Geomorphology and Glacial Geology in Nordaustlandet, Spitsbergen

Home , Balaena, Dirt cone, Hinlopen Strait, Isfjorden (Svalbard), Kong Karls Land, Low Island (Nunavut)

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BLAKE, Jr., Weston, 1930— GEOMORPHOLOGY AND GLACIAL GEOLOGY IN NORDAUSTLANDET, SPITSBERGEN. (VOLUMES I AND n).

The Ohio State University, Ph.D., 1962 Geology

University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan OaOMDRPHOLOGY AND GLACIAL GEOLOGY

IN NORDAUSTLANDET, SPITSBERGEN

Volume I

DISSERTATION

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University

Weston Blake, Jr., A.B., M, Sc,

xxxxxxxx

The Ohio State University

1962

Approved by

Richard P. Golüthwait Department of Geology PREFACE

F ie ld Work

The field work upon which this dissertation is based was carried out during th e summers of 1957 and 1958 w hile I served as g la c ia l geologist with the Swedish Glaciological Expedition to Nordaustlandet

(North-East Land), Spitsbergen, led by Dr. V. Schytt of Stockholms

Universitets Geografiska Institution, General accounts of the two summers' work are given in the "Polar Record" (Blake, 1958, pp. 142-

143; 1959, pp. 339-340).

In 1957 the four members of our expedition arrived in

Nordaustlandet on July 15th, and my three companions departed on

August 27th, Field work was carried out on the following days:

July 21-28, and 30; August 2-16, 19 and 24-25, a total of four weeks.

The rest of the time was spent unloading ships, unpacking, and packing. Of the actual days spent doing field work a considerable amount of time was devoted to establishing depots for the next summer's work and setting out ablation stakes and thermistors on the ice cap, Vestfonna. Thus most of the field work was necessarily of a reconnaissance nature.

The five weeks from August 28th to October 3rd were entirely occupied by field work. However, most of this period was devoted to starting a detailed study of patterned ground near Kinnvika,

Murchisonfjorden, and the results of this work w ill be treated in a separate report. On a five day trip to Lady Franklinfjorden the motion survey of S^re Franklinbreen (South Franklin Glacier)

ii was begun, and a final trip was made to the ice cap to read ablation stakes and thermistors.

In I 95 Ô five of us flew north on May 8th, Some field work was carried out on May 9-14, and 26-2?j June 1-2, 16-17, and 22-23,

Otherwise the time between May 13th and June 26th was spent assisting in glaciological and seismic vrork on the ice caps. The time between

June 27th and July 8th was devoted partly to . field work near Kinnvika, partly to preparing for the second part of the summer. From July 9th to August 7 th two of us made a t r i p to Lady F ra n k lin f jorden and Lagfdya; between August 9th and 20th we worked in Murchisonfjorden, From August

21st to 31st, when the expedition left Nordaustlandet, time was divided between packing and field work. Thus most of the work reported in this dissertation was carried out during a six-week period in July and

August, 1 9 5 8 ,

P lace Names

The place names used are those approved by Norsk Polarinstitutt

(the Norwegian Polar Institute), according to their publication "The

Place-Names of Svalbard" (1942, pp, 1-539) and the supplement to this

(Orvin, 1958, pp, 1-133)« All names used here for the first time have been approved by Dr, A. K, Orvin of Norsk Polarinstitutt, The latter part of each place-name is given in Norwegian, and for that reason a list of Norwegian endings is given below, according to Orvin (1958, pp, 9-11), The part in parentheses is the definite article.

i i x Norwegian English translation a u st(re ) east, eastern b e rg (e t) mountain, h ill, crag bre(en) pi, breane g la c ie r bukt(a) bay, bight, cove by(en) town d a l(en) v a lle y e lv (a ) river, stream fjell(et) pi. fjella mountain fjo rd (e n ) fiord, firth fly(a) pi. flyene barren, level or undulating ground fonn(a) snowfield or glacier halvj^y(a) p eninsula haam(a) harbor, haven huk(en) hook, headland i s (en) ic e kapp(et) cape k o ll(e n ) rounded h ill or crag lagune (laguna) lagoon lan d ( e t) land mark(a) field, ground n e s(e t) p o in t nord(re ) north, northern odde(en) point, cape pynt(en) p o in t renne (renna) lane, channel rygg(en) ridge, range sj^ (e n ) sea, lake sk ard (et) pass stein(en) pi. steinane stone, rock stra n d (a ) strand, shore sund(et) sound, strait s^ r(e ) south, southern topp(en) pi. toppane peak, summit vatn(et) pi. vatna lak e v e s t( re ) west, western v ik (a) creek, cove, bay vag(en) protected bay jdy(a) is la n d

IV Spitsbergen, meaning "sharp mountains," is the name which was first

given to the islands by the Dutch explorer Barents in 1596, According

to official Norwegian usage ("The Place-Names of Svalbard", 1942, pp.

399-404» 4 1 7 ) Spitsbergen includes the islands of VestSpitsbergen,

Nordaustlandet, Edge^ya, Barentsf(ya, and Prins Karls Borland, together

with the small islands near each of these, for a total area of 61,600

square kilometers (23,785 square miles), Svalbard, meaning "cold

coasts" in Norwegian, is the name for all the islands in the Arctic

Ocean which were placed under Norwegian sovereignty by the Treaty of

Paris, February 9, 1920, In addition to the islands of the Spitsbergen

group, Svalbard includes Kvit^ya, Kong Karls land, Hopen, and Bjj^m/iîya,

for a total of 62,405 square kilometers (24,095 square miles).

Acknowledgments

% t r i p to Sweden was made under th e au sp ices o f th e Foreign

Field Research Program, Division of Earth Sciences, National Academy of

Sciences — National Research Council, with financial support provided by the Geography Branch, Office of Naval Research. The expedition itse lf was financed mainly by Statens Naturvetenskapliga ForskningsrSd

(the Swedish Natural Science Research Council), and significant

contributions were also made by a number of other government and private organizations in Sweden and Finland, The glacial geological work in particular was supported by Svenska Sallskapet for Antropologi och

Geografi (the Swedish Society for Anthropology and Geography),

Special mention must be made of the help received from the

Swedish Amy in the form of loans of clothing and equipment, to the Swedish Air Force for providing me with a reconnaissance flight over the field area and for taking air photographs in 1957» and to the

Swedish Wavy for providing transport of equipment to Spitsbergen and transport of expedition members home. KommendBr (then Kommendorkapten)

B, Lundvall, the captain of the Swedish minelayer "llvsnabben" in 1957» assisted in every possible way» particularly in providing personnel for unloading the ship and in arranging for our small boat to be repaired.

Transport to Nordaustlandet in 1957 was provided by the Finnish research ship "Aranda", which was carrying out oceanographic work in the Barents Sea and north of Spitsbergen on an expedition from

Kerentutkimuslaitos (The Institute of Marine Research) in Helsinki, under the command of Professor I. Hela, We are indebted to the staff of "Aranda" for assistance in landing our expedition supplies, and I am obliged to Dr. H. Ignatius for allowing me to use some of the echo-sounding data obtained.

Transport for ray assistant and me in 1958 was in part provided by Norsk Polarinstitutt, and in both summers 0. Birketvedt, Sysselmannen pa Svalbard (the Governor of Svalbard) provided transport. On the way north in 1957 overnight accomodatiœi in Longyearbyen was provided by

Store Norske Spitsbergen Kulkompani A/5, and in October 1957 Sysselmannen

Birketvedt provided accomodations for two weeks.

The Swedish-Finnish-Svn.ss I.G.Y. Expedition to Nordaustlandet,

1957-53» led by Professor G. Liljequist of Uppsala Universitets

Heteorologiska Institution, kindly allowed us to use their base at

Kinnvika as headquarters, and I» especially, enjoyed their hospitality while living there in September and October 1957. 1 am indebted to

VI all members of both expeditions for assistance in the field, but

particular mention must be made of Dr. E. Palosuo of our expedition and

E, Tollén and Dr. M. Aro of Liljequists* group for help in 1957, and

of Fil, Kand. R. Bergstrom of our expedition for serving as my field

assistant in 1958.

Various items of field equipment were loaned by Stockholms

Universitets Geografiska Institution and by the Department of Geology,

The Ohio State University, Funds for the purchase of air photographs

were provided by the latter department and by the Ohio Academy of

Science. The staff of Norsk Polarinstitutt, particularly T. S. Winsnes

and K. Z. Lundquist, assisted in many ways, both in the field and in

O slo,

Support during the working up of results has come from many

sources. From January to June, 1959 I held a Bownocker Fellowship in

the Department of Geology, The Ohio State University, From November

1959 through January 1961 I worked under National Science Foundation

Grant No, 121,15/340 (I.G.Y. Interdisciplinary Research Project

21.15), administered through The Ohio State University Research

Foundation (Project No, 1037) and the Institute of Polar Studies,

Travel funds to enable me to go to Sweden a second time were provided

by the Geography Branch, Office of Naval Research,

The radiocarbon dating was carried out by Fil, Lie. Ingrid

01sson at Uppsala Universitets Fysiska Institution and the radium- uranium dating has been done by Professor W, S, Broecker at Lamont

Geological Observatory, Columbia University, The index of refraction

determinations have been carried out by J, Hanssen through the kindness

vii of Professor A. Hoe-Mygaard at Universitets Mineralogisk-Geologiske

Institut, Copenhagen, and by J, Tomasson at Institutt for Geologi,

Universitetet i Oslo, through the kindness of Dr. S, Thorarinsson,

Museum of Natural History, Re^gavik.

The determinations of the driftwood samples have been carried out by Professor G. W. Bums, Department of Botany, Ohio Wesleyan

University, Delaware, Ohio; Dr. H, A. Core, Wood Products Engineering

Department, State University College of Forestry, Syracuse, New York; and Dr. B. F. Kukachkta, Forest Products Laboratory, Forest Service,

U. 3. Department of Agriculture, Madison, Wisconsin. Through the kindness of Professor E-. Hultén I was able to submit ray botanical collection to Riksmuseet, Stockholm. Dr. T. B. Hasselrot, Riksmuseet has identified the vascular plants and some lichens; Dr. H. Persson,

Riksmuseet, and Dr. 0. Martensson, Uppsala, have identified the bryophjf-tes. Dr. R. Beschel, Department of Biology, Queen's University,

Kingston, Ontario (then at Department of Biology, Mount Allison

University, Sackville, New Brunswick) kindly studied the lichens on various rock samples. The study of Foraminifera was carried out at

Sveriges Geologiska Undersokning (The Geological Survey of Sweden) under the guidance of Dr. F. Brotzen. Dr. W. B. Harland, Sedgwick

Museum, University of Cambridge, studied our samples of erratics and compared them with his bedrock collections from Vestspitsbergen.

J. Sater assisted in the calculations of glacier motion. The staff of Scott Polar Research Institute, Cambridge, England assisted by making journals and photographs of earlier expeditions to

Nordaustlandet .available during a v isit there in December 1957.

v i i i Various parts or a ll of this paper have been read and suggestions

offered by Professors R. P. Goldthwait, G. Hoppe, C. A. Lamey, A.

La Hocque, G. E. Moore, Jr., and ¥. G, Sweet, Docent V. Schytt, Fil.

Lie. G. 0strem, Drs. F. Brotzen and J. H. Mercer, and Fil. Kand. B. Stromberg. I am particularly grateful to Messrs. Goldthwait, Hoppe,

and Schytt for encouragement, guidance, and discussion during all

stages of the work. In addition I am indebted to Fil. Lie. E.

Bergstrom and J. Hollin for much valuable discussion. Most of the

final drafting was done by Fru Birgit Hansson; two diagrams were done

by R. Paulson. Fru Ulla Vilborg, Miss Dorothy Amrine, and Mrs. Grace

Meafeld did various parts of the preliminary typing; Mrs. June Craig typed the final draft.

To all these individuals and organizations I extend my deepest

th an k s.

IX CONTENTS Page

PREFACE...... i i

INTRODUCTION ...... 1 Purpose and Scope of the Investigation ...... 1 Location of the A rea ...... 1 C lim ate ...... 6 Vegetation ...... 10 Previous Investigations ...... 11

GEOLOGY ...... 14

Introduction ...... 14 Regional Geology ...... 15 Stratigraphy and Structure ...... 16 Southern Nordaustlandet ...... l6 Northwestern Nordaustlandet ...... 19 Introduction ...... 19 Hecla Hoek succession ...... 19 Folds and faults ...... 24 North-central Nordaustlandet ...... 31 Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks ...... 33 D is c u s s io n ...... 3&

GEOl-DRPHOIDGY...... 42

Topography ...... 42 Coastal Areas ...... 42 Ice Caps ...... 45 Subglacial Topography ...... 46 Seismic soundings ...... 46 Gravity data ...... 52 Landscape Divisions ...... 52 Dege's Classification ...... 52 Ahlmann's C lassification ...... 55 Hinlopenrenna ...... 57 Coastal plain ...... 61 Transition zone ...... 6? P l a t e a u ...... 6â Hydrographic Features and Associated Landforms ...... 73 F io rd s ...... 73 Description ...... 73 Structural control ...... 75 Rivers and Streams ...... 76 Drainage patterns ...... 76 Gorges ...... 77 Kames(?) ...... SO Lakes ...... 82 Introduction 82 Former ice-dammed lakes ...... 83 X Page

GEOMORPHOIDGY (continued) Karst lake ...... 35 Age ...... 35 Periglacial Phenomena ...... - « » 33 Patterned Ground ...... 33 Solifluction ...... 39

U".■LACIAÎION...... 96

Introduction ...... 96 Ice M o tio n ...... 97 Striae and Associated Features ...... 97 G e n e r a l ...... 97 Murchisonf jo rd en ...... 103 Lady Franklinf jorden ...... 105 Rondalsberget ...... I l l Stone Orientation ...... 114 E r ra tic s ...... 117 G e n e r a l * ...... 117 Quart z-porphyry ...... 113 Gneiss and schist ...... 124 Granite and diabase ...... 125 Dolomite ...... 127 Sea ice transport ...... 12? Summary...... 130 Till Stratigraphy and Composition ...... 131 Introduction ...... 131 Murchisonfjorden ...... 132 G eneral ...... 132 Kross^ya ...... 134 Lady Franklinf jorden ...... 141 Foraminifera ....- ...... 143 Distribution ...... 143 Discussion ...... 143 Summary...... 153 Extent of Glaciation ...... 154 Northern Nordaustlandet ...... 154 G eneral ...... 154 Laponiahalv^ya and Sjuj^yane ...... 155 Coast and is la n d s e a s t o f Kapp P laten ...... 156 Ismasetoppen ...... 157 Discussion ...... 153 Hinlopenstretet ...... 159 Kong Karls Land ...... l6 0 Southeastern Spitsbergen ...... 163 Barents Sea ...... 169 Waning Stages ...... «...... 173 Hinlopenstretet and northwestern Nordaustlandet ... 173 Wahlenbergfjorden and Rijpdalen ...... 176

xi Page

DEGLACIATION...... 1?S

Raised Beaches ...... «...... 178 Introduction ...... »...... 178 Development of Beaches ...... 179 Sea ice action ...... 181 Ice-foot and snowdrifts ...... 182 Wave and current action ...... 184 I'iarine Limit ...... 185 Problems ...... 185 Methods of determination ...... 186 R esu lts ...... 187 Lady Franklinf jorden ...... 188 Outer Murchisonfjorden ...... 191 Neighboring areas ...... 192 Inner Murchisonfjorden ...... 192 Discussion ...... 195 Tilted Surfaces ...... 197 Cuspate forelands ...... 197 Differentially warped strandlines ...... 200 Pumice ...... 202 Introduction ...... 202 O c c u rre n c e ...... 203 Use in studying t i l t i n g ...... 205 Chemical composition ...... 215 Sources ...... 218 Refractive indexes ...... «. 221 A g e ...... 224 Correlation and discussion ...... 232 Absolute Age Determinations ...... 235 Radiocarbon Dating ...... 235 Sample c o lle c tio n and problems ...... 236 Driftwood ...... 236 Ivhale bones ...... 239 S h e lls ...... 241 Discussion ...... 241 R esu lts ...... 242 Driftwood ...... 242 Peat ...... 246 Whale bones ...... 249 S h e lls ...... 251 Origin of old shells ...... 257 Introduction ...... 257 Shell size and abundance ...... 258 Distribution of pelecypod valves ...... 259 Condition of shells ...... 26l Distribution of Foraminifera ...... 261 Shells in t i l l ...... 262 Time of u p l i f t ...... 265

xii Page

DEGLâCIAîION (continued) Other dates from Spitsbergen ...... 26? Radium-Uranium Dating ...... 268 Interglacial (?) in Nordaustlandet ...... 272 Land U plift ...... 275 Uplift Curve for Nordaustlandet ...... 275 Comparison with Vestspitsbergen ...... 278 Hypotheses Favoring Rapid U plift ...... 279 Driftwood ...... 279 Whale bones ...... 280 Data on Present-day Uplift in Nordaustlandet ...... 286 Russian hut ...... 286 Shore morphology ...... 288 Caves ...... 290 Discussion ...... 290 Eustatic Changes of Sea L evel ...... 291 Data on Present-day Uplift in Other Areas ...... 292 Vestspitsbergen ...... 292 Van M jenf jorden ...... 292 Kapp Wijk ...... 293 Russekeila ...... 293 AmsterdamjZ^ya ...... 294 B j |d r n # a...... 295 Summary...... 296

GLAG3ER VARIATIONS AND MOTION ...... 297

Iferginal Fluctuations near Murchisonfjorden and Lady Franlclinf jorden ...... 297 Vestfonna ...... 297 Introduction ...... 297 Comparison of photographs ...... 297 Patterned ground ...... 299 Botanical evidence ...... 299 Isolated Snowfields and Dead Ice Masses ...... 302 Franklinbreane ...... 304 H istcr y ...... 304 S^re Franklinbreen ...... 304 Nordre F r a n k lin b re e n ...... 312 Ice motion ...... 312 Lateral moraine ...... 315 Description ...... ; ...... 315 Vegetation ...... 317 F lu tin g ...... 319 Marginal Fluctuations Elsewhere ...... 323 Northern Nordaustlandet ...... 323 Brennevinsfjorden ...... 323 Laponiahalv^ya ...... 324 Lindhagenbukta ...... 325 Bengtssenbukta ...... 3^5 x i i i Page

DEGLACIATION (continued) Western and Central Nordaustlandet ...... 326 Brageneset ...... 326 Wahlenbergf jorden ...... 32# R ijpdalen ...... 331 Southern and Eastern Nordaustlandet ...... 335 South coast ...... 335 East coast ...... 337

Sm^IARY OF LATE-PIEI3T0GENE EVENTS ...... 338

APPENDIX I : ISCHANICAL ANALYSIS PROCEDURE...... 345

APPENDIX I I ; RADIOCARBON DATES ...... 351

REFERENCES CITED ...... 355

AUTOBIOGRAPHY...... ' 332

PLATES (Volume I I ) ...... 383

XXV ILLUSTRATIONS Figure Page

1 L ocation map ...... 2 2 Map of Spitsbergen, Kong Karls,Land, and Hopen ...... 3 3 tlap of Nordaustlandet, showing distribution of land and ice ...... h 4 Name map of northwestern Nordaustlandet ...... 5 5 Outline geological map of northwestern Nordaustlandet ...... 25 6 Geological cross-section in Murchisonfjorden ...... 26 7 Topographic sketch map of Rijpdalen ...... 32 8 Topographic map of northwestern Nordaustlandet ...... 44 9 Seismic profiles of Vestfonna and Austfonna ...... 4Ô 10 Landscape divisions in Nordaustlandet (after Dege) ...... 54 11 Bathymetric chart of the Barents Sea (after Ahlmann) ...... 5Ô 12 Echo-sounding profile from Hinlopenstretet ...... 59 13 Previous observations on striae around Hinlopenstretet ...... 90 14 Striae in northwestern Nordaustlandet ...... 100 15 Map shovn.ng details of the edge of Vestfonna at Vindheimen, including the orientation of the long axes of stones in t i l l ...... 115 16 Distribution!,of quartz-porphyry erratics (after B ergstrom ) ...... 119 17 Distribution of gneiss and mica-schist erratics (after B ergstrom )...... 120 18 Distribution of granite erratics (after Bergstrom) ...... 121 19 Distribution of diabase and basalt erratics (after Bergstrom) ...... 122 20 Mechanical composition of tills on Kross^ya ...... 136 21 Lithologie composition of tills on Kross^ya ...... 137 22 Mechanical composition of tills and other samples ...... 144 23 P r o f ile s o f Foynj^ya and Broch^ya ...... 157 24 Map showing the glaciation of eastern Spitsbergen (after De Geer) ...... l 6 l 25 Map showing the possible stages of glaciation of Spitsbergen and Kong Karls Land (after Budel) ...... 167 26 Striae observations in southwestern Barents^ya (after Budel) ...... 168 27 Map showing the glaciation of the Barents Sea (after Bluthgen) ...... 171 28 îîap of the inner part of Wahlenbergfjorden, 1924 (after Aldous) ...... 177 29 Profile of beach ridges on Flyndra ...... 180 30 Location of pumice around Hinlopenstretet and isobases of uplift ...... 208 31 Shoreline diagram for northwestern Nordaustlandet ...... 209 32 Map showing the location of dated samples ...... 237 33 Diagram showing land uplift in Nordaustlandet ...... 276 34 fïap showing isobases of uplift for Spitsbergen (after Birkenmajer) ...... 282

XV Figure Fage

35 Map showing fluctuations of Franklinbreane ( a f te r Moss and Glen) ...... 310 36 Revised map showing fluctuations of Franklinbreane « ...... 311 37 I'lap showing fluctuations of the ice edge at Brageneset (after Donner and West) ...... 328 38 Map showing the fluctuations of Brasvellbreen (in part after Lundquist) ...... 336

XVI TABL3S Number ' Page

1 Preliminary Meteorological Data, IGY Station 010, Murchison Bay ...... 8 2 Yearly Net Accumulation at Ahlmann Station ...... 9 3 Die Einzellandschaften von Kordost-Land ...... 53 4 Foraminifera in Tills on Kross^ya ...... 140 5 Distribution of Foraminifera ...... 146 6 Chemical Analyses of Pumice ...... 21? 7 Average Refractive Indexes for Pumice from Nordaustlandet ...... 222 8 Average Refractive Indexes for Pumice from Norway ...... 223 9 Radiocarbon Dates on Peat and Driftwood from Finnmark ...... 230 10 Radiocarbon Dates on Driftwood ...... 243 11 Radiocarbon Dates on Whale Bones ...... 250 12 Radiocarbon Dates on Shells ...... 253 13 Distribution of Right and Left Pelecypod Valves ...... 260 14 Radium-Uranium Age Determinations ...... 2o9 15 High Level Wliale Bones in S pitsbergen ...... 285 16 Eustatic Rise of Sea Level ...... 292 17 Vegetation at Vindheimen ...... 301 18 Motion of S^re Franklinbreen ...... 314 19 Vegetation in inner Lady Franklinf jorden ...... 318 20 Lichens from R ijp d alen ...... 333

xvxi nUTRODUCTION

Purpose and Scope of the Investigation

The geomorphological and glacial geological studies described in this dissertation were carried out in order to obtain information about the former extent of the ice caps, the directions of ice flow, and the time and mode of deglaciation in Nordaustlandet

(North-East Land), Spitsbergen, They were intended to supplement the pure glaciological research of the Swedish Glaciological

Expedition on the present regime of the ice caps. Particular emphasis was placed on studies of striae, till deposits, and raised beaches, and by means of absolute dating techniques a tentative chronology for late-Pleistocene events has been established.

Location of the Area

The Spitsbergen archipelago lies on the edge of the continental shelf between the Norwegian Sea, the Barents Sea, and the Arctic Ocean,

Nordaustlandet, lying between 79®10' and 80“33' North latitude and between 1?®35' and 27“15' East longitude, is the second largest island in the Spitsbergen group and is situated to the northeast of the main island of Vestspitsbergen (Figures 1 and 2), It lies approximately

900 km due north of Nordkapp, the northern tip of Norway, 600 km east of northeasternmost Greenland, and 300,km west of Zemlya Frantsa Iosifa

(Franz Josef Land), According to Ahlmann (1933a, p, 98) Nordaustlandet, exclusive of adjoining small islands, has an area of 14,375 sq km, of

1 w N o rth P o le

Arctic Ocean

Nordouotlondot

0» Barents Sta 100 200 400300

USSR FIN. \

Figure 1, Location map. After map "Top of the World", National Geographic Magazine 1949« Copyright.National Geographic Society, • Kvrl XII #y«m*

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Nord oust londet

7#'

Vest spetsbergen Prim /V^ ErfUndhfliMM Korls L

now

100 km

Figure 2, Map of Spitsbergen, Kong Karls Land, and Hopen. After map "Svalbard", 1:2 000 000, Norges Svalbard- og Ishavs-Unders^kelser, 1939, revised 1942. Copyright Norsk Polarinstitutt, tàttrêmfjfétfi

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V estfonno A u * t fonno

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C e n lo u r Kn*»']

iu Spol tliraliont

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Figure 3. Map of Nordaustlandet showing distribution of land and ice and traverse routes on the ice caps in 1958. Based on unpublished Norwegian maps, copyright Norsk P o la rin stitu tt, Nordsp«&4e Kapp

Skora odden

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V> •/^ JFW«K'« Q Â /X 4 % \ A '■'So-dr, - p j .I 5 -(Ar,Kata % \ \ \ ; '< ' # - & % ^ / X^tirny»/! y ^ ,C»tS

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~~Figure 4» Name map of northwestern Nordaustlandet, 6 which 11,425 sq km, or 80 percent, are covered tjr ice, mostly in the~~

~~form of ic e caps (Figure 3) • With the exception of the eastern and~~

~~northern edges of Austfonna and a number of outlet glaciers, the ice~~

~~caps are separated from the sea by land areas varying in width between~~

~~a few hundred meters and several tens of kilometers.~~

~~The ic e -fr e e coastal zone around Lady Franklinfjorden and Murchi~~

~~sonfjorden, including Lag^ya, formed the major part of my area of study~~

~~(Figure 3). In addition brief visits were made to Kapp Laura at the northeast comer of the island and to Rijpdalen, the ice-free valley~~

~~separating Vestfonna and Austfonna. The area studied most intensively~~

~~in the field and by means of air photographs lies between 79*45’ and~~

~~80*23' N and between 17*35’ and 19*40' E.~~

~~Climate~~

~~Meteorological observations have been carried out by several wintering expeditions in Nordaustlandet and in nearby Ny Friesland,~~

Vestspitsbergen, as well as by the Swedish-Norwegian Arctic Expedition, which was based at Sveanor on the south side of Murchisonfjorden during the summer of 1931 (Figure 4)» Eriksson (1933, pp. 136-137), the meteorologist of this expedition, has classified the climate of

~~Nordaustlandet as arctic-marine, in which March is the coldest month rather than January, as is the case in an arctic-continental climate.~~

Nordaustlandet is situated, however, in the border zone between the definitely maritime climate of Vestspitsbergen and those areas which are arctic-continental, such as Zemlya Frantsa Iosifa and the ocean to 7 the north which is permanently covered by pack ice (Eriksson, 1933, p. 137j Liljequist, 1959, p. 129).

The expedition which wintered farthest to the east, in Rijpfjorden, recorded Januaiy as the coldest month in 1944-45, with a mean tempera ture of -16.1®C, and a yearly mean of -5.8®C (Dege, 1947, pp. 154-156; i960, p. 21). The yearly mean at the farthest north station, the base of the Oxford University Arctic Expedition (1935-36) in Brennevinsf jorden, was -7.2®C, and the mean for the coldest month, March, was -24.1*0

(Glen, 1939, p. 36) . The most recent data available from the fie ld area are those of the Swedish-Finnish-Swiss IGY Expedition, which spent 14 months at Kinnvika on the north side of Murchisonfjorden in 1957 and

~~1958 (Figure 4), The pertinent data are summarized in Table 1, according to Liljequist (1959, p. 128; I960, pp. 230-231).~~

In addition to the above data it should be noted that winds were most commonly from directions lying between south and east because of the passage of cyclones between Norway and Spitsbergen, As a result of this,

Murchison Bay Station lies in the precipitation shadow of Vestfonna, and much of the snow that fe ll was soon blown away (Liljequist, 1957, pp. 278-Z79; 1959, p. 103). By comparison the values for precipitation at our expedition's main glaciological station, Ahlmann Station

~~(Figure 3), on Vestfonna are summarized in Table 2 as derived by Schytt from p it studies (Palosuo and Schytt, I960, p. 6 ). ;~~

~~Table 1, Preliminaiy Meteorological Data, IGY Station 010, Murchison Bay~~

~~Year, 1 9 5 7 1 9 5 8 Aug. 1957 19-31 1-30 -July J A s 0 N DJ F M A M JJ A 1958~~

~~Temperature (•G) mean +5.5 +3.7 -0 .1 -0.9 -8 .0 -14.4 -11.2 -15.8 -18.2 -13.6 -4.3 -0.3 +2.3 +1.1 -6.7~~

~~max. +11.3 +9*1 +4.9 +3.0 +1.1 -1.4 0.0 -3.8 -1.4 +3.4 +1.0 +6.2 +6.4 +8.1 +9.1~~

~~min* +0.3 -1 .0 -6.5 -11.4 -18.0 -23.3 - 25.6 - 27.8 -31.6 -27.7--164 —6.2 -1.2 -2 .8 .-31.6~~

~~Wind speed (m/sec)~~

~~mean 3.0^ 4.9 5.0 9.1 8.6 6.3 7.4 6.3 5.7 4.1 6.2 4.3 4.3 5.2 6.0~~

max 9^ 20 16 24 19.5 25.5 20.5 19 18 21 20 18.5 16.5 14.5 25.5 Precipitation (mm) 2.5 33.2 7.5 15.4 8.7 11.9 32.8 49.1 38.9 0.2 6.4 15.1 32.2 14.7 251 Cloud cover (tenths) 6.7 7.6 8.2 7.9 7.1 5.5 7.4 6.3 6.5 5.7 8.2 8.7 8.9 8.9 7.3

~~1 Estimated* oo Table 2. Yearly Net Accumulation at Ahlmarm Station, 79*58.5'N, 20*09' E, 622 m above sea le v e l.~~

~~Year Snow accumulation Water equivalent (cm) (cm)~~

~~1957-58 140 67.8~~

~~1956-57 126 59.5~~

~~1955-56 175 91.3~~

~~Vestfonna itself lies somewhat in the precipitation shadow of Austfonna~~

~~and S^rfonna. The net snow accumulation for the year 1957-58 over~~

~~considerable parts of eastern Austfonna amounted to more than 200 cm, and water equivalents of 100 cm were observed in several places.~~

~~Near the west edge of Vestfonna katabatic winds were often ex perienced, and absolutely calm weather was rather rare. Fog was also~~

~~common, particularly during the summer of 1958.~~

~~Elton (1925, p. 112) has divided Spitsbergen into climatic zones on the basis of the evidence provided by plants and animals. He states:~~

The main gradient of climate in the Spitsbergen archipelago i s from east to west, owing to the fa ct that a comparatively warm current washes the west and north-west coasts, while pack-ice invades the north-east and east coasts, even in summer. There is also a well-marked secondary gradient of climate up each of the long fjords which run up into the land at so many points along the coast. This is apparently caused by warm winds which flow down the glaciers from the inland ice, and prevent the formation of fog in the inner parts of the fjords. Round the outer parts of the coast, near the mouths of the fjords, there is much more fog. Now air temperature matters compara tively little to arctic plants; it is the insolation temperature which matters to them. Thus the amount of fog, by controlling the amount of insolation, controls the distribution of many important Spitsbergen plants. The country can be divided into four main zones, which, of course, grade into one another to a large extent. 10

~~Elton's four climatic zones, in order of increasing development of vegetation, are (l) Barren Zone, (2) Diyas Zone, (3) Cassiope Zone,~~

~~and (4) Inner Fjord Zone (Elton, 1925, pp. 112-112; Summerhayes and~~

~~Elton, 1928, pp. 252-260).~~

~~Vegetation~~

~~All of the field area, with the exception of the innermost part of Lady Franklinfjorden, has been classified as belonging to Elton's~~

~~Barren Zone. This zone is characterized by extremely sparse vegetation,~~

~~consisting of only a few species, and is dominated by tie arctic willow~~

~~(Salix polaris), the arctic poppy (Papaver radicatum), and tiie purple~~

~~saxifrage (Saxifraga oppositifolia). Occasionally rushes of the genus~~

~~Luzula may dominate in communities. Summerbayes and Elton (1928, p. 123) note that "an interesting feature of this region is the almst~~

complete absence of life in the intertidal area, owing to the abrading action of floating ice." I can verify this statement on the basis of examination of many kilometers of the shore in 1957 and 1958.

~~The innermost part of Lady Franklinfjorden has been classified~~

~~as belonging to the Dryas Zone (Summerhayes and Elton, 1928, map).~~

~~This zone occupies much of the outer parts of the fiords in Vestspits-~~

~~bergen which are warmed by the North Atlantic Drift; it is everywhere~~

~~characterized by a community dominated by mountain-avens (Dryas~~

~~octopetala).~~

More recently Scholander (1934, pp. 107-146) carried out a detailed botanical study in Nordaustlandet. He also stresses the sparsity of the vegetation, particularly on the extremely sterile dolomite areas 11 on the east side of Hinlopenstretet• The richest vegetation in

NordaustlandetJ in regard to both species and individuals and consti tuting about the only areas of closed vegetation, is situated beneath bird-cliffs, several of which are found near Murchisonfjorden.

~~According to Scholander the richest vegetation in northwestern~~

~~Nordaustlandet occurs in the inner part of (&irchisonfjorden, and my observations in the same area suggest that it too should belong to the Dryas Zone, not the Barren Zone, of Summerhayes and Elton,~~

Scholander (1934, pp, 11-13) collected a total of 64 species of vascular plants from Nordaustlandet, and since he visited over 40 localities in all parts of the Murchisonfjorden-Lady Franklinfjorden district, his results should give a rather complete picture of the vegetation. I collected some phanerograms, mosses, and lichens in areas not visited by Scholander, but these w ill be discussed in the section dealing with Glacier Variations,

~~Previous Investigations~~

Despite its rather remote location and the fact that access is often difficult because of pack ice, a number of scientific expeditions have visited Nordaustlandet during the last 100 years. Several of these early expeditions deserve mention, because in the course of their ex ploration and geological or other scientific work observations were often made which are of value for the present study. The various expeditions are listed below, and more detailed reference to their scientific results w ill be made under the appropriate sections idiich follow.

The first expedition which contributed significantly to the geology 12 of Nordaustlandet was that led by W. E. Parry in 1827 in an attempt to reach the North Pole. This was followed by the Swedish Expedition to

~~Spitsbergen (1861) led by 0, Torell, the Swedish Polar E^edition~~

~~(1872-73) led by A. E, Nordenskiold, and the Swedish-Russian Arc of~~

~~Meridian E:qpedition (1899-1902, but also including a preparatory~~

~~S3q>edition in 1898), S p ecific reference must be nade to the work o f~~

G, De Geer (1923, pp. 1-23), who directed much of the work of the Swedish section of this joint expedition. The map published by De Geer is still the best available for the area around MurchisonfJorden, and his report contains most of the previously available data on glacial geology for this part of Nordaustlandet, One of the most productive expeditions to visit Nordaustlandet was the Swedish-Norwegian Arctic Expedition (1931) led by H. W:son Ahlmann,

Although the main aim of th is expedition was pure g la cio lo g ica l research, some geomorphological field work was carried out also (Ahlmann, 1933a, pp. 89-116). In addition observations were made on raised beaches

~~(K ulling , 1936 , pp. 1-7) and on patterned ground (Ahlmann, 1936, pp. 7- 19 ). A series of e^editions from Oxford University — in 1924, 1935-36,~~

19491951 , and 1955 — also made important contributions to our knowledge of the geology and glaciology of Nordaustlandetj a summary of a ll but the last of these is given in Thompson (1953a, pp. 213-222).

Sandford, the geologist of the 1924 expedition, also devoted some time to g la c ia l geology and glaciology. His observations around Wahlenberg- fjorden are summarized in a paper entitled "The glacial conditions and

~~Quaternary history of North-East Land" (Sandford, 1929, pp. 1-30). 13~~

~~Glen, leader of the 1935-36 expedition which was mainly concerned with glaciology, meteorology, .and topographic mapping, also made some~~

~~observations on geomorphology and g la c ia l geology, mainly as the resu lt~~

~~of a sledging tr ip around the island (Glen, 1937» pp. 197-209, 214-220,~~

~~289-290, 294-308; 1939» pp. 1-14» 1941a» pp. 65-76, and Moss and Glen,~~

1939» pp. 228-229), Thompson (1935b, pp. 293-312) has described the geomorphological conditions in the area between Torellneset and Brâsvell- breen in southern Nordaustlandet (Figure 3) as a result of his woik in 1949» and Holland (1955, unpublished) has also discussed certain aspects of the geomorphology in th is region. The 1955 expedition, led by Hollin, concentrated on glaciological studies of Vestfonna near

Brageneset at the mouth of Wahlenbergf jorden, but Donner and West (1957, pp. 7-29) studied the tills and raised beaches. Their study of pumice laid the foundation for much of my work with raised beaches.

Finally, although Glen's 1935-36 expedition made some geomorpho logical observations on the north coast of Nordaustlandet, the most detailed work has been carried out be Dege (1946, pp, 79-83; 1947, pp. 160-163; 1949» pp. 274-278; I960, pp. 3-19) in the environs of

~~Rijpfjorden and Rijpdalen, and in addition Dege has presented a geomorphological classification of the whole island. GËOlOGî~~

~~Introduction~~

~~This chapter is summarized to a large extent from the publications of previous workers, particularly Kulling (1932, pp. 138-145; 1934, pp. 161-254), idio mapped the geology of most of the area around~~

Murchisonfjorden and Lady Franklinfjorden in 1931. Aside from a few incidental observations by my assistant and me, no studies of bedrock geology were carried out by the Swedish Glaciological Expedition to

~~Nordaustlandet.~~

For a general survey of the geological history of Spitsbergen the reader is referred to Orvin (1940, pp. 6-57). Reference should be made also to the work of Nathorst (1910, pp. 261-415), who includes a dis cussion of Zemlya Frantsa Iosifa, and to Frebold (1935, pp. 1-195;

~~1951 , pp. I I - I 5I) who summarizes the geology of the Barents Shelf area~~

— Spitsbergen, Bjffm^ya, Kong Karls Land, Hopen, Zemlya Frantsa losifa, and Novaya Zemlya (Figure l) . In addition to Kulling, a number of papers dealing with the geology of Nordaustlandet have been published by Sandford, based on his own field work in 1924 and on collections and observations made by more recent Oxford expeditions (Sandford, 1926a, pp. 615-665; 1950, pp. 461-493; 1953, pp. 311-312; 1954, pp. 11-18;

1956 , pp. 339 -362). Also, although many expeditions have done geo logical work in Ny Friesland, the part of VestSpitsbergen lying closest to Nordaustlandet, specific mention must be made of a series of

~~1 4 15 expeditions from Cambridge U niversity, led by W. B. Harland ( e .g ., see~~

~~Harland 1959, pp. 307-342; I960, pp. 7-16; 1961, pp. 68-132; Harland~~

~~and Wilson, 1956, pp. 265-286).~~

~~The most recent (1957) geological work on Lâgj^ya, Laponiahalvjï^ya,~~

~~and in Rijpdalen has been done by a Norwegian fie ld party led by~~

T. S. Winsnes of Norsk P o la rin stitu tt, but th eir resu lts are as yet unpublished. Because Winsnes i s in the process of revising the geological map of Nordaustlandet, no attempt has been made to construct a new geological map for this report. Figure 5 is a simplification of Kulling's geological map (1934, Plate 6), to which I have made a few additions and corrections. Other changes in the earlier maps are noted in the text. For place names the reader should refer to

~~Figures 3 and 4.~~

~~Regional Geology~~

Considerable evidence has been presented recently by Sandford (1950, pp. 484-488; 1956, pp. 357-358) that Archean rocks are present in Nordaustlandet, although absolute datings have not been obtained as yet. Orvin (1940, p. 8) earlier stated:

Even i f the Archean has not been proved with certainty in Spitsbergen, i t i s safe to assume that the Archean i s nevertheless of great importance in these regions. There can be no doubt that the Barents Sea Shelf forms a continuation of the Fenno-Scandian Archean Shield, as the boundary between Svalbard with the Barents Shelf and the deep Norwegian Sea forms a d irect continuation of the same boundary o ff the Norwegian coast. This hidden Archean shield has then a rather thin cover of younger sediments. The trend of the Caledonian mountain chain also indicates the presence of a large, continuous, and very resistant part of the Earth's crust to the east. 16 However, the most dominant feature of Spitsbergen is the

~~north-south structural grain developed as a result of the Caledonian folding (e.g., see Orvin, 1940, Plate l). The Caledonides, as the~~

~~folded belts developed in the Cambro-Silurian geosyncline are~~

~~called , continue northward from Norway through Bjjim^ya to~~

~~Spitsbergen, and, as Holtedahl (I960, p. 3) notes, there are many~~

~~parallel features in the pre-Garboniferous history of Norway and~~

~~Spitsbergen.~~

~~Sandford (1926a, p. 6l8) has pointed out that Nordaustlandet~~

~~consists, geologically speaking, of two main parts, a southern and~~

~~a northern. They are divided by Wahlenbergfjorden (Figure 3). The~~

~~southern part consists of nearly flat-lying Paleozoic and Mesozoic~~

~~sedimentary rocks, whereas the northern part is made up of (l) igneous~~

~~and metamorphic rocks and (2) in ten sely folded Hecla Hoek sediments,~~

~~the youngest of which are probably early Cambrian.~~

~~Stratigraphy and Structure~~

~~Southern Nordaustlandet~~

~~The area south and southeast of Wahlenbergfjorden is~~

~~characterized by nearly undisturbed strata. Middle and Upper~~

~~Carboniferous Spirifer limestone and Permo-Carboniferous Productus~~

~~limestone, the latter often silicified, are the oldest beds present,~~

~~and they form prominent c l i f f s along the south side of Wahlenberg- fjorden (Sandford, 1926, p, 644)* Permian beds are known only from~~

~~Svartberget on the southwest coast and from Wahlberg^ya in 17~~

~~Hinlopenstretet (Figure 13)* In both places they overlie the Productus limestone (De Geer, 1923, p. 2$), Gray, fla t-ly in g ,~~

~~Permo-Carboniferous fossiliferous limestone with chert beds is reported also from the land area between S^rfonna and Vibebukta~~

~~(Thompson, 1953b, p. 295)• All of southeastern Nordaustlandet is~~

hidden under Austfonna and S^rfonna, but this area probably consists of Permo-Carboniferous limestone. Hollin has informed me (i960) that limestone i s predominant in the la te r a l moraine on the west side of Brâsvellbreen (Figure 3).

