 2 3 Pedestal spur

24 Glass by Edel Ruttle

Three pieces of glass were examined (Table 5). The glass was collected by hand from topsoil (deposit 50), red/brown silt (deposit 458) and blue clay (deposit 464).

E2080:458:1 is a shard of a cylindrical bottle base with a 26 mm kick-up. There is no moulding seam on the shard and the bottle is fairly uniform in shape.

The other two shards are curved and also from bottles of two different shades of light green.

Discussion

The bottle base shard (E2080:458:1) does not look to be free-blown but also it is not a 20th century factory mould either. The earliest this bottle could date to is the early nineteenth century when wooden, then metal, moulds replaced free-blown bottles (Hedges 2002, 23). The other two shards have no features to distinguish them from free-blown or moulded and could date from, at the earliest, the late 18th century to, at the latest, early 20th century.

Table 5: Catalogue of glass

Find No Location Deposit Description Comment Pcs Weight Dimensions (mm) (g) L Th Diam E2080:50:33 Site 50 Light green bottle 1 19 6 body sherd E2080:458:1 Area K 458 Dark green bottle Kick-up 1 179 11 base sherd (26mm) E2080:464:1 Trench 4 464 Light green bottle 1 3 5 body sherd

Metal by Miriam Carroll and Annette Quinn, Tobar Archaeological Services

One nail came from the excavations in Area K. The nail is likely to be post-medieval in date as the majority of the finds recovered from the site are of similar date. While different nail types can be identified through their distinct heads and/or size (e.g. horseshoe nails), little can be said of the typological development of nails with rectangular or circular heads which continued in use from the medieval period through to the nineteenth century. The nail from Coonagh West is corroded but may have a domed head as shown on an x-ray of the artefact.

Nail: A005/2010 E2080:458:2. Fe. L. 33.6mm, Wt. 6.3g. Complete. Small corroded nail with extant head. X-ray suggests head is slightly domed.

Stone by Edel Ruttle

A single stone item was examined (see Table 6). The find was collected by hand from the deposit 276, a large spread of grey clay and brick rubble.

This fragment of stone is sandstone and is blue in colour. It has a flat surface and one straight edge. Judging by the thickness of the stone and the flat surface this piece was structural, most likely a flag.

Sources of sandstone

There are characteristic mollusc trails on the base of the stone indicative of Moher stone, particularly from the Liscannor and Doonagore quarries (Halpin 2003). This type of stone is quarried from Liscannor to the Shannon Estuary.

25

Discussion

Coonagh West is located on undifferentiated Visean Limestones (GSI 1999) therefore; this sandstone flag was not of a local production. It is likely that the stone came from a County Clare quarry.

Table 6: Catalogue of stone

Find No. Cut Deposit Sample Description Weight (g) Dimensions (mm) E2080:276:1 276 - Broken stone flag 2350 204x198x29

Dimensions are at widest point

Bone by Matilda Holmes

One fragment of bone (E2080:458:3) was identified from this site, a cremated phalange from a medium sized mammal.

Lithic by Joanna Nolan

Introduction

A single item of flint was recovered. The details of the artefacts were catalogued on a Filemaker™ database. The descriptive terminology in the catalogue and report follows Woodman et al 2006.

The area where this road was built is “underlain by bedded Carboniferous Limestone with glacial drift deposits of varying thickness covering the limestone.....General overburden geology of the area consists of soft alluvial and estuarine silts, clays, peats and muds underlain by glacial tills including gravels and boulder layers in the lower lying areas with firmer glacial clays and dense gravels in the more elevated parts” (Limerick County Council 2000, 46). This limestone area with some areas of glacial gravel would provide sources for the chert raw material used in other assemblages from the project. There is no obvious flint source but the single piece was probably from the derived mixed lithologies contained in the glacial gravels.

Results

A single item was recovered from this site (Table 7).

Table 7: Lithic material from excavations at E2080

Find no. Item L W T Retouch Raw material (mm) (mm) (mm) E2080:52:1 flake 15.58+ 21.45 06.80 no flint

This item was recovered from context 52, the uppermost deposit associated with this brick manufacturing site. This appears to have been a mixed context deriving from the general topsoil of the area and the brick-making activities that were carried on here in the 19th century. It is likely that the lithic item was disturbed out of context and incorporated into these deposits while these brick-making activities were being carried on here. Therefore this item can only be regarded as a stray find. The item is a small, broken, hinged tertiary flake; it was produced by hard hammer direct percussion. It displays no further traits which could tie it to a specific cultural period. Beyond its being the product of core reduction, no information is available as to function.

26 Samples

Six samples were collected from the site (Appendix 3). Four were soil samples, one of charcoal and one of wood retrieved for identification. None of the samples required sieving or floating. Three of the soil samples were not processed and have been discarded. The fourth was of clay that was used by Dr S Pavía as discussed above.

Charcoal by Mark Robinson

Sample 4 from Area K, deposit 50, was hand collected charcoal and was scanned under a binocular microscope for charcoal, seeds, chaff etc. A representative range of charcoal was picked out, broken transversely and examined at x50 magnification, enabling ring-porous taxa to be identified. An estimate was made of the abundance of each taxon of charcoal. It contained much charcoal of Ulmus sp. (elm).

Wood by Lorna O’Donnell

Methodology

Sampling and processing

The wood was examined and the woodworking evidence recorded, then a cross-section was broken from each piece for species identification, ring width analysis and assessment for dendrochronological dating.

Identification of the wood

Samples one cell thick was taken with a razor blade from the transverse, radial and tangential planes of the wood. Analysis of thin sections was completed under a transmitted light microscope, at magnifications of 100x, 200x and 400x. The anatomical structure of the wood samples was identified using reference material and keys (Schweingruber 1978; Hather 2000).

Results

One timber was identified, Sample 6. This is a half split oak (Quercus sp) fast grown oak, with sapwood present.

Discussion (Fig. 24)

The excavation of site E2080 at Coonagh West, Co. Limerick has revealed evidence of multiple brick clamps, a brick hole, and linear cuts. From cartographic evidence it can be said that the site was in operation in the early to mid 19th century. It is not known whether manufacture on this specific site started in the preceding century but as Coonagh bricks were used in Patrick Street in Limerick (discussed below) brick was being manufactured either here or in the vicinity in the late 18th century.

The earliest known bricks come from Jericho in Israel and date to c. 7000 BC. They were shaped by hand and sun dried (Pavía and Bolton 2000, 175). The earliest method for firing bricks was in open fires without surrounding structures. This technique is called ‘clamp’ firing and is the method by which bricks were fired at Coonagh West.

The technology of brick making spread from the Middle East to Britain in the first century BC with the expansion of the Roman Empire. The technology disappeared in Britain with the collapse of the Roman Empire but was reintroduced by Flemish brick-makers in the 13th and 14th centuries. In Ireland, there is mention of the taxation of bricks in Kilkenny (1283), Drogheda (1296) and Youghal (1358) though it is not known whether these were imported or locally produced (Thomas 1992, 109). The

27 earliest archaeological evidence for brick in Ireland is at Carrickfergus Castle, Co. Antrim (1560s) (Pavía and Bolton 2000, 177). It was also used in Bunratty Castle and there is a record of brick, manufacturing in Wexford in 1551-2 (Lynch et al 2009, 6).

Brick use became more common in the mid-17th century and was used in Limerick city in tall, steep gabled houses with regularly set windows known as Dutch houses. Only two examples of these facades survive and are at the rear of John’s Square (Hill 1991, 64). Brick was extensively used in the 18th and 19th centuries for the new residential buildings such as in Dublin (Merrion Square and Rathmines) and in Limerick (the Pery Square Tontine Terraces, completed 1838 - McMahon 1999, 9; and O’Connell Street, originally called George’s Street and named such in 1770 - Lenihan 1991, 370). Pery’s development in John’s Square, Limerick in the 1750s used brick for the kitchen and passage floors, the cellar vaults, the internal partitions, as dry lining on exterior walls and as ‘infill for the stone oculi on the facades’ (Hill 1991, 73). By 1729, brick making had become widespread enough to warrant an Act of Parliament giving advice on brick production. The act introduced the first standards for brick size in Ireland which were 9½ x 4½ x 2¼ inches but bricks in contemporary buildings do not conform to them (Lynch et al 2009, 16). It is therefore not clear how well the act was enforced. The bricks excavated from E2080 varied in dimensions but averaged between 8¼-9¼ x 3½-4¼ x 2¾-3¼ so were slightly smaller but deeper than the statute size.

In the period from the 17th to the early 20th centuries, approximately 500 brickyards were in operation in Ireland especially near cities and along water transportation routes (Pavía and Bolton 2000, 179). This number had dropped to fifteen in the early 20th century and to five in 2000 (Pavía and Bolton 2000, 181). In the vicinity of Limerick City four areas of brick holes, brick fields and brick yards (the name differs depending on which map sheet the brick field/yard is marked) are marked on the first edition six inch Ordnance Survey map along the northern shore of the River Shannon, and on the Bunratty River between Limerick and Rossmanagher alone. They are located at Clondrina, Coonagh West, Cratloemoyle and Ballinphunta (opposite shore to Rossmanagher Castle). Others are marked on the south side of the River Shannon at Conigar, Castlemungret, Bunlicky and Ballykeeffe which form a single large brick working area (a partial excavation carried out in 2002 at the edge of this brick field as part of the Gas pipeline revealed the remains of a brick clamp – Wiggins 2002) and at Corcomroe marsh, along both sides of the Ballinacurra Creek in Ballinacurra and Ballykeeffe. Some of the Ballinacurra brick holes and those at Coonagh East were already deemed old by the 1830s.