~~Black, brown, and gray Triassic shale, fossiliferous and in places carbonaceous, occurs near Torellneset at the southwest comer of Nordaustlandet, where i t was f ir s t reported by Carlheim-~~

~~Gyllensk8ld (1899, p. 895). Kulling (1932, p. 139) also visited~~

Torellneset and reported that most of the f o s s ils are ammonites but that saurian remains, identified by Stensio as Phalarodon nordenskioldi. as well as mussels, also occur. Rocks containiig such saurian remains in VestSpitsbergen have been classified as youngest Middle Triassic. Triassic rocks have never been found in direct contact with the underlying Permo-Carboniferous, but new out crops found by Thompson narrow the distance between rocks of these ages to approximately 10 km, and part of the contact may be concealed under a lobe of S^rfonna (Thompson, 1953b, pp. 295, 299). Although

Thompson does not suggest it, this contact may be a fault. A line projected southeastward along the axis of Palanderbukta (Figure 3)> which Sandford (1926, p. 6$6) suggested was developed along a fault, passes between the outcrops of Triassic (to the west) and Permo- 18

~~Carboniferous (to the east) as mapped by Thompson.~~

Stratigraphie position and lithologie similarity between some of the black shale near Torellneset and Jurassic beds on the east side of Hinlopenstretet suggest that some of the beds that have been mapped as Triassic in the former locality may be Jurassic, although the meager faunal evidence does not confirm this. In the words of

~~Sandford (1953> p. 312) "Jurassic rocks are therefore postulated but not proved in Nordaustlandet..."~~

Idunfjellet on the north side of Wahlenbergfjorden is a prominent outlier of Permo-Carboniferous limestone (Figure 3)> and, as is common on the south side of the fiord, the limestone is capped by.the remnants of a diabase s i l l . Some blocks of the

~~Productus limestone also occur above the s ill (Sandford, 1926a, p. 644)* Recent work by Hollin has shown that here the Permo-~~

Carboniferous beds overlie the folded Hecla Hoek sediments. The latter also crop out in several other peninsulas along the north side of this fiord (Sandford, 1956, p. 359)*

Sandford (1926a, pp. 643-644) reported Permo-Carboniferous material from the moraines of Etonbreen at the head of Wahlenberg- fjorden and from moraines at Isispynten (Figure 3), one of the few land areas along the east side of Austfonna. The latter observation was confirmed by co llectio n s made by Hartog in 1949 (Sandford, 1954, p. 16) , In 1956 B. Jonsson and I found silicified fossiliferous rocks of this type in the moraines of Winsnesbreen, a glacier which flows southeastward into Rijpdalen just north of Etonbreen (Figure 7).

~~Furthermore, fossiliferous Upper Carboniferous limestone has been 19 found in morainic material on StozySya to the northeast of Nordaust~~

~~landet (Sandford, 1950, p, 468), These erratics, particularly those~~

~~on Stor^ya, may have been transported northward at some ea rlier stage~~

~~of glaciation. However, there may be Permo-Carboniferous limestone~~

~~under the central part of Austfonna, and I believe that the northarn~~

~~boundary of these rocks would be more correctly drawn i f i t followed~~

~~an approximate east-west line between Winsnesbreen and Isispynten,~~

~~Such a lin e i s considerably north of the boundary indicated by Orvin~~

~~(1940, Plate 1) on his geological map of Svalbard.~~

~~Northwestern Nordaustlandet~~

~~Introduction As noted earlier the geology of northern Nordaustlandet is~~

~~totally unlike that of the southern part of the island. Igneous~~

~~and metamorphic rocks, mostly granite and gneiss, dominate in~~

~~Laponiahalv^Jya and eastward along the north coast from Rijpdalen.~~

~~The northwestern part of the island, including the field area, is composed of folded sedimentary rocks of the Hecla Hoek succession,~~

~~and part of this sequence is repeated in the area between~~

~~Sabinebukta and Prins Oscars Land. The general strike of the~~

~~folded belt is north-south in the central part of the island;~~

~~NNW-SSE strikes dominate in the field area (Figure 5).~~

~~Hecla Hoek succession~~

~~Kulling concentrated on a study of the Hecla Hoek succession while mapping near Murchisonf jorden and Lady Franklinf jorden in 1931.~~

~~These rocks were named from H eclahoekfjellet, east o f Sorgfjorden in 20~~

~~My Friesland. (Figure 2), where they were first studied by Parry's expedition in 1S27. The Hecla Hoek stratigraphie units, according to Kulling (1934, pp. 170-194, 219-222), are summarized below;~~

4. Kapp Sparre formation; black-gray and gray dolomite, in places with chert streaksj red, gray, white, and green quartzose sandstone; and shale; the uppermost black-gray dolomitic mudstone contains tra il marks and inarticulate brachiopods, mostly of Lingulella and Obolus types. 800-850 m

~~3. Sveanor formation: tillite with adjacent varved marl 150 m~~

~~2. Murchisonfjord formation;~~

A; Upper p a rt 6. Rysso series; chiefly light-gray Rysso dolomite, in places oolitic and containing stromatolites of Gymnosolon type; also dark-gray dolomite, dark dolomitic limestone, some shale and mudstone; layers of chert concretions and intraformational conglomerate also occur. 850-1070 m

~~5. Kunnberg series; dominantly gray-black and gray limestone and dolomitic limestone, some mudstone, shale, and chert concretions. ■ 400-600 m 21 B. Lower p a rt~~

~~4. Salodd series: greenish-gray dolomitic siltstone, grading into dolomitic slate, and q u a r t z i t e 180-260 m~~

~~3. Raudstup series: reddish-brown, in part rather calcareous shale; and gray-green shale. 300-440 m~~

2, Norvik series; chiefly gray and greenish-gray sandstone and s la ty sandstone; some white quartzose sandstone (quartzite), greenish-gray, reddish-brown, and grayish-black shale, and muddy sandstone, 350 m

1. Flora series: white, whitish-gray, gray, grayish- green, green, pink, reddish-white, and reddish brown quartzose sand stone; also wliite, gray, pink, red- brown, green, and green-gray sand sto n e, and g ray -b lack muddy sandstone, 630+ m

1. Kapp Hansteen formation: chiefly gray-green to green fine grained porphyry and fine-grained phyllitic rocks; also coarse porphyry agglomérat e-conglomerate, violet gray and red-gray porphyry, with some gray quartz-porphyry and conglomerate. th ic k n e ss unknown

~~Total thickness of strata above Kapp Hansteen formation: 3650-4300 m~~

Kulling's (or the translator's) usage of the words 'slate' and 'shale', is somewhat confusing, for these terms are used inter changeably in discussing a given formation. Although some slight metamorphism may have occurred in this area, I saw no well-developed slate, and probably all the rocks of this type in the Murehisonf jorden area should be considered as shale, Kulling (personal communication, June 1961 ) agrees with this classification, Kulling also uses the terms 'quartzite' and quartzose sandstone' interchangeably when discussing the same formation. Nearly all these rocks are ortho quart zit es because of their high quartz content. Some rocks are quartzites as defined by Pettijohn ( 1957 , p . 295 ) in that they break across the grains, whereas others are not so solidly cemented, and might perhaps better be called quartzose-sandstones. 2 2

~~Although De Geer (1901, p, $32; 1917, p. 117; 1923, p. 24)~~

~~found trail marks of Phanolites type in the gray dolomite of the Kapp Sparre formation on iûrossf^ya, and Kulling (1934, pp. 1Ô9-192)~~

~~reported tra il marks of Helminthoidichnites type from the same~~

~~formation at Sparreneset, the first shell-bearing fossils from the~~

~~Hecla Hoek rocks were the inarticulate brachiopods, m ainly of Lingulella and Obolus types, that Kulling found in the uppermost~~

~~dolomitic mudstone of the Kapp Sparre formation at Sparreneset.~~

~~These are believed to be early Cambrian in sige, and because of~~

~~sim ilarities to the stratigraphy in parts of East Greenland and~~

~~Norway, where tillite s occur below fossiliferous Cambrian beds and~~

~~overlie unfossiliferous sediments, the Sveanor and I^furchisonf jord~~

~~formations are assigned to the Eo-Cambrian (Kulling, 1932, pp. 142-144; 1934, pp. 233-24$).~~

~~Additional evidence bearing on the age of the Hecla Hoek rocks has become available recently from VestSpitsbergen (Figure 2).~~

~~Lower Cambrian fossils — Obolella and several trilobites, including~~

~~species of Serrodiscus and Olenellus — were found in sandy limestone~~

~~in the upper part of the Hakli series near S^rkapp (Winsnes, in~~

Major and Winsnes, 19$$, pp. 9-28). Two Lower Cambrian o len ellid trilobites have been reported also from the black shales in the lower part of the Hakli series near Hornsund (Kielan, I960, pp. 83 - 90 ). The Hecla Hoek rocks overlying the Hakli series near Sj^rkapp contain Ordovician fossils, whereas lower in the strati graphie column are a conglomerate or tillite , believed to be equivalent to the tillite of the Sveanor formation, and oolitic 23

~~beds (in the Hoferpynten series), believed to correspond to the~~

~~oolites of the Rysso series in the Murchisonfjord formation. All ^~~

~~the Hecla Hoek rocks below the Hakli series were dated as~~

~~Eo-Cambrian by Major and Winsnes (1955, p. 27),~~

~~Recently Birkenmajer (1958a, pp. 144-149; 1959a, pp. 129-132;~~

~~1960a, pp. 64-73), as a result of detailed mapping around Hornsund,~~

~~has included three formations of metamorphic rocks in the Hecla Hoek~~

~~succession. These rocks lie below the Sofiebogen formation, which~~

~~contains the Hoferpynten series, and the Sofiebogen formation is~~

~~overlain in turn by the Sofiekammen formation, in which Biricenmajer has placed the Hakli series. The Slynfjellet conglomerate underlies the~~

Hoferpynten series (the lowest series studied by Major and Winsnes), and is separated from it by a disconformity. This conglomerate is regarded as Proterozoic(?) and it unconformably overlies the metamorphic ro c k s.

~~In Ny Friesland the Oslobreen limestones contain Lower~~

~~Ordovician (Canadian) trilobites, brachiopods, and gastropods, and the underlying Oslobreen dolomites, correlated with the Kapp~~

~~Sparre formation, contain Lower Cambrian cephalopods (Hallam,~~

~~1958, pp. 74-75). The Oslobreen sandstone, at the base cf the~~

~~Oslobreen series, is believed to mark the beginning of the Cambrian.~~

~~The underlying Polarisbreen series consists of shales at the top and bottom, separated by a tillite vdiich is correlated with the~~

~~Sveanor formation (Harland and Wilson, 1956, pp. 270-271; Harland,~~

~~1959, pp. 314, 327; I960; p. 12).~~

~~The Kapp Hansteen formation has been correlated, at least in 2 k part, with the schists of the Planetfjella series in Ny Friesland~~

~~(Harland and Wilson, 1954 P» 279; Harland, 1959, p. 32?) and these in turn have been correlated by Birkenmajer (in Birkenmajer and~~

Narçbski, I960, p. 59) with his Proterozoic Deilegga formation, which contains phy H it es. Both Birkenmajer and Harland have tentatively correlated part of the Deilegga formation with part of the Veteranen series, which according to Wilson (1958, pp. 323-324) is equivalent to the Norvik and Flora series in Nordaustlandet.

~~If these age determinations and correlations are correct, then the~~

~~Kapp Hansteen formation must also be Proterozoic, as suggested earlier by Kulling (1934, p. 222),~~

~~Folds and faults~~

The geologic map (Figure 5) and the cross-section (Figure 6) show that the strata in the field area strike NNW and dip steeply as a result of intense folding (see also Plate VI). In Murchison- fjorden the folds plunge to the south (Kulling, 1934, p. 198 and Plate 7). At the outlet of Wulffelva in Heimbukta I observed a southward plunge of 14" in an anticline formed of red and green

Raudstup shales. The plunge varies, however, and is probably less than 14" in most places. Kulling (1934, p. 180) suggested that there was an axial culmination on the east side of Indre Russ^ya, where the Raudstup series crops out. However, I found red shales, presumably of the Raudstup se r ie s, in a narrow band along the top ridge of Oskarjrfya, so that the axial culmination includes both these islands.

~~Kulling (1934, pp. 198-199) has shown that the major folded 25~~

~~KOM HontlM fl~~

~~10* IS~~

~~Kapp lody~~

~~Kulllngfjilltt~~

~~b trg c t % io'oo Cel##w«b#fg#t n"oo-~~

~~Kro«t#yd~~

~~Ligand Sporrinifit (Kapp S p a m ) Hiela Hoik lu cciiiio n (Prieombrian to Cambrian)~~

(VorlQui ogia) Kopp Spam formation# dolomlti, muditoni (Vâ I Svionir formation - till!to FT ^ Oraniti Murchlionfjord formation (uppir part) l#^l DIorlti Ryud iiriii - dolomiti, Umoitom. tholi [ ca 1 Hlnitti Hunnbirg uriio • dotemili, llmiitoni i; I /|] Murchlionfjord formation ( lowir port) Sdtodd iiriii • dolomitk liltitoni Rouditup iiriii - iholi Norvik u r i i i - q u o rtilti, londitoni, iholi 10 km Flora u riii - quartiiti, londitoni I V V ) Kapp Hanitiin formation • quartx#porphyry

~~Figure 5. Outline geological map of northwestern Nordaustlandet, (sim plified from Kulling, 1934» P lates 6 and ? )• I I~~

~~W / y-'-' Floroborgot ,,-'NpfifT0f E Kintwika Hunnbygot ______Roudttup^ ^ Nordvika __ ■ 6 \ 5 3 ^^2/1 ' 2 ' ^ T T"7 T T~~

~~1 Flora Mrios 2 Norvik sorito J /> 3 4 Sfllodd end Roudttup sorit* I I 5 Hunnborg Mrioi 6 Ryst6 Mritt 0L_ _l3 km~~

Figure 6* East-west geological cross-section across the north side of Murchisonfjorden (refer to Figure 5 for names; after Kulling, 1934, pp. 172-173.) 61 27 structures on the north side of lAirchisonf jorden are present along the north coast of Storsteinhalvjtfya also. Thus the first anticline west of Floraberget appears just east of Mamorpynten, and the main syncline of Floraberget appears at Lapp Lord (Figure 5),

Kulling has pointed out that Raudstup beds occur at sea le v e l in the core of the syncline at Kapp Lord, but Norvik beds are at sea level at Floraberget, suggesting that the syncline plunges to the north, in apparent contradiction to observations farther to the southeast. Later investigation showed an axial culmination in

~~Wargentinfjellet, whence the northwestern part of the syncline plunges to the northwest, the southeastern part to the southeast.~~

~~I observed a series of terraces, probably structural in origin but modified by solifluction, on the northeast side of~~

~~Wargentinfjellet facing Tverrberget (Figure 4), These are developed in quartzose-sandstones of the Norvik and Flora series and are inclined 2-3" toward the northwest, which would tend to support~~

~~Rolling'8 suggestion.~~

A few strike and dip observations on Rondalsberget, midway between Lady Franklinfjorden and Murchisonfjorden, indicate an anticline, although the structure is somevdiat more complicated around the head o f Nordvika (Figure 4)« Fogberget i s an excellent example of a synclinal mountain, with an especially steep scarp toward the northwest, and BrekoUen, the smaller ridge to the northeast, is formed by southwest-dipping Norvik series shale and

~~Flora series sandstone on the northeast limb of this syncline.~~

~~Shale beds dip toward the southwest in the gorge by Tunnelbreen, 28 at Sevrinberget, on Skiferpynten and Enndf^ya, auid at Persodden.~~

~~Kulliing (1934, p. 197 ) has noted the synclinal structures at~~

~~Skaraberget and Persberget. More observations are needed in this area, but the general structure, as in Birchisonf jorden, is a series of plunging folds striking NM-SSS.~~

~~Sandford (1926a, pp. 623-625) measured a section on the north west coast of Lig^ya, and as Kulling (1934, pp. 198-199) suggests the quartzite there is probably Flora series, the shales are~~

Norvik and Raudstup, and the dolomite may belong to either Raudstup or sSlodd series. Kulling visited only the extreme southeast comer of the island east of Raudbuktaj Raudstup shales crop out there and on the small island offshore. I found red sandstone that is probably Norvik series in the eastern inner part of

Raudbukta and Flora series quartzose sandstone at Gallionsypnten, the southwest comer of lÂgiiya, The northeast strike and southeast dip here are sim ilar to what Sandford found. These observations, coupled with the air photographs, show that the stmcture is a syncline plunging to the southeast. Several other folds are also evident on the air photographs. The changes in strike between Storsteinhaly^ya and LSgjrfya suggest that a fault may be present in Franklinsundet.

According to Kulling (1934, pp. 199-203) the nature of the boundary between the quartzose sandstone of the F&irchisonf jord formation and the underlying volcanic rocks of th e Kapp Hansteen formation i s not clear; vdiere i t can be seen on Gerardodden and

~~KuUingf jellet between the two branches of Franklinbreane it is 29 only obvious that the Kspp Hansteen beds are stratigraphically lower~~

(Figure 5)* In his latest paper Sandford (1956, p. 354; probably based in part on Orvin, 1940, Plate 1) has drawn this boundary along the southwest side of Lady Franklinf jorden, and even some of the area southwest of S^re Franklinbreen is included in the Kapp Hansteen formation. This is incorrect; no Kapp Hansteen rocks occur as shown on Sandford's and Orvin's maps* Shale crops out near the front of the glacier, and all along the fiord to near Kapp Lady, whereas white Flora quartzite crops out between BrekoUen and the glacier. Steeply dipping red and green shales were observed from a distance on Ranunkeljrfya, and Kulling (1934, P late 5) has mapped

Tombolo;^ya as lower Murchisonf jord formation. Fin a lly , a sample taken from a d irt cone S50 m out on Sfire Franklinbreen from the southwest side showed shale and sandstone, but no porphyry, in the granule and pebble graide sizes. This material originated In the shear moraine farther southeast at the junction of this g la cier with Vestfonna. Thus the contact between the Kapp Hansteen formation and the Murchisonf jord formation must lie close to the

~~Gerardodden side o f Sfire Franklinbreen.~~

Superimposed on the general structural trend are many small scale faults, in general oriented east-west, and in most cases with displacements of only a few meters, although displacements of several hundred meters probably occur also. These faults are beautifully displayed on the air photographs; e.g., see Figure 26 and Hoppe (1958)• They have had the effect of offsetting and crumpling strata so that in many places a given bed cannot be 30 followed any great distance without interruptions and changes in

~~strike* ]h Figure 5 the offset in the beds of the lower %irchisonfjord~~

~~formation between Billing en and the south shore of the fiord may be due to small east-west faults north of Oskar^ya and south of Indre~~

~~Russ^ya (Figures 4 and 5)* Sandford (1926a, pp, 653> 656) suggested that "east-and-west fracture may be a governing element in ,~~

Murchison Bay" or the basis of the presence of a deep channel which was sighted from the a ir in 1924* Although th is supposition is not proved, and in fact the strata are in general not offset any significant amount in an east-west direction (Kulling, 1934#

~~Plate 7)» the example given above indicates that fa u ltin g may have taken place along part of the line suggested by Sandford,~~

~~Kulling (1934, pp. 180, 192-193) has noted the abrupt changes of strike on Krossj^ya and has suggested the possibility of~~

~~"horizontal thrusts in a mainly W-E direction" as one means of explaining the repetition of structures in the western part of~~

~~Kvalrossahalv/^ya, The air photographs (e.g., Plate XU) do, in fact, show a fault cutting across the base of this peninsula at~~

~~Krystallvatnet,~~

Joints, often steeply-dipping, are well developed throughout the field area. The effect of both faults and joints on the geomorphology and drainage w ill be discussed in the following chapter. 31 North-Central Nordaustlandet

~~Sandford (1950, pp. 464-409; 1956, pp. 339-359) has described the geology of Rijpdalen and parts of the north coast (Figures 3~~

~~and 7) on the basis of collections and notes made by the 1935-36~~

~~Oxford expedition, and by making use of the 1938 a ir photographs~~

~~and his own observations at the head of Wahlenbergf jorden in 1924.~~

~~He found a repetition of the Kapp Hansteen formation and the lower~~

~~part of the lAirchisonf jord formation in the area between Sabinebukta~~

~~and Rijpf jorden. The major structure is a syncline plunging to the~~

~~south. Phy Hite and schist, of the Kapp Hansteen formation were~~

~~observed at Camp III on the west side of Rijpdalen (Figure 7)j~~

~~cross-bedded quartzose sandstone of the Flora series was observed~~

in morainic material 2 to 4 km to the west and up to 30 m above Camp III. The highest of the Flora series rocks were probably on the surface of the ice cap; the lower may have been outsüe the edge of the ice itself, although the extensive snow cover in

~~June 1958 made it impossible to determine the exact position of the ice edge. Nevertheless these observations confirm those of Wright as reported by Sandford (1956, p. 343 and Plate 18),~~

~~West of the unnamed lake at 223 m on the east side of~~

Rijpdalen, reddish shale fragnents are abundant on the surface of the ground. On top of the hiH (VIII) immediately west of this lake is a well developed felsenmeer of white quartzite blocks. At the edge of Austfonna to the northeast the morainic material is again dominated by quartzite, with some gray-green shale and schist 32

Legend Ahimenn- fonna 9 Survey etotlenu, atl Winunet, 1>87 1fl1,20B Other epot elevotione Rijpfjord»n Elevetien determinotlene, • list (altimeter) - - - - Troveree route, UBS ^ Strloe Steee - end • lee eurfoeee • Germon boee, 19K-4S O Hllle Gloelero r

~~Ves tfonno Austfonna~~

~~Compe m on m SB#~~

~~7# BO~~

~~le d /e / bub to~~

~~Oxfordholvsya Wi.nenesbreen~~

~~10 km ISondferdkoUen ISondferdkoUen~~

~~Etonbreen~~

Figure 7» Topographic sketch map of Rijpdalen, based on a survey by T. S, Winsnes in 1957 • Original unpublished map at 1:200 000. Copy right Norsk Polarinstitutt. Geological observations by Blake, 195Ô» 33 fragments. Finally, red and green shale fragments were found in the end moraines of Winsnesbreen, together with the fragments of Carboni ferous silicified rocks mentioned earlier in this chapiter. All these observations indicate that quartzite of the Flora series and shales of the Norvik or Raudstup series crop out on the east side of Rijpdalen and under Austfonna. This evidence may be used to supplement the data presented by Sandford (1956, Plate 18), and together with Ahlmann's observations a few kilometers north of

OUI* 1958 route, as reported by KuUing (1934, p. 205) and Sandford (1956, p. 344), it confirms Sandford's conception of a north-south " anticline in the west-central part of Rijpdalen. The anticline is succeeded to the east by a syncline, also plunging to the south and in part hidden under Austfonna.

~~Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks~~

~~The igneous and metamorphic rocks, primarily granite and gneiss, are specially concentrated in two areas: (l) between~~

~~Brennevinsf jorden and Sabinebukta, and (2) eastward from the southern part of Rijpfjorden (Figare 3). Sandford (1950, pp. 464-~~

468 ) has summarized our knowledge of the granite and gneiss; observations from several localities show that gray granites, as w ell as gneiss and other metamorphic rocks, are intruded by pink and red granite and/or granodiorite. Because of the lack of metamorphic gradation into the overlying sediments and because of gentle southerly dips (as opposed to the intensely folded Hecla Hoek 34 sediments ) j the gray granite and gneiss constitute a metamorphic complex idiich is older than the sediments and on which the sediments were deposited unconformably (Sandford, 1956, pp. 357-358). The folding of the Hecla Hoek rocks is attributed to pressure transmitted through the metamorphic complex, which caused some undulations in the ccmiplex but otherwise affected it little .

The nature of the lower Hecla Hoek rocks is also evidence for the presence of an older complex. The h i^ quartz content in orthoquartzitic sandstones such as those of the Flora series is, as Pettijohn (1957, pp. 299-300) has pointed out,

indicative of a high degree of textural and mineralogical maturity. These rocks are obviously the end product of protracted and profound weathering, sorting, and abrasion. In order that there be sufficient time to achieve these results, it is imperative either that the source area and site of deposition be tectonically very stable or that the sand go through several cycles of sedimentation.

As mentioned at the beginning of this chapter the presence of a continuation o f th e Fennoscandian Archean . shield has long been postulated in Spitsbergen, and Semdford's metamorphic ccmiplex i s believed to represent part of th is ancient rock mass. Archean age is not yet proved, however, and i s doubted by some. Winsnes has written me (June, 1961) that he has not seen Archean rocks in Rijpdalen, although he has worked in the same area which Sandford

~~(1950, Plate 18) has mapped as part of the metamorphic complex.~~

~~Obviously more research is needed on this question.~~

As noted above the red granites and associated rocks intrude th is metamorphic complex; they also intrude the Kapp Hansteen formation. Kulling (1932, p. 140; 1934, p. 202 and Figure 22) 35 described and figured a cliff in Brennevinsfjorden where a massive fine-grained granite intrudes Kapp Hansteen phyllite, and Sandford

~~(1950 , p, 478) described red granite and quartz intrustions in Kapp~~

~~Hansteen rocks in the Rijpfjorden area, Dege (I960, pp. 7-1?) has discussed the red granite of the latter region in particular detail.~~

~~No granites crop out in the field area, but quartz-rich dikes were observed cutting the Flora sandstones near Vindheimen in 1959, and~~

~~BergstrWm reported pegmatite dikes in the Norvik series in Nordvika~~

(Figures 4 and 5), Kulling (1934, p. 202) suggested that the red granite in Brennevinsfjorden should be considered slightly younger than the folding epoch as it has not been affected by the folding, and he added that i t must have been intruded under quiet conditions, as no alteration of the phyUite has occurred. Further evidence for the age of the granite is provided by the Sveanor tillite*

~~Although Rysso dolomite boulders dominate and gray granite and other igneous rocks occur also, red granite is absent (Kulling,~~

~~1934 , pp. 225-226),~~

~~The diabase intrusions must also be mentioned, although for complete details the reader is referred to Backlund (1907, pp.1-29;~~

~~1922 , pp. 9-10), who describes the diabases around Storfjorden in southeastern Spitsbergen (Figure 2), and to Tyrrell and Sandford~~

~~(1933 , pp, 284-321), who discuss the whole archipelago. Diabase occurs as s i l l s in the Permo-Carboniferous rocks, both at~~

Idunfjellet and in the area between Wahlenbergfjorden and the south coast (Figure 3), as noted earlier in this chapter. It is common also on the islands in Hinlopenstretet and forms the peninsula of 36

~~Brageneset on the north side of the mouth of Wahlenbergfjorden, A~~

~~few diabase dikes have been reported from Nordkapp (T yrrell and Sandford, 1933, p# 290), and Depotodden on the north side of~~

~~Brennevinsfjorden is in part composed of diabase (NordenskiSld,~~

1863, map; 1866, p. 21; Kulling, 1934, Plate 6; Orvin, 1940, Plate 1), Kulling (1934, p* 203) noted "a small dolerite skerry” rising just above the surface of the sea in Brennevinsfjorden between Depotodden and Kapp Hansteen,

~~In the field area diabase crops out in the northeast part of~~

Lâg/lya (Nordenskiold, 1863, p. 11 and map), and a lso on the islands between LSg^ya and Kapp Hansteen (Orvin, 1940, Plate 1), Sandford (1926a, p, 647) reported a diabase dike in the Hecla Hoek rocks east of Celsiusberget, although it is certainly not in the position east of Weaselbukta indicated by l^ rell and Sandford

~~(1933, Plate), The only other definite observation is the 15-20 m wide diabase s ill in the Rysso series approximately two kilometers east of Sparreneset (Kulling, 1934, p, 191).~~

~~Tyrrell and Sandford (1938, pp, 314-315) noted that the diabase s i l l s and dikes have never been formed cutting Upper~~

~~Cretaceous or Tertiary strata in Spitsbergen, but that they cut rocks ranging in age from Precambrian or Lower Cambrian to Upper~~

Jurassic, The diabase intrusives have thus been assigned an age of Upper Jurassic or Lower Cretaceous, However, in a more recent discussion Orvin (1940, pp, 37-38) presented additional evidence from various parts of Svalbard, and he concluded that undoubtedly more than one period of volcanism has occurred and that some of 37 the igneous activity took place as late as the end of the Cretaceous or beginning of the Tertiary,

~~Two other occurrences of intrusive rocks have been recorded in the field area. Kulling (1934, p. 185) reported a five meter wide s ill of minette in RyssS dolomite south of Forsiusberget~~

(Figure 4). He later found petrographically similar injected bodies in some sediments of the Murchisonfjord formation southeast of Lomfjorden (Figure 13), and because these intrusive rocks showed the same "tectonic destruction" as the enclosing sediments he concluded that they had been injected before the Hecla Hoek rocks were metamorphosed during the Caledonian fold in g. By analogy

~~Kulling believed the minette near Forsiusberget to be pre-~~

~~Caledonian in age, possibly even older than the Eo-Cambrian~~

~~Sveanor t i l l i t e .~~

~~Between ToUénbukta and Tverrberget on the southwest side of~~

Lady Franklinfjorden (Figure 4), Bergstrom and I observed several hundred blocks of minette on the raised beaches at about 23 m elevation. No bedrock outcrop was observed, but because the blocks all occurred in a line parallel to the strike of the folded

Murchisonfjord formation sediments, and because this rock type was observed only at this single locality, it is believed that the blocks originated in an underlying intrusive body. The relation of this intrusion to the enclosing sediments is unknown as the entire area is covered by beach shingle.

Finally, Kulling (1934, pp. 225-226) found a few hypabyssal and extrusive ix)cks among the boulders of the Sveanor tillite* 38 Their age and origin remain unknown, although Kulling has suggested that th^r may represent igneous activity in the area just prior to the Eo-Cambrian glaciation .

~~Discussion~~

The geology of Nordaustlandet north of Wahlenbergf jorden thus consists of two folded zones separated by a region of granitic and metamorphic rocks. The structure o f the Murchisonfjorden area as a whole, in the words of Sandford (1956, pp, 352-353), "may be regarded as a distorted synclinorium on the western side of the pitching a n ticlin e with a x ia l zone N .-S. from the North Cape region."

Sandford also points out that the repeated folding in the synclinorium to the west has resulted in great width of outcrop, but that east of the Nordkapp anticline the limited structures have resulted in only the Kapp Hansteen formation and lower two series of the Murchison- f jord formation appearing outside the ice cap.

Support for Sandford's conception of the connection of the two areas of Hecla Hoek rocks beneath Vestfonna is provided by two observations made in 1957 and 1958, Several strikes recorded in ripple-marked quartzose sandstone near Vindheimen, at the western edge of Vestfonna, were N 63-?2®W, showing the change in the trend of the folds from the NNW-SSE strikes near Kiirchiscnf jorden (Figures

4 and 5), Also, relatively abundant gray dolomite erratics in the area southwest of Lady Franklinfjorden, as well as a few limestone and dolomite fragments in t ill at Vindheimen, indicate the presence of upper Murchisonfjord formation strata to the south and east under 39 Vestfonna, Sandford (1956, p. 353) has noted that moraines along the north side of Wahlenbergfjorden yielded rocks from high members of the Murchisonfjord formation and perhaps the Sveanor tillite , and Glen found tillite in moraines near Vestfonna southwest of Rijpfjorden.

The crystalline basement may be regarded as the foreland of the Hecla Hoek geosyncline. In Nordaustlandet about 4000 m of largely unmetamorphosed sedimentary rocks, plus an unknown thickness of Kapp Hansteen formation (mostly pyroclastic rocks; i,e ., the quartz-porphyry) occur on top of the basement, whereas to the west in % Friesland i s a r e la tiv e ly unbroken sequence of rocks up to

~~15,000 m thick, much of which is metamorphosed (Harland, 1956, p. 361; i 960 , p, 14), According to Harland (1959, p, 330),~~

...in Ny Friesland the bottom of the Lower Hecla Hoek rocks is not known and the exposed deposits are predominantly quartzose and thoroughly interbedded with basic volcanics. The Kapp Hansteen formation seems to be equivalent to the upper part of the Lower Hecla Hoek, the whole of which totals more than 7000 meters in the west, Ny Friesland would thus appear to be subject to rapid deposition of elastics and may contain the maximum subsidence for the Lower Hecla Hoek.

~~Harland (1959, p, 331) believes that the folding and faulting of the~~

~~Hecla Hoek sediments took place between Canadian and Downtonian times, and to these earth movements he has given the name~~

~~Ny Friesland Orogeny,~~

~~Backlund (1907, p, 10), De Geer (1923, p, 27), Sandford~~

(1926 , pp, 654- 655), and Odell (1927, pp, I 6O-I6I ) have discussed the relation between the diabase (and basalt) and the fracture lines in Hinlopenstretet, Orvin (1940, p, 3S, Plate l) has pointed 40 out that the faults have not actually been observed, and Harland

~~(1959. p . 322) does not suggest the presence of any faults in~~

~~Hinlopenstretet, However, Sandford (1926a, pp. 654-655, 657-658) has presented a considerable amount of evidence indicating that~~

~~Hinlopenstretet is of tectonic origin.~~

In northern Hinlopenstretet there is a marked topographical difference between low-lying Nordaustlandet on one side and the high mountains in Ny Friesland on the other. Also, some of the diabase islands in the southern part of the strait rise nearly

200 m above the bottom. The intrusion of the diabase must have preceded the formation of the fiord, but it could not have been intruded in the form it now has. This suggests that most of the diabase mass has foundered at a time of fracturing, leaving horst-like remnants. Finally, the differences in elevation of similar strata on the islands in southern Hinlopenstretet, in

~~Vestspitsbergen and in southern Nordaustlandet, are most probably the result of faulting. Vestspitsbergen has undergone faulting at several times, and much of the fiord topography, including~~

~~Wijdef jorden, Mosselbukta, and Lomf jcrden , is in part due to faults (Figure 2), To me there seems little doubt that~~

Hinlopenstretet is developed along a fault or faults. This faulting must postdate the intirusion of the diabase, and as mentioned earlier Orvin (1940, pp. 37-38) has presented good evidence that at least some of the intrusions occurred in Late

Cretaceous or Early Tertiary time. As Harland (1959, p. 336) has stated, the fault systems northeast of a line between 41 Kongsf jorden and the ini^er part o f I s f jorden are probably related to the same Tertiary orogeny, and there is no reason to believe that Hinlopenstretet is not of Tertiary age also. GEOIORPHOLOGY

~~Topography~~

~~Coastal Areas~~

~~Spitsbergen lies near the outer edge of the continental shelf, the morphology of which has been discussed in d e ta il by Ahlmann~~

~~(1933, pp. 69-97). For the purposes of the present paper it suffices to say that much of the floor of the Barents Sea lies at depths of less than 200 m, and there are extensive areas less than~~

~~100 m deep (Figure U) off the south, east, and north coasts of~~

~~Nordaustlandet, The shallow areas lying to the north have been called "shelf-plateaux” by Ahlmann, Only on the west coast, in~~

~~Hinlopenstretet, is there deep water (over 400 m) close to land.~~

Just as Nordaustlandet is bordered, for the most part, by shallow water, the island itself is low in elevation. Local relief, on the other hand, may be several hundred meters, since much of the highest land lies close to the sea, particularly along the north coast (Figure 3 ). The highest peak is Sn^toppen (620m), north of Brennevinsfjorden, although since this peak has a miniature ice cap the actual rock summit is a few meters or tens of meters lower. Nearby peaks on Laponiahalv/^ya a tta in 530, 515, and 510 m, and a mountain south of Sabinebukta is 570 m high.

The elevation of the nunatak Ismâsetoppen has been given previously as 456 m, but a barometer traverse by Elonan of our expedition gave a value of 427 m. To the east, in Prins Oscars Land, several peaks

42 43 rise to between 450 and 550 m, and Binneyf jellet, urtiich is not capped by a glacier, attains 607 m, perhaps the highest elevation of the bedrock in Nordaustlandet, In Rijpdalen and in the southern part of the island only a few hills rise above 300 m, and in the former locality the local relief does not exceed 200 m (Figure 3 and 7 ).