Cartographic evidence for the brick works

Site E2080 at Coonagh West and the nearby site E2089 were part of an extensive brick making area tucked into a bend in the River Shannon. It was an ideal location with the raw materials, clay and water and water transportation readily available. It was also close to the nearby urban centre of Limerick. Turf was the most likely fuel source and there are references to Edmond Sexton Pery paying for turf to be delivered to brick yards in the late 18th century (Hill 1991, 73). An irregular shaped ‘Brick Field’ is marked on the OS Fair Copy Plan (surveyed 1839). Site E2089 was within the confines of this boundary but E2080 was immediately outside the border to the south-east suggesting that these brick clamps were either later or went out of use earlier than 1839. An extensive area of long, parallel depressions in the area between and to the north of the two sites marked where clay was extracted for brick manufacture. These are clearly visible on aerial photographs taken during fieldwork and were also identified during testing (Hull and Taylor 2005). The two brick firing areas are located on the outer extremities of this area and close to water transport. E2089 is adjacent to the River Shannon and a quay while E2080 is beside a channel that followed the line of the old pre-1839 embankment westwards to the quay adjacent to E2089. Other unrelated brick holes were marked on the first edition map outside of the road-take to the east (also in Coonagh West) and north (Clondrina and an ‘Old Brick Yard’ in Coonagh East). Others were located north of the N18 (John Naughton pers comm.). A small brick deposit was also excavated on this project 1.6 km to the north-east (E2106, Ruttle 2008).

28 There is no sign of the brickworks on the 1903 edition OS map but other brick works in the same townland to the east were still in operation and it is known from oral tradition that there were some bricks still being manufactured in the early 20th century. This is bolstered by Lamplugh et al in 1907 with their comments that clay was used on a small scale to the south of Coonagh Island, at Lansdowne Bridge (possible Clondrina above) and at Cliono (Singland) to the southeast of the city (ibid, 90). Minor excavations eight feet deep to the south of Coonagh were producing bricks of rough quality (ibid, 58). At least one inhabitant of the townland was still making bricks in 1901 (1901 census).Brick manufacture seems to have completely ceased by 1911 as no one inhabiting Coonagh West was listed as a brick manufacturer or worker in the census of that year. By 1924 (sheet 4)/1938 (sheet 5) the only trace of the once extensive brick works are marsh symbols where the brick holes were once located (third edition OS maps).

Brick manufacture

The raw material for bricks can be classified as either superficial sediments (found in rivers, estuaries and lakes) or consolidated geological formations (shales and deep clay deposits). Shale or marl is used in modern Irish brick manufacture (Pavía and Bolton 2000, 183) for example Ormonde bricks in North Kilkenny use shale and ‘fire clay’ (clay capable of withstanding high temperatures) (www.ormonde.ie). The clay used in Coonagh West was a superficial sediment deposited by the Shannon River and was found just below the topsoil. The simplest firing technique was the use of brick clamps where ‘green bricks’ were fired without permanent structures (used in Coonagh West). This method of firing was still sometimes used in London up to at least 1939 even though permanent kilns were then replacing the clamps (Knight 1939, 6). Permanent kiln structures used updraft or downdraft to fire bricks (Isle of Wight Industrial Archaeological Society website) and were more efficient and easier to control, and therefore ensured more uniform bricks. Limerick brick was considered of poor quality and better quality bricks were produced along the Fergus and Bunratty rivers in County Clare (Lee 2001, 18). The poor quality can be seen in the Coonagh examples excavated. The bricks were transported into Limerick by boat and unloaded at Barrington’s Pier (Hill 1991, 119 and Anon 1976, 6) on the north shore of the River Shannon at Kilrush. It is likely that the brick was used for rough or core brick and not for building facades.

Below is a summary of how brick was manufactured with reference to Boate (1657), Pearse’s Parliament Act of 1729, Hammond (1979) and Pavía and Bolton (2000) and Pavia (above).

1. The clay was first extracted. Boate described how this was carried out in the 17th century by the digging of large square pits. The uppermost soil was removed to reveal good clay ‘which commonly lyeth one or two spits deep’ (Boate 1657, 159). The clay was then broken up into very small pieces with a spade and water added. It was worked with spade and feet until ‘the whole mass [became] uniform, firm and tough like stiff dough’ (ibid, 159). In Coonagh West, the local people speak of their grandmothers digging clay with spades. A large irregular pit (200) was found in the north-east of the site and has been interpreted as one such area of extraction. According to the 1729 Parliament Act, the clay had to be exposed outdoors for four months before moulding. Large areas must have been set aside for this but the process has not left any evidence in the archaeological record.

2. Material was often added to clay for different reasons. Breeze, coke, ashes or organic waste were sometimes added to aid firing. Grog (burnt brick waste or powdered burnt clay), sand or crushed ceramics were added to plastic clay to prevent shrinkage. Oxides were added for colour e.g. manganese and iron. In the case of the bricks from this site turf was added to aid combustion (Pavia above) and the red colour was the result of naturally occurring hematite in the clay.

3. The clay was moulded into bricks. Hand moulding can either be in a pallet mould which produces a sand-faced brick with moulding striae (linear, parallel grooves or ridges) on one side where the excess clay was ‘struck off with a wooden stick’ (Pavía and Bolton 2000, 188) or slop moulded. In this method, the mould was wetted instead of sanded. The resulting bricks were wet and had to be allowed to dry in their moulds before being stacked in hacks for air-drying (Knight 1939, 4). In the former sand

29 was used to stop the bricks sticking to the moulds, water preformed the same function in the latter. Boate describes the moulding as taking place at long tables and carried out by a man, woman and boy working as a team. A similar scene of unknown date and place can be seen in Figure 24. They used sand to stop sticking and wooden hand moulds (Boate 1657, 159). Sand impressions were found on many of the bricks from the Coonagh excavations sometimes on one side suggesting that the green brick was laid on sand. Some of the brick benches in Coonagh were also set into sand.

4. If bricks were to be dried before firing they could be laid out in the air or in more modern times in heated drying rooms. There were two methods of air drying bricks. In one method the bricks were placed on straw (to prevent sticking) and turned as they dried. The straw stuck to the bricks and left impressions and some of the Coonagh bricks had such impressions. Sometimes the order in which the bricks were turned can be seen from the frequency of straw impressions. Alternatively bricks were dried in hacks (long rows of stacked bricks) (Pavía and Bolton 2000, 191). Boate also described this in 17th century Ireland where the green bricks were laid out first, for a few days and then stacked in small heaps and then as the bricks went through the drying process got stacked in long rows, which were roofed with straw and green sods. The hacks were many feet long and five or six feet high but only two or two and a half feet wide (Boate 1657, 160).

5. The bricks were then fired. In Coonagh West, they were clamp fired without a permanent structure and it seems that broken brick and unburnt clay were used to level the ground as it had to be level and well-drained (Dobson 1971). Some of this material was possibly the remains of the outer skin of the previous firing. Bricks were laid out in parallel rows with fuel packed between - the “benches’’. In some benches green brick was placed directly on the ground surface or on a bed of sand and in others it seems that already fired, broken and poor quality bricks formed the base of the bench. The direction of rows might have been influenced by the wind direction at the time of setting-out since there was no conformity in the direction of the clamps on this site. The clamps were at least 6 m in length and evidence from Area K indicated that one clamp consisted of at least ten benches. Evidence was also found for at least four clamps being burned on the same area (Trench 1).

The only trace of clamps on this site was the colour variations on the ground. In Area K the direction the bricks were placed could be determined in places. It seems bricks were placed at right angles to the fire channels in at least ten double rows. There must have been gaps between the bricks to stop sticking and to allow the hot air to circulate. More bricks were stacked on top and tilted inwards to prevent collapse; therefore the clamp would have been wider at the bottom than at the top. Fuel was packed in the channels between the rows. No evidence was found for the fuel type. It is this lack of evidence that suggests that turf was used as turf would have burned to a very fine ash. There are also references to Edmond Sexon Pery paying for turf to be delivered to brick yards (Hill 1991, 73) in the mid-18th century. The channels between the brick rows also acted as draft holes. When the stacking was complete the outside was covered in ‘the same clay, whereof the bricks were made, the thickness of two hands-broads or thereabouts’ (Boate 1657, 160).

The length of firing depended on the size of the clamp and could last for several weeks. Bricks were not always uniformly fired as it was difficult to control the temperature, which was in this case between 500-1000°C (Pavia above), and because the bricks were in contact with the fuel fully oxidising conditions rarely occurred. Localised reducing conditions and the resulting black areas in the bricks were also caused by the added organic material (turf) (Pavia above). The quality of the firing depended on the position of the brick within the clamp. Some of the bricks from feature 275 were so badly fired that they are oxidised red at one end and unfired grey clay at the other. It seems firing techniques had not improved much since Boate’s time as he complained of unsuccessful firings through unskillfullness or neglect (Boate 1657, 160).

6. Finally the clamp was broken and the bricks removed. Clamp firing could often produce bricks that were under-fired (chuffs) or over-fired (burrs) depending on their position in the clamp relative to the fuel. Many of the wasters were found in the back-filled extraction pit 200. Bricks were sometimes made for a single project though the brick works at Coonagh were more substantial. It is said locally

30 that Coonagh bricks were used in Patrick Street in Limerick. Patrick Street is one side of the Aurthur’s Quay houses which were constructed from Coonagh brick by Francis Arthur, started in 1771 (Anon 1976, 6) and completed in 1791 (Anon). Patrick Street was in existence by 1780 (O’Connor 1987, 43) and was named for Patrick Arthur, Francis’ father and builder of Arthur’s Quay in 1773.

Up to 300,000 bricks could be produced at a time (Boate 1657, 161) and an advertisement in the Limerick Chronicle of the 3rd May 1806 shows one way in which bricks were sold (Anon 1806). In this case three clamps of 300,000 well-fired bricks were being offered at Ballinacurra Turnpike. They were convenient to land or water transport and presumably came from the Ballinacurra brick works mentioned above and marked on the first edition OS map. The brick from Coonagh West was removed by boat along the river Shannon to Barrington’s Pier in Limerick (Hill, 1991, 119 and Anon 1976, 6). An earthen bank to the east of this site may have been a raised roadway however it is not represented on the Fair Copy Map of 1839 or any other map which shows the brick field so may be unrelated.

It was not possible to estimate how many clamps were located on Site E2080 but it can be said that many repeated firings occurred over a large area and often on top of earlier firings. It was also not possible to determine which area was the earliest and if the activity spread out over time or if more than one clamp was simultaneously burned. It seems that all stages of production occurred on site from excavation of the clay (pit 200) to firing. Moulding and drying must have occurred but no trace of this activity was found. The firing activity was extensive and it can be suggested that the brick settings in the Western Area of the site might be footings for storage of the brick where brick was stacked in low towers with the bottom bricks sinking into the clay and becoming too damaged to sell. No evidence for a pier or loading area was found but it can be suggested that this might have been located in the Western Area of the site with a change of activity across site from initial preparation in the north-east to final stacking and shipping in the west. The water channel immediately adjacent to the site might have acted as a canal to the quay to the west of site E2089 and the 1885 navigation chart suggests the areas were linked by a road.

Social context

Since the clamps would have to have been tended for weeks at a time it is likely that workers lived on site. No evidence for dwelling houses was found but 70 sherds of 19/20th century pottery, nine pieces of late 17th to early 19th century clay pipe and some metal and glass fragments suggest that some form of domestic activity took place. The dwellings of the workers could have been so badly constructed that no trace remained. It seems that at some time people lived in mud houses along the embankment of the River Shannon (local knowledge). A building account made by Pery for John’s Square records that he paid for reeds for workers shelters (Hill 1991, 73) presumably for roofing. This suggests temporary structures were erected and probably for the firing period.

That brick manufacture was a family affair is suggested by the description in Boate of a man, woman and boy working and shaping the bricks (Boate 1657, 160) at long tables. The 1841 map depicts a building to the north of the then functioning quay and another possible structure south of the ‘Old Embankment’ south-east of this site and at the end of the ‘Marsh road’. The latter seems to have been replaced by 1903 with another similar sized structure orientated north-east/south-west. Two cottages are marked on the 1885 navigation chart one east of where the disused quay was located and east of the realigned embankment and one to the east of the brick yard and in the same field. Neither of these structures is marked on any other maps and neither is the 1841 and 1903 structure marked on this chart which suggests that the structure south of the ‘Old Embankment’ might be incorrectly placed. It is probable that the other cottage on the navigation chart to the east of the quay replaced the earlier house north of the quay when the embankment broke. This all suggests that one or two families were permanently living adjacent to the brick yard and in 1850 some of these were the Blacks, Gromwells and Hickeys (Griffith 1850). In the mid 19th century the area of land where this site was located was owned by James Sexton and leased to William Gromwell. The holding is listed as ‘land, offices, and gar.’ (Griffith Valuation 1850). No mention is made of brick making but the brick yard is clearly marked on the accompanying map. In 1901 only one brick maker was named in the census of that year

31 for Coonagh East and Coonagh West, John Kenevane, but by 1911 he was no longer a brick maker but listed as an agricultural labourer (Kinivan) in the census and continued to live with his brother-in-law Michael Enright who owned the property. The Enrights were new to the townland as they were not mentioned in Griffith Valuation of 1850. By 1911 the other families associated with the land where the brick kilns were located, the Gromwells, Blacks, Perrys and the Sextons were gone from Coonagh West and no one is listed as a brick manufacturer or worker in the census of that year. Land ownership changes in late 19th and early 20th centuries are reflected in the surnames of the landowners and the fact that landowners were often the same as the inhabitant.

Bricks were sold through newspaper advertisements but also through brick dealers and makers with premises in the city. Listings in the Trade Directories from the late 17th, 19th and early 20th centuries (e.g. Bassett 1875-6, 1877-8, 1880-1, 1884) show that several brick makers such as James Hickey at Russell’s Quay and John Moore at Merchant’s Quay were in operation in 1846 (Slater 1846, 272). Other brick companies such as Ellis & Sons and the Cork Brick Manufacturing Co. Ltd began importing brick (Browne 2003, 159).

The decline in construction activity after the Georgian period and the Great Famine led to the demise of local brick production in the Limerick area. Later brick buildings constructed in the Victorian and Edwardian periods were of imported brick (Browne 2003, 159). Brick manufacturing was still carried out in the area on a much smaller scale at Coonagh West (a site 1 km to the east of E2080) and at Singland to the southeast of the city in the very early 20th century though by the 1930s (third edition OS maps) it was completely gone.

Further work

The results of this excavation will be published as part of a scheme monograph, hopefully in 2011- 2012.

A summary of the findings of the excavation has been submitted to Excavations 2005.

The finds have been cleaned and will be conserved (where necessary), numbered, labelled, properly packed and will be deposited with the National Museum of Ireland in accordance with Advice Notes for Excavators (NMI 2010).

______Fiona Reilly TVAS Ireland Ltd 14th July 2010

32 References

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34 Reilly, F, 2010c, Limerick Southern Ring Road Phase II, E2089, Coonagh West, Co. Limerick, Final archaeological excavation report, unpublished TVAS Ireland report

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35

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36 Appendix 1: Catalogue of features and deposits

Context no. Area /trench Description Fills Dimensions (m) 1 Trench 1 (test trench) Cut – south end of trench. Possible posthole . 0.20m wide and 0.25m deep 2 Trench 1 (test trench) Cut – north end of trench Possible posthole. 0.30m wide and 0.25m deep 3 Trench 1 (test trench) Cut/possible pit – south end of trench 0.90 m long 4-49 Not used 50 Site Topsoil 0.20-0.30m 51 Site Naturally deposited grey alluvium 52 Trench 2 Loose, clayey silt, mid-grey brown with frequent inclusions of brick and stone and occasional flecks of charcoal. Site wide. 53 Other test trench Brick rubble – not within excavation area 2.20m x1.40m 54 Other test trench Brick rubble – not within excavation area 2.20m x 1.80m 55 Trench 1 (test trench) Dark silty deposit 0.25m x 1.80m x 0.04m 56 Trench 1 (test trench) Orange oxidised clay 0.25m x 1.80m x 0.04m 57 Trench 1 (test trench) Black compacted silty sand 0.31m x 1.80m x 0.07m 58 Trench 1 (test trench) Oxidised sand 1.95m x 0.36m 59 Trench 1 (test trench) Light brown oxidised sand 4.80m x 2m 60 Trench 1 (test trench) Loose broken red brick 0/90m x 0.40m 61 Trench 1 (test trench) Brick and oxidised clay 0.809m x 0.80m 62 Trench 1 (test trench) Loose red brick 1.70m x 1.10m 63 Trench 1 (test trench) Oxidised clay 1.80m x 2m 64 Trench 1 (test trench) Loose red brick 1.60m x 0.85m 65 Trench 1 (test trench) Black silt and charcoal 0.95m x 0.40m 66 Trench 1 (test trench) Black silt and charcoal 1.80m 1.m 67 Trench 1 (test trench) Similar to 56 0.80m x 0.30m 68 Trench 1 (test trench) Grey clay with oxidised portions 0.70m x 0.30m 69 Trench 1 (test trench) Similar to 56 0.23m 0.08m 70 Trench 1 (test trench) Similar to 55 2m x 0.80m 71 Trench 1 (test trench) Oxidised clay with ‘ghosts’ of brick bench 2m x 0.80m 72 Trench 1 (test trench) Oxidised clay with ‘ghosts’ of brick bench 2m x 0.80m