~~In the field area Franklinfjellet (430 m), Celsiusberget~~

~~(351 m), and Fogberget (350+ m) are prominent high points (Figure 8),~~

The elevation of Wargentinfjellet had previously been given as 270 m near its southeast end, but I recorded 370 m southwest of Tverr- berget^, and the ridge of Wargentinfjellet appeared to be even higher a short distance to the northwest. Forsiustoppen, south of

~~Murchisonf jorden, is 236 m high, and the highest point of lAgfiya i s only a l i t t l e more than 50 m above sea le v e l. Both Nordre~~

~~Franklinbreen and Sjrfre Franklinbreen reach the sea in Lady~~

~~Franklinf jorden, but in other parts of the field area the edge of Vestfonna lies inland at elevations between 100 and 200 m above sea le v e l.~~

^Except for some precise leveling on the raised beaches all elevation determinations I made on the land areas were obtained on traverses using one Paulin altimeter. All readings have been corrected for temperature and for the barometric variations as recorded every 3 hours during the weather observations at Kinnvika, In nearly all cases these traverses were made with sea level as the starting and finishing point. Traverses of short duration should certainly give results that are accurate to within five meters, %diereas greater errors may occur on the longer traverses, although whenever possible checks were obtained at points o f known elevation. Elevations determined by earlier expeditions have been obtained by theodolite triangulation, plane tab le mapping, and altimeter, so the accuracy varies from place to place* k k

~~L tg tn d Kapp Honstoon Form lin tt and itobothi (Contour intorval 100 motor# )~~

~~SO motor contour linot on ico cop~~

~~Hills not shown by contour linos~~

~~Shoor moroinos on gloeiors~~

~~Lotorol moraino~~

~~C^"!0 Olacitrt~~

~~Triongulotion station, Swedish - Russian arc of mortdion oxpodltion (1tt9 - 1902) Kapp Lad~~

~~-WOO 90*00'-~~

~~0 1 2 3 4 5 milos~~

~~10 km COMPILFO BY W. BLAKC M~~

Figure 8. Topographic map of northwestern Nordaustlandet, based on De Geer (1923;, with additions from Wright (1939), unpublished Norwegian maps (copyright Norsk Polarinstitutt), and Swedish Air Force photographs taken in 1957. Hydrographic data for Hinlopenstretet and Lady Franklin- fjorden based on Ahlmann (1933a) and unpublished soundings by K, Z. Lundquist of Norsk Polarinstitutt in 1957, respectively. 45 Ice Caps

~~The highest point on Glittnefonna, the larger of the two ice caps in the southwestern part of Nordaustlandet (Figure 3), is~~

~~perhaps slightly over 500 m in elevation (De Geer, 1923, Plate B),~~

~~whereas Vegafonna does not r ise above about 42? m (Thompson, 1952, p. 6ÔJ 1953b, p. 306), Ahlmannfonna, the isolated ice cap north~~

~~of Rijpdalen in Prins Oscars Land, reaches 460 ra (Dege, I960, p. 8),~~

~~During a traverse of tlje main ice caps in May and June, 1958,~~

~~I carried out a series of altim eter readings. These readings have~~

~~been reduced and corrected by V. Schytt, and the resulting data are~~

~~the most accurate and detailed available (Figure 9)*^ Ahlmann~~

~~Station, our main camp on Vestfonna, was at 622 m, and about 19 km~~

~~to the east an elevation of 633 m was recorded. The 1935-36 Oxford~~

~~expedition had its Northern Station (Figure 3) at an elevation of~~

~~630 m on Vestfonna east of the head of Brennevinsf jorden (Wright,~~

~~1939 , p. 213 and map). Austfonna was found to be nearly 100 m~~

~~higher than the previous maps had indicated (see Ahlmann, 1933a,~~

~~Plate 2, and the map in Glen, 1937), and like Vestfonna it has an east-west ridge. The highest elevation recorded was 798 m, but~~

2 Altimeter readings with three instruments were made every kilometer on the traverse. The readings for every camping place have been corrected for temperature as well as for the barometric changes as recorded continuously at the Swedish-Fiimish-Swiss IGY Expedition’s base at Kinnvika. The pressure distribution according to the synoptic charts was also taken into account. The other readings have been adjusted to the elevations of the camping places. A sea level check was made at Kapp Laura, and some control was obtained in Rijpdalen from points surveyed by Winsnes. The elevation of Ahlmann Station is the most accurate, as these observations were made over a longer period. 46 elevations of over 800 m probably occur on a ridge east of Camp XV,

~~The top of Sÿfrfonna was found to be 724 m high.~~

~~Subglacial Topography~~

~~Seismic soundings~~

The seismic reflection soundings carried out by Ekman dsirirg the summer of 1958 make available, for the first time, precise data on ice thickness and the elevation of the underlying land surface under major portions of Vestfonna and Austfonna, The seism ic work w ill be the subject of a special report by Ekman, and here only the topography of the rock floor will be discussed. Ekman's results greatly alter the conception of ice thickness previously held. On the basis of the appearance of the ice caps during the flight of the "Italia", Malmgren (in Nobile, 1929, p. 64) stated, "dass die

Decke des Inlandeises sehr dunn war." Ahlmann (1933a., PP* 109-UO), as a result of elevation determinations on his traverse of the ice caps and in several places on the peripheries, concluded that "the plateau underneath the centre of the West Ice can thus hardly be less than 400 or 450 m above sea level." He gives the same figures for the plateau under Austfonna and suggests that the plateau south of Wahlenbergfjorden is also probably at least 400 m above sea level. The 1935-36 Oxford expedition made a number of traverses over the ice caps and while discussing the topography of Vestfonna

~~Glen (1941 , pp, 68 - 69 ) sta tes~~

...these figures suggest that the marginal zones of the glacier cap rarely exceed 50 metres in thickness. No estimate of the ice thickness on the east-to-west ridge 47 can be made, beyond saying that Ahlmann's suggested mayimnm of 125 metres would seem reasonable. It there fore appears that only in the valleys can the thickness of the ice reach any large figure, and even there it is unlikely that 300 metres is ever exceeded,

~~Ekman's results are summarized in Figure 9, wliich is the same~~

~~as that published in Palosuo and Schytt (1959, pp. 13-14), except~~

~~that the corrected surface elevations have been included and thus~~

~~some of the bedrock elevations have been changed s lig h tly , A~~

~~number of shorter traverses from Ahlmann Station and in the center~~

~~of Austfonna are not shown on this map, but they appear in Figure 3,~~

~~The profile in Figure 9 shows that the ice is consistently over~~

~~300 m thick in the central part of Vestfonna, and only near Rijpdalen~~

~~are thicknesses of as little as 100 m common over considerable~~

~~distances. Here the elevation of the rock surface is over 400 m~~

~~above sea level, but under the central part of Vestfonna it is~~

~~between 200 and 300 m. Under most of Austfonna the rock surface i s~~

~~not above 250 m, but the ice surface is between 600 and 700 m along most of the route traveled; only near Rijpdalen and Kapp Laura were~~

~~elevations below 500 m recorded. The maximum ice thickness reported~~

~~from Austfonna i s 564 m at 79*50,7 N, 23®50'E, where the surface~~

~~elevation was 734 m (Ekman, I960, p, 74), and ice thicknesses of~~

~~over 450 m are common. No negative values for the elevation of the~~

~~rock surface were found on Austfonna, although the possible errors~~

~~in the surface elevations indicate that an area southwest of Kapp~~

~~Laura may be below sea level. In addition Ekman has told me (May~~

~~1961 ) that no rock surface below sea level was found on the traverses northward from Ahlmann Station to Ismâsetoppen and the drainage basin NORDAUSTLANDET~~

~~SW 673 SM~~

~~t97~~

~~(22 557 317 m Kapp f1( Laura iS '*LS!^. ni 715 m — 10 ' 80 — 726 (((. 719 7 0 r A hlfnonn 33 S t t . 3a 211 2 S t 3U Vestfonna R ljp - / d a U n / Austfonna~~

37*

~~Serfonno~~

~~I /«lavation o( le* lurfact ~ fl0 bov« na levai th ic k n e u 30 km relevation of bedrock eurfoce yobove M d level ro u te S c a le a t 79* 30' N~~

Figure 9# Seismic profiles of Vestfonna and Austfonna, Revised from Palosuo and Schytt (i960) Based on data obtained by S. E. Ekman in 1958, w 49 of Franklinbreane, Schytt has concluded, logically, that the praninent ridge near the western edge of Austfonna is probably one cause of the asymmetric profile of this ice cap and the fact that not much ice drainage occurs westward (Palosuo and Schytt, I960, p. 1 4 ) Figure 9 a lso shows that there is an even higher, though broader, topographic rise under the eastern side of Vestfonna, and this undoubtedly has a similar damming effect on the eastward flow of ice. North-south striking folded Hecla Hoek rocks are known to occur on both sides of Rijpdalen, and thus i t seems fa ir ly safe to assume that th ese peaks in the profile represent points on north-south ridges, Rijpdalen apparently owes its presence, at least in part, to the nature of the rock structurej this ice-free area would probably not exist if the folded Hecla Hoek rocks, which erode into alternating ridges and valleys, did not appear in the central part of the island to act as barriers to ice flow,

Ekman (i960, p, 74) states that "the East Ice is lying in a wide depression surrounded by mountains at lea st to the south, west, and north." The hilly land (highest elevations on the various promontories are between 200 and 360 m) north of Austfonna undoubtedly has some damming effect on northward ic e flow , particularly in view of the fact that the land a little farther south under Austfonna is near to sea level. Nevertheless Leighbreen,

~~^The exception, of course, is further south, where Etonbreen is a major outlet for Austfonna and Sjrfrfonna, 50~~

~~at the northeast comer of Nordaustlandet, is a major outlet, but~~

~~the main outflow of Austfonna is to the east. Farther south under~~

~~the highest parts of Austfonna bedrock elevations of over 200 m~~

~~are again encountered, but in general elevations are highest toward o the west. The seismic sounding also indicated a bedrock high under~~

~~S^rfonna’s top, but whether or not a ridge exists between this~~

~~point and the topographic rise (probably representing a bedrock~~

~~high) near Isodden (Figure 3) w ill not be known until additional~~

~~seismic profiles are made. Until more data are available it might~~

~~be better to say that Austfonna, rather than occupying a wide~~

~~depression, covers a gently rolling plateau surface whose general~~

~~slope is to the south and ea st. Judging by the scarcity of~~

~~nunataks or rock outcrops, much of the eastern part of Austfonna~~

~~may occupy an area which would be shallow sea if the ice were not~~

~~there, but this can only be verified by additional seismic soundings~~

~~near the east coast. In this connection it should be noted that~~

~~Glen found marine sh e lls in moraines up to a height of 60 m on~~

~~Austfonna west of Isispynten, and as Sandford (1954» p. 14) has~~

~~pointed out, this occurrence, plus the disposition of moraines,~~

~~suggests that Isispynten is an island which the ice cap presses~~

~~up against. This view is confirmed by the 1938 air photographs.~~

~~Ekman (I960, p. 74) also noted an extra impulse on several~~

~~seismic records, which he suggests "may indicate the existence of~~

~~a thick layer between the ice and the bedrock." This is interpreted~~

~~as being ground moraine, and Ekman gives an example from a sta tio n~~

~~on Austfonna where the ic e thickness was 393 m. There, i f a 51 velocity of I 56O m per second is assumed (based on observations on unfrozen moraine in Kebnekajse, northern Sweden), the moraine layer~~

~~would be about 25 m th ick . But i f a v elo city o f 4ÔOO m per second~~

~~(fo r frozen moraine) i s assumed, the moraine layer would be 72 m~~

~~thick. On the basis of observations in the ice-free areas in the~~

~~northwest, in Rijpdalen, and at Kapp Laura, I believe it is most unlikely that such thicknesses of ground moraine occur. In many~~

~~places the bedrock is exposed with no covering of t ill, beach~~

~~shingle, or weathered debris. In a few deltas the accumulation of~~

~~glaciofluvial debris may be 10 m or more thick, and at Krossyfya~~

~~nearly 10 m of t ill and beach shiqgle are exposed over bedrock.~~

~~However, such occurrences are rare; cmly 1-5 m of t i l l and shingle~~

~~are exposed as a rule. In areas of felsenmeer the debris seldom~~

~~exceeds five meters in thickness, and 1-2 m probably would be more~~

~~representative. The bedrock structure (folded strata) can be seen~~

~~clearly on most a ir photographs; th is would not be so i f the debris~~

~~cover were th ick .~~

~~Three possible explanations for the layer Ekman recorded are~~

~~(1 ) that the velocities assumed are too high, thus giving too thick~~

~~a layer (2) that there is enough rock debris in the basal part of~~

~~the ice to cause the whole to appear as a separate laya* ; or (3) that the places where the layer appears may be depressions in which a~~

^strem (1959, pp, 229-230) reports velocity determinations by Ekman of 730-740 m per second in debris on moraine ridges in Norway, This debris was on the surface, and so i s le s s compacted, but perhaps the true value is somewhere between 740 and I56O m per second? 52

~~considerable thickness of sediments might have accumalated before the~~

~~onset of glaciation.~~

~~Gravity data~~

~~Finally brief mention must be made of the gravity work carried out by the 1955 Oxford Expedition as desciibed in a le tte r from J.~~

~~HoUin to V. Schytt, August 1957* A traverse of approximately 20 km was made along a north, then northeast, and finally ENE course from~~

~~Brageneset (Figure 3)« At the upper end of the traverse, about 25 km~~

~~from the top of Vestfonna, the bedrock was at about 100 (± 50) m, the~~

surface of the ice cap at 450 m. Along two sections of the profile the bedrock surface was recorded as being below sea level. In fact, for most of the first 10 km north and northeast of Brageneset the bedrock surface was below sea level, in places by more than 100 m. At 10 km a prominent bedrock ridge was encountered which was reflected in the topography of the ice surfaces and which was exposed as a nunatak at one point. An attempt by Ekman to tie in his seismic shooting with the gravity profile failed because of the difficulty of traveling over this crevassed part of Vestfonna by v e h ic le •

~~Landscape D ivisions~~

~~Dege's Classification,~~

Dege (1947, p, l60) was the first to present a landscape classification for the whole of Nordaustlandet, This is given below in Table 3, slightly revised according to the publication 53 of his final scientific results (Dege, I960, pp. 6-7), aid Figure 10 shows the various divisions as defined by Dege,

~~Table 3* Die Einzellandschaften von Nordost-Land~~

~~a. Die vereisten Rumpffllchen des Prinz-Oskar-Leuides.~~

~~b. Das Fjord- und Vorgebirgsland der Nordküste,~~

~~c. Die flachen Steintundren des Nordwestens, d«. Das kuppige HÜgelland sudlich und Wstlich des Murchison-Fjordes.~~

~~e. Das Tafelland in Sudwesten mit seinen Eiskappen.~~

~~f . Der eisfreie Rijp-Distrikt. g. Die grossen Hochlandeise mit dem Eisabbruch im Osten und Suden.~~

~~h. Das Oletscherabbruchgebiet der Eton-Depression,~~

~~These divisions are based on Dege's field work in Prins Oscars~~

~~Land and Rijpdalen, some journeys to the east alopg the north~~

~~coast, and a circumnavigation of the island. I question whether~~

~~it is necessary, or even desirable, to make such a classification,~~

~~as the boundary lin e s between landscape zones irmly greater differences, except between land and ice, than exist in nature.~~

~~For instance, the necessity of separating the drainage basin of~~

~~Etonbreen from the rest of Austfonna is doubtful. Similar, thou^~~

~~smaller, areas exist on Vestfonna, where a series of glaciers drain~~

~~southward to Wahlenbergf jorden. It i s only necessary to read the reports of the Central Party of the 19% Oxford Expeditioi, which 54~~

~~»7JhS€//r % iUtpmrnitt~~

~~W£ST€IS~~

~~m^m-LAND~~

~~Vm Us JêoadM~~

~~\WK*f4^Z^tf€N) ap Mohn~~

Figure 10, Landscape divisions in Nordaustlandet, After Dege (i960). See Table 3« 55 sledged across these drainage basins, to understand the chaotic nature of the ice here (Sandford, 1925, pp. 116-119; 1926b, pp. 215-

~~216, 1929 , pp. 8-18). A heavily crevassed zone also occupies the drainage basin of Franklinbreane and of nearly every outlet glacier from the ic e caps.~~

~~Most of the field area lies -within (c) "die flachen Stein-~~

Tundren des Nordwestens” and (d) "das kuppige Hugelland sudlich und ostlich des Murchison-Fjordes" (Figure 10), Although Dege's map is only schematic, there is little basis for the location of the boundary between these two zones, and much of the area included in "das kuppige HÜgelland" is ice cap. Furthermore, all the area between the innermost parts of the twj fiords and Vestfonna, as well as the area north of Murchisonfjorden including Wargentijifjellet, should be part of (d). The so-called "flachen Steintundren" in r e a lity should include only the area from Kinnvika northward to

~~Langgrunnodden, thence eastward to Kapp Lady and southeastward to~~

S#re Franklinbreen; i.e ., a horseshoe-shaped area on three sides of Wargentinfjellet (Figure 8). lAg^ya is properly placed in this division, and a coastal zone near Sparreneset should perhaps be included here too,

~~Ahlmann's Classification~~

~~Ahlmann’s geomorphological studies were primarily carried out on the south side of Murchisonfjorden. He distinguished the 56~~

~~following morphological elements in the Murchisonfjorden district (Ahlmann, 1933a, p. 102):~~

(l) the Hinlopen channel, 200 to 500 m. in depth; (2) the coastal plains, from 0 to 50 m. above sea level, and th eir submarine continuation on the sh elf proper at a depth varying between 0 and 100 m.; and (3) the plateaux, 200 to 300 m. above sea le v e l. Whether the region between 50 and 200 m. above the sea south of Murchison Bay is a gradual transition from the plateaux to the coastal plains or is a more independent denudation surface cannot be definitely settled in this area. Later, after having discussed the geomorphology of other parts of Nordaustlandet, Ahlmann (1933a, P« lU ) defines the zone between

~~50 and 100 m as a separate unit — "Lowland areas, which lie between the coastal plains or strandflat (O to 50 meters) and the plateaux~~

~~(200 to 400 meters)."~~

~~In the Murchisonfjorden-Lady Franklinfjorden district, as elsewhere, it is difficult to arrive at a simple classification of morphological elements that is valid for all parts of the district.~~

Complications arise, for instance, because the highest raised beaches are at different elevations in different areas, and the morphology of areas at the same le v e l on opposite sid es of the fiords is often quite different,

A combination of Ahlmann's two morphological groupings is presented below, with the boundaries slightly altered to better accommodate the new data available from Murchisonfjorden, as well as from Lady Franklinf jorden, idiich Ahlmann himself did not v isit.

~~In the Murchisonfjorden-Lady Franklinfjorden district, then. 57 four broad morphological elements can be distinguished in the landscape:~~

~~1) Hinlopenrenna (the submarine channel in H inlopenstretet), 200 to 500 m in depth,~~

2) Coastal plain, 0 to 100 m above sea level, and including the submarine continuation to 100 m depth. The part above sea level is characterized by raised beaches, 3) Transition zone, 100 to 150 m above sea le v e l, most often a hilly zone. This zone may extend as low as 50 m or as high as 200 m above sea level,

A) Plateau, 150 to 450 m above sea level. Throughout the following section the reader should refer to the series of oblique air photographs (Plates I to XIIl), as these illustrate the various elements in the landscape rather well,

~~Hinlopenrenna~~

~~Hinlopenrenna is particularly well developed between~~

~~Nordaustlandet and the northern part of Ny Friesland (Figure 11); deep water (over 400 m) does not occur south of a line between the mouths of Lomfjorden and Wahlenbergfjorden, nor north of~~

~~Langgrunnodden according bo De Geer (1923, Plate E) and Ahlmann (1933a, pp, 101-102, Plate 3), A shelf area with depths between~~

~~200 and 250 m lie s west of Langgrunnodden, but 40 km farther north~~

~~(latitude 80®30*N) the southern end of Questrenna begins, and at~~

~~81®31'N this channel in the continental slope attains a depth of 3000 m. In southern Hinlopenstretet and southeastward toward~~

~~Kong Karls Land depths of over 200 m are rare, and much of this area is less than 100 m deep. No sounding work was done by our expedition, although scsne echo-sounding traces covering parts of~~

~~Hinlopenrenna were made by the various ships which provided f ’» Ce n t r a I Be~~

~~r Figure 11, Bathymetric chart of the Barents Sea and adjacent areas. After Ahlmann (1933a). vn 0> D iplh In July 15, 1957 m eter# Kinnvika~~

~~100~~

~~70'so 00 N i r 15 '00" E~~

~~150 ISO~~

~~200 200~~

~~Hinlepen«tr«ttt~~

~~250 250~~

~~300 - 10' 300~~

~~Sealt «t Tl*»'~~

~~350 350~~

~~400 Approeimale tcole 3 km~~

~~iSO Figure 12, Echo-sounding profile from Hinlopenstretet, Based on data collected by R/V "Aranda" vn in 1957. VO 60~~

~~transport to and from Spitsbergen, Part of one of these traces is shown in Figure 12.~~

~~Under the chapter on Geology the probably tectonic origin of Hinlopenstretet has been discussed. Ahlmann (l933a> p. 102)~~

~~agreed with this hypothesis as it was put forward by De Geer and~~

~~Sandford, and he suggested that Questrenna too was of tectonic~~

~~origin. However, he believed the elongated basin in Hinlopenrenna to be due to g la c ia l erosion at a time of greater ice cover;~~

~~i.e ., a graben was not necessary, as glacial erosion along a zone weakened by fractures would be sufficient to account for the~~

~~existence of this trough.~~

~~Although a purely structural origin for Hinlopenrenna is not yet disproved, it is striking to note tha t the deep part begins in the south just where large glaciers filling Wahlenbergfjorden and~~

Lomfjorden would coalesce, and where, as a resu lt of the increased volume of ice being forced into the narrowest part of Hinlopenstretet, the rate of flow would increase and erosion would consequently be most in ten sive. On the other hand, the northern end of the trou^i coincides approximately with a lin e between Langgrunnodden and

Verlegenhuken (see Figure 13), or rather, with a line between tte higher areas inland from these two points; there the ice could spread out laterally again, and thus erosion was no longer concentrated in a narrow channel. 61

Coastal plain This zone in Nordaustlandet is neither as well defined nor as flat as the strandflat on the west coast of Vestspitsbergen, particularly south of Isfjorden, or on the west side of Hinlopen stretet, near Sorgfjorden. In Nordaustlandet the coastal plain is characterized by extra--ordinariIy well preserved raised beaches which often extend in an unbroken series from sea le v e l to between 50 and

~~100 m. Such beaches are shown in Plates I , XIV, and XV,~~

In some places the beaches merge gradually with the hills and plateaus farther inland, in other cases there is a sharp line of demarcation with the hills rising steeply above the gentle slope of the coastal plain. But, as Ahlmann (1933a, p. Ill) has stated, there is no evidence that faults separate the two morphological elements.

~~The coastal plain in the northwestern part of Nordaustlandet is best developed west, northwest, and north of Wargentinfjellet.~~

~~Nansen (1922, p. 203) includes this area, as well as LSgjiJya, in the strandflat zone of Spitsbergen, The wide submerged platform extending about 2? km to the northwest, with depths largely between~~

15 and 25 m, should also be included in the strandflat, according to Nansen. He suggests that the outer edge "may possibly be at a depth of about 25 or 30 metres, where the bottom begins to slope more steeply towards depths greater than 100 metres." Later in the same publication Nansen (1922, pp, 219-220) differentiates between the emerged strandflat, not rising much above 40 m above sea level, and the submerged strandflat, with depths of less than 20 m. As 62 noted earlier, Ahlmann would include a ll the sutanerged flat area down to 100 m in the coastal plain category.

The problem of strandflat formation has been the subject of much research and debate, particularly in Norway. A concise summary of ideas concerning the Spitsbergen strandflat has been presented recently by Dineley (1953, pp. 506-507), and the discussion here will be limited to Spitsbergen. The best developed part of the coastal plain — the land lying between about 50 m elevation and sea level, which may be called the strandflat — is basically the result of marine erosion. Subaerial erosion alone could hardly produce such a f la t surface around the outside edges of a h illy and mountainous region, particularly as it is developed in

~~Vestspitsbergen.^ Indeed, the very levelness of this surface, situated just above sea level, strongly suggests marine action.~~

I therefore do not agree with Ahlmann's (1933a, pp. 112-115) statement that "the coastal plains or strandflat are mainly formed by subaerial denudation processes since Tertiary times, though these were assisted by glacial erosion during the Ice age and also, in certain places and occasionally, by marine abrasion,"

~~Observations in Nordaustlandet indicate that the strandflat is p reglacial and/or in ter g la c ia l in age for two reasons: ( l) There~~

5In particular, rivers cannot be the agent responsible for cutting the strandflat. HjulstrSm (1954, pp. 174-188) has described such a strandflat from the Hoffellssandur area of Iceland, but in Nordaust landet the small size of the island and the fact that there are several centers of drainage means that large rivers such as those in Iceland simply do not e x is t. 63 has hardly been enough time since the coastal areas became ic e free for the strandflat to develop, particularly since rapid uplift of the land was occurring during the first part of postglacial time, and hence the sea did not have a chance to work at the same level for any considerable length of time. (2) Striae, grooves, and other evidence of glacial erosion, as well as deposits of t ill from the la s t major advance o f the ic e , are clearly v isib le on many of the bedrock outcrops on the surface of the strandflat• In the field area I have seen no evidence supporting Holtedahl's

( 1929 , p. 165) contention that "the Spitsbergen strandflat must be younger than the time when e.g. the outer part of the Ice-Fjord, the Foreland Sound, the outer part of Kings Bay, was f ille d with ice...." Holtedahl's statement is in part based on his observation that the strandflat was not present in some of the fiords of

VestSpitsbergen; hence, he thought that they must have been filled by ice when the strandflat was forming on the outer coast or that a later advance destroyed the strandflat. However, the absence of a strandflat in certain small and narrow fiord s may be in part due to the lack of sufficient fetch. In Murchisonfjorden the strandflat is developed even in the innermost part of the fiord at Celsiusoddai

(Plate IV), for when the sea was higher in relation to the land the low islands in Murchisonf jorden were not an obstacle to wave action. Holtedahl also says, however, "yet the glaciers, as first mentioned by Hoel, evidently have had a somewhat greater distribution than now — at any rate in places — also after the 64 strandflat was cut,” This latter statement is in agreemait with the evidence in Nordaustlandet,

Hoel ( 1909 , pp. 11-12j 1914 b, pp. 25-28), who worked both in Prins Karls Forland and along the northern part of the west coast of Vestspitsbergen, noted the great regularity of the Spitsbergen strandflat and the fact that it was more even than the strandflat in Norway, Thus he believed the strandflat to be the result of wave action. Hoel favored an interglacial over a preglacial age because he did not think that the regular foim of the strandflat could persist through several stages of glaciation. Yet since he found erratics on the stran d flat, he envisaged a la te r advance on a smaller scale, during which the glaciers coalesced to form piedmont gla ciers on the stran d flat. This la te r advance, however, was probably the last major advance (Wiirm), not just a relatively minor advance within the la s t few centuries.

~~Just as it is difficult to visualize the strandflat in~~

Nordaustlandet being produced by subaerial erosion, so it does not seem possible that glacial erosion could account for this even, gently undulating surface. The action of the glaciers has been to modify the pre-existing platform. The work of the ice in producing striae and rounded rock knobs has been mentioned. In places where the bedrock is of varying resistance differential erosion has occurred, such as in the dolomite coastal area with many basins northwest of Kinnvika (Plate XIII), The hills which r ise above the general le v e l o f the coastal plain, such as

DolomittkoUen and the h i l l on Langgrunnodden, also a tte st to 65 differential erosion. The higher h ills — Persberget, Skaraberget, and finally Sevrinberget, which rises 100 m above the surrounding plain — have been oversteepened by glacial action, making them particularly prominent. In addition to the effect of glacier ice, the strandflat has been modified by weathering, frost-shattering, solifluction and stream erosion. Finally, since deglaciation it has been temporarily re-submerged. Peach (1916, p. 292), who worked in Prins Karls

~~Forland where the geological structure is similar in many respects to northwestern Nordaustlandet, has presented a very clear description of the strandflat as follows:~~

One of the most remarkable features of Prince Charles Foreland is the extensive coastal shelf which everywhere surrounds the mountainous country forming the backbone of the island. This shelf has in general a rocky surface, planed or carved partly out of the nearly vertical members of the Heckla Hoek series.... which strike north-north-east and south-south-west, forming the greater part of the island and giving rise to the Backbone range, and partly out of the overlying Tertiary Strata fringing parts of the east coast, irrespective of their relative powers of resistance. It rises gently from near sea-level towards the slopes of the central hills, terminating inlauad at an altitude of about 150 feet. The constancy of level maintained by this inner margin and the fact that it is frequently marked by lofty cliffs or at least precipitous slopes, indicate very clearly that the platform is the result of marine erosion, and that there was a fairly prolonged period of preglacial time throughout which the sea stood at a higher level than at present. Beach deposits occur here and there on the platform, but it is clear that they have no genetic connection with it. They are obviou.sly of postglacial age, while the rock platform itself is as obviously preglacial. The latter has been shown to be striated in several places and is frequently strewn with ice- bome erratics from the mainland of Spitsbergen, while patches of drift containing foreign boulders have been found here and there covering its surface. 66

~~Peach's statement regarding the lack of genetic relationship between the raised beaches and the rock platform is important, and~~

~~Werenskiold (1952, pp. 306-307), on the basis of work in southern~~

~~Vestspitsbergen, also observed that the strandflat was formed before the last glaciation and that the raised beaches had come later.~~

The same relationship has been noted in Nordaustlandet, where in many lo c a litie s the beaches are formed on top o f t i l l which overlies striated bedrock. In a few places recent glacial activity has in turn deposited morainic debris on top of the raised beaches.

~~On the south side of St. Johsfjorden, Vestspitsbergen, Dineley~~

~~(1953, p. 506) observed a similar relationship; beach shingle covered polished and striated rock, and moraine overlying the beaches in places suggested a recent glacial advance of lesser extent.~~

Radiocarbon analysis assigns an age of at least 35,000 years to four samples of shells collected from the surface of the till on the south side of Lady Franklinfjorden, and shells in t ill on Kross^ya in Murchisonfjorden are more than 40,000 years old. The ages of these shells and the raised beaches w ill be discussed in detail later, but it should be noted here that the shells indicate an ice -fr ee period sometime before 35-40,000 years ago. As yet it is not known if this period is an interstadial or an interglacial, but these dates, the first available from Spitsbergen which predate the la s t major advance of the ic e , clearly indicate that the present topographic configuration of this part of Nordaustlandet was in existence before this ice advance. These datings provide good 67 evidence that the strandflat my have been partly cut in inter glacial time*^ Nothing is known yet about how many times

Spitsbergen has been glaciated during the Pleistocene, but it my well be that the sea occupied the same position in relation to the land on several occasions, and thus the strandflat may be in part preglacial, in part interglacial, in age.

~~Transition zone~~

Ahlmann expressed doubts about the existence of this zone south of Murchisonfjorden, and it is rather indefinte throughout the fie ld area. For the most part th is zone con sists of low h ills and steeper slopes between the gently sloping beaches and the flatter hilltops which are included in the plateau zone. In some cases the transition zone is absent; e.g., at Kinnberget, 124 m in elevation , beaches go nearly to the top of the mountain, but the top itself lies at the southwest comer of a plateau surface extending to the north and east. However, this plateau level is well below the summit of Wargentinfjellet, and this may be what

~~Ahlmann (1933a, p. 114) had in mind when he said that~~

. . .the low d is tr ic ts , generally 50 to 150 m. above sea level, occupy an intermediate position between the coastal plains-strandflat and the high plateaux, and it seems reasonable to me to suppose that they are more closely related to the former than to the latter. In that case they represent a denudation le v e l formed by the action of subaerial processes at a base level of erosion higher than the coastal plains-strandflat.

~~^An interstadial time seems much less likely because sea level was then significantly lower than at the present and because not enough time was availab le. 68~~

In Weaselbukta (Plate IV) the highest beach terraces seen were at 52 m, whereas at about 200 m there is a very flat area which lies between De Geerfonna and Celsiusberget, Here there is a definite transition zone of steep slopes and hilly topography in the interval between 50 and 200 m above sea level. In the southeasternmost part of Murchisonfjorden, at Heimbukta, beaches rise to 50 m on the slopes of F a r g efjellet. Between Heimbukta and Vestfonna most of the land surface is between 50 and 150 m in elevation, and because this surface i s ro llin g and uneven th is area might be placed in the transition zone. Finally, the strip of land between Forsiusbreen and Murchisonfjorden (Plate VI), where the plateau surface has been dissected by streams flowing westward to Hinlopenstretet from an enlarged Vestfonna, might also be included in this zone, although this area has not been studied o n the ground. It is an area dominated by h ills and v a lley s oriented in an east-west direction; i.e ., because of the former position of the ice edge, erosion along the east-west faults and fractures has been more pronounced than erosion parallel to the strike of the upended strata.

These few examples illustrate the difficulties of defining this zone. Until more field work is carried out it can best be considered as a hilly zone between the highest raised beaches and the level where a clearly developed plateau surface is present.

~~Plateau~~

~~The plateau area is well developed north, south, and east of~~

Murchisonfjorden. South of the fiord the plateau consists of a 69 series of low h ills with nearly accordant sxinmits; the topography is gently rolling. Some of the hills are oriented north-south parallel to the strike of the folds, whereas others are oriented in an east-west direction parallel to the faults and fractures, although much of the latter region, such as between Heimbukta and

~~Vestfonna, is included in the transition zone. The plateau area in the vicinity of Backabreen can be clearly seen in Plate VI, and Plates III and IV show the plateau between Celsiusberget,~~

Fogberget, auid Vestfonna, Superimposed on h ills of a l l orienta tions are ridges trending approximately NNW-SSE, parallel to the strike, resulting from variations in the hardness of the individual strata, Plate XVI, showing the north and east shores of

~~Murchisonfjorden, demonstrates the levelness of the plateau surface. The tops of Skaraberget and Sevrinberget, south of Lady~~

Franklinfjorden, are at 126 and 155 m above sea level, respectively, whereas Persberget is just under 100 m and Tverrberget is 150 m high. A ll these h ills are isolated remnants of the plateau surface,

~~The plateau zone represents an old erosion surface, and in 1902 De Geer (1902a, p, 1?) reported "the discovery of extensive pre-Carboniferous so-called 'base-level plains' around northern~~

~~Hinlopen and probably also at the northwest comer of Spitsbergen,"?~~

~~Later De Geer stated that because of the well preserved condition~~

?Translation by the writer. 70 of this erosion surface which is characteristic for all of northern Spitsbergen, "it apparently forms a base-level plain of moderate, perhaps Tertiary, age" (De Geer, 1909, p. 203j 1919, p. 168)

In reality peneplanation occurred more than once, and De Geer is discussing two different surfaces. It is evident that an early peneplanation postdated the Caledonian folding but predated the deposition of the Carboniferous strata which now crop out in the southern part of Nordaustlandet,

~~Orvin (1940, Figure 4 and 5) has shown a ll of Nordaustlandet covered by Upper Carboniferous and Permian strata before T riassic deposition begaji, but before Tertiary deposition he indicates that~~

Hecla Hoek rocks were exposed in the north, followed by a band of Triassic south of this fiord, and finally Jurassic and Cretaceous rocks in the southeast corner of the island. This implies uplift and erosion in Cretaceous time, an hypothesis that is supported by evidence from Vestspitsbergen, Orvin (1940, pp. 36-

38) suggests that in the northern part of Spitsbergen (which would include Nordaustlandet) this uplift must have started rather early in the Cretaceous in order to allow time for subsequent erosion and base-leveling before the extrusion of basalt flows, believed to be of late Cretaceous or early Tertiary age, which cover parts of the Cretaceous peneplain on the north coast of Vestspitsbergen, The surface on which the Carboniferous strata were laid down may have been inclined gently toward the south, in which case the sediment cover would have been thinner in northern

Nordaustlandet; or Cretaceous uplift may have been greater in 71 the north. In either case any Permo-Carboniferous or younger sediments that once may have existed in northern Nordaustlandet were completely eroded during Cretaceous uplift and peneplanation followed by continued erosion and uplift in Tertiary time. As noted in the chapter on Geology, Permo-Carboniferous rocks, except for the outlier at IdunfJellet, crop out only on the south side of

WahlenbergfJorden, and Triassic (plus Jurassic?) beds occur only at the southwest corner of the island. Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks are not known from Nordaustlandet, nor is it certain that either ever existed there. Faulting also took place in the

~~Tertiary, perhaps in conjunction with uplift.~~

Thus the plateau areas appear to be remnants of a surface first developed in Cretaceous time, but since lowered by continued erosion through part or all of the Tertiary. During uplift the surface was broken by faulting, and streams started to incise again. The plateau surface has later been modified by glaciation and by postglacial weathering, solifluction, and stream action.

~~The plateau surface is most strikingly developed on Laponiahalv/5ya,~~

~~SJu^ne, and in Prins Oscars Land, where peninsulas and islands with cliffed edges have nearly flat tops at elevations between 200 and 500 m,~~

Ahlmann (1933a, pp. 1 1 1 -1 1 2 ) has disagreed with De Geer's hypothesis that SJuj^yane north of Nordaustlandet represent a former plateau surface broken up by dislocations. Instead he feels that they owe their origin to erosion. I have not visited this area, but the presence of faults and fractures here would not be surprising 72 in view of their prevalence elsewhere in Nordaustlandet and adjacent Vestspitsbergen, Erosion — subaerial, g la c ia l, and marine — would naturally be aided by the presence of dislocations, and these islands may exist because of a combination of fractures and erosion.

~~For a discussion of this northernmost part of Nordaustlandet and the northern part of Vestspitsbergen the reader is referred to the various papers of De Geer (l96l, pp. 26l-2?2; 1919, pp. 163-183;~~

~~1923, pp. 8-12, 26-30, Plates 1-6).~~

~~Before leaving this discussion of the plateau I wish to draw attention to the existence of Franklindalen cutting across~~

Botniahalvjiya (Figure 4 and 8 ) . This "through" valley lie s at le s s that 100 m elevation and separates two blocks of the plateau surface which culminate in Franklinfjellet (430 m) and Hansteen- f j e lle t (360 m). There seems to be no lo g ic a l reason for i t to exist unless it has developed along a fault or fracture. Its east-west orientation, the presence of the contact between the

~~Kapp Hansteen formation and granites directly to the east across~~

Brennevinsfjorden, and the presence of diabase intrusions due west on LSLgfiya, all suggest that a fracture line may exist here. The similarity between this valley and the valleys on Laponiahalvj^ya and Sju^yane i s obvious. 73 Hydrographie Features and Associated Landforms

~~Fiords~~

~~Description~~

~~Ahlmann (1933:^ p. 101) has noted that Murchisonf jorden is unique in Spitsbergen:~~

I t does not conform to the general character of the fiords in these d is tr ic ts — straight sides and surfaces unbroken by islands — but is, barring its geological structure, rather reminiscent of a bay in the Stockholm Archipelago, It is probably a subaerially sculptured region which at a la te period has been submerged, leaving only the high parts above the surface of the water.

~~Depths in the area between Kross^ya, Sjrfre Russ/ya, and Indre~~

~~Russ^ya (Figures k and 8 ), rarely exceed 50 m, whereas a maximum depth of 66 m has been reported from the southern part of Nordvika~~

~~(De Geer, 1923, Plates A and B). In the channel, Xlvsnabbenrenna, between Sj^re Russjiya and Kinnvika, depths up to 85 m have been recorded. The 97 m depth between Kross^ya and S^re Russ^ya~~

~~(Liljequist, 1956, p. 287; 1957, p. 261) and the same approximate depth near Kinnvika (Figure 12) are the maximum known for~~

Murchisonfjorden. In th is case the name "fiord" i s a misnomer, as this island-studded bay has neither the outline nor the profile of a true fiord, and it should not be included in the category of fiord topography to which it has been assigned by De Geer (1910, map). Undoubtedly glacier action planed off some of the high points and deepened some of the channels, but Murchisonfjorden owes its form basically to downcutting streams as a result of Tertiary uplift. Were it not for the presence of tombolos there would be 74

~~several more islands in the bay (Plate V), Because this area has been depressed during glaciation and has then risen isostatically, the development of the present-day shoreline has been complicated.~~

~~Thus well developed raised beaches, clear indicators of recent~~

~~emergence, occur above a ria shoreline.~~

~~Both Wahlenbergfjorden and Lady Franklinfjorden have the characteristic long profile of a fiord with deep water in their inner parts, shallow water at their mouths. According to Ahlmann~~

(1933, p. 108) Gylden^yane l i e on a threshold separating Wahlenberg- fjorden's inner basin — about 200 m deep — from Hinlopenrenna. It is especially significant that these islands composed of diabase lie just at the mouth of the fiord, where the glacier, because it could expand into Hinlopenrenna, would erode i t s bed le s s deeply.

Tomboloÿ(ya has a similar position in Lady Franklinf jorden, but there the resemblance between the two fiords ends. Wahlenbergfjorden not only has the typical long profile of a fiord, but it is bounded by cliffs and steep slopes 200 to 300*m high along its entire south shore and part of its north shore (205 m at

Idunfjellet), although raised beaches are present in places along both sides of the fiord. If more Permo-Carboniferous beds were present north of the fiord there would undoubtedly be more cliffs there too.

Lady Franklinfjorden, on the other hand, has high land along much of its north side, but everywhere except at Kapp Hansteen and in part of Jaderinfjorden (Figures 4 and 8 ) the mountains are separated from the shore by a zone of raised beaches. As Plate VI 75 shows, the strandflat is particularly well developed below

~~Franklinfjellet, South of the fiord the only high areas near the shore are the h ills — Persberget, Skaraberget, and Sevrinberget,~~

Otherwise the coastal plain is several kilometers wide between the fiord and Wargentinfjellet (Plate VIIl). The greatest depth recorded in Lady Franklinf jorden is 185 m, and as Figure 8 shows, much of the inner part of the fiord is over 100 m deep. In

~~Franklinsundet depths ranging between 6 and 100 m have been recorded according to a chart of soundings received from K. G.~~

Lundquist (December, 1957), However, unlike Wahlenbergfjorden, which has no islands in its inner part. Lady Franklinfjorden has two islands near its south shore and at least three well out in the fiord in front of Nordre Franklinbreen.