37 Appendix 1: Catalogue of features and deposits (continued)

Context no. Area /trench Description Fills Dimensions (m) 73 Trench 1 (test trench) Broken red brick 0.20m x 0.15 x 0.10 74 Trench 1 (test trench) Grey clay with oxidised portions 75 Trench 1 (test trench) Grey clay with oxidised portions 0.60m x 1.80m 0.20m 76 Trench 1 (test trench) Oxidised clay 0.30m 0.60m 77 Trench 1 (test trench) Large pieces of broken brick 78 Trench 1 (test trench) Layer of red sand above 56 0.60m x 1.80m x 0.10m 79 Trench 1 (test trench) Layer below 52 0.14m deep 80 Trench 1 (test trench) Layer below 79 81 Trench 1 (test trench) Brown sand 0.62m long x 0.20m deep 82 Trench 1 (test trench) Oxidised clay 0.38m x 2.60m 015m 83 Trench 1 (test trench) Dark layer below 82 0.45m x 2.60m 0.20 84-86 Trench 1 (test trench) Not used NA 87 Trench 1 (test trench) Dark red sand 0.45m x 2.60m 0.20 88 Trench 1 (test trench) Grey clay 0.30m x 0.45m x 0.20m 89 Trench 1 (test trench) Similar to 57 0.25m x 0.15. 0.03m 90 Trench 1 (test trench) Oxidised clay 0.25m x 0.15. 0.03m 91 Trench 1 (test trench) Dark grey silty sand 0.30m x 0.10m 0.03m 92 Trench 1 (test trench) Grey clay 0.30m x 0.10m 0.03m 200 North-east end Irregular pit with angular edges. U shaped cut with flat base and near vertical sides. Fill 255. Not 255 10 x max 5 x max truncated. Cuts natural. Could be a back filled brick hole/clay pit. 1 201 West end Linear cut, Flat base, steep sides. Fills 269 and 272. Probably continues under 270 to the north- 269, 272 Approx. 7 x 0.28 x west. 0.13

38 Appendix 1: Catalogue of features and deposits (continued)

Context no. Area /trench Description Fills Dimensions (m) 202 West end Linear cut, Sharp break of slope top on north side. Sides vertical on north side, more gentle on 268, 273 5.20 x 0.30 x 0.10 south. Base flat to irregular. Fill 273 and 268. Brick feature 250 found along part of southern side. Looks like the brick feature had sunk into the cut 202. Visible for 5.20m but may have been longer. Fills 273 and 268. 203 Trench 2 Pit with flat base and steep sides. Partially excavated but ran into baulk. 296 Excavated portion 0.30 x 0.30 x 0.45 deep 204 Area K Oval pit with concave base and steep sides. Break of slope top sharp. 350, 299 0.38 x 0.31 x 0.34 205 Area K Sub-circular pit with concave base and vertical sides. Break of slope top sharp. 350, 229 0.36 x 0.16 x 0.36 206 Area K Oval pit with concave base and steep sides. 351 0.58 x 0.45 x 0.38

207 Area K Circular pit with concave base and steep sides. 353 0.36 diam x 0.14 deep 208 Area K Irregular, circular pit with flat base and vertical sides. Break of slope top sharp. 354 0.57 diam x 0.31 deep 209 Area K Irregular, semi-circular cut with concave base and near vertical sides. 356 0.55 x 0.50 x 0.35 210 Area K Circular pit with flat base and steep sides. 360 0.41 diam x 0.41 deep 211 Area K Sub-circular pit with concave base and steeply sloped sides. Break of slope top sharp and bottom 361 0.46 x 0.40 x 0.30 gentle. 212 Area K Roughly circular pit with concave base and steep sides. Break of slope top sharp. 362 0.40 x 0.35 x 0.18 213 Area K Oval pit with pointed base. 365 0.65 x 0.51 x 0.21 214 Area K Irregular, cut with flat base, break of slope sharp on north-west and gradual on north-east. Full 366 1.50 wide 0.25 extent unknown. deep 215 Area K Semi-circular 'U' shaped cut with concave base and near vertical sides. 459 0.65 x 0.30 x 0.50 216 Trench 4 Sub-circular pit with slightly uneven base and gently sloped sides. Gradual break of slope base 460 1.90 x 1.30 x 0.21 and sharp top. Possibly cut by 461. 217 Trench 3 Narrow U shaped pit cuts natural in the base of 218. Vertical sides and flat base. Recorded in 462 0.25 x 0.47 deep section. 218 Trench 3 Vertical sided pit with an irregular base. Recorded in section. 465 3 x 0.60 deep 219 Trench 3 Irregular cut with gentle sloping sides with a near flat base except for a dip in the middle. 466 2 x 0.50 deep Recorded in section. 220 Trench 3 U shaped cut with a flat base and gently sloped side. Cuts 565 and 556. Recorded in section. 469 and 468 0.50 wide x 0.27 deep

39 Appendix 1: Catalogue of features and deposits (continued)

Context no. Area /trench Description Fills Dimensions (m) 221 Trench 3 Sub-circular pit with flat sloping base. Filled with brick rubble 477. Cuts 565. Recorded in 477 0.53 wide x 0.55 section. deep 222 Trench 3 Unknown shape in plan. Irregular convex sides and sloped base. Break of slope top sharp and 478 0.55 approx 0.28 bottom gentle. Full extent unknown. Recorded in section. deep 223 Trench 8 U shaped pit with rounded base and gradual sides. Sharp break of slope top and base. Fill 497. 359 1.20 x 0.47 deep Recorded in section. 224 Trench 4 Circular pit, concave base and moderately steep sides. 564 1m diam x 0.20 deep 225 Area K Pit with sloping flat base and gently sloped concave sides. Recorded in section. 595 0.50 long x 0.24 deep 226 West end Found to immediate west of 291. Linear cut, sharp break of slope top and sides, vertical sides 0.24 wide x 0.21 and flat base. Unknown length. Fill 359. deep 227 Area K Unknown shape in plan, sloped sides, SW side stepped at 0.07m below top. Break of slope top 650, 599 0.76 x 0.32 deep and bottom sharp. Full extent unknown. 228 Area K Unknown shape in plan, concave gentle sloping sides, break of slope top sharp and base gentle. 652 0.40 x 0.10 deep Full extent unknown. 229 Area K Unknown shape in plan, almost vertical sides and flat base, break of slope top and bottom sharp. 654 0.26 x 0.44 deep Full extent unknown. 230 Area K Unknown shape in plan, parallel slanted, straight sides and flat base. Break of slope top and 656 0.30 x 0.37 deep bottom sharp. Full extent unknown. 231 Area K Unknown shape in plan, near vertical sides and flat base, break of slope top and bottom sharp. 657 0.36 x 0.34 deep Full extent unknown. 232 Trench 4 Linear cut, full extent unknown as runs into the channel. Orientated roughly north south. 659 4.40 x 0.90 Unexcavated. Not clear if truncated by channel at southern end or visa-versa. 233 Trench 4 Pit. Oval in plan. Not bottomed, gently sloped sides. 660 1.30 min x 0.30 excavated depth 234 Trench 2 Unknown shape in plan. Concave side at west, eastern side not seen, flat base. 289 0.92 x 0.16 deep 250 West end Row of 5 bricks, 4 red and 1 orangey red with a black core. Bricks on average 0.19x0.09x0.09m. 0.97 x 0.09 x 0.09 On southern edge of 202 252 Trench 2 Compact, red brown, silty clay and rubble mix. Full extent unknown. Max 0.15 deep

40 Appendix 1: Catalogue of features and deposits (continued)

Context no. Area /trench Description Fills Dimensions (m) 253 West end Red brick 'structure' of approximately 26 bricks mostly complete but some badly cracked and 1.30 x 0.80 x 0.09 crushed. Set in 4 groups in a single course. Northern-western group set of 7 bricks set on edge and on broad sides. Immediately adjacent another group of 5 bricks set broad side and on edge. To the south of both are 5 bricks set broad side down and perpendicular to the first 2 groups with at least 4 more bricks set parallel along the southern side. A group of irregularly placed brick projected from the south-eastern corner. 254 West end Brick setting of 4 broken bricks. 2 set parallel to each other and 2 set end to end parallel to the approx 0.45 x 0.30 first 2. Badly damaged. 255 North-east end Loose collection of red bricks and grey clay lenses 5% and 10% brown silty soil from layer 10 x max 5 x max above. Fill of 200. Bricks 0.22x0.10x0.07 and 0.24x0.11x0.08. 1 257 Trench 2 Loose, grey black, silty clay with occasional brick. Full extent unknown. Excavated portion 0.54 wide 0.05 deep 258 Trench 2 Loose, yellow with a red hue, silty sand with grit inclusion. Full extent unknown. Excavated portion 0.42 x 0.11 x 0.04 259 Trench 2 Loose, dark brown black, silty clay. Full extent unknown. Excavated portion 0.30 x 0.28 x 0.08 260 Trench 2 Loose, orange yellow gritty silt. Fully excavated. 0.51 x 0.24 x 0.05 261 Trench 2 Loose, brown black, silty clay with occasional inclusions of stone, brick and charcoal 1%. Full Excavated portion extent unknown. 0.60 x 0.40 x 0.04- 0.05 262 Trench 2 Loose, grey brown, sand. Full extent unknown. Excavated portion 0.81 x 0.41 x 0.20- 0.30 263 Trench 2 Moderately loose, blue grey mottled orange and yellow, silty clay. Sand inclusion and occasional Excavated portion brick. Full extent unknown. 1.50 long x 0.14 deep 264 Trench 2 Moderately compact, yellow, mottled with black and orange, silty clay and occasional brick. Full Excavated portion extent unknown. 2 x 0.63 x 0.09 265 Trench 2 Loose, red yellow, silty sand. Full extent unknown. Excavated portion 0.09 x 0.03 x 0.03 266 Trench 2 Loose, black silty clay with occasional grit. Full extent unknown. Max 0.06 deep 268 West end Loose, yellow grey, sandy clay with flecks of brick inclusions and whole bricks. Fill of 202. 5.20 x 0.32 x 0.05- 0.10