~~Structural control~~

Everywhere in the f ie ld area the importance of geological structure in determining the orientation of the shoreline and of lines of drainage is very evident. Plates XII, XIII, and XVII show the structural control of the topography in and near

~~Murchisonf jorden especially well. As both De Geer (1923, p. 10) and Ahlmann (l933a> p. 101) pointed out,the islands and peninsulas in Murchisonfjorden, as well as the peninsulas to the north on~~

~~Storsteinhalvj^ya, are segments of more resistant layers, especially dolomite, in the folded Hecla Hoek rocks.~~

The existence of an east-west fault in Murchisonfjorden has been discussed earlier, and De Geer (1923, p. 10) also stated that the orientation of Murchisonfjorden appeared to be a result of 76 faiilts transverse to the rupture zone in Hinlopenstretet, The

~~ESE/WNW fault in which Krystallvatnet lies can be seen continuing south of Heimbukta to Firnvatnet (Plates XI and XII; Figure 4).~~

~~Likewise, much of the coast of Kvalrosshalv^iya is controlled by similar ESE-WNW stinictural lines. The probability of east-west faults in Franklinsundet and Franklindalen has been discussed earlier.~~

~~Although no evidence has been presented which suggests that Lady~~

~~Franklinf jorden follows the trend of a fault, it is aligned along the contact between the Kapp Hansteen and Murchisonfjorden formations.~~

~~Erosion would naturally tend to be more rapid along the contact between the volcanic rocks and the softer shales, and the situation is evidently similar to that at Sorgfjorden, where Fleming and~~

~~Edmonds (1941, pp. 406-40?) noted that highly crystalline rocks lie to the west of the fiord, folded and faulted metamorphosed~~

~~Hecla Hoek sediments to the east.~~

~~Rivers and Streams~~

~~Drainage patterns~~

The vertical strata and the faults at approximately right angles to the strike have caused a rectangular drainage pattern to develop over much of the field area. This is especially marked south of Murchisonfjorden, as indicated on the topographic map

(Figure 8) and in Plate VI. Lack of structural control of the drainage is seen in only a few places; e.g., on the flat till plain southwest of Lady Franklinfjorden and northwest of Fogberget the drainage is deranged (Plate I), and between Celsiusberget and 77 De Geerfonna dendritic drainage leads to Weaselbukta (Plate IV). Nowhere in the field area does the ice cap itself approach so near

~~to the shore that it inçinges on the raised beaches as it does on~~

~~the south coast of Nordaustlandet at Vibebukta, There Thompson~~

~~(I953 i> pp. 300- 301) has described the drainage as follows:~~

The raised beaches are in an initial stage of dissection by countless meIt-streams. Many of the streams are true consequents on the newly emerged coastal plain, but some, especially those of the large area of bare land north of Vibebukta, are extended consequents from the 'oldland' behind. Few of the streams have tributaries, except in the muddy and confused collecting grounds near the edge of the glacier-caps, where there are dendritic drainage- patterns.

In the area north and west of Wargentinfjellet some consequent streams are present on the coastal plain, but there, as well as elsewhere in the field area, more of the streams are extended consequents fed by lakes, snowfields, or the ice cap farther inland.

~~Gorges~~

Uplift of the land following partial deglaciation has resulted in the cutting of gorges of considerable size. For the most part these are located near the coast because sufficient time has not elapsed for more headward erosion to occur. For example, gorges about 20 m deep occur near Kinnvika and Sveanor (Plate XVIII).

Deltas and terraces built during the first melting stages of the former ice cap, when the land was lower in relation to sea level, are now high above the sea. They in turn have been dissected during continued downcutting by the streams as land uplift continued. Thus in such places as Weaselbukta and Austvika (Plate XIX, Figure 1) high remnants of terraces are cut through by deep gorges, and 78

~~lower down more recent sandurs have been built out to the present level of the sea.~~

Many of the gorges are now occupied by underfit streams most of the time; i.e ., a considerable amount of the cutting was probably done by much larger streams resulting from rapid melting of the ice cap which was then situated nearer to the coast at a time of more rapid uplift. However, even today the streams are actively eroding during the height of the melt season. Similar gorges with underfit streams were noted by Glen (1941, pp. 74-75) in Prins Oscars Land east of

Rijpfjorden (Figure 3). He attributed their origin to a time of excessive summer ablation of the ice caps. Thompson ( 19531» p. 301) reported underfit streams from the south coast also, where canyons . up to 15 m deep were observed.

The gorges, such as the one near Sveanor and one near Billingen, may even contain waterfalls (Figure 1, Plate XVIII), The short time since the area became ice free has permitted the streams to erode only short distances headward, so gorges are most common near the coast. The streams leading from the vicinity of Skjelvatnet to

Lady Franklinfjorden are deranged in their upper reaches where they wander across the f la t t i l l plain. Then, at a w ell developed nickpoint, the main stream cuts down into the bedrock (the level surface of the strandflat) underlying the till, and near the fiord at Tunnelbreen the gorge is approximately 30 m deep.

However, the higher raised beaches at Tunnelbreen are not crossed by the gorge (Plate XLIX). Instead they turn parallel to it along the slopes of Sevrinberget and Teedolitkollen. Thus 79 some sort of a valley was already in existence here a short time after deglaciation. Apparently the same valley was occupied by a stream on more than one occasion, so that the gorge may be partly preglacial or interglacial in age.

Gorges are found farther inland in a few places, such as along the course of Haggblomelva and Wulffelva, as shown in the air photographs (Plates XI and XII). Glacial erosion apparently deepened some of the pre-existing valleys so that they became basins, and after the ice receded they became laites. As a result of land uplift, which constantly lowered base level, the streams cut into the rock ridges separating the lake basins, draining some of the lakes and at the same time depositing glaciofluvial debris in the basins. Thus in time a peculiar sort of river valley has evolved consisting of a series of lakes and sandurs in basins interspersed with deep gorges cut into bedrock.

These gorges f ill with drift snow during the winters, and some of the d r ifts are permanent features (Plate XIX). Considerable masses of xvater may be dammed up behind these drifts in early summer# When the water f ir s t breaks through a snow dam, i t may do so with great force. Such a breakthrough occurred in Wulffelva, probably at the ou tlet of Wulffvatnet, on July 31, 1957* The water rose 3*5 m in MSnedalen just above the ou tlet to Heimbukta and fragments of ice several meters in diameter were rafted high above the usual lake and stream level, according to observations by E. Palosuo. By August 3rd the lake level had returned nearly to normal again, and the newly deposited layer of fine sediment 80 was visible. As Ahlmann (1933a, p. 100) observed, although the period of fluvial erosion is short, it is very effective from mid-July to mid-August, and the above example certainly verifies his statement.

~~Kames (?)~~

~~In Mânedalen, east of Heimbukta, most of the out wash that probably filled much of this valley has been removed by stream erosion as land uplift progressed. However, terraces, marine near~~

Heimbukta and fluvial farther upstream, remain along the valley sides. Wulffelva enters the valley in a gorge, flows across a sandur into a small lake, Gr^nvatnet, and then leaves the valley through a second gorge leading to Heimbukta (Plates X and XX),

A number of conical hills up to about 10 m in height are present in Mânedalen, mostly along the north side. They have the form of perfect kames. On the surface these h ills are composed of washed material of sand to boulder size, and one parabolic-shaped h ill through which the river has cut consists of the same sort of material, well stratified. In the lower part of the valley the h ills are situated on outwash; in the upper reaches some l i e directly on bedrock. Although none of the hills were dug into more than a few centimeters, the existence of ice cores seems unlikely.

Strandlines representing flood levels of GrjîJnvatnet are well preserved (Plate XXI), whereas slumping of material would be expected if an ice core were in the process of melting out. The kame origin, probably requiring the presence of a glacier in the valley after 81 the terraces along the sides had formed, is not supported by field evidence,®

These h ills are probably erosion remnants of the outwash that once was more extensive in Mânedalen, This i s somewhat d iffic u lt to visualize from Plate XXI, but farther up-valley some of the hills have the appearance of truncated cones, and th eir tops are con cordant with the prominent terrace at approximately 50 m (Plate XXII).

Plates X and XX show how meltwater from the snow-filled channels on the hillside north of Mânedalen drains across the terrace. In this way the terrace tends to become dissected by channels trending approximately north-south, but at the same time Wulffelva tends to channel the outwash and erode the present-day terraces in an east-west direction.

Today, in a period of re la tiv e ly mild climate, permanent snowdrifts l i e only on the south (north-facing) side of Mânedalen, although some of the smaller valleys in the field area are nearly filled by snow and ice. Under more severe climatic conditions a permanent snowdrift might be expected to extend across the v a lley .

Such a snowdrift would protect any terrace ou tliers that had been formed as described above. I f a channel was permanently f ille d with snow, the snow would prevent excessive erosion by small streams. Such permanent snowdrifts between terrace remnants are

®The only alternative is that the kames were built when the valley was still ice-filled prior to the time of terrace formation. This implies that the valley was not filled by outwash and that subsequent stream erosion has not destroyed these hillocks, and th is seems even more u n lik ely. 82

~~shown in Figure 2, Plate XXII, Since Wulffelva is not now large~~

~~enough, even y/hen in flood, to erode the whole v a lley , the h ills~~

~~shown in Plate XXI remain, despite the lack of a protecting~~

~~snowdrift.~~

~~Lakes~~

~~Latroduction~~

Lakes are abundant at a l l le v e ls . Some of them are small lagoons on the coastal plain, often dammed by prominent beach ridges. A few, such as Skjelvatnet, are in shallow depressions on t ill plains, and the lakes on the north side of Heimbukta may occupy kettleholes, Celsiusvatnet is a tarn occupying what may have once been a cirque. Some lakes, such as W ulffvatnet, have a snow or ice cliff forming one side (Plate IXX) and a few lakes between Vestfonna and Backabreen have ice damning both ends. But these lakes, as well as the great majority of those situated away from the edge of the ice cap, occupy rock basins. These basins, like those now occupied by sandurs, have resulted from differential erosion in the folded and fractured strata by streams and glaciers.

~~According to information received from A. HÜggblom, none of the lakes he studied in the field area exceeded 20 m in depth. He recorded 19 m at Krystallvatnet, 18 m at Celsiusvatnet, and~~

Trippvatnet, whose surface i s only 5.2 m above sea le v e l, is 9,6 m deep (see also Thomasson, 1958, pp. 228-233), 83 Former ice-dammed lakes During ice recession a number of lakes existed which are absent or much smaller today. They were dammed against rock ridges or in

~~v a lley s by the ice cap or dead ice masses. In Plate VIII, an a ir~~

~~photograph taken in 1938, a lake can be seen beside Palosuofonna,~~

~~fed by meltwater from De Geerfonna and Vestfonna. Strandlines on the slope of Fogberget indicate that the lake was once even higher,~~

Plate XXIII shows that the lake, except for a little water on top of the ice, was no longer present in 1957. Although the 1957 photographs were taken on August 27-28th, exactly a month la ter in the season than the 1938 photograph, the main reason for the disappearance of the lake is probably not the lateness of the

~~season but rather the thinning of Palosuofonna during the intervening~~

19 years. The gorge cutting across BrekoUen ±a Plate VIII represents an old outlet of this lake, formed at a time when the water level was several tens of meters higher because Palosuofonna was significantly thicker. The only water draining through this gorge now is that from the melting of the winter’s accumulation of

~~snow on the adjacent part of Brekollen.~~

An even more striking gorge cut by water from an ice-danmed lake lies a few kilometers inland from Heimbukta, This gorge cuts through the ridge, Skardberget, that is a southeasterly continuation of Celsiusberget at the edge of the plateau (Plate X), The highest part of Skardberget is over 200 m in elevation, whereas at the point where the gorge cuts through it is slightly under 200 m. The

sandur at the mouth of the gorge is at 92 m, and it is part of the 84 same sandur across which Wulffelva flow s. The two lakes at the upper end of the gorge, LitleSkardvatn and Store Skardvatn, are at 16? and

171 m,respectively. The gorge and lakes are shown in more detail in Plate XKIV, The only water draining through the gorge at present is the very slight outflow, best described as a trickle, from the two lakes, plus that from the melting of snow in the gorge. The gorge was cut when the receding ice cap still filled the valley to the north. The water d ammed behind the ridge of Skardberget could only flow out over the lowest point on the ridge. Today only the two small lakes are left, but several well developed strandlines, of which the lower two are shown in Figure 2, Plate XXIV, attest to the former presence of the larger lake. This lake may have flowed to the southeast for part of the time, as indicated by the snow- filled channel between Store Skardvatn and the river in the right foreground of Plate X, but most of the drainage occurred over the ridge. The lake must have been in existence for a long time in order to allow the outlet to be cut down nearly 100 m.

Plate XII shows a gorge through the prominent rock ridge south of Krystallvatnet, This area was not visited in the field, but probably the ice-dammed lake existed to the east of the ridge, so that the water flowed westward to the lake bordered by snowfields, thence to Haggblomelva, A small delta in this lake shows that the gorge slopes to the west, and, as at Skardberget, two small lakes and a strandline remain to the east of the ridge.

~~Other gorges resulting from the outflow from ice-dammed lakes 35 exist, but these few examples can be taken as typical for the area as a v±iole. Karst lake~~

The level of at least one lake has been modified by the develop ment of subterranean drainage in the area underlain by dolomite. Drikkevatnet, north of Kinnvika, is a small lake lying in a basin without visible outlet (Plate XIV). The lake is 33 m above sea level, but its former outlet channel, corresponding to a prominent beach level, is at 51 m. The upper end of the outlet channel is cut through beach material, but 250-300 m downstream bedrock i s exposed in the channel. Bedrock that i s topographically higher than the prominent beach is exposed on all other sides of the lake, and the latter receives a considerable inflow at its south end, vAiere a delta has been built. The delta and strandlines are shown in

Plates XXV and XXVI, A subterranean outlet to Claravâgen seems to be the only explanation for the fact that this lake lies 18 m below the only visible outlet. To what extent solution has contributed to the development of the underground ou tlet i s not known, but subterranean drainage has undoubtedly been aided by the fractured nature of the bedrock. Corbel (1957, pp, 29-60) has discussed various karst phenomena from the limestone and dolomite areas on the west coast of Vestspitsbergen, but he reports no such lakes.

~~Age~~

~~Radiocarbon dating of driftwood and whale bones, to be discussed in detail later, indicates that all lakes in the coastal zone above 86~~

~~the 10 m level are at least 7000 years old. Some are undoubtedly~~

~~much older, since the higher beaches are over 9000 years old,~~

~~H^ggblom found limnic peat and algal mud in a core obtained from~~

~~Krystallvatnet, and this organic material, which was approximately~~

~~3 cm above till and was overlain by about one meter of sediment,~~

~~is 9900 ± 550 years old (Olsson, I960, p. 121), Krystallvatnet~~

~~lies at an elevation of approximately 62 m (uncorrected value) near~~

~~the south end of Kvalrosshalv)6ya, From a study of air photographs~~

~~(Plates V and XI) it appears to lie above the highest beaches in~~

~~the inner part of Murchisonfj orden, and H^ggblom has informed me~~

~~(Nov, 1956) that he found no marine diatoms in the sediments.~~

~~Some lakes have probably been ice free even longer, and the~~

~~air photographs show how numerous they are. Many occur above the~~

~~100 m level, and a few exist on top of Fogberget, W argentinfjellet,~~

~~and Franklinfjellet, at elevations over 200 m.~~

~~The presence of these lakes offers a contrast to BÜdel's~~

(i960, p, 82) description of Barents^ya in southeastern Spitsbergen, where lakes are almost absent on the inland plateau, BÜdel attributes the absence of lakes to the rapidity of the frost-shattering and

~~solifluction processes, which during postglacial time have~~

supposedly filled in any basins that may have existed and in general have removed traces of glacial action. However, the two areas differ markedly in bedrock structure. Unlike northern Mordaust- landet, Barents^ya is composed largely of flat-lying Triassic

~~sandstones, marls, and shales that form a well developed plateau with elevations for the most part between 200 and 4OO m. In 87~~

~~addition the flat-lying beds have been intruded by diabase sills which help to hold up the plateau, much of which is covered by an ice cap.~~

~~To me i t seems natural to expect fewer lake basins on a uniform~~

~~surface of nearly horizontal sedimentary rocks than on a plateau~~

~~surface developed across steeply dipping strata of varying~~

~~resistance and crossed by innumerable fractures. It would appear~~

~~that bedrock structure is more important than solifluction in~~

~~determining the presence or absence of lakes.~~

~~In the field area, judging by conditions elsewhere in~~

~~Noradustlandet when the 1938 air photographs were taken, dead ice masses probably occupied certain lake basins for some time after the~~

~~coastal areas became ice free. Dead ice masses were s till conmon~~

~~in the hollows and lake basins of Rijpdalen as late as 1938~~

~~(Plate LXXXVIII). Nor is there any doubt that some of the smaller lake basins have been filled (above the ice surface) by drift snow during more severe climatic periods since general deglaciation.~~

~~Both these phenomena would have the effect of preventing or slowing down the filling in of lake basins by solifluction. Nevertheless,~~

~~it seems safe to assume that many of the lake basins have been free~~

~~of ice or snow for several thousand years without having become~~

~~filled as a result of solifluction.~~

In summary the pattern of drainage — deep canyons (particularly near the coast), deranged drainage in places, and many lakes at all levels — indicates youthful development. That the drainage is as well integrated as it is, e.g., south of Murchisonfjorden, is due 88

~~to its superposition on the preglacial and interglacial landscape, but there are still many flat interstream areas in the plateau zone.~~

~~Periglacial Phenomena~~

~~Patterned Ground~~

~~Various forms of patterned ground are also conspicuous features~~

~~of the landscape in Nordaustlandet, and a ll of the ice-free Ismd is included in the "Frostschuttzone" (one of the zones characterized by~~

s o il movement) of Budel (1948, map). Patterned ground occurs at a ll elevations and in all kinds of material including till, beach shingle, lake sediments, and frost-shattered bedrock. Since a detailed study

of such features was made at Kinnvika, a special report w ill be devoted to th is subject, but a few remarks are appropriate here because the patterned ground i s such a dominating feature in the geomorphology of this part of Nordaustlandet,

In the areas covered by till, mostly at low levels, sorted 9 circles and polygons are the most conmon forms. They are usually less than two meters in diameter and are best developed where the water table lies near the surface. Figure 1, Plate XXVII shows well developed sorted polygons on low land northeast of Langgrunnodden.

~~On slopes of more than 2 to 3® steps begin to form, and on slightly steeper slopes stripes are the prevailing feature. The type known as dolomite rosettes (Ahlmann, 1936, p. 9) is common in the outer~~

^Washburn’s (1956b, pp. 826-838) terminology is followed here. 89 part of Murchisonfjorden where t i l l is lacking but where there is a layer of weathered debris overlying bedrock. Sorted nets were observed in shear moraine material directly on the ice of Vestfonna,

~~similar to the occurrence reported from Thule, Greenland by Washburn~~

~~(1956a, pp. 807-810).~~

Nonsorted circles and polygons are the characteristic forms associated with beach shingle. As Figure 2, Plate XXVII shows, the unsorted circles often have raised borders and are of similar size to the sorted circles and polygons, but the nonsorted polygons usually take the form of ice-wedge polygons. These can be seen in several of the photographs showing raised beaches, e.g.. Figure 2, Plate XVI; they are commonly 10 m or more in diameter, and they are bordered by troughs up to about 50 cm deep. Ice was observed underlying the beaches in one place near S^re Franklinbreen (Plate LXI) and many of the polygons have ridges bordering the troughs. Nonsorted (ic e wedge) polygons were also observed in frost-shattered bedrock debris on slopes of 15 and 17® at Wargentinf jellet and Brekollen, respectively, and polygons of this type on Skardberget are shown in Figure 1,

~~Plate XXVIII, Similar occurrences have been reported from~~

~~Barents^ya by Budel (i960, p, 97), where they occurred on a 30®slope.~~

~~Solifluction~~

~~Solifluction sheets and lobes are also common features, particularly on the steeper slopes such as the northeast sides of~~

Wargentinfjellet and Fogberget, shown in Plates II and VIII, respectively. The glacial geology program did not allow time for a 90 detailed study to be made of the rate at which solifluction was taking place, but 10 stsikes were set up on a solifluction lobe north of

~~Heimbukta (Figure 2, Plate XXVIII). The front of the lobe was approximately two meters high, with a border of cobbles and boulders and a stream flowing over it. The stakes were surveyed with a~~

Wild N-10 le v e l from a nearby bedrock base point on August 13, 1957, and August 17, 1958; no detectable motion took place during th is period, although motion of 0.5 cm would have been detected. A ll angular measurements with the le v e l and distance measurements with a steel tape, carried out in identical fashion were exactly the same on both occasions. Perhaps this lobe was badly chosen, as there is no doubt that movement is taking place in solifluction lobes on steeper slopes. On the other hand this lobe may be quite typical for the lobes that have moved out onto the raised beaches in many places.

~~Plate XXIX includes enlargements of two air photographs, taken in~~

1938 and 1957, respectively; both show the same solifluction lobe on the raised beaches south of S^re Franklinbreen, and this lobe can also be clearly seen in relation to its surroundings in Figure 3 of this plate and in Plates VIII (1938) and LXXV (1956). Unfortunately Figure

1, Plate XXIX is not clear as it is enlarged from a very small part of an oblique photograph, but the true shape of the lobe can be seen in Figure 2, a vertical photograph. In spite of the difference in angle at which the photographs were taken it is obvious that l i t t l e change has taken place over the 19-year period. It may be that when these solifluction lobes, composed of water-saturated t ill, first advanced they did so rather rapidly, but that since the 91 in it ia l advance motion has been extremely slow* More extensive precise measurements have been made recently in other parts of Spitsbergen by Polish and German expeditions. In the

~~area north of Hornsund, Vestspitsbergen, Jahn (I960, p. 56) recorded~~

~~motion of 1 to 3 cm per year in clayey material (easily subject to~~

~~solifluction) on 3 to 4® slopes, which is generally considered as~~

~~about the lower limit at which solifluction can occur, Jahn (1961,~~

~~pp. 10-15) also reported a maximum annual movement (1957-1958) of~~

~~12 cm for a profile of stakes across a solifluction lobe, but the next year the maximum movement in the same lobe was only 5.2 cm, A second~~

~~lobe showed annual maxima of 5 to 6 cm. The lobes were 10 to 30 m~~

~~long, 1.0 to 1.5 m high, and sloped 5* (surfaces) to 17* (fronts).~~

~~Most of the movement took place Just after the spring thaw, Jahn~~

(1961 , p. 24) also notes that solifluction debris that is now near the shore originated 200 to 40O m away at a 40 to 65 m high marine terrace. He gives the age of the terrace as 4000 to 6OOO years and then notes that an annual solifluction rate of 5 to 10 cm, the same as that observed from 1957 to 1959, i s suggested. I believe that the annual movement may be even less, as the beaches at 40 m and above are probably much more than 6OOO years old (see discussion under Deglaciation).

In addition to studying rates of solifluction Jahn (i960, p. 55) measured (on 7 different slopes) the amount of material being carried off slopes by running water. He says, "In particularly favorable conditions, where snow patches existed, the value of denudation on slopes built of medium-resistant material (brittle limestone and 92

~~sandstones) amounted to 18 grams per square meter of surface. The~~

~~slope is thus being lowered by 1 mm within the period of 150 years.~~

~~Thus a coarse and thoroughly washed debris is formed on the slope,”~~

~~On the basis of his observation on material transport by running water~~

Jahn also stated that the rate of solifluction should not be greater on steeper slopes than those mentioned above, because such slopes have had the fine material, so indispensable for solifluction, washed out.

BÜdel (1961a, p. 2) made a study of solifluction on Barents^ya during the summers of 1959 and I960. On a 6® slope the average annual motion was 0.6 cm; in coarse materiaO. on an 11" slope, 1.5 cm; in fine s o il stripes on the same slope, 1 .8 cm. A ll these measurements were made in the transition zone between cryoturbation and solifluction forms. Measurements on steeper slopes in finer angular material were:

2.5 to 2,9 cm per year on a 12® slope, and an average of nearly 5 cm per year on a 16® slope. These values are all considerably smaller than the 1-2.5 dm that BÜdel (1959, p. 309) earlier suggested was the normal rate of "periodische so liflu k tio n ” for the short span of postglacial time in southeast Spitsbergen.

Most earlier observations in Spitsbergen have indicated that the rates of solifluction were considerably greater. De Greer (1904, pp. 465-466; 1923 , p. 36) noted d efin ite motion of the ground between

~~1882 and 1896 at the Swedish base at Kapp Thordsen in Isfjorden, although he does not give any exact fig u res. Hogbom (1914, pp. 369 -370), as a result of observations at several places in~~

Vestspitsbergen, believed that annual motion of a few centimeters to a few decimeters was normal, and that displacement of one or several 93 meters might occur, Hogbom criticized Cholnoky (1911, pp. 335-336) who stated that the yearly motion was only a few tens of centimeters,

~~but in view of later measurements it appears that Cholnoky's figure~~

~~is probably valid for many areas.~~

~~The only previous observations in Nordaustlandet were made by~~

~~Dege (1949, P» 277) in the Rijpfjorden district. At the end of June,~~

~~1945, his expedition recorded motion of 120 cm in a 3-day period at~~

~~several places on a 6“ slope near their base. Station Haudegen~~

(Figure 7 ), and motion of 90 cm in one day was observed at one observation point. In the same area land mines which were set out in March, 1945, were not found again in June, except in a few exceptional cases,Dege noted that motion was less in the summer and autumn, but that i t by no means ceased. Thus th is area was one of extremely rapid solifluction, at least during the time that Dege's expedition was there. Dege (1943, p, 323) had earlier recorded motion of up to 13 cm in 24 hours in Vestspitsbergen,

~~Finally, although I did not study talus slopes in Nordaustlandet, reference should be made to the work of Rapp (1955, pp. 131-132;~~

~~1957, pp. 192-197; 1960a, pp. 34-39; 1960b, pp. 80-92) in~~

Vestspitsbergen. As a resu lt of f ie ld work and by comparing photographs taken as long ago as 1873, Rapp has shown conclusively that changes on talus slopes and rock walls are very slow in the Isfjorden district, Rapp (1957, p. 196) says, "Die Studien des Verfassers bei

^^This expedition was sent out primarily for the purpose of making weather observations during World War II, hence the military precautions. 94 Bjonahamn auf Spitzbergen zeigen, dass die Bewegung durch Schuttcreep wie auch durch Solifluktion an einigen Stellen der Arktis entgegen

~~der allgemeinen Auffassung sehr langsam sein kann, Damit soli naturlich nicht gesagt sein, dass die Solifluktion uberhaupt von~~

~~geringer Bedeutung i s t , ” Recently availab le radiocarbon dates from~~

~~inner Isfjorden indicate that the raised beaches at 56 m are about~~

~~10,000 years old (Olsson, I960, p. 116; Feyling-Hanssen and Olsson,~~

1959-1960, p. 126). Assuming the figure of 10,000 years for the duration of postglacial time, Rapp (1960b, pp. 86-S8) concludes that the total retreat of the rock walls at Bjonahamn has been approximately

~~3.4 m (0.34 mm per year) during this period, and he estimates the recent wall retreat to be of the order of 0.02 to 0.2 mm per year.~~

Since the beaches above 56 m are probably somewhat more than 10,000 years old, the rate of wall retreat may be even slower. Material on the level or on gentle slopes is of course not removed as rapidly by solifluction or washing as the material on a cliff is removed by rock-falls, hence I do not find it surprising that changes are taking place so slowly in Nordaustlandet.

Obviously more detailed measurements are needed, and measurements over a period of several years would be most valuable. Rates of solifluction apparently vary considerably in different localities and at different times; therefore care must be taken not to draw far- reaching conclusions from short-term observations in any one locality. Some motion is certainly taking place on the steeper slopes in the Murchisonf jorden-Lady Franklinf jorden district, and the possible occurrence of relatively rapid motion (several 95 centimeters per year, or more) is not disproved by the few observations that I have made. However, as noted earlier in this chapter, the leveling effect of solifluction has not been sufficient to fill in the many laüke basins in the field area, some of which are at least 10,000 years old. Perhaps solifluction is not as effective, or as rapid, a process as various authors, particularly Budel (194Ô, pp. 28-40; i 960 , p. 82), have suggested. In my opinion Jahn (1961, p. 24) has summed up the matter accurately when he says:

Solifluction cannot be regarded as a process productive of rapid, morphological effects. Lateral frost-caused displacements are insignificant and viscous flowage very irregular. Since the most rapid form of solifluction (earth lobes) show an annual displacement of about 10 cm, the effect of the process over the years cannot be very considerable. It should be further noted that this form of solifluction occurs only in steep and well-saturated clayey slopes; elsewhere the process is much slower. The writer believes that solifluction as a general phenomenon can be only an agent of mild transportation, not of corrasion, i.e., erosive action. No erosive action is conceivable at so small a rate of movement aind under so slig h t a pressure of the thin mass upon the bedrock. Therefore, the significance of solifluction in the contemporary as w ell as the Pleistocene landscape seems to have been widely overestimated. GLACIATION

~~Introduction~~

Reference has been made several times already to features and deposits in Nordaustlandet that are the result of ^aciation, and various earlier workers have presented evidence showing that the ice cover was formerly more extensive. research was therefore directed toward answering the questions; (1) Have all the ice-free areas in Nordaustlandet, particularly those in the vicinity of

Murchisonf jorden and Lady Franklinf jorden, been glaciated? (2) If so, when was the area last covered by ice and from which direction did the ice flow? According to Ahlmann (1933a, pp. 97-98) approximately 80 percent of Nordaustlandet is covered by ice. It is evident from

~~Figure 3, showing the distribution of land and ice, that ice caps are the most common kind of glacier. An examination of the 1938~~

Norwegian a ir photographs before going into the fie ld showed that end moraines were scarce around Vestfonna, so emphasis was placed on studying striae, erratics, and the composition of the tills in order to unravel the glacial history.

^Ahlmann’s planimetric measurements were made on the maps resulting from his 1931 expedition. More recent work has shown that most of Prins Oscars Land and other areas along the north coast are ice free (Figure 3). On the other hand Brasvellbreen now occupies a larger area on the south coast than it did in 1931, so it is believed that Ahlmann's figure i s of the correct order of magnitude,

~~96 97~~

~~Ice Motion~~

~~Striae and Associated Features~~

~~General~~

~~The only observations of stria e from Nordaustlandet before 1957~~

~~were those made by De Geer (1923, pp. 30-31) in 1899 and 1901, and~~

Glen (1939, p. 9) in 1936 (Figure 13), and none of these were from the field area. Because of the paucity of observations, even though many expeditions had visited Nordaustlandet, I did not expect to find many str ia e . However, i t was soon evident that stria e were quite

~~common in northwestern Nordaustlandet. My observations are summarized in Figure 14, and details of several of the localities are shown in~~

~~P lates XXX to XXX7II.~~

~~Much of the traveling was done by boat, which was fortunate~~

since stria e are more abundant and in general better preserved close to sea le v e l, where the protective t i l l cover has been washed away relatively recently during land uplift. The striae would have been protected merely by being below the surface of the sea, but in

~~Nordaustlandet t ill covered part of nearly every outcrop where striae were present within 10 m of sea le v e l.~~

~~Although most of the lo c a litie s where I observed stria e were close to sea level, there were a number of notable exceptions.~~

~~Striae are found on or near the top of Persberget (ca. 95 m),~~

~~Skaraberget (a t 105 m), Sevrinberget (155 m), and Brekollen~~

~~(at 128 m). Striae occur at three localities east of Weaselbukta, 98 .~~

~~M*00^~~

~~No rdaustlandet~~

~~6yld«n«yanc Kapp Fonshowt~~

~~-7J*30' L egend Svortbergct Strioe Striae (direction of ice motion uncertain) C^3Stoss-ond-lee turfecet~~

~~O rientation of Donner end oxes of stones West. 1955 [WoMI Triongulotion stotlon, Swedish.Russian ore of maridien expedition (1999-1902) 10 km~~

~~Figure 13» Previous observations of striae around Hinlopenstretet. Base map by De Geer (1923). L ist q£. Place Names ia, accompany Fleure~~

~~Land features~~

B B illin gen BR Brekollen CO Celsiusodden C7 Celsiusvatnet FB Fogberget FO Floraodden G0 Gra0ya IR0 Indre Russ0ya KL Kapp Lady K0 Kross0ya M Manedalen PB Persberget PO Persodden RB Rondalsberget R0 Rund0ya S Skiferpynten SB Sevrinberget SKB Skaraberget.... SXO Skaraodden SR0 S0re Russ0ya T Teodolitkollen TB Tverrberget TU Tunnelbreen T0 Telt0ya V Vindheimen

~~Water features~~

~~N Nordvika W Weaselbukta~~

~~^ h e striae that appear to be in Murchisonfjorden north of S^re RussjîJya are on an unnamed island too small to be shown on the scale of the map, 99 100~~

~~LEGEND 1»~~

V , u n j . f l j r l , . (dot Old»r Jfcprittnti point of obMrvation) M Angulor variation of strioy Strlao (diroction •— of ice motion uncertain L a g jpy a , Uncertain age relatione Glacial groove# Stocs and lee surfaces _ O rientation of long axes of 80-15 - stones (Vindheimen) Striated till % (^23 Glociers, ice front os of 1957

~~Hills not shown by contour lines~~

~~\ — r n — \ I'rvA rBR~~

~~- 8 0 00 80 00~~

~~M urc h i sonf~~

■Ô

~~Figure 14# Striae in northwestern Nordaustlandet. 101 the highest of which is 178 m above sea level, and striae at~~

Celsiusvatnet and on the south side of Manedalen are at 56 to 70 and about 50 m, respectively. Striae at Rondalsberget, on the divide between the two fio rd s, are very w ell preserved and abundant on many outcrops between 144 m and the top of the h ill at 182 m. In addition striae were found at an unnamed lake to the northwest of Rondalsberget at an elevation of 110 m. The striae on Sevrinberget and Rondalsberget, and those east of Weaselbukta, are d e fin ite ly above the marine lim it.

Striae are found on all types of bedrock — limestone, dolomite, quartzose sandstone, quartzite, and shale. Although the dolomite often forms prominent ridges as shown in Plate X7II, in detail the surface is usually highly fractured, and polished and striated surfaces on dolomite were only found within fiv e meters of sea le v e l

(see Plates XXX and XXI). All the high level striae just mentioned, except some of those at Celsiusvatnet, are found on shale. On several of the hills the striated surfaces cut across beds that are both steeply dipping and well jointed. The very presence of the striae provides additional evidence that frost action is not as effective in destroying such surfaces as has often been thought; i.e., the general thinness of the till cover, especially on hilltops, and the lack of solifluction features at such localities suggest that many of the striae have been exposed for several thousand years, perhaps ever since ice recession, when they may have been washed clean by meltwater. It should be pointed out, however, that in most cases where the striae are best preserved, as on Rondalsberget, they are on bedding planes, which naturally are more resistant to 102 frost action. In other places, even where the rock strata dip steeply, glacial polishing has created smooth surfaces that are also less

~~susceptible to the effects of freezing and thawing.~~

~~Most of the stria e are 1 to 2 mm wide and deep, and individual~~

striae may be up to one meter or more in length. In a few places, as shown in Figure 14, grooves are present, and Figure 1, Plate XXXII shows the lo c a lity near Kapp Lady where grooves are best developed.

~~These grooves are on dipping (17® SW) shale beds about 8 m above sea level. They are 5 to 30 cm wide, up to 5 cm deep, and several meters long.~~

When studying Figure 14 it must be remembered that most, though not necessarily all, striae reflect motion of the ice during the waning stages of g la cia tio n . The majority of them probably have been made near the edges of ice lobes, which though retreating were s till active; therefore parallelism in widely separated areas does not indicate contemporaneity. The striae reflect ice motion at a time when flow was more effectively controlled by topography than at the time of maximum ice cover, and they supplement the information provided by the distribution of erratics, which may have been moved at any time while the area was ice covered.

Each striae symbol on the map usually represents many tens or hundreds of approximately parallel striae. Because of the scale of the map it is impossible to show all the small variations in orientation, hence each symbol represents ,a mean value in most cases.

Where crossing striae occur the younger are indicated by longer lines, and at those few places where three sets occur the youngest striae. 103 if determinable, are indicated by the longest lines. However, it should be particularly emphasized that the age relations indicated for any given point refer only to that point. If only one set of striae is present on a particular outcrop it is indicated by a short line on the map, even though this set may be parallel to the younger set of striae on an adjacent outcrop, A dashed line indicates uncertainty concerning direction of ice motion, and a question mark indicates uncertain age relations, Murchisonf jorden

~~The presence of features such as stoss-and-lee surfaces is~~

required to determine with certainty the direction from which the ice moved; this ceinnot be established by the striae alone. In Murchison- fjorden there is no reason to suppose that the ice did not move westward toward the sea from the higher land in the in terio r of

~~Nordaustlandet, At Celsiusodden (Figure 2, Plate XXXII) stoss-and-lee topography is associated with the striae, and at GrâjîJya (Figure 1,~~

~~Plate XXX) plucking on the lee (western) side can also be observed.~~

On only one island, Telt^ya, were crossing striae observed. At each of three localities there the striae oriented approximately N 40® E are younger than the common and better developed east-west striae.

~~The former are often less than 10 cm, long, and in general they are not as deep. The age relations are clear because the N 40® E striae often continue across the bottom of the east-west striae, Plate~~

~~XXXI shows details of some of the crossing striae at the northeast locality on Teltf(ya, The absence of crossing striae on nearby~~

Grt^ya and the other islands in Murchisonfjorden, as well as at the 104 southwest comer of Telt^ya itself, indicates that the N 40® E striae were not made by a separate ice lobe. These striae may have originated by (1) sea ice pushing against the island, (2) motion on the north side of a calving bay (see Hoppe, 1948, p. 38), or (3) motion on the south side of an ice lobe. The shortness and irregularity of the striae suggest that they may have been made by sea ice push or expansion, or by icebergs (see Nichols, 1961, p. 705), and the fact that they do not occur all over each outcrop also fits this origin.

On the other hand their parallelism on both north and east sides of the island cannot be explained so easily in this way. However, even i f these stria e are g la c ia l, they are minor features and do not represent any major ice fluctu ation .

Otherwise the striae show general motion westward out the fiord, and the variations are largely the result of topography. For instance, the striae at Celsiusodden reflect the orientation of the ice front as it began to retreat up Nordvika; those east of Weaselbukta parallel the various small valleys in which they are found. It is not known for certain whether the striae at Celsiusvatnet were made by a recent cirque glacier or by the ice cap, as in either case the striae would be similarly oriented. However, the absence of both a well developed cirque wall and end moraines suggests that no local glacier has been active here since general deglaciation, although this basin may have been partly or wholly filled by a permanent snowfield. The detailed inset in Figure 14 shows that the ice has moved in several directions in Manedalen, east of the southeast corner of Mirchisonfjorden.

However, all these striae are on outcrops situated within one valley 105 and close to a tributary valley* The evidence as to -which set of striae is oldest is conflicting from outcrop to outcrop, arxi again these stria e r e fle c t only lo c a l variations of flow within Manedalen.

~~Lady Franklinf .jorden~~

The picture presented by the striae in Lady Franklinf j orden is considerably more complicated than in Murchisonfjorden. Two sets of striae are present, the better-developed of which is roughly parallel to the fiord. Ice flow in a northwesterly direction out the fiord i s recorded by str ia e , grooves (Figure 1, Plate XXXII), and stoss-and- lee surfaces within a few meters of sea level (Plates XXXIII and XXXIV), and by striae on all the hills along the southwest side of the fiord, as well as on Brekollen. As noted earlier the striae on these hills are developed on shale and they occur above the 95 m level. At Kapp

~~Lady angular blocks were often noted on the northwest side of shale outcropsJ such plucking on the lee side would be expected of ice moving out the fiord.~~

Although neither Sevrinberget nor Skaraberget have perfectly developed stoss-and-lee topography, th eir overall shapes conform to the striae on their tops. The cliff on the north side of Sevrinberget is apparently the result of plucking by ice mo-ving over it from the south, and a thinner glacier confined to the present fiord probably further eroded the northeast side at a later date. Skaraberget, on the other hand, i s c liffe d on it s west end. This may be the result of truncation by ice flowing toward Westmanbukta from the v icin ity of Fogberget (Figure 4) as well as of plucking by ice flowing over the top from the southeast as indicated by the striae. Persberget is 106 a group of several hills, steep on all sides, although the striae near the top are all on surfaces sloping to the east.

The other group of striae, with a general orientation of N 35“E, occur in several places along the southwest side of Lady Franklinfjorden, always within a few meters of sea level. In nearly every case where the two sets occur together the N 3 5 striae are clearly younger than those that are roughly parallel to the fiord. The origin of these

str ia e , lik e those at N 40®E on Telt/^ya in Murchisonf jorden, is uncertain. It seems more logical, although not certain, that they were produced by ice moving from the northeast toward the southwest, hence they have been drawn as dashed lines on the northeast side of the observation points.

~~The possibility that these striae are the result of sea ice or iceberg action must be considered. Rafting of the fiord ice is common, resulting in blocks being shoved up onto the shore (Figure 2,~~

Plate XLIIl), and S^re Franklinbreen is actively calving. The fact that all striae with orientations of about N 3 5 are found within a few meters of present sea level might be interpreted as evidence in favor of the sea ice origin. It should also be noted that these striae are generally shoi*ter and less common than those parallel to the fiord, although the N 3 5 striae at Rund^ya (Plate XXXIV) and

Teodolitkollen are up to one centimeter wide and two m illim eters deep. Most of the striae on Rund^ya are on top of a low ridge, but at Skiferpynten stria e were present on a south-facing slope on the south side of the peninsula, and at Kapp Lady they occur in the bottoms of striae at N 66®W. Occurrences such as these last two are 107 more difficult to explain by sea ice action, but perhaps the best argument against such an origin is the parallelism of all the striae

~~at about N 30-35“E, Irregular scratches more or less normal to the~~

~~shore but not necessarily parallel to one another would be the expected~~

~~result of pushing by sea ice, whereas scratches produced by icebergs~~

~~presumably would be even more haphazard. Thus these striae may be~~

~~glacial; it only remains to explain their orientation.~~

~~As noted earlier. Lady Franklinfjorden is not a fiord in the~~

~~cla ssic Norwegian sense. Although depths up to 185 m have been~~

~~recorded in the fiord, it has low land on both sides. Figure 14 shows the two east-west valleys, Franklindalen and the unnamed valley~~

~~southeast of Franklinf jellet, that cut across Botniahalv;~~

~~across Lady Franklinf jorden from a center over the higher mountains on Laponiahalv^ya, and such flow is suggested by the distribution of erratics, to be discussed later in this chapter.~~

~~Of special significance is the fact that the striae indicating motion from the southeast are present at all elevations along the~~

southwest side of Lady Franklinfjorden, but those indicating motion from the northeast are only found close to sea level. For this reason, and because the N 35 "E striae are in general not well developed, it

~~seems unlikely that they have been formed near the edge of an ice lobe receding toward the northeast after a separate advance. Unless~~

such an advance terminated just at the present shore it would have le f t traces at higher elevations, or at lea st i t would have changed the shape of the bedrock outcrops so that grooves and stoss-and-lee 108

~~surfaces indicating motion from the southeast were not so prominent. It should also be noted that (l) no traces of a separate ice advance~~

~~exist in the form of end or lateral moraines; (2) the raised beaches~~

~~have not been destroyed anywhere except in the inner part of the fiord. There, as a result of the advance to the position about one kilometer northwest of Sevrinberget which the glacier occupied in~~

~~1899 (see discussion later), some of the lower beaches were destroyed and a la te ra l moraine was b u ilt up.~~

Instead the striae, particularly at Persberget — Persodden and Skaraberget — Skaraodden, seem to indicate that as the ice thinned the dominant component of motion shifted in a counterclockwise direction.

After the hilltops were exposed the ice flow was from the northeast toward the southwest, nearly at right angles to its former direction of flow. This must mean that the ice disappeared rapidly from the

slopes of W argentinfjellet and from Wargentinflya but remained longer 2 in the fiord, in part because it was probably not afloat. This pattern of retreat apparently proceeded throughout the length of the fiord, for although no striae at N 35®E were found on the shore at

~~Sevrinberget, many parallel striae with this orientation were found nearby on a shale outcrop about 20 m above sea le v e l between Sjire~~

Franklinbreen and T eodolitkollen. These stria e could not have been cut by the glacier as it is today, but if the flow was more from the east, and the glacier edge was receding northeastward from the higher

^Although the land was lower in relation to the sea, say 10,000 years ago, sea level.itself was also lower then, and it seems safe to assume that the fiord was nowhere more than 300 m deep. 109 land (Teodolitkollen) toward the fio rd , such stria e could e a sily have been formed.

~~In this connection it should be noted that although the main~~

~~component of motion of Sj^re Franklinbreen is today toward the northwest,~~

~~the glacier was also advancing southwestwards in 1957 and 1958. While~~

~~studying the southern margin of this glacier I observed the surface~~

~~of the t ill being striated as the glacier advanced obliquely into~~

~~i t s old la te ra l moraine (Plate LXXXIl). At the point where th is was~~

~~occurring the ice edge had an orientation of N 15®W (the general~~

~~orientation of the ice edge was N 32“W), whereas the striae or flutings~~

~~being formed in the t i l l were at M 85°E (Figure 14). An extended~~

~~Franklinbreen no doubt received part of its supply of ice from~~

jSderinfjorden and the unnamed valley southeast of FranklinfJelletj thus the glacier would have had a stronger component of motion toward the west. Striae with an orientation of N 3 5 might have been cut near the glacier edge, for the angular relationship would be about the

~~same as that existing today between the orientation of Sj^re Franklinbreen~~

~~and the striae or flutings on the lateral moraine. It is naturally~~

~~impossible to reconstruct the exact shape of the ice edge, but these flutings are mentioned to show that motion need not be precisely at right angles to the edge.~~

~~The lack of larger features such as stoss-and-lee surfaces on the shale outcrops near the shore suggests that the ice flow which~~

cut the N 35®E striae was of short duration. During a short visit to Franklindalen no striae were observed, and unfortunately no other localities along the northeast side of the fiord were visited, so no 110

~~information is available about former ice motion there. However, the presence of high beaches on the northeast side of the fiord (Figure 1,~~

~~Plate XX3C7I) suggests that this area was not covered by ice significantly longer than the southwest side. Thus ice flow from the east or north east was of short duration.~~

~~Special mention must be made of the striae located near~~

Tunnelbreen^ in the river canyons. Above Tunnelbreen and just downstream of a second permanently snow -filled pai’t of the western canyon, striae were observed with an orientation of N 3 5 Several parallel striae were on a 36"BW dip slope in green shale. These striae were on the north side of the east-west oriented gorge, about

1.5 m above the stream bed and an estimated 10-15 m below the gorge top. A few meters downstream of Tunnelbreen i t s e l f , where the gorge has an orientation of N 50®E, numerous scratches and polished rock surfaces were seen on the west side on a sim ilar slope about one meter above the stream bed, A number of p a ra llel scratches were observed at N 0®W, others were at N 26®W,

~~impression in the field was that these scratches below~~

Tunnelbreen were perhaps made by downward motion (subsidence) of the snow and ice on the sides of the canyon as the stream removed material from the inside of the tunnel. In any event the scratches appeared to be too random to be glacial striae. The ones near the second snowfield were better developed and may be glacial, although

^Tunnelbreen i s a permanent snowfield f illin g a river canyon and can hardly be classified as a glacier, but this is the official Norwegian name (Orvin, 1958, p. 114). I l l their relation to snowfield and gorge is the same as those below Tunnelbreen, Their orientation at N 35®E> i.e., the same orientation as all the striae found along Lady Franklinfjorden, is probably just coincidence. If they are really glacial striae the gorge must have been cut to a large extent before the last ice advance. As noted in the chapter on Geomorphology, the trend of the raised beaches shows that a valley or gorge was here early in postglacial time. However, the striae occur near the stream bed, and certainly more than one meter of downcutting has occurred since the last glaciation. Finally, it is somewhat unlikely that a glacier would cut striae near the bottom of a deep and narrow gorge oriented at right angles to the direction of flow.

~~Rondalsberget~~

One other group of striae remains to be discussed. On Rondals berget, the highest point on the divide between Lawiy Franklinfjorden and Murchisonfjorden, are many thousands of striae. They are found on all sides of the hill, on surfaces sloping in all directions.

~~With few exceptions the striae are oriented at N 4 0 - 5 5 (Figure 14).~~

Striae on the northeast side, top, and southwest side of Rondalsberget are illustrated in Plates XXXF to XXXVII. As Figure 14 shows, there are some indications in the form of poorly preserved grooves, stoss- and-lee surfaces, and plucking on the northwest side of the h ill

(where N 40“E striae now are prominent) that the ice formerly moved toward the northwest. Striae oriented NW-SE were also observed about two kilometers northwest of Rondalsberget, although they themselves do not indicate from which direction the ice moved. 112

The extensive plucking on the southwest side of Rondalsberget and the t ill deposits between the shale ridges on the northeast side indicate that the ice which cut the N 40-55"E striae moved from north east toward southwest. In addition Plate XXX7II shows some details of

Figure 2, Plate XXX7I, the largest striated surface observed. A striation which gradually widens and then gives way to a series of crescentic gouges (Sichelbrüche) is clearly visible, as are several ice fr ic tio n marks, which probably can be best c la ssifie d under

Ljungner's (1930, pp. 272-290) category of Muschelbruch or Flak, although they occur in shale, not in granite or gneiss.^ The features shown are typical of many on this surface, and they all indicate motion toward the southwest. The striae at Rondalsberget are between 144 and 182 m above sea le v e l, so there must have been a considerable ice mass to the northeast in order that ice could drain over th is h i l l toward Nordvika. The ic e in Murchisonf jorden must have already thinned to a lower level in order that this flow could occur.

^It is difficult to decide which term is best, as Ljungner himself does not make clear the difference, either in his text or photographs. However, he does state that the normal Muschelbruch is independent of structure, whereas the Flak is more or less dependent on structure (Ljungner, 1930, p. 283). Johnsson (1956, pp. 125-126) has noted, in addition, that a Muschelbruch usu ally occurs on the lee side, and Stromberg (1956, p. 141) has figured a FlRk (which he translates as "scale-off”) that lies more on top of a rounded h illo ck . The features shown in Plate XXXVII are d efin ite ly dependent on structure; they have resulted from the removal of part of a layer of rock along a bedding plane. On the other hand they also represent plucking on the lee side, although not in the sense of Johnsson. Comparisons are d iffic u lt, for the areas these authors have investigated in Sweden are composed of igneous and metamorphic rocks, chiefly granite and gneiss, but the part of Mordaustlandet under discussion is made up of sedimentary rocks. Because of the presence of bedding planes, for instance, these features are flat-bottomed instead of being saucer-shaped. 113 Such an ice mass in inner Lady Franklinfjorden probably covered Sevrinberget (155 m) and Brekollen (153 m), but these hills do not have striae indicating flow from the northeast. On the contrary, the striae indicate that the last ice covering these two hills was moving from the southeast and south. After the ice had thinned enough so that it could no longer flow to Nordvika it might still have covered Sevrin berget and Brekollen. Thus the N 40®E striae on Rondalsberget may predate the striae on these hills to the northeast. As the glacier thinned s t i l l more the emergence of Brekollen as a nunatak would have reduced or cut off the supply of ice from the south. As noted earlier, the striae at Teodolitkollen suggest that the ice edge then receded toward the lower land to the northeast. Thus the striae at

~~Teodolitkollen, although they have the same general orientation as those at Rondalsberget, were formed la ter when the ic e was considerably thinner.~~

~~In conclusion it may be stated that the N 3 5 striae along the southwest edge of Lady Franklinfjorden, like those at N AO“E on~~

Telty)ya, are probably not of great significance regarding the overall picture of ice motion. For the reasons given above it does not seem likely that they belong to a separate ice advance. They seem only to reflect motion at the edge of a thinning and retreating outlet glacier which may have had a more westerly component of flow during its waning stages, as opposed to the main flow which had been northwesterly out Lady Franklinfjorden. However, I am not completely convinced that an origin by sea ice push can be ruled out, despite the 114 parallelism of the striae at a number of localities. More observations are needed, particularly from the northeast side of Lady Franklinfjorden.

~~Stone Orientation~~

In 1957 the orientation of the long axes of stones was studied at one locality near Vindheimen, at the edge of Vestfonna, This was done to supplement the information provided by the str ia e , assuming, as a number of authors have shown, that the long axes of stones in till exhibit a preferred orientation parallel to the direction of

~~glacier movement (e.g., see Richter, 1932, pp. 62-66j 1936, pp. 22-30;~~

Holmes, 1941, PP. 1349-1350; Hoppe, 1953, pp. 252-253; Okko, 1955, p. A4; Donner and West, 1955» p. 47; 1957, pp. 9-16; Wright, 1957, pp. 25-26). Obviously i t would have been advantageous to have made many such observations from areas vdiere striae were not found as well as from areas where stria e occur in order to esta b lish control, but not enough time was availab le. I wish merely to put my measurements on record here in the hope that future investigators w ill continue the work.

~~The detailed shape of the ice edge at Vindheimen is shown in~~

Plate XXXVIII and Figure 15. Where the study was made the edge of the snowfield had an orientation of N 50 ®W, but the general trend of the ice cap edge is N 45“E. About one meter of t ill is exposed in a section above the snowfield at the edge of the ice cap. The cut has apparently been made by the stream flowing parallel to the ice edge. Two mechanical analyses were made on the surface t ill here; the sand-silt-clay ratios were 60:28:12 and 61:28:11. The till is 115

~~/ / // / L«g«nd / X», HiUt Sp«t «Itvations ( meters)~~

~~Outer edge of snow~~

~~Snow • Ice boundary Lake strandllne~~

~~Drainage channels Shear moraine~~

~~Location of /S . photograph C / showing~~

~~polygons~~

~~500 meters~~

Figure 15. Map showing d e ta ils of the edge of Vestfonna at Vindheimen, including the orientation of the long axes of stones. Drawn from an enlargement of a 1957 vertical air photograph by the Swedish Air Force. 116 noticeably coarser at depth where it has possibly been washed, for

~~50 cm down the sand-silt-clay ratio was 74:21:5 (Figure 22)» Below~~

~~75 cm depth the ground was frozen. Mo traces of patterned ground~~

or solifluction were present on the till surface just at the ice edge, probably because this area between the ice cap and the nearby hill has been a lake basin for a considerable time, as shown by the existence of shorelines connecting to various drainage channels

~~(Figure 15 and Plate XXXVIII), The area would a lso be covered by the permanent snowfield if the latter were slightly more extensive.~~

~~Seventy-four of 90 stones counted from 0 to 30 cm depth were elongated so that their orientation could be determined, as were~~

33 of 50 stones at 40 to 60 cm depth. A ll stones were 3 to 10 cm in length. The results are presented in Figure 15, and in both cases a preferred orientation between N 40 and 60®E was well developed.

This is the orientation expected from an ice lobe that probably flowed southwestward toward Haggblomelva during i t s waning stages. The ic e would have been controlled by the topography to a greater extent at this time than when it was thicker. However, such an orientation is nearly parallel to the present-day ice edge. This orientation may reflect an ice center more to the north during the waning stages of glaciation, but it is more likely a local phenomenon resulting from the shape of the ice edge at Mattikollen, Again, many more observations are needed before any d efin ite conclusions can be drawn from these oriented stones. 117

~~Erratics~~

~~General During the first sunaaer’s field work it was noted that erratic boulders were common throughout northwestern Mordaustlandet, so in~~

1958 R. Bergstrom, in addition to acting as my field assistant, carried out a special study of their distribution. This work will be described in detail in a separate report by BergstrSm, but the pertinent maps are presented here. The following discussion of ice flow is based on my interpretation of Bergstrom's maps plus supplementary observations.

~~The area is well-suited for making such a study since~~

Storsteinhalvjrfya, most o f LSgjiya, and the area south and east of tîurchisonfjorden are composed of sedimentary rocks, mostly dolomite and limestone in the west, sandstone and shale in the east. On the other hand Botniahalvgfya is nearly entirely volcanic rocks of the

~~Kapp Hansteen formation, and Laponiahalv^ya and the islands to the north are g ran itic. Granite and metamorphic rocks, as w ell as Hecla~~

~~Hoek sedimentary rocks, also crop out in Ny Friesland to the west and southwest. Limestone rich in fossils is characteristic of~~

~~Idunfjellet and the area south of Wahlenbergfjorden, whereas diabase is found in many places in both Mordaustlandet and My~~

~~Friesland,~~

Even the fact that the various sedimentary rocks within the field area crop out in parallel bands was of great use, for it was easy to see erratics of one rock type on the other. For instance. 118 in southeastern Murchisonf jorden the top of Fargef jellet (183 m), composed of dark shales of the Raudstup or Norvik se r ie s, i s dotted with quartzite erratics of the Flora series that crops out farther east (see Figures 4 and 5). Likewise, erratics of red and green

Raudstup shale are common on the gray dolomite and limestone islands in the outer part of Ifiirchisonfjorden. Both these observations indicate westward motion of the ice out Murchisonfjorden, as do the stria e which have been described earlier in this chapter. However, throughout the following discussion it should be remembered that erratics may have been transported any time during the period when a given area was covered by ice; they, unlike most striae, do not necessarily reflect ic e motion during the waning stage of gla cia tio n .

~~Erratics of four rock types were studied in detail; (l) quartz- porphyry, (2) gneiss and mica schist, (3) granite, and (4) diabase and basalt. The results are shown in Figures 16 to 19, taken from~~

~~Bergstrom's preliminary report (Bergstrom, I960, pp, 1-28),~~

~~Quart z-porohvry~~

~~The most striking feature about the distribution of quartz- porphyry i s the abundance of these erratics on th e southwest side of~~

~~Lady Franklinfjorden, particularly between Tverrberget and Kapp Lady~~

(Figure 16), This distribution cannot be explained simply as the result of a glacier flowing northwestward out the fiord, for in that case such high concentrations — up to 60 percent of the erratics counted — would hardly be expected. Nor would such a d istrib u tion have resulted from ic e moving from the northeast over a long period of time. In that case the percentages of Kapp Hansteen formation blocks 119

~~Figure 16, Outcrops of quartz-porphyry; distribution and frequency of erratics. After Bergstrom (I960). 120~~

~~. - 6 0 __~~

~~Figure 17. Outcrops of gneiss and m ica-schist; distribution and frequency of erratics. After Bergstrom (I960), 121~~

~~: \ - - i~~

~~• v~~

~~Figure 18, Outcrops of granite; distribution and frequency of erratics, After BergstrÔm (I960). 122~~

Figure 19. Outcrops of diabase and basalt; distribution and frequency of erratics. After Bergstrom (I960). 123 should have been the same all along the southwest side of the fiord» The distribution of erratics can best be explained by ice moving in a general westward d irection across Lady Franklinf jorden. An ic e stream with a somewhat more westward component of flow than Sjdre

~~Franklinbreen has today could easily have transported blocks of~~

~~Kapp Hansteen porphyry across the fiord or from the fiord bottom, for as Figure 5 shows, this rock type crops out as far southwest as~~

~~Gerardodden, between the two g la ciers (see KuUing, 1934, p. 199).~~

The blocks found in the la te r a l moraine and on the beaches along the southwest side of Sj^re Franklinbreen, even those southeast of the present g lacier front, can also be explained by westward ice motion.

~~The rocks of the Kapp Hansteen formation, as discussed in the chapter on Geology, apparently continue southeastward and eastward under~~

Vestfonna, appearing again south of Sabinebukta (Figure 3). The lower percentages of Kapp Hansteen blocks near S^re Franlkinbreen may be because (l) ice motion was northwesterly most of the time, so that not so many blocks could be transported across the fiord; (2) the presence of Flora Series rocks under S^re Franklinbreen means an addition of this material, resulting in a decrease in the percentage of quartz-porphyry blocks; or (3) the Kapp Hansteen formation does not continue far enough southeastward for ice moving westward to pick up many blocks until it is very close to Lady Franklinf jorden.

~~Bergstrom and I found erratics of Kapp Hansteen porphyry on~~

Wargentinfjellet up to 370 m elevation, and Kulling (1936, p. 3) reports a block of this rock at 26? m on the same mountain. These blocks, w ell above the marine lim it, can only have been 124 transported by a glacier, and together with the striae on Persberget and Skaraberget, they suggest that westward motion persisted for

some tim e. The ice must have been considerably thicker when i t was moving over Wargentinfjellet than when Skaraberget and Persberget were emerging. Kulling also reported blocks of quart z-porphyry at low elevations on the islands in Murchisonf jorden, and Figure 16 shows the distribution there according to Bergstrom, However, blocks of quart z-porphyry were most abundant on the northwest side of

~~Tollénberget, at elevations up to 94~~

~~Gneiss and schist~~

The distribution of erratics of gneiss and mica schist presents a completely different picture of ice motion. Not a single erratic of this type was found around Lady Franklinfjorden, and as Figure 1? shows, such blocks were found only on the outer islands in

~~Murchisonfjorden. Some hornblende gneiss is known from the islands off northeastern Nordaustlandet, and schist is associated with phyllite of the Kapp Hansteen formation in Rijpdalen. Also, sSckstrom~~

(1905, p. 258) has reported a light yellow gneissic mica schist with garnets from Chermsidej^ya, and B isset (1930, pp. 197-198) found two v a rieties o f augen gneiss on the same islan d . However, no mica schist of the type found as erratics is known from the bedrock of

Nordaustlandet, but i t and many other metamorphic rocks are known from nearby Ny Friesland in VestSpitsbergen, There they crop out west of the Hecla Hoek rocks in b elts extending southward from Verlegenhuken and Mosselbukta along the entire length of Wijdefjorden (Figures 2 and 125 13) until they disappear beneath the Carboniferous rocks near Billefjorden (Harland, 1959, Plate I4) .

The logical explanation for these erratics, most of which occur within 10 m of sea le v e l, i s that they were carried northward by a glacier moving up Hinlopenstretet, Rafting by sea ice or icebergs is also a possibility, although it is most unlikely that all erratics can be accounted for in this way (see discussion below), A glacier in Hinlopenstretet would have received part of i t s supply from the hinterland of Lomfjorden and the area drained by Valhallfonna, and thus it is not surprising to find metamorphic rocks among the erratics on the outer islands in Murchisonfjorden. Since neither Bergstrom nor I had a chance to v is it Ny Friesland, Dr, W, B, Harland has kindly examined samples of a number of metamorphic erratics collected in Nordaustlandet,

~~According to a letter from him (March 1961) several of the schists and gneisses, as well as some granites (see below), are closely similar to types found in Ny Friesland,~~

~~Granite and diabase~~

The evidence provided by the granites and by the diabases and basalts is not so conclusive, mainly because outcrops of these rock types are not so restricted in area. Granites make up much of laponiahalvjz(ya and SjujtJyane, but very similar granites also crop out in Ny Friesland, The distribution of granite erratics, as shown in

~~Figure 18, suggests that the relatively small number near Lady~~

Franklinf jorden and on Lagfiya have arrived with the west-flowing ice that transported the Kapp Hansteen quartz-porphyries, but that the 126 granites on the outer islands in Murchisonfjorden originated in Ny Friesland,

~~Diabase crops out to the north and south also, as well as at Kapp~~

Hansteen, on Lagji^ya, and near Sparreneset (Figure 5 and 19). The distribution pattern is similar to that of the granites except that there are even higher percentages of diabase erratics in t he outer part of Murchisonfjorden (up to 40 percent) and on Langgrunnodden

~~(up to 50 percent). This is probably because diabase is a more common rock than granite to the south, particularly in southern Hinlopenstretet.~~

Bergstrom (i960, p. 24) noted that in outer Murchisonfjorden the diabase erratics are of a coarse gabbro-like type, and similar diabase has been reported from outcrops on the peninsula east of Lomfjorden.

However, the situation may not be as simple as suggested above, for various other erratic occurrences must be explained, such as the blocks of Kapp Hansteen quartz-porphyry near Kinnvika, No bedrock of th is type i s known to ex ist in Ny Friesland, and Harland has informed us (March I96I) that these samples seemed to be most distinctive rocks, not easily matched from Ny Friesland,

If some or all of the quart z-porphyry erratics in the outer part of Murchisonfjorden and on Langgrunnodden have been deposited by ice moving westward, then some of the diabases and granites have undoubtedly arrived in the same way (see below), but in that case the lack of all these rocks in the Nordvika area, for instance, is hard to explain.

~~Probably most of the granites and diabases in the outer part of~~

Mirchisonfjorden came from the south, as Bergstrom (i960, p. 24) has suggested for the coarse gabbro-like diabase found only in this 127 area. On the other hand some of the granites and diabases, as well as the quartz-porphyry blocks, probably have been transported by ice moving westward over W argentinfjellet. However, before a d ivision of the granites and diabases can definitely be made, detailed mapping of the bedrock around Hinlopenstretet and in northern Nordaustlandet is necessary.

~~Dolomite~~

~~In addition to the igneous and.metamorphic erratics which were studied in detail, mention should also be made of the numerous boulders of dolomite found in the area between Sfire Franklinbreen,~~

~~Sevrinberget, and Rondalsberget. They were particularly abundant on top of Rondalsberget, and some of them are shown in Figure 1,~~

Plate XXXVI, although white quartzose sandstone erratics occur here too. The dolomite erratics, as well as the dolomite and limestone fragments in the t ill at Vindheimen, belong to the Upper Murchison- fjord formation. Judging from the known strikes of the Upper Murchisonfjord formation and the presumed position of the dolomite and limestone beds under Vestfonna, these erratics have been transported by ice moving from the southeast. They must have reached Rondalsberget or the area northeast of this h ill before the

~~N 40“E striae were cut. Thus they support the evidence of stoss-and-lee surfaces and poorly preserved grooves suggesting that the first ice flow over Rondalsberget was from the southeast.~~

~~Sea ice transport~~

~~The possibility that blocks have been transported by sea ice or icebergs must also be considered, for much of the area under discussion 128~~

lies below the marine limit. It is possible that seme blocks have been moved in th is manner, but wherever c l i f f s of t i l l were developed boulders were common, and it is obvious that most of the boulders along the shores have been washed out of the t ill cliffs by wave action

~~(see Plates XXX and XL),~~

Figure 1 in Plate XXXIX shows the large accumulations of erratics on the fla t land near the tip of Langgrunnodden, but the largest boulders (up to two meters in diameter) were found on the east side of prominent dolomite ridges, as shown by Figure 2, Plate XXXIX.

~~Such concentrations of large rounded boulders were also noted on~~

Depot^ya, There the diabases were more concentrated to the west of the north-south ridges, but the largest boulders were all granite and were mostly along the east shore of the island where there i s a shale cliff several meters high. Likewise, many erratics were found along the east shore of Vestre Tvillingneset against the dolomite ridge which makes up this peninsula. Among many granite erratics were a block of porphyritic pink granite two meters in diameter and a gray granite block one meter in diameter. Large boulders of gneiss and green quart z-porphyry were also observed, and on adjacent Austre

~~Tvillingneset one large erratic of pink porphyritic granite was observed in the reddish-gray t ill overlying the dolomite bedrock.~~

~~Concentrations of boulders as described above can haixily be the result of sea ice transport, but they are the logical result of deposition by a g lacier flowing in a general westward direction.~~

Such a glacier would naturally tend to deposit part of i t s load against any obstacle in its path. Furthermore, the presence of 129 granite and other erratics in the t ill, such as the boulder on Austre Tvillingneset, provides convincing proof of ice motion from the east,

~~Sandford (1926a, p. 620) reported "small boulders of fine-grained green, quartz-felspar-porphyry, with phenocrysts of pink felspar~~

(about half an inch long and a quarter of an inch broad) and of quartz" among the erratics, mostly granites, on the first point of land east of B rageneset.5 This description fits the Kapp Hansteen quartz- porphyry p erfectly, although at the time of Sandford's v is it in 1924 the geology of Laponiahalv^ya, where this rock crops out, was largely unknown. Since th is rock type is not known from Ny Friesland, i t s presence in Wahlenbergfjorden can only be explained by (l) transport by sea ice or icebergs southward'down H inlopenstretet, or (2) transport from the northern or eastern part of Vestfonna by ic e flow toward the southwest. Such ice flow would not be unexpected since i t occurs now, but it is surprising that quart z-porphyry boulders have not been found elsewhere along Hinlopenstretet, on the other land areas north of Wahlenbergfjorden, or in the area south and east of Murchisonfjorden.

~~For instance, I did not find any quart z-porphyry erratics near~~

Vindheimen, where the t i l l at the edge of the ic e cap was studied in some detail. On the other hand if these erratics were transported by sea ice one might expect similar rocks elsewhere along this coast.

~~That such have not been reported may be because detailed studies have~~

^Despite Sandford's (1926a, pp. 629, 664) reasons for locating the 1924 sledging base north of Brageneset, the rocks he describes belong to the Flora series, not the Upper Murchisonfjord formation. Thus Binney's (192$, p, 12) location of the 1924 sledging base east of Brageneset is correct. 130 not been carried out, so at present no definite conclusions can be made regarding the erratics reported by Sandford, However, this is at lea st one case where an origin by sea ic e transport i s as possible as transport by glacier ic e .

~~finally, it is worth noting that during the course of the two summers in Nordaustlandet I traveled quite frequently in the pack ice of Hinlopenstretet and on and in the fiord ice of the two fiords.~~

During these trip s not a single boulder was observed on top of or frozen into the sea ice. Some material brought up from the bottom was observed in icebergs in Lady Franklinf jorden, but the debris seen did not include any boulders. Transport of boulders by sea ice or icebergs appears to be of minor significance in this part of

~~Nordaustlandet, and the distribution of erratics would thus seem to accurately reflect glacier motion.~~

~~Summary The presence of erratics on top of mountains such as Wargentin- fjellet indicates that the entire field area has been covered by ice.~~

The erratics support the evidence provided by the striae and stoss- and-lee surfaces regarding westward motion out Murchisonfjorden and motion both northwestward and westward in Lady Franklinfjorden, perhaps even with a slig h t component of motion toward the southwest at times. But most importantly the erratics indicate, as the striae in the field area did not, that there has also been ice motion northward up Hinlopenstretet, bringing metamorphic rocks from

~~Vestspitsbergen to Langgninnodden and the outer islands in~~

~~Murchisonfjorden. 131~~

~~Til 1 Stratigraphy and Composition~~

~~Introduction~~

~~Deposits of t ill are vd.despread in the field area. The mechanical and lithologie composition of the tills was studied in~~

order to supplement the infom ation provided by stria e and erratics regarding ice motion. Usually the t ill cover is thin, in many places le s s than one meter th ick , and in nearly a ll lo c a litie s below about

100 m the upper part of the t i l l has been washed and reworked by wave action into shingle beaches (Plate XXX). Thicker sections of t ill are present in a few places, such as on Krossj^ya where about five meters are exposed (Plate XL). Despite the scarcity of exact measurements my impression i s that the t i l l cover i s rarely thicker than th is .

~~T ill deposits, like striae, are more common at low elevations.~~

~~Till is found on most of the islands in Murchisonfjorden, for instance, and the most extensive deposits are on the flat, low-lying land near~~

Langgrunnodden and on Wargentinflya (Figure 4)» On mountain tops such as Gelsiusberget and Wargentinfjellet less fine-grained sediment was available to be incorporated in the till, or, if it was present, much of the clay fraction has been washed out later. The remaining material, enriched by much wind-blown quartz, does not resemble the blocky, compact t ill near sea level.

~~Eighty-six samples, mostly tills, were studied in detail.~~

~~Mechanical analyses were carried out by sieving and pipette methods. 132~~

~~and details of the analysis procedure are given in Appendix I, The~~

~~results that are pertinent to the present discussion are presented as~~

~~sa n d -silt-cla y ra tio s in Figures 20 to 22, as th is type of diagram was~~

~~thought to be the most suitable for purposes of comparison. After mechanical analysis most of the samples were studied under the binocular~~

~~microscope to obtain an idea of their lithologie composition. Two-~~

~~hundred grains in the coarse sand fraction (1,00-0.500 mm) were counted for each sample, and the very coarse sand (2,00-1,00 mm), granules~~

~~(4*00-2.00 mm), and pebbles ( 4,00 mm), as well as medium sand~~

~~(0,500-0,250 mm) were also examined,~~

~~Murchisonf jorden~~

~~General~~

~~Except for Krossÿ^ya only one t ill is present on the various~~

~~islands in Murchisonfjorden. The t ill is generally massive and compact, although porous in places, and it has a blocky structure.~~

When dry it is usually pinkish-gray (7.5ÏR 6/2, 7.5YR 7/2, and 5YR 7/2 on the Munsell Color Scale (Munsell Soil Color Charts, 1954 ed.)) to reddish-gray (lOR 6/1) in color, but the reddish hue is even more pronounced in the fie ld where the t i l l is m oist. The color furnishes additional probf of westward ice motion, because a ll the red shale and sandstone are situated to the east of the gray dolomite and limestone making up most of the islands in Murchisonfjorden. It is interesting to note that although the 1,00-0,500 mm size range in the t ill contains 50 percent dolomite and limestone grains at several places in the outer part of the fiord, the till still retains its 133

~~reddish color in the clay fraction. In all cases where both striae and reddish-gray till are present the t ill directly overlies the~~

~~striated surfaces (Plate XXX). There is no doubt that this till~~

~~was deposited by the same ice that cut the east-west oriented striae in MurchisonfJorden.~~

~~Wherever possible the t i l l samples were collected from fresh~~

~~c liff exposures, so as to minimize any effect wave-washing might~~

~~have had. The mechanical composition of this t ill sheet varies~~

considerably (Figure 20), but in the fine fractions it never has more than 55 percent sand, 55 percent silt, or 50 percent clay. Material ranging in size from granules to boulders is also usually present, and

~~in some localities the till can best be described as pebbly. It often~~

~~contains a few shells or shell fragments, although these are usually not seen until after the t ill has been separated into the different~~

~~size fractions.~~

The t ill found between Murchisonfjorden and Vestfonna is similar in color to that on the islands, but it is neither as blocky nor as massive. It contains no shells, and except for the surface till sample from the edge of the ic e cap at Vindheimen (see the discussion of stone orientation), no bits of calcareous rocks were observed either. The t ill overlies shale and quartzose sandstone throughout this area, so it is obvious that material of local origin dominates.

~~The calcareous m aterial at Vindheimen indicates that dolomite or limestone must be present under the ice cap a few kilometers to the southeast. 134~~

Kross^ya The most interesting and important locality from the point of view of g la c ia l stratigraphy i s Krossj^ya. On the southeast shore of the island is a cliff up to about 10 m in height, and in this cliff two tills are exposed (Plates XL and XLI). The general sequence is given below and shown in Figure 1, Plate XLI;

~~meters above mean sea le v e l~~

~~7.0-5.0 (cliff top),,, ...... Stratified deposits — beach shingle 5 .0 -2 , 5 ...... Greenish-gray shelly t ill~~

2 .5 -1 , 5 ...... Reddish-gray blocky t ill with a few shells. Till extends to 1,0 m le v e l where bedrock i s absent. In places where beach material is lacking t ill appears below mean sea le v e l,

~~1 .5 -0 , 5 ...... Black thin-bedded, calcareous shale (Kapp Sparre formation), striking N 15“E and dipping 30*NW.~~

~~0 .5 -0 ,0 (mean sea l e v e l ) . . . . . Covered in terval — beach sands, pebbles, and cobbles. Where bed rock is absent this material extends up to 1,0 m level.~~

The occurrence of reddish-gray (when dry — gray brown, lOYR 5/2) t ill in the intertidal zone is uncommon, as usually this zone is covered by beach shingle. The same t ill is exposed above the shale, and there it is pinkish gray (7.5IR 6/2) to light gray (lOYR 7/1) in color, blocky and compact, yet porous, pebbly in places, and containing a few shells and shell fragments. No striae were observed on the bedrock here, but there is every reason to believe, on the basis of appearance and mechanical composition (see Figure 20), that this 135 pinkish-gray t ill is the same as the pinkish and reddish-gray t ill overlying striated bedrock on several other islands in Murchisonfjorden Above this till is another till, light-gray (5Y 7/2 and 2.51 7/2) in color when dry, but appearing greenish-gray when observed in moist condition in the field. There is no boulder pavement or other line marking the contact between the two tills, only a slight change in color at the point indicated by the hanmer in Figure 2, Plate XLI.

The upper t ill is also blocky and porous, and it was noticeably more pebbly in the f ie ld . Samples were collected 20 and 70 cm above the contact in the section shown in Plate XL, and also from another lo c a lity a few meters away. Samples frcm the lower t i l l were collected 40 to 50 cm below the contact, from a slump block several tens of meters distant, and from an exposure at sea level.

~~As Figure 20 shows, the greenish-gray t i l l d iffe r s markedly from the reddish-gray t ill in having a higher sand content, although sample~~

531, collected just below the contact, is more similar to the samples from the greenish-gray t ill than it is to samples 534 and 535, the other two from the reddish-gray t ill on Kross^ya. Because of floculation or poor dispersal many t ill fragments were present in the sand-size material of sample 533, hence i t has been omitted from the diagram. The grain size distribution indicates that the upper t ill has not been deposited by a second advance of ice moving westward over the older t i l l , for in that case the upper t i l l would have contained a smaller proportion of sand and a larger proportion of clay, not the reverse (e.g., see Shepps, 1953, pp. 42 and 46). 136

~~100% Sand 2.00 - 0.002 mm~~

* Uppar grnniih - gray lilt, Kroptdya • Lowar rtddiih—gray till, Kraipoya , Riddiih—gray till tlitw htrt In MurchltonfJordan

~~W », IM~~

~~100% 100% Silt , 0.002 - 0.0030 mm <0.0020 mm~~

~~Figure 20, Mechanical composition of t i l l s on Krossj^ya. 137~~

~~100 V. Quartx, Mndtton«, ■hol«~~

~~4111' 111 4 IX~~

~~Litnattona, dolomlta Mica, Bchlat, and othar matamorphic fragmanta~~

~~100% Quartz, sandatona, shale~~

~~» Upper greeniah—gray till # Lowar raddiah—gray till~~

~~• sis~~

~~100% Limaatona, dolomite S h e lls~~

~~Figure 21, Lithologie composition of tills on Kross^ya. 138~~

~~The two tills may also be differentiated on the basis of~~

~~(l) lithologie composition and (2) shell content. In the following discussion the reddish-gray t i l l sample (534) collected from the~~

~~intertidal zone is omitted because of the chance that its composition~~

has been altered by the washing action of the sea or by slumping of material from above. As Figure 21 shows, only sedimentary rock fragments are present in the reddish-gray t ill. Two of the samples from the upper t ill contain 2 to 3 percent muscovite and schist, and i f fragments of another type of dark rock, also probably metaraorphic, are included, the proportion rises as high as 14 percent (Figure 21A).

~~In sample 532 from the greenish-gray t i l l a piece of mica sch ist was also found in the pebble-size material.~~

~~The complete absence of metamorphic rocks or rocks containing muscovite in the field area indicates that the greenish-gray t ill is partly composed of material which must have originated elsewhere.~~

Since this till does not overlie the reddish-gray t ill anywhere else in Murchisonfjorden, the ice which deposited it could not have moved westward out the fiord , a conclusion reached ea rlier on the basis of the grain size analyses. The only possible source for the muscovite flakes and fragments of sch ist and other metamorphic rocks in th is t ill is Ny Friesland, and thus this t ill must have been deposited by a glacier flowing northward up H inlopenstretet.

~~The second means of differentiating between the two tills on~~

Kross/5ya is by their shell content. Few shells and shell fragments are present in the reddish-gray t ill, but they are everywhere abundant in the greenish-gray t i l l . The resu lts of counting 200 grains 139 in the 1,00-0,500 mm grade size are shown in Figure 21B, Both of

~~the samples from the lower till contained only one percent shells in terms of numbers of grains, whereas the upper t ill cortained~~

~~4 to 6 percent.~~

~~Most of the shells in the greenish-gray t ill are single valves~~

~~or fragments of pelecypods such as Hiatella arctica and Astarte sp,,~~

~~often thin with the periostracum still preserved. Fragmaits of~~

~~Balanus sp, also occur, as well as fragments of the red algae~~

~~Lit hot hamnion. echinoid spines and plates, fish bones, ostracodes,~~

~~and Foraminifera. In the next section of this chapter the results~~

~~of a special study of the Foraminifera in the tills will be discussed,~~

but it should be mentioned here that the greenish-gray t ill contains more individuals and species of Foraminifera than the underlying reddish-gray till. The essential differences are evident from Table 4 below, and details of the species present can be obtained from Table 5.