41 Appendix 1: Catalogue of features and deposits (continued)

Context no. Area /trench Description Fills Dimensions (m) 269 West end Loose, yellow grey, sandy clay with incomplete brick inclusions and some flecks of brick. Fill of 10 x max 5 x max 201. 1 270 West end Very loose, dark reddish brown brick rubble and topsoil. 40-50% red bricks and frequent 11.40 x 2.20 x pebbles. max 0.20 271 West end Red brick 'structure'. Single course of 12 bricks set broad side down in 3 parallel rows. All 1.27 x 0.30 x 0.09 complete except one. Average brick size 0.09x0.21m. 272 West end Compact, dark yellow grey, clay mixed with sandy clay and inclusions of red brick complete and approx. 7 x 0.28 x flecks. Base fill of 201. 0.02 273 West end Compact, yellow grey, clay mixed with sandy clay and inclusions of brick fragments. Base fill of 5.20 x 0.30 x 0.01 202. 275 Southern area Line of 9 underfired bricks. Orientated north south. Several bricks were well fired at one end and 2.20 long unfired clay at the other. Bricks laid end to end. All but 2 were complete. 276 Area K Large spread of grey clay and brick rubble with burnt clay (yellow-red). Full extent unknown. Max. 0.20 deep 277 Trench 2 Loose, grey yellow, silty sand with grit inclusion. Full extent unknown. Excavated portion 0.16 x 0.11 x 0.03 278 Trench 2 Loose, black, silty clay. Full extent unknown. Excavated portion 0.25 x 0.20 x 0.07 279 Trench 2 Moderately loose, dark grey silty clay mottled with yellow. Full extent unknown. Excavated portion 1 x 0.20 x 0.10- 0.20 deep 280 Trench 2 Loose, light yellow brown, sandy silt. Full extent unknown. Excavated portion 1 x 0.40 x 0.01 281 Trench 2 Compact, grey blue mottled red and yellow, silty clay with occasional crushed brick inclusions. Max 0.09 deep Full extent unknown. 282 Trench 2 Loose, brown grey, sandy clay. Full extent unknown. Max 0.06 deep 283 Trench 2 See 288 Max 0.04 deep 284 Trench 2 Moderately loose, red brown, silty clay. Full extent unknown. Max 0.05 deep 285 Trench 2 Loose, dark, blue black, silty clay. Full extent unknown. Max 0.04 deep 286 Trench 2 Loose, orange yellow, heat affected silty clay with some brick fragments. Full extent unknown. Max 0.03 deep 287 Trench 2 Compact, grey mottled black and yellow, silty clay with occasional brick inclusions. Full extent Excavated portion unknown. 0.63 x 0.60 x 0.06 288 Trench 2 Moderately plastic, grey black with occasional yellow flecks, heat affected silty clay with Excavated portion inclusions of crushed brick 1% and charcoal 5%. Possibly same as 283. Full extent unknown. 0.83 x 0.63 x 0.08

42 Appendix 1: Catalogue of features and deposits (continued)

Context no. Area /trench Description Fills Dimensions (m) 289 Trench 2 Compact, light grey, silty clay with brick 30%. Full extent unknown. Fill of 234 Excavated portion 0.95 x 0.36 x 0.10- 0.15 290 Central Area Red brick 'structure' Single course of bricks of varying sizes and quality and dimensions e.g. 2.30 x 1.27 x 0.07 0.24x0.11m and 0.21x0.10m. Mostly bricks are set broad side down in 5 parallel rows with 4 deep other bricks similarly set in a row at the south-eastern corner. Not bonded, seem set into 52. 291 Central Area Red brick rectangular 'structure'. Single course of bricks mostly set on edge. Consisted of 4 1.37 x 0.74 x 0.10 parallel linear groups of bricks and 1 group orientated at 90° to the others on the eastern side. deep The 2 most northern groups were made up of 12 bricks each 11 of which were set on their edges and a brick each laid on its broad side at the eastern end. The western group had 8 bricks set on their sides with 1 laid broad side down at the eastern end and a group of 3 bricks set perpendicularly at the western end. 2 smaller bricks were placed at the far western end to make up the rectangle. The group at the eastern end were placed broad side down and were poorly fired. No bonding material. 292 Area K Hard baked area. Yellow and black burnt surface seen in patches on larger area of orange 2.20 x 1.65 scorched material. 293 Area K Crumbly burnt patch on top of 292. 1 x 0.65 294 Area K Compact, mid grey brown, clay mix with frequent brick inclusions. 1.80 x 1.25 296 Trench 2 Compact, green grey silty clay with frequent brick rubble and crushed red brick 30%. Fill of 203. Excavated portion Full extent unknown. 0.30 x 0.30 x 0.45 deep 297 Central Area Moderately compact, orangey grey redeposited alluvial clay with 5% orange brick fleck depth 0.02-0.11 inclusions. Recorded in section. 298 Southern area Recorded in section. Red brick rubble-large broken bricks max 0.18x0.11m in sandy grey clay. Under 297. 299 Area K Loose and plastic, light greyish brown silt and rubble. Upper fill of 204 and 205. 0.70 x 0.25 x 0.15 350 Area K Loose and plastic, mid-brown, silty clay and brick rubble. Primary fill of 204 and 205. 351 Area K Loose, light grey brown, silty sand with frequent small sharp pebbles and large broken brick 0.58 x 0.45 x 0.38 inclusions. Fill of 206. 353 Area K Loose, light grey brown silty sand with gravel of small pebbles and large brick fragments. Fill of 0.36 diam 0.24 207. deep 354 Area K Loose, light grey brown, silty clay with frequent brick inclusions. Fill of 208. 0.57 diam 0.31 deep 355 Area K Loose dark red, crushed brick and coarse sand. Seen extensively in Area K at eastern end. Full extent unknown.

43 Appendix 1: Catalogue of features and deposits (continued)

Context no. Area /trench Description Fills Dimensions (m) 356 Area K Variable, loose bricks in silt and lens of compact alluvium. A heterogeneous mix of bricks 60%, 0.55 x 0.50 x 0.35 grey brown clay 20% and brown silt 20%. Fill of 209. 357 West end Compact, orange brown with black reduced surface and inclusions of brick flecks 30%. Appears 0.03 deep to abut brick feature 291 but 291 may have sunk into it. 359 West end Moderately, loose, yellow, brown to grey sandy clay with 10% brick fragments and flecks similar to 268 and 269. Fill of 226. 360 Area K Loose, mid-grey brown, silty clay with frequent brick inclusions. Fill of 210. 0.47 diam 0.41 deep 361 Area K Mix of broken brick, unburnt grey clay and mid-brown silt. Fill of 211. 0.46 x 0.40 x 0.30 362 Area K Compact, light brown grey silty clay with frequent large brick fragments 30%. Fill of 212. 0.40 x 0.35 x 0.18 364 Area K Generic number for red and black bands. 365 Area K Moderately loose, orange light brown, sandy silt with red brick ranging from flecks to large brick 0.65 x 0.51 x 0.21 fragments 15%. Fill of 213. 366 Area K Compact, blue grey clay and mid-brown silty sand and brick rubble. Fill of 214. 1.50 wide x 0.25 deep 367 Area K Moderately loose, soft, friable black fire reduced layer of sandy clay. 1.40 x 0.65 x 0.05 368 Area K Greenish brown, friable, sandy clay with orange brick flecks throughout. Appears to be heavily 1.60 x 1.25 x 0.02 deteriorated continuation of 367. Full extent unknown. 369 Area K Hard friable, oxidised, sandy clay. Full length unknown. 0.50 wide x 0.03 deep 370 Area K Moderately loose but friable, black reduced sandy clay. Full length unknown. 1.50 x 0.56 x 0.03 371 Area K Green brown, friable, sandy clay interspersed with orange. Deteriorated to a film. Continuation 1.60 x 0.52 of 370. 372 Area K Hard friable, oxidised, sandy clay. Full length unknown. 3 x 0.40 373 Area K Moderately loose but friable, black reduced sandy clay. Full length unknown. 1.40 x 0.65 374 Area K Green brown, friable, sandy clay interspersed with orange. Small 0.05m wide gully runs along 2.90 x 0.58 the eastern edge. Full length unknown. 375 Area K Hard friable, oxidised, silty clay. Full length unknown. 4.60 x 0.50 376 Area K Green brown, friable, sandy clay interspersed with orange. Deteriorated to a film. 0.02m wide 3.80 x 0.60 gully runs along its eastern edge for 2m. Full length unknown. 377 Area K Moderately loose but friable, black reduced sandy clay. Full length unknown. 1.44 x 0.56 378 Area K Hard friable, oxidised, sandy clay. Full length unknown. 5 x 0.50 379 Area K Moderately loose but friable, black reduced sandy clay. Full length unknown. 1.50 x 0.68