~~In spite of the varying sample sizes Table 4 shows that the foraminiferal content of the reddish-gray till is of another order of magnitude from that of th e greenish-gray t i l l . The abundance of~~

Foraminifera in the latter, as well as the presence of many other fossils, strongly supports the evidence provided by the grain size distribution and the lithologie composition. The greenish-gray t ill Table 4. Foraminifera in T ills on Krossj^ya

~~Sample weight in grams No, of Total No, No, of Sample 1,00-,500 mm ,500-,250 mm species of 1 individuals T ill No, fraction fraction present individuals per gram~~

~~Greenish-gray 532 8,64 8,25 20 2130 126 Greenish-gray 533 3,78 4.89 24 1640 189 Greenish-gray 536 3.86 5.13 19 480 53~~

~~Reddish-gray 531 5.17 6,55 6 25 2 Reddish-gray 535 0,73 0,95 9 41 24~~

~~^Minimum values because the Foraminifera in the 1,00-,500 nm fraction were picked out by hand, and even with flo ta tio n a few heavier ones in the ,500-,250 mm fraction were le f t behind.~~

~~I 141 contains much material that must have been picked up in Ny Friesland and Hinlopenstretet by a large glacier flowing northward,^~~

~~Lady Franklinfjorden~~

~~Till is also present at many places on the southwest side of Lady Franklinf jorden, and here again it often has a general reddish- gray color in the field. Till from the lateral moraine beside S^re~~

Franklinbreen was usually pinkish-gray (7.5ÏR 7/2) when dry, whereas the older t ill covering Wargentinflya varied in color between pinkish- gray and very pale brown (lOYR 7/3 and lOYR Ô/3). The la te r a l moraine is mostly reworked older till, and the existence of a till-outwash-till sequence at one locality inside the lateral moraine only reflects a minor fluctuation of the ice edge since the moraine was b u ilt. Outside the lateral moraine only one t ill sheet seems to be present along the southwest side of the fiord; it is most common on flat areas and in depressions between striated rock knobs. In general the t ill has no d istin c tiv e lith o lo g ie content. Fragments of quartz and shale pre dominate, and many of the samples contain shells, including Foramin ifera. Fourteen of 20 samples analyzed also contain bits of limestone and dolomite; e.g., a sample collected from an iceberg in front of

~~S/re Franklinbreen, representing the material on the fiord bottom~~

^The p o ss ib ility that th is t i l l represents material dropped from icebergs can be excluded because: (l) The till is exposed as a layer at least two meters thick along more than 100 m of the shore; (2) The underlying reddish-gray t ill shows no signs of being disturbed by material having dropped into it; and (3) A layer of sediment is not present between the two t i l l s , nor are there pods of sediment mixed in with the greenish-gray t ill as there should be if open water had existed. 142 under the glacier, has 15 percent calcareous fragments, and a sample from the la te ra l moraine has 16 percent. These fragments in dicate, as do the erratics, the existence of limestone and dolomite a short distance away under Vestfonna, Without exception the samples in which calcareous fragments are absent are those collected at higher elevations, usually on exposed hilltops, vhere weathering proceeds more rapidly. The percentage of calcareous fragments also decreases out the fiord, and no sample collected northwestward of Sevrinberget has more than two percent.

In several samples collected near Kapp Lady and on Wargentinflya a few grains of feldspar are present, as well as occasional pieces of mica, schist, and other miscellaneous bits that were not readily identifiable. The feldspar cannot have originated on Storsteinshalvj^ya but in a ll probability come from the feldspar phenocrysts in the Kapp

~~Hansteen porphyry or from the granite farther ea st. The mica, including both muscovite and biotite, probably derives from granitic rocks also.~~

~~These few observations support the idea of ice flowing obliquely across Lady Franklinfjorden as indicated by the distribution of erratics.~~

~~As far as can be judged the reddish-gray t ill southwest of Lady~~

Franklinfjorden corresponds to the reddish-gray t ill in the environs of Murchisonfjorden. The sand-silt-clay ratios of all t ill samples plus those of out wash and weathering products ^ situ are shown in

Figure 22, It is obvious that the tills in lady Frauiklinf jorden, particularly those in the lateral moraine, do not vary as much as those in Murchisonf jorden. None of the tills in the former area has less than 30, nor more than 60, percent sand. All have less than 40 143 percent clay and, with one exception, between 20 and 50 percent s i l t . No t ill similar to the greenish-gray t ill of Krossjz^ya occurs in the v ic in ity of Langgrunnodden or Lady Franklinf jorden.

~~Foraminifera~~

~~Most of the t ill samples were studied to see if Foraminifera were present. The results of the examination of the 1,00-0.500 and~~

0.500-0.250 mm sand fractions are presented in Table 5» Whenever possible about 300 individuals were determined, and i f more were present they were counted so as to obtain the total number of individuals. This work was carried out at Sveriges Geologiska

~~Undersokning (the Geological Survey of Sweden) under the guidance of~~

Dr. F. Brotzen. The study is by no means a cocplete one, since no attempt was made to study the morphological variations of the Foraminifera. Fifty-nine species plus a number of unidentifiable forms were found in the 42 samples containing Foraminifera, and undoubtedly many more species are present in the finer sand fractions.

Some of the differences between the foraminiferal content of the two t i l l s on Krossj^ya have already been mentioned, and from Table 5 it can be concluded that differences in fauna exist (l) between

~~Murchisonfjorden and Lady Franklinfjorden, and (2) between t ills of different ages in both these fiords.~~

~~Distribution~~

~~Special mention should be made of Elphidiella groenlandica, present in most samples in Murchisonfjorden and an abundant form in the greenish-gray t ill, but not common in Lady Franklinf jorden. In 144~~

~~100% $ c m é 2.00 - 0.002 mm~~

Tilt MmplM • GrMiiish-trüÿ) Hotintoln-tep till rich in > Kr##wy« fronted guortz • R«ddish-fr«yf j • M##tty MurchiMnfjerdcti Till (?)^ eost of Hurchiunfjorden N«ar Vcstfwmo In eitu wedtherinf products (on dolomite) Krystatlvatnct LongfniiwMddM Woshed motoriol Lody Franklinfjordm le«0«rfl S#r# Pr#mktin»r##A lattr«l moroifw Solifluction lobes and terroees Rijpdolen Kopp Lowro

~~1 0 0% 100 V:~~

~~0.062 - 0.0039 mm <0.0039 mm~~

Figure 22, Mechanical composition of tills and other samples from all areas in Nordaustlandet, 145 the inner part of Lady Franklinf jorden it is only represented by one individual in each of four samples, two from the la te r a l moraine near

~~Sjire Franklinbreen and two samples from the older t i l l collected near~~

~~Skjelvatnet and Tverrberget (Figure 4). Only at one locality near Kapp~~

Lady i s th is species at a ll abundant (sample 342, 16 in dividuals), and it is interesting that this locality is situated in the outermost part of Lady Franklinfjorden, nearest the open sea and J&irchisonfjorden,

Nonion zaandamae, present in several of the reddish-gray t ill samples in Murchidonfjorden, as well as in all three samples of the greenish- gray t i l l , i s only represented by one individual in one sample from the lateral moraine.

~~On the other hand Elphidiella arctica. common in Lady Franklin- fjorden and abundant in some of the la tera l moraine sançles, is completely absent in Murchisonfjorden. The genera Quinqueloculina,~~

Pateoris. and Scutuloris, also common, and in the case of two species of Quinqueloculina, abundant, in the lateral moraine, are represented by only two worn specimens in I&irchisonf jorden. The genus Oolina is also quite common in the la te r a l moraine and in the greenish-gray t i l l on Kross^ya, but except for four specimens in one sample at Kapp

~~Lady it is not found in the older reddish-gray tills in either fiord.~~

Cibicides lobatulus is abundant in most samples from Lady Franklinfjorden but only in a few from Murchisonfjorden, whereas the exact reverse is true of Elphidium clavatum and E^ bartletti. Other differences exist, as the reader can see from Table 5, but these are some of the more strik in g.

~~%ich remains to be learned about the causes of such variations 146~~

~~TABLE 5. DISTRIBUTION OF FORAMINIFERA~~

~~LAOY MUnCHlSONFjORDtiM ...... — - -FAANKLIMrJOROCN~~

Til l . TILL, MOSTLY REDDISH-&RAY t i l l , m o s t l y t i l l , OACENISM REDDISH- CRAY r e d d is h • OHA’Y CRAY (w^PKA) g X L C P T sis F o r 198 AMD JT8 TREDDISH' IL L . ! < Si? l o c a l i t y AND MATERIAL CRAY i® i si . ipH ïsEsï > “ *-* w.*, 0 j (g j FRANKLIN- a i-£*jo“îa< BRCEN liifiilliiii LATERAL KAOSSPYA Lt<9X^)iC^s3oZCUIOV)>J< 1 MORAINE

~~5 A M P u £ n o a s s TM"'MOir‘ «9 * tA 'P ® 'P — — “I® â S 5 s s S 2 î N 5 S î î a a î 5 S 5 5 s = 3 ::;;S 2 $3 : :: 4 S 5 â ;~~

~~APPRO X ELEVATION (METERS) ------r " " 2 5 “ «N V lO O O ^~~

~~NO Of SPECIE & N O » © P* M -o;-.jû.»z' 2 z * 2 - C 'î ® N — — — M~~

NO OF INDIVIDUAL S COUNTED OR O6 ECRVK0 IN 1 0 0 - SOO AMO -^^-So;SSs;;s 3 .fOD» ) f0 MM FRACTIONS H: N;; «X «H X XX £ l II», /* * uL ,L * (CwlkmA*^ ' £ # f ( /. f * (P«»Ar» **A Uene &.) X . ; * : x • x k Ï h Ï# £ ! p!*%d'

A Ik 6 f.| ./*» Cwtha*** £■ i f T«rJv«M • £ ip LA 'WM ( 8 i* Ay ) Rw*rCw/M M«ron- AlU* «•*< (:*rl*nA A/Oftmm #RAM#l V##fphwy***) V /«L4 r* A «Yicvm ^Da«~son^ • K XXMKK#XXX Î ^ X "4 &*//#*,*.yi L#* 4 l'ik **A T«.pp*n «>/•*•• /A#*/ÿApa. A 0 * 4 i^"Y -- C. A, * A E * M#"( f*' ( C /#*& f-/wx (Wal**' a*A J«iOk) • X X#XKX#XXXX c Urn. n«f-cr«if> (CviH^a /. #L (N #p ÿ) mp P y r f 9 #,.//,*#»###, ^S.lvcffri^

«P •' Ik /' O o h m ^ r*tt/o ^ , 0. ( e l r # f A ( lJ i ll>ft nt f o n ) O /' m* K f K (UJilii AM t o n ) A# A A%#w» (VJ-llitLixfPn) O xTrnkt»>t«L ( J»Acf) C a f & All** a*wl £•' pArn Lo*kli«h TLpp* A v/«* C xp ^ V c • / / ^ /«L* (C w ( k «M * n)

~~(C*Tu (Hcran-All#* ** A £«rl« •A)~~

~~f (C w* kM««.n *"«L 0 #*w&) III* m#. L«*ili«U *«A TV I # (Rkwokl#*) l^wmfwA ^ ,**# ^ Ô At a. E.w#k«m*m O- «r^/fr*^i L * « k li* L ** A TLppaw q~~

.A#r*r«lvl •. » — ** k I.» k & - * T. ^A««#k* «> Ip /*« w/'M *. *P f"*/ (CviL^**) ô rn h vtttm , V f H*j'v*A y iiikf & (M«*t«pwl 147 in the distribution of Foraminifera, but it is worth mentioning that

N^rvang (1945, p. 31) found similar variations in the distribution of Elphidiella arctica and Ej_ groenlandica in Icelandic fiordsj i.e ., the former was found in three fiords, and in only one of these was one specimen of the latter found. Furthermore, Loeblich and Tappan

~~(1953, pp. 5-8, 106-107) found ^ arctica in 15 samples at Point Barrow,~~

~~Alaska, whereas groenlandica was in two, and only one sample contained both species. The former was found in 18 other samples from arctic stations, the latter in four, none of which were the same.~~

~~Regarding the variations within the fiords the greatest number of species (38) and individuals (ca. 4150) were found in the sample of~~

~~"Lithothamnion silt" (sample 378: blocky, pebbly till, light gray~~

(2.5Y 7/2) when dry, greenish-gray when moist) present at one place in the lateral moraine beside S^re Franklinbreen. Otherwise about the same number of species are present in the lateral moraine as in the upper t ill on Kross^5ya, but more individuals are present in general at the latter locality. More species are represented in the upper till on Kross)6ya than in the lower, and likewise more species are present in the lateral moraine than in the other t ill samples from Lady

~~Franklinfjorden, with the exception of sample 342 frœn near Kapp Lady.~~

~~Within Lady Franklinfjorden the various species of Oolina and~~

~~Quinqueloculina are most common in the lateral moraine. Elphidiella groenlandica, although present in the reddish-gray t ill in~~

~~Murchisonfjorden, was only abundant in one case, but i t was abundant in all three samples of the greenish-gray till. The genera Discorbis and Eponides are also most common in this upper t ill. 1 4 8~~

Elphidium c f. excavatum i s found only in the upper t i l l on Kross^ya, and in sample 217, collected near Kinnvika, where i t i s an abundant species. Sample 565, light-gray (2,51 7/2) compact t i l l collected beside an unnamed lake north of Kinnvika, also contains many more species (19) and individuals (505) than the samples fran the reddish-gray t ill in Murchisonfjorden. It is interesting to note that samples 217 and 565 both come from the area covered by the ice moving northward up Hinlopenstretet, as indicated by the distribution of erratics. The surface deposits here may thus, in part at least, correspond to the upper t i l l on Kross^ya.

~~The abundance of Elphidium b a r te lli and ^ clavatum in most samples in Murchisonfjorden and their relative unimportance in Lady~~

Franklinfjorden has already been noted. The only samples where these species are abundant in the la tte r area, 394 and 420 for ^ b a r le tti and 420 and 342 for Ej^ clavatum, are those from the older t ill in the outer part of the fiord or inland near Rondalsberget,

~~Discussion~~

A few other workers have described collections of Foraminifera from Spitsbergen or adjacent waters, but to my knowledge none of them 7 have dealt with Foraminifera in till. However, the earlier reports give us information about the depths at which certain species occur and the environment in which they live.

?For complete listings of literature, including the work of Goes and Brady, see Nf(rvang (1945, pp. 59-61), Loeblich and Tappan (1953, pp. 122-126), and Jarke (i960, pp. 652-654). 149 Elton and Baden-Powell (1931, pp. 394.-395) reported on Foraminifera collected from a section exposed in the 12 m beach in Billefjorden.

~~VestSpitsbergen (Figure 2), Cibicides refulgens (called Truncatulina~~

~~refulgens by Heron-Alien, who studied these Foraminifera) was found in~~

~~two of the lower beds and was especially common in the basal bed. The latter was a stiff black clay, containing abundant marine shells and~~

~~calcareous algae, situated more than two meters below the shingle~~

~~surface of the beach. This species was regarded as being particularly~~

~~important, for according to the reports of the Challenger Expedition~~

~~it does not now live north of the Faeroes, and thus it was taken to~~

~~indicate warmer conditions when these animals were living,~~

~~Bowen (1954, p. 751) studied Foraminifera collected 28 to 30 m~~

~~above sea level in St. Jonsfjorden, also in Vestspitsbergen (Figure 2),~~

~~They are in gray-black silty sand containing abundant tfera truncata~~

~~and overlain by 0.6 m of coarse shingle. This succession lies on~~

~~striated and polished bedrock and in turn is overlain by a lateral~~

~~moraine of BuUbreen, Bowen notes the presence of such species as~~

~~Elphidiella arctica and Eponides karsteni, which are primarily arctic~~

~~in their distribution, together with Cibicides refulgens. so that~~

~~the evidence regarding climate is conflicting unless the arctic species~~

~~have altered their tolerance range. He concludes, "in view of the~~

~~cosmopolitan distribution of no less than 15 of the total number~~

~~(24) of species recorded, and the conflicting evidence derived frcm~~

~~those having a restricted distribution at present, no satisfactory~~

~~indication of the temperature which existed in this area during the~~

~~period of the raised beaches can be obtained from the foraminifera." 150~~

~~Bowen states, however, that the majority of the species from both Billefjorden and St. Jonsfjorden are at present shallow-water in habitat, and the only two deep ;vater species (neither found in~~

~~Nordaustlandet) are rare.~~

~~Feyling-Hanssen (1955a, pp. 63-64, 85; 1955b, pp. 7-H) makes brief mention of a few raised beaches in Billefjorden and at nearby~~

Kapp Wijk, and more recently (in ms., 1961) he has made a detailed study of a 5.7 m section of sediments overlying erratic boulders and striated diabase in southwestern Barentsjilya. Four samples were studied, taken between 2.79 and 5.11 m below the terrace surface, itself 15 m above sea level, and a total of 58 species were observed.

No significant changes in the foraminiferal fauna were noted between the four samples, and Feyling-Hanssen states only that the relative abundance of various species of the genus Elohidium indicates shallow water.

Jarke (i960, pp. 582-654) has described the foraminiferal fauna of the middle and western part of the Barents Sea; i.e ., the area between Bjorn^ya and Norway, and eastward to the entrance to the White

Sea, Twenty-three of the 141 species of benthonic Foraminifera found at depths between 58 and 480 m are also present in the tills of northwestern Nordaustlandet. Cibicides lobatulus was present at each of Jarke' s 27 sta tio n s, and other common species were Nonion zaandamae,

~~N. labradoricum, Astrononion gallowayi. Elphidium incertum,~~

~~Angulogerina fluens. and Islandiella norcrossi (Cassidulina norcrossi of Jarke). These species are all found in the greenish-gray till on~~

Krossj^ya and the reddish-gray t ill of the lateral moraine; tills that 151 consist, in part at least, of material derived from similar depths, i.e ., a maximum of 500 m in Hinlopenstretet and probably less than 200 m in Lady Franklinfjorden.

~~Finally, Green (I960, pp. 57-58) has carried out a study of~~

~~Foraminifera in sediment cores from the floor of the Arctic Ocean.~~

These were obtained from Ice-Island T-3 while it was at various positions north and northwest of Ellesmere Island (Figure 1), For each of the four topographic zones — Shelf (433-510 m). Slope (619- 1142 m). Apron (1532-2000 m), and Abyssal (2250-2760 m) — Green found that certain species of foraminifera were indicators. Islandiella islandica (Cassidulina islandica of Green), Cibicides lobatulus. and

Elphidium bartlelli were found to be indicator species for the Shelf area, although they were present in the next two zones and Islandiella islandica even appeared at abyssal depths. Islandiella norcrossi

(Cassidulina norcrossi of Green) was present in the three upper zones, but was an indicator species for the Slope area. Jarke (1958, pp. 234-249) also studied a series of cores taken along a northeast- southwest line across the Iceland-Faeroe Ridge, and he found Cibicides lobatulus to be most common at the shallowest point, 400 m in depth.

Thus many of the species found in the tills frcm Nordaustlandet are reported as being conmon in shallow water elsewhere. However, although no depths over 500 m are known to occur near the field area, little is known about depth indicators within such shallow depths,

Loeblich and Tappan (1953, pp. 10-15) found that depth, light, and temperature a ll seemed to be of minor importance in determing the foraminiferal assemblage near Point Barrow, Alaska. They noted, for 1 5 2 instance, that although there were fewer species in extremely shallow water (less than 20 m), 69 of the 74 species reported (at depths up to

223 m) were found between depths of 20 and 50 m. It is difficult to know how many comparisons may be drawn between the two areas; e .g ., they found Elphidiella groenlandica only at depths of less than 50 m, but in Spitsbergen its presence in the upper t ill on Krossj^ya suggests that it may thrive in the deeper water of Hinlopenstretet, although it may also have been picked up and incorporated in the t ill just a short distance offshore where the water is shallow,

Loeblich and Tappan (1953, p. 14) observed that, "probably the most important factor in the distribution of Foraminifera is the character of the bottom." They found that the narrow sandy zone of the beach (stations at three and nine meters depth) was sparsely populated, as was the muddy zone beyond, but that the offshore gravel zone contains the most diversified invertebrate fauna and a varied foraminiferal fauna. They believed this was because the decaying organic matter in the muddy zone used up much of the available oxygen supply.

~~In this connection it is worth re-emphasizing that the richer foram iniferal fauna on Kross^ya was found in much sandier material~~

(Figure 20), and the same i s true for sample 378 from the la te ra l moraine. M/S Minna recorded a clay bottom at 17 m depth in Kinnvika where i t anchored on August 18, 1955, and Haggblom found a muddy bottom at nine meters depth in Weaselbukta. These observations and the knowledge that t i l l rich in clay from older sediments i s exposed at many places in and around Murchisonfjorden, suggest that this fiord 153 has always had a muddy bottom. The surface sediment (sample B, Table 5) in Weaselbukta had a very sparse foraminiferal contenir as only three species were present, two of them arenaceous. Here the surface water had a salinity of 19.9 */oo according to Haggblom, as opposed to 33*96 ®/o« in the outer part of Murchisonfjorden (Hela and Koroleff, 1958, p. 67).

Thus the combination of muddy bottom, shallow depth, and brackish water probably goes a long way towards explaining why Murchisonfjorden has a sparse foraminiferal population. Lady Franklinfjorden, because of its greater depth and fewer islands, presumably has better circulation.

Therefore more of the clay fraction is carried out to sea, and the water is not as brackish. As Figure 22 shows, the samples from the lateral moraine, although not as sandy as the greenish-gray t ill on

~~Kross^ya, are nevertheless more sandy than many of the reddish-gray t i l l samples from Murchisonfjorden.~~

~~Summary~~

Foraminifera provide a means by which tills of different ages in northwestern Nordaustlandet can be differentiated. There are certain pronounced differences between the fauna of Murchisonfjorden and that of Lady Franklinfjorden as represented in tills believed to be of the same age. On the other hand there are even greater differences between the fauna of (1) the t ill underlying the raised beaches near Lady Franklinfjorden and (2) the t ill of the lateral moraine beside S^re Franklinbreen, despite the fact that this moraine, known to have been built since the raised beaches were formed, probably contains admixtures of older t ill. The two species 154 of Foraminifera that are most abundant in the older t i l l near Lady

~~Franklinfjorden are the same two that are most abundant in the reddish-gray t ill of Itarchisonfjordenj neither of these species is abundant in the la te ra l moraine.~~

The greenish-gray t ill on Krossjziya, also older than the raised beaches but younger than the reddish-gray t ill, has a foraminiferal fauna unlike the older till in either fiord or the till in the lateral moraine. The difference in fauna supports the evidence provided by the mechanical and lithologie analysis in showing that the greenish-gray t i l l must have been deposited by ice flowing from another d irection, and the only possibility is from the southern quadrant. Finally, the presence of the varied foraminiferal assemblage in the t i l l of the la te r a l moraine i s one indication that Sj^re Franklin breen has, since Nordaustlandet was completely ice-covered, receded much farther inland than it is now. Such an assemblage is not typical of the brackish water environment that exists in front of a glacier with many meltwater streams.

~~Extent of Glaciation~~

~~Northern Nordaustlandet~~

~~General~~

From the evidence of the striae, erratics, and till it is clear that the area around Murchisonfjorden and Lady Franklinfjorden has been completely covered by ice, and there is no reason to doubt that this period of glaciation corresponds to the last, or Wilrm, glaciation 155 of central Europe. Most of the remaining ice-free areas are found, along the mountainous north coast. However, in Nordaustlandet there are no high peaks adjacent to deep water as in Labrador, Greenland, or Vest spitsbergen, and there is thus little chance that nunataks existed during a glacial maximum. As noted in the preceding chapter only two mountains over 600 m in elevation are present along the north coast, and one of these (Sn^toppen, see Figure 3) has a glacier on it. The north coast is bordered by extensive areas where the sea is less than

100 m deep, so that during a glacial maximum with lowered sea level the land area would be considerably greater, and an enlarged ice cap could easily cover the highest mountains. Specific evidence from a number of areas indicates that the entire island has been ice-covered.

~~Laponiahalvj^ya and S.juj^yane~~

~~Glen (1937, p. 202) reports granite erratics on the hills in inner Brennevinsfjorden, an area composed of volcanic rocks of the~~

~~Kapp Hansteen formation. Observations on erratics are generally scarce from the northern part of Laponiahalv^ya, but Backstrom~~

(1905, p. 254) has described a block of orbicular granite found on the shore of the southernmost part of Ghermside^ya, facing Beverly- sundet (Figure 3). The origin of this block is unknown. Light-yellow gneissic mica schist with garnets, medium-grained muscovite-granite, and a coarse-grained muscovite pegmatite have been reported from the northwest side of Chermside^ya (Backstrom, 1905, p. 258), whereas grey medium-grained two-mica granite, two variations of augen gneiss, and schistose inclusions in the granite have been found on the east coast of this island (Bisset, 1930, pp. 196-198). Orbicular granite 156 has not been reported in situ from Chermside^ya or elsewhere in

~~Nordaustlandet, and the best possibility seems to be that this block came from some ice-covered area in the interior of Nordaustlandet.~~

No observations are available from Sju^yane, Although it seems likely that these islands have been glaciated it should be noted that none of them is particularly rounded; rather they are flat- topped, steep-sided erosion remnants (see De Geer, 1923, F igure 1 in

~~P la te I ) .~~

~~Coast and islands e a s t o f Kapp P laten~~

~~In his description of the north coast of Nordaustlandet between~~

Duvefjorden and Leighbreen (Figure 3)> Glen (1937, p. 297) notes "stones perched upon boulders," a characteristic feature of the glaciated landscape. NordenskiSld (1874, p. 85) noted that clear striae were not seen east of Kapp Platen (Figure 3 ), "but innumerable other signs indicate that Nordaustlandet's ice cap formerly extended many tens of kilometers farther north.,,."®

Evidence concerning the former northward extent of the ice is available from the offshore islan d s. Both Broch^ya and Foyn^ya have the profile of glaciated bedrock h ills, with well developed stoss-and- lee topography, and according to Ahlmann (1933a, p. 105), "they seem to have been overrun at a la te period by an ice fie ld moving towards the north." Figure 23 shows these two islands as photographed by

~~Rosenbaum (1933, pp. 79-80). Karl XII 0yane are a group of islands~~

~~^Writer's translation 157 still further north (Figure 2). The main island here, unlike Brochg(ya~~

~~and Foyn^ya, does not exhibit good stoss-and-lee topography; in fact it~~

~~is steeper and more irregular on its south side. Possibly this island~~

~~was not covered long enough or by thick enough ice for a glaciated~~

~~profile to develop. However, in 1898 Nathorst (1910, p. 300) found~~

~~erratics of grey augen gneiss, medium-grained reddish granite, reddish~~

~~granite with large feldspar phenocrysts, and grey granite on this island.~~

~~The bedrock is hornblende gneiss with layers and dikes of quartz, as~~

~~well as some diorite and amphibole schist. As Nathorst stated, these~~

~~erratics undoubtedly come from Nordaustlandet, indicating that ice~~

~~extended this far north.~~

~~c«. 75 m~~

~~Foyn«ya from the east~~

~~CO. 100 m~~

~~Brochoryo from Foyn«ryo~~

~~Figure 23, P rofiles of Foynji^ya and Broch/rfya. After photographs by Rosenbaum (1933). See Figure 3 for location.~~

~~Ismasetoppen~~

~~During the 1958 e x p ed itio n Ekman and Tengnér made a tra v e rs e from~~

~~Ahlmann S ta tio n to Ism asetoppen on V estfonna (F igure 3 ), The~~

elevation of this nunatak has variously been given as 458 or 42? m*

~~It consists of dolomitic and arenaceous rocks, and has been mapped 1 5 8 as belonging to the Flora series (Sandford, 1950, p. 474; 1956,~~

Plate XVIII). Skman and Tengnér have informed me that ripple-marked sandstones are common, and these are characteristic rocks of the Flora series. The nunatak consists of a series of six hilltops along a ridge oriented approximately ME-SSW, Sandford (1956, Plate XVIIl) has recorded a 30® SSE dip, and this is also shoTivn in Figure 2,

Plate XLI, Although conclusive evidence is lacking — i.e ., the ridge may represent an erosion surface into which cirque glaciers have cut headward — the ridge may have been shaped by ice moving from the ESE or southeast at a time when the ice cap was thicker.

~~D iscussion~~

Lynge(1938, pp. 126, 129-130; 1939, pp. 238, 241) has suggested that the. only way it seems possible to explain the distribution of lichens along the northern coasts of VestSpitsbergen and Nordaustlandet is in terms of their development over a long period of time; i.e ., they are thought to be relics from the last interglacial or perhaps an earlier period of relative warmth.

~~Possibly nunataks existed in Vestspitsbergen, but the available evidence suggests strongly that the northern, and highest, parts of~~

Nordaustlandet have been covered by ice during the last glaciation; the possible exceptions are Sju^^yane. lynge noted, as support for his theory of réfugia, that end moraines are scarce in northwestern

Nordaustlandet. This is true, but it is of no significance, because ice caps need not leave end moraines. V/e have seen that striae, till, and erratics are common near Murchisonfjorden. Lady Franklinfjorden, and elsewhere in the northern part of the island; in fact, the only 159

~~area in all of Nordaustlandet where there is a well developed series of~~

~~end moraines adjacent to an ice cap is at Lindhagenbukta, on the north~~

~~coast (see chapter on Glacier Variations).~~

~~Hinlopenstretet~~

~~All these observations indicate the former presence of thicker and~~

~~more extensive glaciers in the north; next the source area for this~~

~~ice should be considered, Ny investigation of the tills on Krossjiiya~~

~~has shown that the material in the upper till must have ccane from the~~

~~south, and the same conclusion can be drawn from Bergstrom's maps~~

~~showing distribution of erratics.~~

~~The idea of a glacier flowing northward in Hinlopenstretet is~~

~~not new; the evidence presented in this paper only supports the earlier~~

~~conclusions of De Geer and Ahlmann, based on other criteria,~~

~~Hinlopenrenna, the deep channel west of Nordaustlandet, has been~~

~~described under the chapter on Geomorphology; its form suggests~~

~~intensive glacial erosion. Figure 12, a cross-profile west of~~

~~Murchisonfjorden, illustrates the striking topographical change as~~

~~Hinlopenstretet is entered fron a relatively shallow fiord.~~

~~Farther south De Geer and Tschernyschew found striae on~~

~~WahlbergjlSya in 1899, and since at that time De Geer believed that~~

~~the ice had flowed southward from Nordaustlandet toward Storfjorden,~~

~~he suggested that the ice in Hinlopenstretet had also flowed from~~

~~northwest toward southeast (DeGeer, 1900b, p. 432). However, during~~

~~a second visit to the area in 1901 De Geer found stoss-and-lee~~

~~surfaces on another part of Wahlbergf^ya, and these clearly indicated 1 6 0 that the ice had flowed from southeast toward northwest (De Geer,~~

1902b, pp. 39-40; 1913j p. 276). The observations by De Geer and others are summarized in his final report on the Swedish-Russian Arc of Meridian Expedition, published in 1923 (see pp. 30-31; Plates A and

~~B), and Figure 13 in the present paper is based on De Geer's maps.~~

~~Stoss-and-lee surfaces on Foster^yane also indicate ice. flow toward the northwest in Hinlopenstretet.~~

~~Kong K arls Land~~

~~In order that ice could have flowed northward through~~

Hinlopenstretet, a considerable mass of ice must have been situated to the southeast, over the area that is now sea. The former presence of an ice cap in this area was first suggested by De Geer (1900b, Plate 10), and his map is reproduced as Figure 24 in the present paper. Such an ice mass may have been centered over Olgastretet or over Kong Karls

Land (Figure 2). As noted earlier the sea is shallow in the entire area bounded by Nordaustlandet, Kong Karls Land, and EdgejzJya (Figure 11); depths of less than 100 m are common, depths of more than 200 m are unknown. If one of the latest estimates is correct, sea level was

30 to 60 m lower th an th e commonly accepted v alu e of 90 m during th e tim es o f may-imum Pleistocene glaciation (Ewing et ^ ., I960, p. 186l); i.e ., sea level was 120 to 150 m lower than now. Glacier ice could easily have covered the entire area.

~~Unfortunately, very little is known about the glacial geology of~~

~~Kong Karls Land. To my knowledge the only published observations are those resulting from Pike's visit in 1897 and from Nathorst's expedition 1 6 1~~

~~Nordoustlandet ,lr~~

~~„ r Vest- ■ . > - . r • ■ .[ -fr*#'6*rg.n/ pJ.:..: . .i,. . ■.. V— ;~~

~~mQm:^f 76* ')' i ' .Â: - f r ' Praamt le# ♦ ♦ ♦ / divid## (19M) / . f~~

Strid# ond/or / #*###" #md-l## y rarf«c## / ____ ^ ___> * Errotlel#) j / / / Urn## off ic#1 / / fflOW \ Q I is" \ zlo- 1 : 4 m i l l . ,•i.S Gerard De Geer Figure 24. Map showing the glaciation of eastern Spitsbergen, After De Geer (1900b)• 1 6 2 in 1898. In I960 this island group was visited by the German Spitsbergen Expedition under J. Budel, and their results are awaited with the greatest interest. Nathorst (1899%, pp. 164-165; 1901, pp. 365-377) found no striae or stoss-and-lee surfaces in Kong Karls Land, but erratics were seen. Granite, gneiss, and quartzite were represented, and Permo-Garboniferous blocks similar to those occurring along

Hinlopenstretet were found on the lower eastern end of Kongs^ya, the largest island. Many of the erratics rest on basalt, but Nathorst believed they had been transported to Kong Karls Land by pack ice, since few were striated and most of them were found below the highest beaches. However, a few quartzite blocks were found on the basalt plateau at elevations over 200 m, and even if these are rounded they do not necessarily indicate beaches, for they may be cobbles which have been moved upward by a g la cier. De Geer (l900b, p. 432) believed that these erratics had come frcsn the eastern part of

Nordaustlandet, If the erratics are really glacier-transported and have come from Nordaustlandet, they must have arrived either before or after the maximum stage of glaciation, for at the maximum ice flow probably would have been northward from Kong Karls Land, not southward from Nordaustlandet.

However, the best proof that Kong Karls Land has been glaciated is the presence of raised beaches up to more than 200 m above sea level, the result of land uplift after ice retreat. There is no basis for Antev's (1929, p. 678) statement that "King Charles Land was not overrun by ice, which also contravenes De Geer's view that the 163 Spitsbergen ice centered on the continental shelf east of Spitsbergen in Pleistocene time,”

~~Southeastern Spitsbergen~~

De Geer (1900b, p. 433) also cited evidence from the southern tip of Vestspitsbergen supporting his idea of ice flow toward the south west over Barentsf^ya and out Storf jorden (Figure 24). Near the shore east of Keilhaufjellet (Figure 2) and on an offshore island he found stoss-and-lee surfaces indicating ice motion from the northeast. At

Mistakodden, northwestern Barents^ya, stoss-and-lee surfaces were found on the highest diabase h ills, 235 m above sea level and well above the highest beaches. These showed ice motion from the northeast, and striae oriented northeast-southwest were also present. Erratics of granite and Carboniferous f li n t lay on the polished and rounded surfaces.

~~Striae oriented EHE-WSW were found at Edlundhamna across the fiord from~~

~~Mistakodden (Figure 2 and 24), and there a younger set oriented NNE-SSW was present too.~~

~~Backlund (1907, p. 6) worked in the same area, and as a resu lt of his visit to Mistakodden with the Russian section of the Arc-of-Meridian~~

~~Expedition in 1899 he says;~~

L'érosion glaciaire semble avoir joué un rôle important dans la destruction du toit de diabase; sur le flanc septentrional des collines situées & l'Est du signal, les affleurements de diabase portent les traces de l'in ten se action mécanique exercée par le s g la c e s .... Parfois on rencontre sur la cime de ces collines d'immenses blocs erratiques de calcaire à sp irifères provenant du Nord-Ost-Land, preuve que 1'inlandsis de cette région a eu son époque de progression vers le Storfjord. On observe aussi de nombreuses str ie s allant du NNE au SSW. 164

~~In contrast to this description of erratic blocks at high levels, Budel (i960, p, 82) states, "Charakteristicherweise fanden wir auch in uber 40 m Hohe nicht ein einziges ortfremdes Erratikum mehr,”~~

~~Budel's 1959 observations were made mainly in the southwestern part of Barentsj^ya, so there seem to be great differences in the distribution of erratics on Barentsj^ya.~~

The striae shown on De Geer's map (Figure 24; see also Figure 2) near Andersson^yane on the west coast of Barents/i$ya and at Kvalpynten in southwestern Edge^ya are not so important, for they occur near sea level and easily could have been made by local ice caps or glaciers.

For instance, an expanded Duckwitzbreen, the major ou tlet glacier along the west coast of Barents^ya, would be expected to cover a ll or part of Andersson(6yane, and ju st th is occurred sometime between the turn of the century, when the area was mapped by the Russian Section of the Arc-of-Meridian Expedition (e.g., see De Geer, 1900a, Plate 13), and 1920 (Wordie, 1921, p, 42; Tyrrell, 1922, p. 29; Gripp, 1929, p. 209) . Backlund (1907, p. 8) describes the lo c a lity o f Kvalpynten as follows: "La zone côtière occupée par les diabases présente un paysage ondulé, formé de 'tê te s de mouton' tournés vers le N et le

~~NNE et dont les stries et la surface polie indiquent le rôle que l'érosion glaciaire a joué dans la configuration du terrain,"~~

~~In 1900 knowledge of the geology of Spitsbergen was lim ited; hence i t was impossible for De Geer to determine where many erratics originated. However, the discovery, at Kvalpynten, of green Hecla~~

Hoek quartzite at 415 m elevation. Carboniferous flin t at about 315 m, and diabase at 435 m (high above the outcrops of diabase, according 165 to De Geer, 1900 b, p. 429), proves that Edge^ya has been covered by ice; except for the diabase the island is made up of Triassic sandstones, limestones, marls and shales, plus some Jurassic shales (see Falcon,

1928, pp. 134-136; Orvin 1940, Plate I; Wilhelm and Wirthmann, I960, p. 175). But most important is the above-mentioned occurrence of stoss- and-lee surfaces, striae, and erratics at Mistakodden, 235 m above sea le v e l. Such features can hardly have been produced by a lo c a l ice cap on Barentsj^ya, They must be due to ice moving over the island from the northeast.

~~Carboniferous rocks, such as those Backlund found in blocks on~~

~~Mistakodden, crop out inland from the T riassic rocks forming the coast of Storf jorden west and northwest of Barentsj^ya (Orvin, 1940,~~

~~Plate I ) , Such rocks could conceivably have been transported to~~

Barents^ya by an enlarged Negribreen, but the glacier would have had to f ill Storfjorden and reach up to 235 m elevation on Mistakodden, and no traces of such an ice motion are present in the form of striae, or stoss-and-lee surfaces. The only other places from which these

~~Carboniferous rocks could have come are southern Nordaustlandet or possibly the adjacent sea bottom,~~

Budel (i960, pp, 83-94 and Figure 27) has also studied ice motion on Barents^ya, and Figure 25 is taken frcm the report he published after his first summer's work there. This reconstruction is based in part on observations of striae in the southwest corner of

~~Barents/iya, and these observations are shown in Figure 26 (Budel's~~

Figure 22), Sketch 1 in Figure 25 is roughly what is indicated by the observations of De Geer and Backlund discussed above, at lea st 1 6 6 as far as eastern Spitsbergen is concerned, which is all that I am concerned with here. Budel, in the text acconpanying this figure, says that ice flow as indicated in Sketch la is less likely, and with this I agree, for the features at Mistakodden cannot be accounted for in this way. The change in ice cover shown in Sketch 2 of Figure 25 may have occurred, but the same objection can be made as against la.

~~Sketch 3, however, i s a more reasonable picture of what coixld be expected during the waning stages of glaciation.~~

Budel has based these deductions concerning shifting ice flow over the whole of southeastern Spitsbergen on observations in one valley (Figui'e 26), which to me seems a doubtful procedure. Any major change in the d irection of flow would probably have removed nearly a ll traces of ea rlier ic e flow . BÜdel (196O, Figure 26, p. 90), however, has even shown a single block of basalt 55 cm long with three generations of glacial striae, which he believes represent tlie pattern of ice flow shown in Figure 25,

The fact that all the outcrops with three sets of striae are situated in a valley suggests that the local topography (10-15 m relief) is responsible for the variations. An ice lobe restricted to a valley is much more apt to exhibit changes in direction of flow during thinning and recession than an ice lobe on level ground. The only place I observed similar variations in Nordaustlandet was in a v a lley , Manedalen, southeast of Murchisonfjorden (Figure 14), and the striae there are believed to have no significance regarding the general history of ice motion in the area. 167

~~ï ^ \~~

~~Figure 25. Map showing th e possible stages of glaciation of Spitsbergen and Kong Karls Land, After Budel (I960). 1 6 8~~

~~DRE! GENERAVONEN VON GLETSCHERSCHRAHMEN H WMERA-VORLAND (BARENTSINSEL ) Htupirkhiung « INrbtnrichtung , w*. * ZNtbmkhtung — — —~~

~~CLErSCHERSORAMMEN im Unlerliut d ti STAUFERBACHES im 4 «fatfwM Ma—ta b à€r Hauçttforf~~

~~Figure 26, Striae observations in southwestern Barents^ya. After BÜdel(l960). 169 Barents Sea~~

~~Although there is l i t t l e doubt that an ice mass covered~~

~~Olgastretet and Kong Karls Land, whether or not the whole area of the Barents Sea has been glaciated is another question. De Geer~~

~~(1900b, pp. 430-431) did not envisage the Barents Sea being covered by an ice cap, so to explain the flow of ice over Barents^ya and out~~

Hinlopenstretet he suggested the presence of a thick mass of pack ice, which was pressed northward by the Scandinavian ice sheet, thus preventing calving along the southeast edge of the ice cap over eastern Spitsbergen, However, because of the shallow depths in the

Barents Sea (Figure 11), the southern edge of the ice cap would probably not have been afloat. Even though calving undoubtedly occurred, it is still possible that such an ice cap was thick enou^ to cover all of the islands in eastern Spitsbergen, and probably

~~Vestspitsbergen as w ell. Analogous situ ation s ex ist today on~~

~~Nordaustlandet, Stor/^ya, and Kvit)^ya (Figures 2 and 11), where ice caps meet the sea. In the case of Nordaustlandet nearly the entire east coast of the island is made up of an ice cliff, but still~~

~~Etonbreen, a major o u tlet from S^rfonna-Austfonna, flows westward to~~

~~Wahlenbergfjorden, and other gla ciers flow northward at the north coast (Figure 3)«~~

~~Romanovsky (1943, pp. 89-90) suggested that an ice sheet was centered over Kong Karls Land and Zemlya Frantsa losifa during the~~

~~Pleistocene, and various authors (e.g., Ramsay, 1912, pp. 1-17;~~

Nathorst, 1910, p. 291, and 1914, pp. 308-315; Bluthgen, 1941, 170 pp. 103-114; 1942, pp* 674-679; Dibner, 1959, pp. 17-18; Corbel, I960, pp, 269- 272; and Budel, 1961b, p. 253) have postulated an ice sheet covering the Barents Sea. However, caution must be exercised until more data are available.

~~One line of approach is naturally a study of the bottom sediments.~~

Ignatius (1959, p. 56; 1961, p. 717) has recently obtained a number of cores from the southern and western part of the Barents Sea, They were usually 1 to 3 m long, although one 7.7 m core was recovered, and in his preliminary report he says:

The stratigraphie section is dominated by poorly sorted or unsorted silty and sandy clay, containing coarser material* This formation is believed to be of Glacial and late-Glacial age. This till-lik e formation, characterized by irregular topography, occupies a major part of the present sea floor in the region under investigation. Only in certain basins and depressions is this formation overlain by well-sorted clay deposits, 1-3 m in thickness. Thus it appears that in general very little , if any, recent sedimentation has taken place in this shallow sea,

~~Ignatius (communication at the Spitsbergen Symposium, Wurzburg,~~

Germany, April 1961) states, however, that as yet he cannot determine if the lowermost material of presumed glacial age is t ill in situ or glacial marine sediment. The material is till-lik e and is poor in fauna.

If an ice sheet covered the Barents Sea, one of the main directions of outflow would be toward the w est, presumably through the Barents Depression (Figure 11) as indicated by Bluthgen (1941, p. 113; 1942, p. 677; and Figure 27 in the present report). Such flow should have l e f t traces on Hopen and Bj^rnj^ya. Hopen has seldom been visited by scientists, but Iversen (1926, pp. 8-24) makes no 171

~~mention of any features indicating glaciation. In the same publication~~

~~Werenskiold (1926, p. 2?) notes, "as proved by the occurrence of drift~~

~~timber, shells, and whalebones, above the actual shoreline, the island~~

~~has been elevated to some degree in recent times — perhaps some 20~~

~~meters. The low rims along the coasts are thus explained as raised~~

~~beaches," If the beaches rea lly do not occur above 20 m, u p lift has~~

~~I k?;~~

~~uronZana-üi~~

~~Nordatlantik » Li_i jatlanaiuhtr tarand OucMUr Stràm ungindltyii/ vtrmutlKher Umdyninn nacn der PUotùnhttung~~

Figure 27* Map showing the glaciation of the Barents Sea, After Bluthgen (1941 and 1942). been insignificant in comparison with the rest of Spitsbergen, implying that Hopen has not had a thick ice cover. However, in view of the

~~scarcity of observations no conclusions can be drawn at the present tim e,~~

~~Bjÿ(rn^ya is b etter known, and there both raised beaches and~~

~~striae occur. Several authors (Nathorst, 1899b, pp, 184-185; Andersson, 172~~

1899, pp. 278-279; 1900, pp. 437-439; Horn and Orvin, 1928, pp. 44-56) have shown that the striae indicate a local ice center in the south central part of the island. Other features also indicate radial ice flow; i . e . , Horn and Orvin found crag-and-tail features showing flow toward the northeast in the east central part of the island, and

Nathorst and Andersson reported stoss-and-lee surfaces indicating flow from west to east in several places on the northeast coast. All the erratics on the island are of local origin and their distribution also indicates radial ice flow. Later Nathorst (1910, p, 291; 1914, pp. 308-315) decided that one anomalous striae observation made by

~~Andersson, indicating westward ice motion^ on the west side of~~

Antarcticf je lle t at the south tip of Bj^rn^ya, might best be explained by an ice sheet over the Barents Sea which flowed westward over Bjjimjiya., He also suggested that Barents^ya had had a local ice cap both before and after the postulated covering by ice flowing from the east. This is possible, but Andersson's (1900, p. 438) suggestion that these striae are dependent on the local topography is much more reasonable. An examination of Horn and Orvin's (1928, Plate

~~1) map favors this interpretation also,~~

~~Bj^rn^ya may have had a lo ca l ice cap after having been covered by ice flowing west, but i t is most unlikely that a sin gle striated surface should remain as the only trace of the earlier ice flow.~~

~~Striae would be eroded relatively quickly, and it is the larger~~

^This is going on the doubtful assumption that the direction of motion can be interpreted. It is certainly not evident from Nathorst's (1914, p. 311) photograph of part of the striated surface. 173 features, such as stoss-and-lee surfaces, that should persist. However, all such features indicate only a local ice center.

Finally, the plains at 35, 55, and 105 m, together covering all but the southeast edge of Bjf(rn^ya, are distinguished by the presence of several hundred lakes (see Horn and Orvin, 1928, Plate 1), Many of these lakes are elongated and they are distributed in a pattern radiating from the high land in the southern part of the island. This pattern also supports the idea of a local ice cap.

More field work is needed before the question of whether or not the entire Barents Sea has been glaciated can be settled. At the present time we only know that an ice cap existed to the south and southeast of Nordaustlandet. At the time of maximum glaciation one of the centers of outflow was probably the Olgastretet — Kong Karls

~~Land a re a .~~

~~Waning Stages~~

~~Hinlopenstretet and northwestern Nordaustlandet~~

As the ice thinned, flow westward out Murchisonfjorden apparently- decreased. The outlet glacier in Hinlopenstretet, probably supplied in part from the higher mountains of Ny Friesland to the west, became dominant over a lai-ger area. The upper till on Kross^ya and the erratics on the outer islands in Murchisonfjorden and the western edge of Storsteinhalv^ya were deposited at this time.

The absence of any break between the two tills on Kross^ya has been pointed out earlier in this chapter (see Plates XL and XLI). 174 However, the absence o f a break cannot be taken as proof of continuous ice cover. If the ice had receded and then readvanced the same sequence might have resulted, because the ice could easily erode any sediments laid down on the surface of the lower t ill, and a boulder pavement need not have formed. It is thus difficult to determine whether or not there was any gap in time betiveen the deposition of the two t il l s *

~~However, it does seem certain that both tills were deposited during the last glaciation, for the reasons given below.~~

1) Shells (Hiatella arctica. Astarte sp., and Balanus sp.) in the greenish-gray t ill 10-70 cm above the contact with the reddish-gray t ill are more than 40,000 years old, according to a radiocarbon determination (Olsson, I960, p. 117, and Appendix II in the present paper). These animals lived during an interstadial or interglacial period, and as we shall see later, the best possibility is the last interglacial. None of the whole shells were in living position and most sh e lls were fragments. They were two meters below the top of the till; thus they must have been picked up from the sea bottom and incorporated into the matrix of the t ill by the glacier in

Hinlopenstretet, Because the date on these shells represents a minimum age a l l that can be said i s that the ic e advanced after the animals were living. Shells believed to come from the reddish-gray t ill near Lady Franklinf jorden are 35,000 to 40,000 years old, but th is age value i s a minimum too. To me i t seems very lik e ly that a ll the dated shells belong to the same age group, and the few shells in the lower t ill on Kross^ya, though undated, are probably of the same age too. 175 2) The rapid land uplift that began about 10,000 years ago (see chapter on Deglaciation) indicates that Nordaustlandet was ice covered during the last glacial maximum, and the greenish-gray t ill must have been deposited then. The reddish-gray t ill in Murchisonf jorden cannot be the product of a pre-Wilrm glaciation, for that implies the lack of an ice cover over part of Nordaustlandet at the same time that ice was flowing up Hinlopenstretet frcsn a center to the southeast.

~~After the greenish-gray t ill was deposited, the ice presumably thinned s till more and the front retreated southeastward down~~

~~Hinlopenstretet and eastward in Murchisonfjorden. The striae in~~

~~Sorgfjorden (Figure 13) reflect the motion of a glacier controlled by topography in this fiord.~~

In 1955 Dormer and West (1957, pp. 9-16) made an extensive study of stone orientations at Brageneset, near the mouth o f Wahlenberg- fjorden (Figure 3). They concentrated particularly on thin bands of till in or near glacier ice. However, at one locality at the southern tip of this peninsula they investigated an older red-brown t ill lying under 30 cm of green shelly sand, vrtiich in burn was overlain by over two meters of sandy beach sh in gle. In the t i l l the preferred orientation of the long axes of stones was very pronounced and was similar to that of the younger t ill bands that postdate the raised beaches; i.e ., the orientation indicated ice motion frcm the northeast, as shown in Figure 13. No traces were found of ice motion toward the northwest in Hinlopenstretet, but apparently after this motion ceased to be dominant ice moving from the northeast deposited the red-brown 176 till. The advance from the northeast is the earliest glacial event recorded by Donner and West (1957, p. 28),

~~Wahlenbergf .lord en and Ri.jpdalen~~

~~De Geer's (1923, p. 30 and Plate 8) observation of striae at~~

~~Gylden^yane is the only one available from Wahlenbergf jorden (Figure~~

13), In the text he states that the striae there are at N 70“E, but his map shows them at N 70®W, and the latter orientation, indicating an ice front retreating toward Palanderbukta, has been used in Figure 13.

~~More information is available concerning erratics, however. Sandford~~

~~(1926a, p, 619-620) reported morainic deposits on the eas€~^side of~~

Oxfordhalv;(ya consisting almost en tirely of pink granite. He did not find pink granites in the moraines at Point 6l (Figure 28) on the north side of Bodleybukta, but blocks and pebbles of this rock were abundant on Idunfjellet, and numerous pebbles of pink granite and pink gneissic granite were found on the first ice-free land area east of Brageneset (Figure 3).

~~In 1955 HoUin made a stone count near the edge of Vestfonna~~

~~1,6 km northeast of the summit of Idunfjellet (Figure 3), and about 240 m above sea le v e l, w ell above the highest raised beaches.~~

~~Three hundred 7 to 15 cm diameter stones were counted, and six percent of these were red granites according to information received from~~

~~Hollin (April I96O).~~

~~In 1958 I noted many granite erratics on the schist outcrops at the southern end of Rijpdalen, just west of the granite h ill,~~

~~Sandfordkollen, in Figure 7. Striae and stoss-and-lee surfaces near the top (Cairn V, 170 or 158 m) indicate that the last ice 177~~

~~firm (iiutt — • U t~~

~~°y2 y VemmUmt. Pt.~~

~~l^ w > U M U l~~

Figure 28, Map of the inner part of Wahl.enbergf jorden, 1924. After Aldous in Binney (1925) and Sandford (1929). flow over this hill was from the east-northeast, roughly parallel to the flow of Winsnesbreen today, but at a time when the ice was at lea st 100 m thicker.^®

~~All these observations indicate that the last ice flow in~~

Wahlenbergfjorden was westward. None of the erratics could have come from the south, for only sedimentary rocks are known to occur there. The available evidence suggests that as the ice thinned centers of outflow developed in the approximate positions that

~~Vestfonna and Austfonna occupy today. Since the ice was thicker, however, Rijpdalen almost certainly did not exist as an ice-free area.~~

~~1^1 am indebted to T. S, Winsnes of Norsk P ola rin stitu tt for calling ray attention to the striae at this locality. DEGLACIATION~~

~~Raised Beaches~~

~~Introduction~~

Raised beaches are exceptionally well developed on the coastal plain of northwestern Nordaustlandet. Such beaches are characteristic features of nearly all areas near the sea that have been glaciated. In Nordaustlandet, as elsewhere, one of the effects of the larger ice cap that formerly covered the island was to depress the land. As the ice cap thinned and began to recede the land started to rise. Any land at sea level upon deglaciation immediately became subject to attack by waves, and as u p lift continued, the f ir s t beach formed was raised above the level of the sea. This process was repeated again and again, resulting in a series of beaches.

In my field work particular emphasis was placed on (l) determining the marine limit to see how much uplift had occurred, and (2) studying the lower beaches to see if they were tilted, as tilted beaches would provide inforimtion about the location of the ice center during the last glacial maximum. In addition, organic material — driftwood, whale bones, and shells — was collected for dating so that the age of the beaches and the rate of land uplift since deglaciation could be determined.

~~1 7 8 179 Development of Beaches~~

Most beaches result from reworking of the upper part of the underlying t ill by wave action, although some material has also been transported by longshore currents and some has been derived from outwash deposits and bedrock outcrops. Virtually all of the clay and silt, as well as some of the sand, has been removed during the washing process, and the surface of the beaches is usually a well formed shingle of pebble- and cobble-sized material. The shingle is best developed in shale areas where flat stones are available. At depth the material in the beaches becomes somewhat more sandy. The stratified beach deposits are usually between one-half and one meter thick, although they are thicker in some localities, such as on

~~Krossf(ya (Figure 1, Plate XL).~~

~~Morphologically the beaches exhibit considerable variation, as i s obvious from the accompanying photographs (Plates XLIII to LIX).~~

~~The reader is also referred to the air photographs, especially Plates I,~~

XIV, and XV. In places individual beach ridges are absent, and a smooth, gentle slope of shingle may extend for several meters. More commonly a series of ridges is present. The ridges probably do not represent pauses in land uplift or abrupt eustatic changes of sea level, although precise data are lacking on these points. Rather, the beach ridges are mainly the resu lt of storm waves and sea ic e push, processes that are constantly at work on the shore. Figure 29 is a profile across the beach ridges at the northeast corner of Flyndra •hattared dolomitt bedrockice-pushed ridges bedrockice-pushed

~~wave-washed ridges~~

~~seaweed and small stones~~

~~sea level~~

~~Figure 29. Profile of beach ridges at northeast corner of Flyndra. Measured July 21, 1957 by E. Palosuo. Ice-pushed ridges do not show stratification that is typical of wave-washed ridges.~~

~~8 181~~

~~(Figure 4), one of the islands in Murchisonfjorden, and sets of ridges and swales such as these are found in many places.~~

~~Sea ic e action~~

~~The action of sea ice on the shore in Nordaustlandet has been described and figured by both Sandford (1929, pp. 550-551) and~~

Thompson (1953b, pp. 296-297). Expansion of ice and rafting because of wind are two of the more important processes that create beach ridges. Figure 2, Plate XLIII shows how the ice in Lady Franklinfjorden, still a solid mass on August 3, 1958, has been driven up onto the shore at Skaraodden by a recent storm. Plate XLI7, a photograph taken earlier in the summer at Persodden, illustrates the beveled top (13® inclination) of the shingle ridge at the shore after the overlying ice, such as that shown in the preceding photograph, has melted away.

Blocks of ice may be buried during rafting or esqsansion, particularly i f th is occurs repeatedly so that shingle debris i s pushed or dragged up over older ice. The ice blocks melt out later in the summer, leaving hollows that resemble miniature kettleholes, as shown in

~~Plate XLIV. Such hollows were found up to eight meters from the shore, although ice was not present at more than five meters distance.~~

~~Rozycki (1957, pp. 58, 194) has recorded similar phenomena from Van Keulenfjorden, Vestspitsbergen (Figure 2), where ic e pushed up to four meters above sea level.~~

In the field area the only ice-pushed ridges observed near the present shore were relatively small features, as the photographs mentioned above and Figure 29 show. However, an ice-pushed ridge containing boulders up to nearly one meter in diameter was observed 182 in August 1958 at Trullvatnet, the lowest of the four lakes on Celsiusodden, The ridge had developed along the west side of this lake, whose maximum diameter is only about 300 m. The largest ridge seen was that at the prominent 51 m strandline on the northeast side of Drikkevatnet, shown in Plate XXVI, This ridge is similar to some of those described from the Canadian Arctic by Nichols (1953, pp. 172-

~~175), and for a general discussion of beaches and the action of sea ice in both Arctic and Antarctic, the reader is referred to Nichols~~

~~(1961, pp. 694-708).~~

~~Ice-foot and snowdrifts~~

Another feature of the shore that affects beach ridges is the ice-foot, illustrated in Plate XLV, Although the ice-foot, while intact, protects the shore fron the effects of rafting ice and storm waves, at the same time it is an agent of erosion. Sandford (1929) has published a photograph showing how the ice-foot, as it breaks off in the spring and summer, may take frozen layers of beach shingle with i t . On the other hand, the ice-foot becomes thinner by surface melting plus erosion by waves and melting on the outer part of its under side, and eventually pieces break off and lie on the shingle beach, as shown in Figure 1, Plate XLV. If the wind should drive more ice ashore, coarse shingle debris might easily be pusted up over these blocks, resulting in a situation sudi as that shown in

Plate XLIV. Finally, as the ice-foot melts at its inner edge, the cliff of beach shingle is eroded (Figure 2, Plate XLV), and debris is washed out onto the ice-foot and down behind it onto the underlying beach. 133 In many places along steeper shores there are more permanent ice and snow features in the form of snowdrifts. These are often so large that they do not melt each summer. As the upper edge melts, the adjacent material, be it bedrock, till, or shingle, tends to loosen and slide down the surface of the snowdrift to the shore, where it may form a ridge. This covering of debris often is so thick that it acts as insulation against further melting. Such snowdrifts, partially debris-covered, were common in the field area, and one such drift on

~~Kross^ya is shown in Figure 2, Plate XL,~~

~~The erosive nature of the ice-foot, including such coastal snowdrifts, has been discussed in detail by Nansen (1924, pp. 29-42), who gives examples from many areas. Regarding Nordaustlandet Glen~~

(1941, p. 73) noted that, "as witnessed in the summer of 1936 the ice-foot undoubtedly was an agent of erosion, and this influence was also continued throughout the autumn and winter as a result of the frequent breaking up of the bay and sea-ice by the violent storms,"

Recently Jahn (1959b, pp. 166-168; 1961, pp. 22-23) has studied the effectiveness of erosion near snowdrifts in Hornsund, and by measuring the amount of fresh rock debris accumulated on the snow he concluded that the annual retreat of the cliff was 2.5 to 5«0 cm. These observations stand in contrast to Alilmann's (1933, p, 108) contention that the ice-foot protects the shore rather than eroding it.

~~The overall result of all the processes involving ice is to produce ridges parallel to the shore. 134 Wave and current action~~

~~Wave action, especially during storms, is probably as import suit~~

~~as ice action in forming beach ridges. Certainly most of the ridges~~

~~produced by ice action are la ter modified by waves. Offshore bars are~~

~~common features, as are spits of various kinds; in fact, most of the~~

~~shore features listed by Johnson (1919, pp. 330-331) are present in~~

~~the fie ld area, showing that both waves and currents are acting.~~

~~Figure 1, Plate XLVI shows an offshore bar at Diabasvika on Llgj^ya, and~~

~~other shore features are seen in Plates XVI, XVII and XXVIII. In places there is a channel through these bars by which the lagoons are~~

connected to the sea; in other cases (Plates LXIV and LXVI) the lagoon is completely shut off. Then the tidal waters and runoff fran the land flow through the shingle bars. This phenomenon was observed at the outlet of Celsiusvatnet, at Billingen, and at the outlet of Kinnvatnet

~~(Figure 2, Plate XVIII), where the processes building the shingle bars more than match the erosive power of the streams. This has also been noted by Jahn (1959, pp. 163-169) in the Hornsund area.~~

Figures 2 and 3, Plate XLVI show a tombolo at Skiferpynten, and a comparison between the 1957 photograph and that taken from the a ir in 1924 shows that the tombolo is being distorted in shape by the pressure of drifting fiord ice, perhaps because of the more active production of icebergs now than in 1924 from S^re Franklinbreen. The

~~1957 photograph shows how the ic e in the fiord has nearly pushed across the tombolo into the open water of Tollenbukta, 1S5 Marine lim it~~

Problems In investigating the raised beaches one of the aims was to determine the marine lim it, as this would indicate how much u p lift had occurred since the area became ice free. However, the marine limit is extremely difficult to establish with certainty, for the reasons listed below,

~~1) If the sea was, say, 100 m higher relative to the land, then the shoreline would be considerably shorter, and the number of points at which shoreline features might be preserved i s far fewer.~~

2) It seems reasonable to assume that rebound of the land was more rapid at first, i.e ., during and immediately following the thinning and disappearance of the ice. This means that the sea had less time to work at any given level then, and hence, as Bird

(1954, p. 458) has pointed out for central Arctic Canada, erosional features were only cut in unconsolidated material, and constructional landforms are more common. However, in the field area, such a relatively small amount of unconsolidated material is available at high levels that erosional features are uncommon, and the rapid uplift did not allow time, in general, for an assemblage of constructional forms to develop.

~~3) Although evidence has been presented in the chapter on~~

Geomorphology to show that solifluction does not seem to be a rapid process in the field area, nevertheless it is operative, and it is natural that the higher beaches have suffered more destruction. Not 186

~~only have they been exposed longer, but the shingle cover, which acts~~

~~as a sieve through which water can trickle without destroying the~~

~~beach, is less well developed there. Thus, despite the general~~

~~paucity of till above the valley floors, the high level raised beaches~~

~~are more susceptible to solifluction than those lower down. For the~~

~~same reason solifluction terraces, resembling raised beaches, are more~~

~~common at higher levels,~~

~~4) Structural terraces, common in the field area because of the~~

~~folded bedrock structure, may easily be confused with raised beaches.~~

Such terraces are also more common at higher levels where there is much less t ill covering the bedrock. Figure 1, Plate XLVII is a view of terraces on the northeast side of Wargentinfjellet. The lower one

~~or two terraces may be marine, but the upper ones, though they appear~~

~~level and even from a distance, are seen to be rather uneven at close range. One of the upper terraces, shown in more detail in Figure 2,~~

~~Plate XLVII, is basically structural, and it is now being modified by solifluction. These terraces and their relation to the bedrock~~

~~structure are also visible in Plates III, VIII, and IX.~~

~~Methods of determination~~

~~In Nordaustlandet it did not prove possible to use the lower limit of ground moraine and perched boulders as a means of determining the marine limit, despite the fact that these criteria had been~~

successfully applied elsewhere (e.g., see Bird, 1953, p. 225; 1954, pp. 458-459; 1955, pp. 8-9; Bird and Bird, 1961, pp. 24-25; Sim, i960, pp. 180-192; 1961, pp. 24I-244). Perched boulders are very rare at a ll levels, whereas t ill and erratic boulders are more common 187 at low levels. No clear line up to which washing has extended, such as that figured so beautifully in Bird (1954, Figure 1, Plate 2) or so strikingly displayed in northern Sweden on the kalottberg (Hoppe, 1959, p. 196), was ever seen in the field area.

Marine organisms, such as raoUusks and Foraminifera, may also be used in determining the marine lim it, provided care is exercised to be sure that they belong to the time when the beaches were forming.

However, the shallow water, which may often have contained much rock flour from the glaciers, meant that only a few organisms could exist, and the rapid uplift would not tend to allow many shells to accumulate at any one place. Likewise, the general scarcity of till or sediment at high levels meant that burrowing mollusks such as Hiatella arctica

(L.) and Mya truncata L. had fewer places to live. Any shells that were present have been exposed for a longer time, and thus there is a greater chance that they have disappeared through weathering or solution. Bird (1954, p. 459) and Sim (I96O, pp, 189-191) have demonstrated that the marine lim it as indicated by the presence of shells generally lies below that determined by other means in various parts of Arctic Canada, and presumably this rule is applicable to

~~Spitsbergen as well. In the case of solitary shells or shell fragments there is always a chance that they have been dropped by birds.~~

~~R esu lts~~

~~The highest marine organisms observed were Foraminifera near the top of Billingen, about 95 m above sea level, and mollusk shells and~~

Foraminifera near Tverrberget at 77 m. Neither of these samples, however, are believed to belong to the raised beaches, even though 1 8 8 they lie below the marine lim it. The Foraminifera on Billingen were found when mechanical analysis of a sample of what is believed to be till was carried out. This sample was collected from patterned ground overlying black dolomite bedrock. During analysis it was described as very pale brown (lOYR 8/3) compact, pebbly till. Its sand-silt-clay ratio is 34:47:19 (Figure 22); granules and pebbles were also present.

Some bits of Lithothamnion were also found in the 1,00-0,500 mm fraction, but no mollusk shells were present. It is thought that this sample is composed of material brought up from a lower level by the g la c ie r . The s h e lls found a t 77 m near Tverrberget, as well as other dated organic samples, will be discussed later in the section dealing with the age of the beaches. However, it should be mentioned here that the highest shells believed to be of the same general age as the beaches with which they are associated were collected at 44 m e le v a tio n .

~~Lady Franklinf.jorden. Examination of the air photographs and field work have shown that the raised beaches in northwestern~~

~~Nordaustlandet extend to over 100 m above sea level, Plate I and~~

Figure 1, Plate XL7III show the high beaches along the southwest side of Lady Franklinfjorden. Some of the highest beaches in these photographs are partly covered by the snowfield on the northwest side of Tverrberget, but nevertheless it is quite obvious that they are beaches, for they still contain lagoons between the beach ridges, and they cut across the bedrock structure.

~~An altim eter traverse from Tollenbukta to the top of Tverrberget indicated that the highest beach on the north side of this hill is 189 at 95 m. Figure 2, Plats XLVIII is a view of Tverrberget from~~

Sevrinberget, and the horizontal lines of the beaches can be seen to progress even higher than the 95 m beach. The very flat top of this h ill at 150 m elevation also suggests planation by wave action. Many poorly-rounded sandstone cobbles were found on Tverrberget, the top of which is mostly felsenmeer developed on shale; this was the only other bit of evidence suggesting inundation, but these cobbles could have been carried upward by a glacier too.

The same is true of rounded sandstone cobbles observed at 170 m on the slope of W argentinfjellet southwest of Tverrberget. A possible beach level at the northwest end of Skaraberget is at 105 m and the flat top itself is at 122 m, but no definite evidence is present to show that these levels are really beaches.

Beaches are well developed on all sides of Sevrinberget except the upper cliffed part facing north. A considerable amount of precise leveling was carried out in the inner part of Lady Franklinfjorden, and one of the traverses was up Sevrinberget. One prominent beach level on this hill was at 99 to 101 m, and an even more deeply cut s tra n d lin e was a t 113 to 115 m. These fe a tu re s are shown in P la te

XLIX, and Figure 1, Plate L. Both of these high strandlines, in part erosional features, cut across the strike of the steeply-dipping shale beds, hence they are not structural terraces. Furthermore, since they are near the top of the hill it is doubtful that so much debris in the form of a terrace could have resulted from frost action and solifluction. Although the beaches have been somevrtiat modified by these processes, solifluction could not produce a notch in the 1 9 0

~~bedrock such as th a t shown in Figure 1, P la te L.~~

~~Despite the absence of shells, these and aH other high strandlines~~

~~around Lady Franklinfjorden are believed to be narine. Because of the~~

~~rather low relief it vrould be necessary to have a huge ice mass covering~~

~~the Lag^ya area in order to create a lake in Lady Franklinfjorden, and~~

~~it would be most illogical for ice to remain longer in an area below~~

~~sea level while the inner part of the fiord became ice free. Beaches~~

~~such as those in Plate XLIX could not have formed in a small marginal~~

~~lake beside a nunatak (Sevrinberget), for the erosion of the bedrock~~

~~and the amount of material in the constructional forms imply a~~

~~considerable fetch.~~

~~One other observation of the marine lim it is available from the~~

~~innermost part of Lady Franklinfjorden. On the northeast side of~~

~~BrekoUen (Figure 4) leveling revealed a conspicuous line of white~~

~~sandstone cobbles and boulders, some of which were rounded, at 103 m.~~

~~No erosional features were seen in the green shale just where the~~

~~rounded boulders lay, but farther west along the same hillside the~~

~~bedrock slope is steeper at about the same level (see Figure 1,~~

~~Plate LII), Probably this boulder line represents a beach level,~~

~~but once again the evidence is not conclusive.~~

~~No leveling was carried out on the northeast side of Lady~~

~~Franklinfjorden, but high level beaches are visible in a number of~~

~~the photographs; in Plate VII some of the high beaches are outlined by horizontal snowfields, and the same beaches can be seen in Figure 1,~~

~~P la te XXXVI. 191~~

Outer Murchisonf.jorden. In Murchisonf jorden observations on the marine lim it were also made at a number of localities. Leveling on the south side of Kinnberget showed that the highest well developed beach was at 57 m (Figure 2, Plate L), but various smaller terraces were observed up to 88 m, and it may well be that the top of Kinnberget a t 124 m, and its extension to the northeast at 131 m, have been wave-washed. In Plate XV a faint line of beach material can be seen extending eastward from Kinnberget across the strike of the steeply- dipping rock strata, well above the 57 m level. An altimeter traverse on the west side of Kinnberget showed that the highest prominent beach was at 56 m (Plate XV), but other flat areas probably representing strandlines were at 110 and 120 m elevation.

Precise leveling near Sveanor on the south side of l^urchisonfjorden was only carried out at relatively low levels, but an altimeter traverse at Backaberget revealed well developed beaches at 80 m. According to

K ulling ( 1936 , p. 3 ) Ahlmann s ta te d th a t " ra ise d beaches could be distinguished up bo 135 m and wave-worn material up to I 40 m above sea-level." This observation at 140 m was made at two places according to inform ation receiv ed from H. Wison Ahlmann (O ctober I 960 ). Kulling

( 1936 , p . 3 ) himself observed wave-worn material at 103 m in the district immediately west of Ahlmann's locality, but noted that the highest lim it of wave action could not be established. Beaches extending high above those leveled are visible in Figure 2, Plate LVII.

~~These determinations in Lady Franklinf jorden and in the outer part of Murchisonfjorden indicate that the marine lim it is over 100 m, perhaps as much as 150 m. 1 9 2~~

~~Neighboring areas» Similar elevations have been reported for other parts of Nordaustlandet and adjacent Vestspitsbergen. De Geer (1923, pp. 3 2-3 3 ) made observations at a number of localities along~~

Hinlopenstretet, The marine lim it usually lay between 80 and 90 m, but was sometimes higher. Near the mouth of Sorgfjorden (Figure 13) he recorded rounded stones at 98 m, and rounded pebbles on the north side of Svartberget and Kapp Fanshawe were at 103 and 97 m, respectively. Dege (i960, p. 18) found marine terraces up to 135 m in Rijpfjorden, both a few kilometers north of his station and in the inner part of the fiord (Figure ?). Sandford (1929, p. 24) recorded beaches up to only 6l rn or a little higher in Wahlenberg- fjorden, but this probably represents a minimum value. Sandford also noted that other members of the 1924 expedition found beaches up to

~~152 m between Torellneset and the west side of Ulvebukta in southern~~

~~N ordaustlandet, and Thompson (1953b, p . 300) found unm istakable beaches up to elevations of 107 to 122 m in the same area.~~

Inner Murchisonfjorden. In the inner part of Murchisonfjorden the highest beaches are much lower. Leveling at Heimbukta showed the top well developed beach on the south side of Fargefjellet (Figure 4) to be a t 51 m. Altimeter traverses at Austvika (Figure 1, Plate XVI),

~~Celsiusvatnet, and in two places east of Weaselbukta gave values of~~

~~60, 56, 52, and 51 m, repeatively, and Ahlmann also recorded $6 m for the elevation of the prominent beach at Celsiusvatnet (see Kulling,~~

~~1936 , p. 3). However, on the north side of Celsiusberget, facing~~

~~Weaselbukta, De Geer (1923, pp. 32-33) noted rounded pebbles at about~~

77 m. The accuracy of this measurement is not known, and the locality 193 was not visited, but it seems doubtful that beaches extend so high in view of the other measurements from the inner part of Murchisonfjorden.

~~K ulling (1936, p . 3 ) reported finding Mya truncata and Hiatella arctica at 65 m northeast of eastern Sf(rvika (Figure k) » but th is collection of shells is missing now, and since both Ahlmann and~~

Kulling have told me (October 1961) that they cannot find any record of this collection in their field notebooks, the existence of these shells at so high an elevation is open to doubt. The highest shells from inner Murchisonfjorden in my collection are from 44 m in

~~Weaselbukta.~~

~~Other evidence also suggests that the marine lim it in the inner part of Murchisonfjorden is between 50 and 60 m.~~

~~1) I4any ice-marginal drainage channels along the sides of~~

Manedalen are cut several meters into bedrock. Although in some cases the small amount of water (from melting snow) that flows in these during the summer months has been sufficient to partly dissect the terraces, in other cases, as shown in Plates XI and XX, the bedrock gorges end at the 50 m beach, yet no dissection of this wide, terrace like beach has occurred. This indicates that the channels were cut during deglaciation, before the wide beach came into being. If sea level had been higher when they were forming they would not have been cut down to the 50 m level, but would have ended at a higher elevation.

2 ) Krystallvatnet, south of Isvika (Figure 4), is situated 194 approximately 62 m above sea level,^ and as noted during the earlier discussion of lakes, it lies above the highest beaches, at least those clearly visible on the air photographs (Plates V and XI). Furthermore,

Mggblom has informed me (November 1958 and October 1961) that he found no marine diatoms in a core of the sediments and underlying till on the bottom of Krystallvatnet, and no mollusk shells were observed around the lake. On the other hand he found shells around Isauget, the smaller of the two lakes below the highest beaches at the same locality (Plates V and XI), and Kulling (1936, p. 3) reported Nya tru n c a ta in beach sand 30 to 40 m above sea le v e l south of Sj!$rvika to the west of Krystallvatnet. The outlet fran Krystallvatnet cuts through a moraine ridge which, at its lowest point beside the stream, is about two meters above lake level, and possibly this ridge was not yet cut through when the highest beaches were forming.

The reddish-gray till and sane greenish banded clay at the base of the Krystallvatnet core, and also a sample of till collected a few centimeters below the surface of Celsiusvatnet at 70 m were examined under the microscope. No Foraminifera were seen in the size fractions between 2.00 and 0.250 mm, suggesting that the marine lim it in the inner part of Mirchisonfjorden is below 60 m.

^A. nSggblom made several determinations of the elevation of this lake, mostly with a Thommen pocket altim eter. The readings have not been corrected for barometric changes or temperature, and hence the elevation of Krystallvatnet must be regarded as very approximate. However, it seems reasonable to assume that the high, clearly marked beach level below Krystallvatnet is at the same level as the prominent beach in Heimbukta and elsewhere in inner Murchisonfjorden, i.e ., between 51 and 60 m, probably nearer the former. 195

~~D iscussion~~

~~The lack of beaches up to 100 m, or higher, in the inner part of~~

Murchisonfjorden is of great importance. It can only be explained by assuming that the inner part of the fiord was still ice-covered when the highest beaches in the outer part of the fiord were forming. By the time the ice had disappeared from the inner fiord enough uplift had already occurred that beaches were not formed above the present

~~60 m level.~~

The fact that beaches at over 100 m elevation extend into the innermost part of Lady Franklinf jorden indicates that it became ice free sooner. This can perhaps be explained by the difference in topography; Lady Franklinfjorden is straight and unencumbered by islands, Murchisonfjorden has a most irregular outline and is studded with islands. Had a residual ice mass not remained in Murchisonfjorden the two fiords would have been connected, and W argentinfjellet would have been an island, for the lowest point on the divide northwest of

~~Rondalsberget is at only 112 m.~~

Before leaving this discussion of the marine lim it, it should be pointed out that care must be taken when attempting to determine the highest beaches on the air photographs from Nordaustlandet, There seems to be a sharp change in the nature of the beaches at a level which varies between 35 and 60 m in elevation. Below this level the beaches are exceedingly well developed, above this level they are in places very difficult to see.

In a case such as that just described from Murchisonfjorden, where similar elevations for the top prominent beach level are obtained 1 9 6 at several localities, and where other evidence indicates the absence of the sea at higher levels, it seems safe to assume that this strand line really does represent the marine lim it. However, in other areas, higher beaches that are less well developed, probably because of more ra p id land u p lif t when th ey were form ing, may e a s ily be m issed. The following examples w ill serve to illustrate the problem.

Figure 1, Plate LI is part of an oblique air photograph taken along the southwest side of Brennevinsfjorden, and the apparent highest strandline is clearly outlined. Figure 2 in this plate is part of another oblique air photograph of the same area taken in the opposite direction. The second photograph shows that there is a whole series of high level beaches in Franklindalen. They probably extend as much above the marked strandline in the previous photograph as the sea is below i t .

~~Likewise Plate XLIX shows the sharp line on Teodolitkollen at~~

~~36 to 37 m, but examination in the field revealed beaches developed in the coarse, angular rock debris near the top of the hill at $2 m.~~

The beach near the marine lim it on Brekollen has already been mentioned, but another particularly prominent beach is at 6? to 69 m elevation. In Figure 1, Plate LII, this beach, in places cut into bedrock and possessing a two meter-high front slope, is seen as it appears from S^re Franklinbreen. It can be followed all the way to the glacier, and Figure 2, Plate LII is a photograph showing its surface near to where it is cut off by the ice. The same beach level on Brekollen is visible in Plate XLIX, and the narrow pools at the upper end of the peculiar terrace accumulation on the south side 197 of Sevrinberget are at a corresponding elevation (65 m),

~~In Murchisonfjorden the prominent cut beach around Drikkevatnet a t 51 m elevation has been described under the chapter on Geo morphology (see Plate XXVI) and the highest prominent beach around~~

~~Kinnberget is at 56 to 57 m, but as noted earlier beaches probably continue all the way to the top of Kinnberget at 124 to 131 m. At~~

Sveanor there is a marked change in the beaches at 37 to 38 m; th e shingle is much better developed below this level than above, as was noted by Ahlmann (see Kulling, 1936, p. 3 ). The transition to the higher, coarser beaches at this locality is shown in Figure 2,

~~Plate LVII.~~

~~Tilted Surfaces~~

A special investigation was made of the lower beaches to see if they were tilted. If differential uplift had occurred the area that had undergone the greatest uplift should be the area where the ice cover was once thickest. Naturally the most important requirement is that the beach being studied is everywhere the same beach, of the same age. The higher beaches in particular are discontinuous, hence no attempt was made to determine their tilt, and even the lower beaches are frequently interrupted by rock outcrops.