44 Appendix 1: Catalogue of features and deposits (continued)

Context no. Area /trench Description Fills Dimensions (m) 380 Area K Green brown, friable, sandy clay interspersed with orange. Deteriorated to a film. Narrow gullies 4.70 x 0.44 on both edges and one running along the centre 0.05m wide. Full length unknown. 381 Area K Moderately compact, oxidised sandy clay. Full length unknown. 6 x 0.45 382 Area K Hard and crumbly, black reduced clay. 1.50 x 0.66 wide 383 Area K Hard and compact, light green brown, sandy clay. Full length unknown. 5.80 x 0.60 384 Area K Moderately compact, oxidised sandy clay. Full length unknown. 4 x 0.40 385 Area K Moderately compact, black reduced sandy clay with lenses of green in the middle. 4.10 x 0.70 386 Area K Hard friable, oxidised, sandy clay. Full length unknown. 3 x 0.36 387 Area K Moderately compact, reduced black and green in middle, sandy clay. Full length unknown. 3.60 x 0.64 388 Area K Hard friable, oxidised, sandy clay. Full length unknown. 3 x 0.40 389 Area K Hard, light green brown, reduced sandy clay. Full length unknown. 4.54 x 0.68 390 Area K Hard friable, oxidised, sandy clay. Full length unknown. 5.22 x 0.26 391 Area K Moderately compact, black reduced sandy clay with lenses of green in the middle. 4 x 0.60 392 Area K Compact, orange, sandy clay and brick rubble. Underlying rubble 276 ruptured the surface of Min 3.60 x 0.44 392. 393 Area K Compact, black reduced clay with lenses of green towards middle. Underlying rubble 276 2.90 x 0.55 ruptured the surface of 393. 394 Area K Moderately loose but friable, black reduced sandy clay. Full length unknown. 1.64 x 0.60 395 Area K Hard friable, oxidised, sandy clay. Full length unknown. 1.50 x 0.42 396 Area K Moderately loose but friable, black reduced sandy clay. Deteriorated. Full length unknown. 2 x 0.50 397 Area K Hard friable, oxidised, sandy clay. Full length unknown. ? x 0.45 398 Area K Moderately loose but friable, black reduced sandy clay. Deteriorated. Full length unknown. 2.50 x 0.58 399 Area K Hard friable, oxidised, sandy clay. Full length unknown. 2.50 x 0.54 450 Area K Moderately loose but friable, black reduced sandy clay. Deteriorated. Full length unknown. 1.30 x 0.44 451 Area K Moderately loose but friable, black reduced sandy clay. Full length unknown. 2 x 0.28 452 Area K Loose, light brown, sandy layer. Min 2.50 x 2 and max 0.02 deep 453 Area K Moderately loose but friable, black reduced sandy clay. Full length unknown. 2.60 x 0.70 454 Area K Hard friable, oxidised, sandy clay. Full length unknown. 1.10 x 0.20 455 Area K Moderately loose but friable, black reduced sandy clay. Deteriorated. Full length unknown. 1.50 x 0.60 456 Area K Hard, friable layer of orange, silty clay. Heat affected. Not excavated, full extent unknown. Min 0.60 wide 457 Area K Moderately soft and friable, black reduced layer of sandy clay. Not excavated, full extent 0.42 wide unknown.

45 Appendix 1: Catalogue of features and deposits (continued)

Context no. Area /trench Description Fills Dimensions (m) 458 Area K Compact, red, brown and grey heterogeneous mix of brown silt 50%, large red brick fragments 0.15 deep 30%, brick crumble 10% and grey clay 10%. Full extent not known. 459 Area K Close-packed mix of grey brown and red, heterogeneous brown grey silty clay 50%, large brick 0.65 x 0.30 x 0.50 fragments 40% including 4 near complete bricks set upright within the cut and small brick fragments 10%. Fill of 215 460 Trench 4 Compact, mid-grey blue clay with frequent brick rubble. Fill of 216. 1.90 x 1.30 x 0.21 461 Trench 4 Brick 'structure' . Roughly laid bricks in single course. Many broken bricks were used. Most laid Approx. 1.10 x in 4 parallel lines to form rough rectangle, some have been displaced. Max brick size 0.90 0.16x0.10x0.10m. 462 Trench 3 Moderately loose, light brown orangey sandy clay with 40% brick fragments. Fill of 217. 0.25 x 0.47 deep Recorded in section. 463 Trench 4 Brick 'structure' roughly rectangular. 14 bricks though some missing. Single course, laid broad 0.80 x 0.60 side down and side-by-side except in 3 cases where they were laid perpendicularly to others. Average brick size 0.22x0.10x0.08m. 464 Trench 4 Compact, mid, green, grey blue clay with occasional brick inclusions. Full extent unknown. Redeposited natural. 465 Trench 3 Loose fragmented brick rubble. Fill of 218. Recorded in section. 3 x 0.60 deep 466 Trench 3 Moderately loose, brick rubble similar to 465. Fill of 219. Recorded in section. 2 x 0.50 deep 467 Trench 3 Moderately compact grey silty clay with inclusions of brick rubble fragments. Recorded in 3.20 x max 0.15 section. deep 468 Trench 3 Moderately compact, light orangey brown, silty clay with 30% brick fragments. Top fill of 220. 0.50 wide x 0.18 Recorded in section. deep 469 Trench 3 Moderately loose, yellow sand and inclusions of 5% brick flecks. Base fill of 220. Recorded in 0.50 wide x 0.09 section. deep 470 Area K Compact, heat affected, mix of grey, brown, black and red, heterogeneous mix of silty clay 40%, 0.05 deep brown silt 40% and black 'sooty' silt, Inclusions of 5% brick fragments. Full extent unknown. 471 Area K Compact, partially heat hardened, grey, brown, black, yellow and red, heterogeneous mix of clay 0.05 deep 40%, silt 40%, black sooty residue 10% and lumps of fire hardened clay 10%. Full extent unknown. 472 Area K Close packed but friable, red mix of ground up bricks 80% and sand 20%. Full extent unknown. 0.02 deep 473 Area K Close packed but friable, black sooty silt deposit. Full extent unknown. 0.04 474 Area K Fire hardened layer, black and red, breaks down to a gritty powder-predominantly silt. Includes 0.05 deep the reduced deposits 553 and 555 and the oxidised deposit 554. Full extent unknown. 475 Area K Closely packed, but friable, pinkish grey, sandy silt. Full extent unknown. 0.05 deep

46 Appendix 1: Catalogue of features and deposits (continued)

Context no. Area /trench Description Fills Dimensions (m) 476 Area K Compact, mix of grey, brown and red heterogeneous mix of clay 50%, brown silt 20% and small depth unknown fragments of red brick 30%. Full extent unknown. 477 Trench 3 Loose brick rubble. Similar to 465 and 466. Recorded in section. 0.53 wide x 0.55 deep 478 Trench 3 Rubble and silty clay mix. Recorded in section. Fill of 222. Full extent unknown. 0.55m max x 0.30 deep 479 Trench 3 Moderately compact, reduced clay layer. Natural which has been heat affected. Recorded in 11.20 x max 0.08 section. deep 480 Trench 3 Moderately compact browny grey clay below 479 in the northern part of the section. Less 7.10 x max 0.08 reduced natural. Recorded in section. deep 481 Trench 3 Loose, layer of orangey red silty sand and brick dust. Recorded in section. 10 x 4 deep 482 Trench 3 Compact yellow orange layer of friable silty sand. Recorded in section. 0.75 x 0.04 483 Trench 3 Compact yellow orange layer of friable silty sand. Recorded in section. 0.75 x 0.04 484 Trench 3 Loose, layer of orangey red silty sand and brick dust. Recorded in section. 0.55 x 0.03 deep 485 Trench 8 Moderately compact, greyish brown with flecks of red, sandy clay mixed with fine rubble and 1.60 x max 0.12 inclusions of small pieces of brick 5-10% and some small pebbles. Same as 498. Recorded in deep section. 486 Trench 8 Very loose, bright orangey red, sand. Recorded in section. 0.15 x 0.07 deep 487 Trench 8 Hard but crumbly, yellow, clay which had been exposed to extreme heat. Recorded in section. 1.50 x 0.015 deep 488 Trench 8 Loose and friable, black on surface and fades to grey at base. Reduced clay. Recorded in section. 1.50 x 0.05 deep 489 Trench 8 Very loose, bright orangey red, sand. Recorded in section. 0.65 x 0.03 deep 490 Trench 8 Hard but crumbly, yellow, clay which had been exposed to extreme heat. Recorded in section. 0.60 x 0.015 deep 491 Trench 8 Very loose and friable, grey sand. Recorded in section. 0.95 x max 0.06 deep 492 Trench 8 Loose and friable, black on surface and fades to grey at base. Reduced clay. Recorded in section. 1.80 x 1 deep 493 Trench 8 Very loose, bright orangey red, sand. Recorded in section. 0.74 x max 0.04 deep 494 Trench 8 Loose and friable, black on surface and fades to grey at base. Reduced clay. Recorded in section. 0.55 x max 0.04 deep 495 Trench 8 Moderately loose, greyish brown, silty clay. Recorded in section. 1.69 x 0.07 deep 496 Trench 8 Very loose and friable, grey pink sand. Recorded in section. 0.35 x 0.11 deep 497 Trench 8 Moderately compact, grey clay and red brick approx 40-50%. Recorded in section. 1.40 x 0.60 deep 498 Trench 8 Same as 485. 1.76 x max 0.20 deep

47 Appendix 1: Catalogue of features and deposits (continued)

Context no. Area /trench Description Fills Dimensions (m) 499 Trench 8 Loose and friable, black on surface and fades to grey at base. Reduced clay. Recorded in section. 0.75 x 0.03 deep 550 Trench 8 Very loose, bright orangey red, sand. Recorded in section. 0.75 x 0.06 deep 551 Trench 8 Loose and friable, black on surface and fades to grey at base. Reduced clay. Recorded in section. 1.78 x max 0.08 deep 552 Trench 8 Same as 495. Recorded in section. Above 51. 1.87 x 0.06 deep 553 Area K Reduced, see 474. 554 Area K Oxidised, see 474. 555 Area K Reduced, see 474. 556 Trench 3 Loose, layer of orangey red silty sand and brick dust. Recorded in section. 2.15 x 0.03 deep 557 Trench 3 Moderately compact, reduced clay layer. Recorded in section. 1.90 x 0.01 deep 558 Trench 3 Patch of reduced clay on surface. Recorded in section. 0.26 x 0.05 deep 559 Trench 3 Moderately compact, black burnt layer of clay. Recorded in section. approx 7.50 x max 0.07 deep 560 Trench 3 Compact, orangey grey silty clay with inclusions of brick rubble. Recorded in section. approx 5.50 x max 0.07 deep 561 Trench 3 Loose orange layer of silty sand. Recorded in section. Approx 2.50 x 0.07 deep 562 Trench 3 Small inclusion of reduced clay in 560. Recorded in section. 0.22 x 0.05 deep 563 Trench 3 Small reduced deposit on 51. Recorded in section. 0.32 x 0.03 deep 564 Trench 4 Loose fill of 224. Mix of large fired clay brick fragments, small brick fragments and brick 1 diam x 0.20 deep crumble 70/20/10% split. 565 Trench 3 Compact grey orange rubble and clay layer. Recorded in section. 1.80 x 0.07 deep 566 Trench 3 Loose, orangey red oxidised silty sand/brick dust. Possibly same as 481. Recorded in section. 4.40 x max 0.03 deep 567 Trench 3 Moderately compact orangey grey clay interface between 51 and rubble layer 565. Recorded in 0.52 x max 0.04 section. deep 568 Trench 3 Moderately loose, brick rubble and clay ran from canal/stream bank northwards. Recorded in 3.60 x max 0.27 section. deep 570 Trench 4 Laid surface or brick 'structure' One course deep. 23 bricks average size 0.13x0.10x0.02m. 1.50 x 0.42 Appears to consist of 3/4 parallel rows of bricks. The longest consisted of 11 bricks. Red sand or crushed brick was found around the bricks. It was probably a brick clamp. 571 Trench 4 Compact mid grey brown silty clay similar to 52. Moderate inclusions of brick rubble. Extent Max 0.04 deep unknown.

48 Appendix 1: Catalogue of features and deposits (continued)

Context no. Area /trench Description Fills Dimensions (m) 572 Trench 4 Compact mid -brown friable mix of clay and brick rubble. High concentration of brick. Extent Max 0.27 deep unknown. 573 Trench 4 Loose, gritty, red sand layer. Extent unknown Max 0.04 deep 574 Trench 4 Soft, yellow ash. Extent unknown. Max 0.01 deep 575 Trench 4 Loose and very soft white yellow ash, very similar to 574 in composition. Extent unknown. Max 0.01 deep 576 Trench 4 Loose red, gritty sand layer. Extent unknown. Max 0.03 deep 577 Trench 4 Soft, white yellow ash layer. Full extent unknown. Max 0.01 deep 578 Trench 4 Loose, friable and firm? Slightly gritty, black sandy clay. Occasional stone and brick rubble Max 0.10 deep inclusions. Full extent unknown. 579 Trench 4 Loose, red, coarse sand. Max 0.09 deep 580 Trench 4 Soft, white yellow ash. Extent unknown. Max 0.01 deep 581 Trench 4 Friable, mid-grey brown, sandy silt. Extent unknown. Max 0.06 deep 582 Trench 4 Compact, slightly plastic, black clay with 15% brick. Clay had been blackened by reduction. Full Max 0.09 deep extent unknown. 583 Trench 4 Compact and friable, orange red, sandy silt. Fire hardened surface. Full extent unknown. Max 0.04 deep 584 Trench 4 Loose, grey sand. Pocket of heat affected sand. Full extent unknown. Max 0.03 deep 585 Trench 4 Hard, red sand. Full extent unknown. Max 0.02 deep 586 Trench 4 Soft, yellow ash. Full extent unknown. Max 0.02 deep 587 Trench 4 Soft, yellow ash. Full extent unknown. Max 0.02 deep 588 Trench 4 Soft, white yellow ash. Full extent unknown. Max 0.02 deep 589 Trench 4 Friable, brown, silty clay. Full extent unknown. Max 0.02 deep 590 Trench 4 Soft, white yellow ash. Full extent unknown. Max 0.02 deep 591 Trench 4 Loose, yellow red sand. Full extent unknown. Max 0.06 deep 592 Trench 4 Moderately compact, black reduced clay. Full extent unknown. Max 0.02 deep 593 Trench 4 Moderately compact, black reduced clay. Full extent unknown. Max 0.02 deep 594 Trench 4 Loose, red sand. Full extent unknown. Max 0.03 deep 595 Area K Compact, grey green blue, silty clay with frequent brick inclusions. Fill of 225. 0.50 long x 0.24 deep 597 Area K Loose, yellow, coarse sand deposit, occurred above 598 only. Full extent unknown. 0.35 x 0.01 deep 598 Area K Black oxidised clay deposit. Full extent unknown. 0.60 x max 0.05 deep 599 Area K Firm, grey clay with hard burnt (oxidised) lumps of clay. Full extent unknown. Upper fill of 227. 0.45 x 0.05 deep 650 Area K Firm, grey clay with occasional brick fragments. Base fill of 227. Full extent unknown. 0.76m x 0.27 deep

49 Appendix 1: Catalogue of features and deposits (continued)

Context no. Area /trench Description Fills Dimensions (m) 651 Area K Firm, mid-brown, sandy silty with occasional flecks of burnt (oxidised) clay. Full extent 0.30 x 0.02 deep unknown. 652 Area K Firm grey clay and burnt clay mix spread. Full extent unknown. 0.40 x max 0.03 deep 654 Area K Soft, grey, clay with occasional black flecks and inclusions of moderate brick fragments. Full 0.26 x 0.44 extent unknown. Fill of 229. 655 Area K Firm, grey clay and red brick crumble spread. Inclusions of burnt, yellow to red and black clay. 7 max x 0.13 deep Full extent unknown. 656 Area K Firm, grey, clay with inclusions of occasional brick crumb and moderate brick fragments. Full 0.30 x 0.37 deep extent unknown. Fill of 230. 657 Area K Firm, grey, clay and red brick fragments. Full extent unknown. Fill of 231 0.36 x 0.34 deep 658 Area K Firm, grey clay and brick flecks spread. Full extent unknown. 3 max x 0.04 deep 659 Trench 4 Linear deposit of brick rubble in linear cut 232. 4.40 x 0.90 660 Trench 4 Clay, broken brick rubble and soil. Full extent unknown. Fill of 233. 1.30 min x 0.30 deep 661 Area K Firm, grey, clay and red brick fragments. Fill of 228. Full extent unknown. 0.40 x 0.10 662 Trench 4 Grey, silty clay. Not heat affected. Slopes down to the east. Possibly un-heat-affected 665 which 1 x 0.02 deep is further east. Full extent unknown. 663 Trench 4 Reduced, black clay (464). Full extent unknown. 0.60 x 0.01 deep 664 Trench 4 Red, oxidised layer found along most of length of the section. Full extent unknown. 5.20 x 0.03 deep 665 Trench 4 Black, reduced clay, possibly same as 662 but heat-affected. Slopes downwards to east, 1.65 max x 0.05 inclusions of brick fragments. Full extent unknown. deep 666 Trench 4 Red oxidised layer. Slopes downwards to the east in western section but relatively even 3.90 max x 0.07 elsewhere. Full extent unknown. deep 667 Trench 4 Small patch of black reduced clay at eastern end of 664. Probably reduced 664. Full extent 0.60 max x 0.05 unknown. deep 668 Trench 4 Grey clay and mid-brown silt and small fragments of brick, occasional inclusions of large brick 9.50 max x 0.18 fragments. Full extent unknown. deep 669 Trench 4 Broken brick rubble and mid-brown silt. Full extent unknown. 1 max x 0.14 deep 670 Trench 4 Mid-brown, silt and broken brick rubble and brick crumble. Full extent unknown. 8.20 max x 0.28 deep 671 Trench 4 Grey clay with inclusions of brick fragments. Possibly un-heat-affected 665 to the west. Full 0.95 max x 0.03 extent unknown. deep

50 Appendix 1: Catalogue of features and deposits (continued)

Context no. Area /trench Description Fills Dimensions (m) 672 Trench 4 Mix of blue grey clay and brick fragments. Not heat affected. Full extent unknown. 3.70 max x 0.11 deep 673 Trench 4 Red oxidised layer at far eastern end of section. Full extent unknown. Continues to the east. 0.90 x 0.04 deep 674 Trench 4 Red and yellow oxidised layer at eastern extreme of the section. Full extent unknown. Continues 0.30 max x 0.07 to the east. deep 675 Trench 4 Black reduced, clay layer at eastern extreme of the section. Full extent unknown. Continues to 0.30 x 0.02 deep the east. 676 Unstratified 677 Site Brick samples

51 Appendix 2: Catalogue of finds

Find No. Cut Deposit Sample No. Comment Category Description No pieces Weight (g) 50:1 - 50 Grid A, clean back Clay tobacco Pipe Pipe bowl fragment 1 2 50:2 - 50 Trowel back Clay tobacco Pipe Clay pipe stem fragment 1 < 1 50:3 - 50 Trowel back Clay tobacco Pipe Clay pipe bowl fragment 1 3 50:4 - 50 Grid F Pottery Pearlware base 1 8 50:5 - 50 Grid F Pottery Pearlware base 1 1 50:6 - 50 Grid F Pottery Creamware body 1 < 1 50:7 - 50 Trowel back Pottery Transfer printed ware body 1 3 50:8 - 50 Trowel back Pottery Transfer printed ware body 1 2 50:9 - 50 Trowel back Pottery Creamware body 1 2 50 Transfer printed ware (Willow 1 2 50:10 - Trowel back Pottery pattern) body 50:11 - 50 Trowel back Pottery Transfer printed ware plate 1 15 50:12 - 50 Trowel back Pottery Transfer printed ware body 1 2 50:13 Cancelled 50:14 - 50 Grid GG Pottery Transfer printed ware body 1 < 1 50:15 - 50 Grid GG Pottery Creamware body 1 2 50:16 - 50 Grid GG Clay tobacco Pipe Pipe bowl fragment 1 1 50:17 - 50 Pottery Transfer printed plate 1 38 50:18 - 50 Pottery Transfer printed vessel 1 20 50:19 - 50 Pottery Creamware body 1 10 50:20 - 50 Pottery Creamware plate/shallow dish 1 7 50:21 - 50 Pottery Creamware body 1 6 50:22 - 50 Pottery Transfer printed ware body 1 2 50 Transfer print (Willow pattern) 1 7 50:23 - Pottery vessel 50:24 - 50 Pottery Creamware plate/shallow dish 1 1 50:25 - 50 Pottery Transfer printed vessel 1 6 50:26 - 50 Pottery Transfer printed ware rim 1 < 1 50:27 - 50 Pottery Transfer printed ware body 1 2 50:28 - 50 Pottery Creamware handle 1 2 50:29 - 50 Pottery Creamware body 1 < 1 50 Transfer print (Willow pattern) 1 1 50:30 - Pottery rim 50:31 - 50 Pottery Stoneware jar/jug? 1 25

52 Appendix 2: Catalogue of finds (continued)

Find No. Cut Deposit Sample No. Comment Category Description No pieces Weight (g) 50:32 - 50 Pottery Stoneware jar/jug? 1 14 50:33 - 50 Glass Glass sherd 1 19 51:1 - 51 Area K. Deeply Clay tobacco Pipe Pipe bowl & stem section 1 12 embedded in 51, adjacent to posthole 215 52:1 - 52 Grid J Lithic Flint - struck 1 1 52:2 - 52 Grid B Clay tobacco Pipe Pipe bowl – decorated w/harp & 1 7 crown 52:3 - 52 Grid LL Pottery Creamware plate/shallow dist 1 12 52:4 - 52 Grid G Pottery Creamware body 1 20 52:5 - 52 Grid G Pottery Transfer print (Willow pattern) 1 10 vessel 52:6 - 52 Grid G Pottery Transfer print plate 1 4 52:7 - 52 Grid C, beside 290 Pottery Transfer printed ware rim & body 1 7 52:8 - 52 Grid C, beside 290 Pottery Creamware rim 1 4 52:9 - 52 Grid D Pottery Creamware body 1 5 52:10 - 52 Grid B Pottery Creamware rim 1 24 52:11 - 52 Grid B Pottery Creamware body 1 5 52:12 - 52 Grid B Pottery Creamware body 1 2 52:13 - 52 Grid B Pottery Transfer print (Willow pattern) 1 3 plate/shallow dish 52:14 - 52 Grid B Pottery Transfer print (Willow pattern) 1 12 plate/shallow dish 52:15 - 52 Grid B Pottery Creamware body 1 2 52:16 - 52 Grid B Pottery Transfer print (Willow pattern) 1 14 plate/shallow dish 52:17 - 52 Grid B Pottery Transfer print ware rim 1 9 52:18 - 52 Grid B Pottery Creamware body 1 3 52:19 - 52 Grid B Pottery Transfer print ware rim 1 2 52:20 - 52 Grid B Pottery Transfer print bowl 7 93 52:21 - 52 Grid B Pottery Transfer print ware body 1 < 1 50:22 - 52 Grid B Pottery Transfer print ware body 1 < 1 50:23 - 52 Grid B Pottery Transfer print ware body 1 < 1 50:24 - 52 Grid B Pottery Transfer print ware body 1 < 1

53 Appendix 2: Catalogue of finds (continued)

Find No. Cut Deposit Sample No. Comment Category Description No pieces Weight (g) 52:25 - 52 Grid D Pottery Creamware rim 1 3 252:1 - 252 Grid E, Trench 1 Pottery Glazed red earthernware base 1 153 255:1 200 255 Grid Q and W Pottery Creamware rim 1 6 263:1 - 263 Grid E, 94.84E/51.05N, Brick Unfired brick, co-joining 4 2471 Trench 2 263:2 - 263 Grid E, Trench 2 Brick Unfired brick, co-joining 2 2079 268:1 Cancelled 270:1 - 270 Grid F Pottery Transfer printed plate 1 4 270:2 - 270 Grid F Pottery Creamware body 1 3 270:3 - 270 Grid F Pottery Asbestos cement pipe fragment 2 122 276:1 - 276 Grid D Stone Broken stone flag 1 2350 290:1 - 290 Grid C Clay tobacco Pipe Clay pipe bowl fragments, co- 6 5 joining 291:1 - 291 Grid G, directly beneath Pottery Creamware body 1 < 1 355:1 - 355 Pottery Transfer print plate 1 13 355:2 - 355 Area K Pottery Creamware rim 1 < 1 458:1 - 458 Area K Glass Bottle base sherd 1 179 458:2 - 458 Area K Metal Iron object 1 6 458:3 - 458 Area K Bone Burnt bone 1 < 1 458:4 - 458 Area K Clay tobacco Pipe Pipe bowl fragment 1 2 458:5 - 458 Area K Pottery Transfer print plate 1 11 458:6 - 458 Area K Pottery Transfer print plate 1 6 458:7 - 458 Area K Pottery Transfer print plate 1 2 459:1 215 459 Area K Clay tobacco Pipe Pipe bowl fragment, co-joining 2 3 464:1 - 464 Trench 4 Glass Glass sherd 1 3 655:1 - 655 Area K Pottery Transfer print ware body 1 5 676:1 - 676 Grid A Pottery Transfer print ware rim 1 6 677:1 - 677 Brick Brick (whole) 1 2111 677:2 - 677 Brick Brick (whole) 1 2210 677:3 - 677 Brick Brick (whole) 1 2618 677:4 - 677 Brick Brick (whole) 1 2553 677:5 - 677 Brick Brick (chipped corner) 1 2369 677:6 - 677 Brick Brick (chipped corner) 1 2461

54 Appendix 3: Catalogue of samples

Sample Cut Deposit Description Volume Volume Finds Charred plant No sieved (L) floated (L) remains 1 - 51 Natural alluvium 0 0 N N 2 - 597 Sand – Area K 0 0 N N 3 - 355 Oxidised layer – Area K 0 0 N N 4 - 50 Charcoal pieces 0 0 N Y 5 - 292 Fire-hardened clay 0 0 N N 6 - 51 Wood for ID 0 0 N N

55

Figure 17: Mineralogical assemblage of Bricks C-H analysed by X-Ray diffraction

Figure 18: Mineralogical assemblage of Brick C analysed by X-Ray diffraction

Figure 19: Mineralogical assemblage of the local clay fired at 440°C, 600°C and 800°C compared to that of Brick A fired at 800°C and Brick H

Figure 20: Mineralogical assemblage of Brick A fired at 800°C

Figure 21: Mineralogical assemblage of Brick A fired at 440°C, 600°C and 800°C compared to that of brick H

Figure 22: Mineralogical assemblage of Brick B fired at 440°Cm 600°C and 800°C compared to that of Brick H

Fig. 24 Bricks being moulded at long tables, note the boy carrying a load in the right foreground (British Brick Society, 1975, 14)