~~Cuspate forelands~~

~~A common feature causing difficulty is the cuspate foreland, particularly the type which Johnson (1919, p. 325) referred to as~~

~~"truncated cuspate forelands." Such features have been described in detail from the Isfjorden area of Vestspitsbergen by Feyling-Hanssen 1 9 8~~

(1955a, pp. 15-18; 1955b, pp. 5-6). Longshore drifting in Billefjorden (Figure 2) occurs toward the northeast under the influence of southwesterly winds, resulting in cuspate forelands vdiich have been prograded toward the inner part of the fiord and which are concentrated on the southeast side (Feyling-Hanssen, 1955a, pp. 15-16; also see

~~Balchin, 1941, p. 365). Feyling-Hanssen has described the process as follows:~~

IVhen these processes act during periods of constant sea level, i.e,, periods with no vertical shift in the position of the shoreline, the result will be horizontal beach plains, more or less cuspate in outline. Their surfaces will be occupied by parallel or subparallel, generally curved, beach ridges of appraximately equal crest altitudes, each beach ridge marking a temporary position of the shoreline during the progradation of the shore. When, on the other hand, the same processes are con tinuing during a period of emergence, i.e . during a period of negative shift of the shoreline, the beach plains will no longer be horizontal, but will slope in the direction in which the forelands prograde, the older ridges being more elevated than the younger ones. The gradient of the slope depends on the rate of emergence and the rate of progradation. Every new beach ridge had to form at a lower level than its predecessor.,.. The beach ridges still mark the temporary positions of the shoreline, but now they record its vertical, as well as its horizontal, movements.

In Lady Franklinfjorden cuspate forelands are found only along the southwest side of the fiord, and they are also prograded toward the inner part of the fiord. They must have been built under the influence of westerly or northwesterly winds, and the resulting longshore currents moved material derived from till, bedrock, and outwash toward the southeast. Progradation has been accompanied by erosion on the windward side, so that the resulting features have long and steep slopes facing the fiord. One such truncated cuspate foreland, whose surface slopes markedly toward the inner part of Lady 199

Franklinf jorden, is shown in Plates LIU and LIV, It is obvious that the tilted surface is in reality a series of beach ridges, trending nearly at right angles to the present shoreline. This cuspate foreland fills a recess in the bedrock, and the rock buttress at its west end is probably what has saved it from being conç)letely removed by progress ive truncation (Plate LIV).

As Feyling-Hanssen (1955a, p. 1?) has correctly pointed out in discussing such inclined surfaces, "they have nothing to do with tilted shorelines, but are merely constructional features formed during periods of negative shift of the shoreline." Thus the suggestiong of V/ordie (1921, p. 43) and Balchin (1941, pp. 366-376) that such surfaces represent tilted beach levels is incorrect. Wordie explained the inward tilt by suggesting that the glaciers had early disappeared from the coastal mountains but still covered the interior, thus depressing the latter area, whereas Balchin suggested independent recovery by local block faulting. I believe Feyling-Hanssen's (1955a, pp. 15-18) interpretation is the correct one, and the situation in

~~Nordaustlandet fits his description of Billefjorden perfectly.^~~

~~A truncated cuspate foreland tilting eastward was also observed at the entrance to Austvika (Figure 1, Plate XVI), but perhaps most interesting was the one situated between Brekollen and S^re~~

~~Franklinbreen, This can be seen in Plate VIII, and Figure 2, Plate LII~~

For further discussion on this subject the reader is referred to Feyling-Hanssen (1950, pp. 88-91), Balchin (1950, p. 92), Dineley (1953, p . 506; 1954 , pp. 13-14), and Groom and Sweeting (1958, pp.12-16), 2 0 0 is a close-up view of its southeastward sloping surface. The presence of this feature provides additional evidence that the high beaches are marine, for such a feature could not fom in a snail ice-marginal lake.

~~The beaches extend about six kilometers southeastward of the present front of S^re Franklinbreen, and the glacier must have been even farther back when the cuspate foreland was forming.~~

~~If the surfaces of truncated cuspate forelands were interpreted as tilted beaches, a most misleading picture would result in~~

Nordaustlandet, as in Vestspitsbergen. Considering that the ice cap was probably thicker over the central part of Nordaustlandet than at the northern and northwestern edges, greater rebound would be expected inland. Therefore the normal situation would be beaches tiltin g outward, not inward.

~~D ifferentially warped strandlines~~

~~Earlier in this chapter the raised beaches have been described as consisting, in general, of series of parallel ridges and swales.~~

Hovrever, at certain levels the strandlines are more prominent; they thep have the form of wider and flatter beaches. These often have a wave-cut cliff at their inner edge, and the beach shingle itself lies on a wave-cut bench. Often constructional features are associated with these same levels.

~~The b e st developed s tra n d lin e i s th a t shown in P la te LV. At~~

Sevrinberget the wave-cut cliff at the inner edge of this beach is several meters high. At K^p Lady, in a more typical occurrence since steep slopes such as Sevrinberget are not common near the shore, there are nevertheless a number of rock outcrops or a steeper 2 0 1 slope 1-2 m high at the back edge of this beach. Small horizontal snowdrifts such as that shown in Figure 2, Plate LV, are another characteristic feature at this level,

~~Sevrinberget and Kapp Lady are nearly 20 kra apart, yet this beach can be traced the entire distance, as Figure 1, Plate XLIII demonstrates. I have walked along the beach from Tunnelbreen to~~

Skiferpynten, from Tollenbukta to Skaraodden, and several kilometers on both sides of Kapp Lady (Figure 4). The beach is at 6,6 m at the outermost part of Kapp Lady facing Lady Franklinfjorden, but is at

9.4 m at Tunnelbreen,^ Thus it is clear that the beach tilts, but in the opposite direction to the surfaces of the truncated cuspate forelands along the scime shore. Figure 1, Plate LIU shows not only the truncated cuspate foreland, but the strandline lying at the base of the lowermost horizontal snowdrifts is the prominent beach under discussion, here about eight meters above sea level. Its tilt is so slight as to be undetectable on the photograph,

Strandlines such as this, cut into bedrock by wave action, have taken longer to form than small beach ridges of shingle. The former, characterized by wave-cut benches and cliffs as well as by larger and more numerous shingle bars and lagoons, must have been formed when sea level was at approximately the same position in relation to the land for a considerable period of time. Since the land was rising

^These elevations differ slightly from those given in a preliminary publication (Blake, 1961b, p, 136) because at the time the earlier article was written final corrections for tidal changes had not been made. 2 0 2 isostatically as a result of the removal of the ice load, sea level must have been rising too. Thus the more prominent strandlines were formed during eustatic rises of sea level, On stable coasts an eustatic rise results in a transgression of the sea; in regions that have been isostatically depressed, such as Nordaustlandet, as eustatic rise of sea level, provided it occurs at a similar rate to the rate at which the land is rising, results in a balance between the relative positions of land and sea. If the eustatic rise is slower than the isostatic rise, land still emerges from the sea, whereas if the eustatic rise is faster than the isostatic rise, a transgression of the sea occurs. For a recent exhaustive study of these problems the reader is referred to Fairbridge (I 96 I).

The beach described above from Lady Franklinf.jorden is one example of a strandline formed during a time of approximate eustatic- isostatic balance. Similar beaches occur at both higher and lower elevations. Possibly rebound of the land has taken place unevenly, but until precise data are available in the form of geodetic levelings and marigraph observations over a long period of time it can only be assumed that uplift has been more or less steady.

~~Pumice~~

~~Introduction~~

~~Not only is the beach which rises from 6.6 m at Kapp Lady to~~

9.4 m at Tunnelbreen better developed than the adjacent beaches, but it is characterized by the presence of driftwood and abundant dark brown pumice. Driftwood and pumice also occur at lower levels, but only 203 isolated pieces of either of these drift products occur higher up. In fact, not a single piece of pumice or driftwood was observed above this beach along the southwest side of Lady Franklinfjorden.

Because of its limited vertical distribution the pumice provides a good means for correlating widely separated beaches, for in other places, such as Murchisonfjorden, the beaches are not continuous over long stretches. Of course the pumice is light in weight because of its great porosity and therefore it can be thrown above the ievel of the sea by storms. However, although the position of sea level relative to the land when the pumice arrived is unknown, the fact remains that pumice was not cast above the wave-cut cliff at the inner edge of the above-mentioned beach. For this reason I feel that pumice can be used to determine former shorelines, even though this practice has been questioned by Jahn (1959b, p. 173).

~~Occurrence~~

~~To my knowledge the first mention of pumice on raised beaches in~~

~~Nordaustlandet is in the report of Parry's expedition that attempted to reach the North Pole in 102?. Parry visited the western part of~~

Lag^ya, and he writes (1828, pp. 52-53), "the low beach on which we landed was principally composed of rounded fragments of limestone, interaiixed with some of clay-slate; and several small pieces of pumice-stone were also found." He later visited Marmorpynten (Figure 4), and his description (Parry, 1828, p. 126) of the shore there is most interesting;

~~On this and all the land hereabouts, where lagoons occur, enormous quantities of drift-wood line the inner beach, which is now quite inaccessible to the sea, and this wood 204~~

is always more decayed than that which lies on the outer or sea-beach; by which it appears that the latter has been thrown up, to the exclusion of the sea, long since the inner wood was landed. A great many snail rounded pieces of pumice-stone are also found on this part of the coast, and these generally occur rather above the inner line of drift wood, as if they had reached the highest limit to which the sea had ever extended.

Of course this last statement is erroneous, for the beaches extend high above the highest pumice, but in all fairness to Parry it must be remembered that studies of glacial geology had not advanced very far in 1827. Furthermore, the areas he visited are all characterized by very low land, so that the higher beaches are not seen so easily. In general, however. Parry's description of the occurrence of driftwood and pumice is amazingly accurate and is equally true today. In addition to these two localities the expedition reported scoriaceous lava, which might be interpreted to mean slag since otherwise the word pumice is vised, on Waldenj^ya north of Nordaustlandet (Horner, I860, p . 443).

~~The 1861 Swedish expedition was the next, to make geological observations in Nordaustlandet. Nordenskiold (1863, pp. 10, 12, and~~

~~14) reported pumice from St or ste inhalv^ya, from the low parts of~~

~~Parryf^ya, Phipps^ya, and Martensj^ya, the three largest islands in the~~

~~Sjuj^yane group (Figure 2), and on the west side of Irmingerneset~~

(Figure 3) on the north coast of Nordaustlandet. Chydenius (1865, pp. 203, 239 , 259 , and 285), in his narrative of the same expedition, reported that at both Langgrunnodden and Phipps^ya pumice was found among the driftwood, and pumice was found at the shore at Kvalross- 205 halvj^ya in îtochisonf jorden. Pumice was also discovered with driftwood in the inner part of Lomfjorden (Figure 30),

After the Swedish Polar Expedition 1872-73» Nordenskiold (1874» pp, 39-40) noted that Spitsbergen's coasts, particularly the north coast, were characterized by many kinds of drift products, such as bits of shipwrecks, floats of wood, cork, and glass used for holding up fish nets (typical of the kind used in Norway), floats of birchbark wound with yam fran the north coast of European Russia, pumice, and fruit from the West Indies. Without stating which items were found in which areas, Nordenskiold also noted that such drift pi’oducts are most common at LSg^ya, Langgrunnodden, the islands in the southern part of

~~Hinlopenstretet, the coast between Sorgfjorden and Wijdefjorden,~~

Moffen, and S^rkapp, He reported tliat the pumice was usually black but sometimes brick-brown in color, had round vesicles, and seldom was as large as a clenched fist. It was especially abundant at certain places, such as at Langgrunnodden,

~~Use in studying tilting~~

Although pumice had long been known from Spitsbergen it was not until 1955 that any kind of a systematic study was carried out. During that summer Donner and West, members of an Oxford University Expedition, investigated pumice at several sites on both sides of Hinlopenstretet,

They were the first to establish that there were two definite levels at which pumice was more abundant, and they also demonstrated that these pumice levels could be used for showing differential uplift

~~(Donner and West, 1957» pp. 16-23),~~

~~Much of Donner and West's work was carried out at Brageneset, at 2 0 6~~

~~the mouth of Wahlenbergfjorden (Figure 3). There they leveled tte~~

~~pumice at 11 sites and found that it was especially abundant at two~~

~~levels, averaging 6.4 and 13.8 m in elevation. They also succeeded~~

~~in finding the upper pumice at four other sites to the northwest, and~~

~~the lower pumice was found at three of these sites. The pieces of~~

~~pumice were up to 10 cm in diameter and were dark brown in color. A~~

~~few pieces were found below the lower pumice level and between the two~~

~~levels, but only one piece was found above the upper pumice level. As~~

~~these authors have pointed out, the isolated pieces have little~~

~~significance, for bhey can have been thrown higher by a single extra~~

~~large wave during a storm, or washed downward after their deposition.~~

~~However, it seems correct to assume, as Donner aiid West did, that the~~

~~arrival of pumice at a given level can be considered a synchronous~~

~~event. Even if the time of arrival varies from place to place by a~~

~~few months or years, this is still insignificant in terms of the age~~

~~of the pumice.~~

~~Donner and West's leveling localities are indicated in Figure 30,~~

~~On the basis of the leveling they constructed a shoreline diagram~~

~~showing that the elevation of the upper pumice level descended from~~

~~13,8 m at Brageneset to 3,0 m at Mosselbukta; the elevation of the~~

~~lower pumice level descended from 6.4 to 1.5 m in the same distance.~~

~~Thus the upper pumice level is more steeply tilted toward the north~~

~~west, but Donner and West's material was not sufficient to allow~~

~~isobases to be drawn.~~

~~l]y investigation of the pumice levels was based on Donner and~~

~~West's work, and the results are presented in Figures 30 and 31, 207~~

Particular attention was paid to the upper pumice level, as that is best developed. However, this level henceforth will be referred to as the uppermost pumice, since at several localities three distinct levels of pumice were found. The elevation of the uppermost pumice was determined at 18 localities. With two exceptions all pumice sites were leveled with a Wild N-10 leveling instrument, and the elevations refer to mean sea level,^ The leveled sites without a number in Figure 30 are those where the uppermost pumice was not found, usually because the locality itself was too low. The elevation of the lower pumice levels for each site can be obtained from Figure 31. At certain localities leveling was nob carried out because only a single piece of pumice was observed or because another leveling had been carried out nearby, I am indebted to

~~E, Tollen for reporting and collecting the pumice from several sites in I-îurchisonf jorden and to E, Palosuo for collecting an isolated pumice bit from Weaselbukta,~~

In many places the uppermost pumice lay near the back edge of the prominent beach discussed, earlier, at the base of the 1 to 2m high cliff or steep slope, but in other places it was more toward the front

^Tidal observations at the Swedish-Finnish-Swiss IGY Expedition base in Kinnvika (July 6 to August 28, 1959, with a few breaks in the record), and earlier observations by (l) the Swedish-Morwegian Arctic Expedition (marigraph in operation from June 29 to early August, 1931) and (2) by the Oxford University Arctic Expedition, 1935-36 in Brennevinsf jorden (14 days marigraph record in March and April, 1936) (Fjeldstad, 1939, p, 372; Hornbaek, 1954, pp. 16-17), indicate a mean range of approximately 0,6 m. See also Carlheim-GyllenskSld (1900a, p. 508) for some observations of a few days duration near S^re Russ^ya and Celsiusodden in 1898, No Balanus or Fucus line is present on the beaches to serve as a guide in leveling, so the times of leveling were noted and the elevations were later corrected by reference to the marigraph records from Kinnvika, 208

~~Lag«ya GoUionspyntefl O ,otos«*.~~

~~wibQitta ^~~

~~Tunn«lbreen~~

~~»o"oo-~~

~~K volros»holv0yo~~

~~Nordaustlandet \ A Forsiucberget~~

~~12^Dolom itt*yon€~~

~~B rogcncset~~

~~Kopp Fonshawe Legend~~

~~Pw nk« sites - leveled~~

~~• Bleke (1t57)~~

~~o Oenner and West (1955)~~

~~~ • De Geer (1999 or 1901)- altim eter?~~

~~7 9 * 3 0 k ^ Elewtien in meters above mean n o level of upperm ost pienice~~

~~(gj) Pienice sites where leveling was eorried out by hand level only~~

~~FNenice sites - net leveled~~

~~Vdrlows observers~~

_ _ _ Isebeses of uplift for the i^xpermost pwnlce level 0 12 3 * 5 miles ^ Triangulation stotion, Swedish-Russion 10 k m ore of m eridian expedition (1999-1902) I I Figure 30. Location of pumice around Hinlopenstretet and isobases of uplift. Base map by De Geer (1923). 13 15 12! une 17 la 1921 221 2 4 2 3

~~ABUNDANT PUMICE LITTLE PUMICE ELEVATION BT HAND-LEVELING WAVE-CUT BENCH TOP OF SHINGLE BAR 540 RADIOCARBON DATE BTBO TAPES BEACH~~

~~3 0 KILOMETERS~~

Figure 31, Shoreline diagram for northwestern Nordaustlandet, Points are projected onto a line drawn at right angles to the isobases of uplift (Figure 30), and distances ai-e measured from the northwesternmost point, Mosselbukta, toward the southeast. Numbers indicate localities as follows;

1, Mosselbukta 8, Franklindalen 15. B illin g en 22, Sevrinberget 2. Gallionspynten 9. Kapp Lady 16, Nordre Russ/ya 23. Sveanor 3, Diabasvika 10. Vestre Tvillingneset 17, Tollénbukta 24. Kvalros shalvffya 4. Langgrunnodd en 11. Persodden 18. Oskar^ya 25, Tunnelbreen 5. Raudbukta 12. Skaraodden 19, Skiferpynten 26, Forsiusberget 6 . Sorgfjorden 13. Kinnvika 20. Indre Russ^ya 27, Dolomitt/yane 7. Marmorpynten 14. Langpynten 21, Sfire Russ^ya 28, Brageneset vO 2 1 0

~~of th is beach and hence was slig h tly lower. Sometimes both the pumice~~

~~and the back edge of the beach were leveled, as indicated in Figure 31~~

~~(see also Figure 1, Plate LV). In a few lo c a litie s prominent beaches~~

~~(with wave-cut c lif f s ) at lower le v e ls where pumice should have been~~

~~present were also leveled. Finally, the height of the shingle bar at~~

~~the shore was measured in many cases, and with one exception i t s top was 1 to 2 m above sea le v e l.~~

~~Figure 30 shows the isobases that can now be drawn for the~~

~~elevation of the uppermost pumice le v e l around northern H inlopenstretet, based on my observations and those of Donner and West, plus one by De~~

~~Geer, Figure 31 is the resu lt of projecting a l l the pumice elevations~~

onto a line oriented N 4 5 drawn at right angles to the isobases. In th is diagram the beach with the uppermost pumice has been indicated by a one-meter wide zone, since the beaches are rarely absolutely flat and the pumice is often scattered over a zone at least one meter in height.

~~The abundance of pumice varies from iso la ted pieces to several hundred~~

~~in a few meters distance, and most pieces are less than 10 cm in diameter (Plate LVI).~~

~~On the Westmanbukta side o f Kapp Lady the prominent beach with its wave-cut cliff (Figure 2, Plate LV) is higher than on the Lady~~

~~Franklinfjorden side (see Figure 31). This is probably because the~~

Westmanbukta side i s more exposed to the wind and th e open sea, hence more material may have been deposited on the wave-cut bench here. In this connection it should be noted that here the modern shingle bar is

2.3 m high, the highest observed, also suggesting the greater effectiveness of waves and sea ice in heaping up material on this shore 2 1 1 with a western exposure. The only other locality vfliere the abundant pumice did not fall within this zone is on the east side of Kinnvika,

There, a well developed line of pumice was seen at 9.6 m. However, this line only extended over a few meters distance, and it was a single line of smaller pieces (2 to 3 cm in diameter). No wave-cut bench or cliff was present, Probably this highest line is merely the result of a single extra large wave, because the pumice at 7,9 m is much more abundant and the pieces are larger.

~~In reference to the locality near Forsiusberget, De Geer (1923, p, 34) says:~~

Au mont Forsius, on a observe dans les cordons littoraux surélevés â 12 m au-dessus du niveau de la mer, de vieux troncs de bois f lo t t é , ce qui démontre la rareté des bactéries putréfactives dans ces regions. L'auteur a recueilli a ce niveau des fragments d'une scorie volcanique, que l'on rencontre en plusieurs endroits, et spécialement le long des côtes nord du Spitzberg, sous forme de blocs erratiques. On en a observé de de grandes quantités dans le même région â une hauteur d'environ 5 m au-dessus du niveau de la mer, ainsi qu'à la baie Murchison et â la baie Lomme, et, dans ce dernier endroit, spécialement sur la cote dite du bois flotté, dans la partie sud-est du fjord, The exact locations of De Geer's observations are unknown, and the elevations, presumably determined by altimeter, are probably approximate, Therefore the inclusion of the sample from Forsiusberget might be questioned, but it was thought worthwhile because it is the only observation available along about 20 km of coast, and the publication in which it is mentioned is rather obscure. The pumice has been placed near Forsiusberget in a well developed area of raised beaches, as indicated on the air photographs. There i s no question concerning the uppermost pumice le v e l and 2 1 2 the tilted beach on which it lies in Lady Franklinfjorden, because th is beach can be physically followed without the aid of pumice for the entire distance between Tunnelbreen and Kapp Lady, Nor does there seem any reason to doubt it s t i l t in Murchisonfjorden between

Kvalrosshalv^ya (9.8 m) and Vestre Tvillingneset (7.7 m). However, at Skiferpynten, for example, there is a well developed beach with wave-cut cliff at 6,2 m. Thus it seems probable that the prominent beach levels at Kapp Lady (6-7 m), Franklindalen (6-7 m), Langgrunnodden

(5-6 ra), and Lag^ya (4.5-5.5 m) were formed over a longer period of time than the same strandline in the inner parts of the fiords, and perhaps the pumice that is now at one level at these peripheral localities arrived on more than one occasion.

~~The lower pumice level as described by Donner and West (1957, p. 20) occurred at the following elevations (Figure 31): Brageneset,~~

~~6.4 m; S^re Russ^ya, 4*4 m; Sorgf jorden, 3.2 m; and Mosselbukta, 1.5 m.~~

De Geer's (1923, p. 34) observation of pumice at about five meters in both Murchisonfjorden and Lomf jorden is a little vagug, but it is probably the same pumice le v e l. However, for the reasons given below

~~I am not convinced that this line has the tilt suggested by Donner and West.~~

Throughout the fie ld area there i s pumice between about 2.5 and 4.5 m, especially between 3 and 4 m, and in places prominent beaches are at the same level. Pumice is also common at 1 to 2 m elevation, where it is frequently associated with driftwood accumulations, often behind lagoons and occasionally slightly lower than the shingle bar.

The pumice at the lower levels may have arrived after differential 213 uplift had ceased; i.e ., the pumice at 3.0 in Mosselbukta may belong, in part at least, to a later drift, and the pumice at 1.5 m probably corresponds to the pumice elsewhere at 1-2 m. Thus the exact nature of the t ilt e d beach on which the uppermost pumice is found is uncertain to the west, and it has been indicated by a dashed line in Figure 31»

Possibly the uppermost pumice le v e l as a d istin c t en tity does not go below about five meters; it certainly would be natural for several strandlines to merge in the outermost parts of the fiords where less uplift has occurred.

Birkenmajer and Kulling have discussed briefly the tilting of the beaches in northwestern Nordaustlandet. Birkenmajer (l95Sd, p. 546) suggested that the pumice which Parry's expedition found on Lag^ya and

Marmorpynten and which Nordenskiüld reported from Langgrunnodden belonged to the upper pumice le v e l. This may be true regarding LSg^ya and Marmorpynten because of Parry's statement that the pumice was usually above the highest driftwood. However, Nordenskiüld's pumice was collected 0-2 m (0-6 feet) above high tide level, according to

BËckstrWm (1890, p. 30). My measurements at Langgrunnodden indicate that there is one pumice level at 1 to 2 m, but it is the lowermost, not the uppermost, of three well-developed levels. The uppermost pumice le v e l i s at 5 to 6 m, and the middle pumice lev el i s at 3.5 m

(Figure 31 ). Pumice is much more abundant at the uppermost le v e l than at the lower levels, but it is also much farther from the sea, and thus Nordenskiëü's party,who arrived by boat, would not have seen i t so easily. Kulling (1958, p. 12) suggested that Nordenskiold's pumice might include part of both the upper and lower pumice levels of Donner 214 and West, but in view of the foregoing discussion it is quite clear that the pumice at 0-2 m at Langgrunnodden belongs to a third, s till lower, level. This lowermost level occurs on many beaches between 1 and 2 m, but i t was not distinguished by Donner and West at Brageneset.

Kulling (1958, pp. 11-12) has further mentioned a single cobble of dark brown pumice that he collected at the western end of Franklindalen in 1931 (Figure 30). He found numerous pieces of pumice at five meters elevation, and he suggests that this pumice level corresponds to the upper pumice le v e l of Donner and West. However, Kulling has informed me (November 1958) that his elevation determination was made with a

Paulin altimeter, and an altimeter is by no means accurate enough for leveling so close to sea level. My precise leveling in the same area showed that pumice was most abundant at 6.5 to 7.0 m, but some was at 4.4 m. It is not known to which group Kulling's sample belongs, because its refractive index of 1.523 ± 1 does not refer it to a sp ecific group of pumice (see discussion below). In any event the uppermost pumice le v e l is not at fiv e meters in Franklindalen.

~~South of Brageneset few observations are available. Donner and~~

West (1957, pp. 20-21) found no pumice on Foott^ya in Lomfjorden, but pumice has been reported from the inner parts of the fiord, as noted ea rlier (see Figure 30). A single piece of pumice has been reported at 3 .2 m near Svartberget (Donner and West, 1957, p. 21), and although no pumice finds have been described from the south coast of Nordaust landet (e.g., see Thompson, 1953b, pp. 298-300), Thompson wrote me

(April 1959) that he thought he remembered seeing some. Budel has informed me (February I 96I) that a few pieces of pumice were noticed 215 on Barents/iJya, but no leveling was carried out. It would be most interesting and valuable to make a further search for pumice and to level all known localities, in the northern part of Nordaustlandet as well as in the south.

~~However, although more observations are needed, it is already appaient that the isobases of uplift for the upper pumice level do not form a series of concentric circles centered in mid-Nordaustlandet.~~

Rather, they indicate tilt toward the northwest in Hinlopenstretet and adjoining areas, as Donner and West (1957, pp. 21-22) stated earlier on the basis of their observations. The tilt of the beaches indicates that the ice was thicker to the southeast, and thus it furnishes additional evidence for the existence of an ice center to the south or southeast of Nordaustlandet.

~~Chemical composition~~

~~In 1890 Bclckstrom made a study of pumice and slag from North~~

~~European coasts, and he included the material collected in Spitsbergen up to that time. He was able to distinguish four main types of material:~~

~~1) Gehlenite-spinel slag 2) Light liparitic pumice 3) Acidic, glassy andesitic pumice 4) Basic, olivine-bearing augite-andésite pumice~~

He classified Nordenskiold's pumice from Langgrunnodden as the glassy andesitic type, and the same variety was described from southwest Sweden, a number of localities along the Norwegian coast from Bergen to Varangerfjorden but chiefly in north Norway, Poluostrov

~~Rybachi (Fiskerhalv^ya) and Novaya Zemlya in the U.S.S.R., and near~~

~~Godthaab, Greenland (BackstrOm, 1890, pp. 16-31). BMckstrOm 216~~

~~distinguished two varieties of andesitic pumice: brown and brownish-~~

~~black, and black, both of which were represented among the material from~~

~~Langgrunnodden. Chemical analyses of the black and brown varieties showed~~

~~that they contained 64.39 and 63.39 percent SiOg, respectively. By way~~

~~of comparison a sample of the black variety from Vadsjrf on Varangerfjorden~~

~~in north Norway contained 65.26 percent Si02, and a sample of brownish-~~

~~black pumice from nearby Poluostrov Rybachi had 64.42 percent.~~

~~The basic, olivine-bearing augite andésite pumice, however, was~~

~~reported as being rare; only two specimens were represented in the~~

~~m aterial studied by sMckstrüm. One came from Asvar,Nordland, Norway,~~

~~the other from Tempelfjorden in the innermost part of Isfjorden,~~

~~Spitsbergen (Figure 2). The sample from Asvar was red-brown in color;~~

~~the sample from Tempelfjorden was dark, nearly black; it had large~~

~~vesicles with thicker walls, and contained only 53.59 percent Si02.~~

~~Nathorst (1884, p. 38), the collector of the pumice in Tempelfjorden,~~

~~found some pieces of it together with masses of driftwood on the low~~

~~beaches on the south side of the fiord. He noted that some of the~~

~~driftwood was situated considerably above the present sea level, but~~

~~does not state exactly how high. Another example of this rarer type~~

~~of pumice, this time brown in color but again occurring with driftwood,~~

~~has been reported from the west side of Poluostrov Kanin (Backstrom,~~

~~1904, pp. 20-21; Ramsay and Poppius, 1903-04, p. 15; Ramsay, 1903-04,~~

~~p. 8; see Figure l) .~~

~~Recently Noe-Nygaard (1951, pp. 35-46; see also papers by the~~

~~same author in 1944, pp. 486-48?, and 1948, p. 406) has discussed the whole problem again utilizing the new analyses and data that have 217~~

~~Table 6, Chemical Analyses of Pumice~~

~~0. 1 cû •3 •H > 5 Langgrunnodden, -L ÎH 0^ rH 0 Æ "S eu Æ Q> * Nordaustlandet, B0 cd0 ^ to co • rHrO'HCO k (0 (g Spitsbergen Jm 2 0 • -gw g iHII~~

~~SiOg 63.16 62.33 63.53 64.39 63.39 65.26 64.42~~

~~TiO^ 0.87 0.97 1.05 0.54 AlgOj 13.84 14.25 13.72 13.96~~

~~1.10 0.95 1.36 6.94^ FeO 5.04 5.16 5.03~~

~~MnO 0.15 0.17 0.18~~

~~MgO 1.06 1.06 1.22 1.34~~

~~CaO 4.03 4.04 3.90 3.58 3.50~~

~~NajO 5.58 5.61 5.39 5.16 4.54~~

~~KgO 2.40 2.40 2.35 2.88 2.75~~

~~P2O5 0.39 0.33 0.37~~

~~HgO+ 1.17 1.28 0.79 HgO- 0.61 0.91 0.27 Org. S u b st. 0.17 0.15 0.43~~

~~Sum, 99.57 99.61 99.59 98.79~~

~~Stated as Fe-0, i 4 2 1 8~~

~~become available since Backstrom published his paper. Table 6, taken~~

~~from Noe-Nygaard (1951, p. 38) and Backstrom (1890, pp. 29, 31-32) shows~~

~~the sim ilarities in chemical composition between pumice samples from~~

~~several localities. Since the different pumice samples are so similar~~

~~Noe-Nygaard concluded that "the pumice examined must belong to the~~

~~same volcanic focus, and, to all appearances, even to the same eruption,"~~

~~as Backstrom had suggested earlier.~~

~~Sources~~

~~In an appendix to Parry's narrative Jameson (1823, pp. 227-229) mentions the vesicular nature of the pumice and suggests that it may~~

~~have floated to Marmorpynten from either Iceland or Jan Mayen.~~

~~NordenskiBld (1874, p. 40) also noted that the pumice probably came from Iceland or Jan Mayen, and that similar pumice occurred along the~~

~~coast of Norway, he himself having seen it in abundance at Kammerfest.~~

~~Backstrom (1390, pp. 32-36, 42-43) discussed possible sources for~~

~~each of the three kinds of pumice he described. Jan Mayen, Iceland, the Azores, the Canary Islands, the Cape Verde Islands, and the~~

~~Antilles were considered as possible places of origin for the andesitic~~

~~pumice, assuming that it was brought to Norway end Spitsbergen by the~~

~~Gulf Stream. Backstrom suggested, on the basis of analyses and knowledge at that time of the general character of the rocks in Jan~~

~~Mayen, Iceland, and the Azores, that the pumice could not have~~

~~originated in any of those islands, and he was the first to suggest the possibility that this pumice might have come from the Bering~~

~~Strait region. Likewise, because the chemical composition of the~~

~~olivine-bearing augite-andesite pumice did not fit those known from 219 the islands in the North Atlantic, Backstrom suggested an origin in some~~

~~\anknovm Arctic Ocean or North Pacific volcano.~~

Noe-Nygaard (1951, pp. 39-41), on the basis of more recent analyses, showed that the Canary Islands, the Cape Verde Islands, the Azores, and the Antilles could all be ruled out because the chemical compositions of volcanic rocks there do not fit the andestic pumice samples. In addition he ruled out Jan Mayen because the new finds in Denmark lie so far to the south. It is quite true that pumice thrown into the sea near Jan Mayen would not be apt to land in Denmark; Âkerblom's (1903,

Plate 4) and Bamberg's (1906, Plate 4) naps show how most of the bottles put out by Nathorst's expeditions in 1598 and 1599 in the area south and west of Spitsbergen and between Jan Mayen and Greenland arrived in northern Norway. However, of the several hundred bottles, one thrown into the sea west of Spitsbergen presumably went south with the East Greenland Current, made its way between the Orkney and

~~Shetland Islands, and finally arrived at Amrum, an island off the west coast of Schleswig. Another bottle reached the Norwegian coast near Stavanger, If pumice from Jan Mayen was picked up by the~~

~~East Greenland Current there is no reason why a few pieces of it, too, could not arrive in Schleswig or along the Danish coast farther north.~~

Thus Jan Mayen cannot be ruled out simply by its location, and pumice is Known to be associated with some of the lava flows there. However, according to Dollar (i960) all the postglacial volcanic activity has produced rocks of trachybasaltic composition (see also Tyrrell, 1926, pp. 747-765); i.e., rocks with considerably less silica.

~~The Bering Sea region was also considered as a source, since much 220~~

~~Siberian driftwood is found in Spitsbergen, and the drifts of the Fram,~~

Sedov, etc., have shown that that material such as pumice could eventually reach Spitsbergen, Dr. J. C. Giddings was kind enough to provide me with a sample of dark brown pumice used for polishing and rubbing by the Eskimos in Alaska. The pumice was from one of the oldest known sites in Alaska, the Choris site on Kotzebue Sound.

Radiocarbon datings on wood, charcoal, and antler from this site gave ages between 2244 ± 133 and 2646 ± 117 years B .P ., but because of the danger of contamination these dates represent minimum ages (see

Giddings, 1957, pp. 132-133; Rainey and Ralph, 1959, p. 370; also personal communication from J. G. Giddings; November I960). Thus this pumice must be more than 2600 years old. However, A. Noe-Nygaard has found that its index of refraction is 1.554 i 0 (January I96I), showing that it is not the same pumice as that found in Spitsbergen.

~~The volcanic region west of Wijdefjorden, where hot springs occur today and where eruptions have occurred in postglacial time (Hoel,~~

1914a, p. 23), might seem to be a possible source. However, many of the rocks are trachydolerites, and none had over 50,19 percent SiOg on analysis (Hoel and Holtedahl, 1911, pp. 8, 14, and 22; Goldschmidt,

~~1911, p. 16).~~

Finally, despite the report of submarine volcanic eruptions on the Lomonosov Range in the Arctic Basin and the discovery of volcanic glass in sediments deposited during the last 5000 years (Hakkel, 1958, pp. 1-5), it is questionable whether pumice could be produced under

~~I'JOO m of water. Hence I do not agree with Kulling's (1958, p. Ill) 221~~

~~and. Birkenmajer's (I958d, p. 546) hypothesis regarding the source of the~~

~~pumice in the Arctic Basin.~~

~~Iceland remains the best possibility, and on the basis of a~~

~~number of chemical analyses of pumice and pumiceous ash frem near~~

~~Hekla, which is chemically rather unusual in Iceland, Noe-Nygaard~~

~~(1951, p. 41) concludes, "I consider it to be beyond all doubt that~~

~~our andésite came from a prehistoric volcanic eruption of Hekla or its~~

~~immediate neighborhood in Iceland."~~

~~Four analyses of pumice and ash from the 1947 eruption showed an~~

~~Si02 content varying between 63.13 and 57.71 percent (Einarsson, 1950,~~

~~pp. 33-34; Noe-Nygaard, 1951, p. 41). Thorarinsson (1954, pp. 34-44)~~

~~has published a number of chemical analyses from the 1947 eruption as~~

~~well as frcan various earlier eruptions of Hekla dating back to his~~

~~tephra layer H^, which is about 4000 years old (see Tauber, 1960a,~~

~~pp. 9-10). Although the SiOg content varies between 71.27 and 52.74,~~

~~the darker pumice (grayish-black, brownish-black, and black) usually~~

~~has under 60 percent SiOg; e.g., dark pumice samples from the 1766~~

~~and 1693 eruptions contained 55.97 and 55.23 percent, respectively.~~

~~However, two samples of pumice older than the H^ layer, one of brownish-gray pumice (overlain by black pumice from the same~~

~~eruption) and one of grayish-brown pumice (also overlain by black~~

~~pumice), contained 60.50 and 62.20 percent SiOg, respectively. These~~

~~values are quite similar to those listed in Table 6.~~

~~Refractive indexes~~

~~Through the kindness of Professor Noe-Nygaard a large number of~~

~~refractive index determinations on my material have been carried out 222 in Copenhagen by J, Hansen. The results are suimiarized. in Table 7.~~

~~Table 7. Average Refractive Indexes for Pumice from Nordaustlandet~~

~~Color Elevation of pumice~~

~~Low Middle High~~

~~(1,1-1,7 m) (2,5-4,4 m) (4.7-9.8 m)~~

~~Brown and dark brown 1,523 (10)1 1.523 (12) 1.523 ( 25)~~

~~Black^ 1.522 (3) - 1.525 (2)~~

~~Gray - 1,524 ± 3 (1) 1.523 ± 3 (1)~~

~~Reddish-brown - - 1,524 ± 3 (1)~~

~~Numbers in parentheses indicate number of samples examined from each level, 2 All black pumice samples showed much palagonitization.~~

The dark brown pumice, which is by f a r th e most conmon, has th e same average index of refraction regardless of its elevation. The refractive index of the dark brown pumice varies slightly more at the uppermost level, 1,518 ± 1 to 1,52? ± 1, as opposed to ranges of

1,521 ± 1 to 1,527 ± 1 and 1,520 ± 2 to 1,525 ± 1 at the middle and lowermost levels, respectively. The average refractive indexes are strikingly similar to some determinations made earlier by Noe-Nygaard

(1951, p. 37); i.e ., three samples of brown pumice from Denmark, one each from Blompy and Boml^ in Norway, and one each from Julianehaab and Holsteinsborg in Greenland all had refractive indexes of 1,524 ± 1 or 1 .525 ± 1. 223

Marthinussen (I960, pp. 427-428) has recently reported on a number of refractive index determinations on brown, dark brown, and black pumice collected in Nordland and Finnnark, northern Norway. All three colors of pumice are abundant on the four Tapes beaches, and pumice also occurs on the lower beaches, but it is rarely above the oldest

~~Tapes line. Tapes I. Marthinussen's results are summarized in Table 8.~~

~~Table 8. Average Refractive Indexes for Pumice from Norway^~~

~~Younger beaches ------Tapes beaches~~

~~II (also I and N-3 N-4 IV perhaps I I I ) I~~

~~Brown 1.524(1)2 1 . 524( 2) 1 . 524(3 ) 1.528(1) 1 . 521( 5)~~

~~Dark brown - 1 . 525( 2) 1.527(1) 1.522(1) 1 . 523( 2)~~

~~Black 1.530(1) 1.528(1) 1.540(1) 1.525(1) 1 . 524( 1)~~

~~leased on Marthinussen (I960, p. 42?),~~

~~%umbers in parentheses indicate number of samples examined from each level.~~

The refractive indexes of Marthinussen's material are essentially the same as those of Spitsbergen pumice. With the exception of one piece of black pumice with a refractive index of 1.540, his samples varied between 1.517 and 1.530. Furthemore, nine additional samples collected from different places by Plarthinussen have been checked in

~~Copenhagen, and according to A. Noe-Nygaard (August I96O) a ll have an index of refraction between 1.522 ± 2 and 1.526 ± 1. 224~~

As Table 7 shows a re fra c tiv e index determ ination was a lso made on reddish-brown pumice. Such pumice was found at only one locality, at the upper pumice level on the west side of Indre Russ^ya (Figure 2,

~~Plate LVi). The only other mention of red brown pumice is that from~~

Asvar in Norway (Backstrom,1890, pp. 37-38), but since chemical analyses have not been made on either sample a comparison cannot be made. However, another rounded cobble of reddish-brown pumice in my possession, appearing identical to the Spitsbergen material in hand specimen, was collected on Jan Mayen by G. 0strem. It is worth noting that both this sample and that from Spitsbergen show great variability in vesicle size, a characteristic Backstrom also noted for the reddish- brown pumice from Norway. Unfortunately, it is not known whether the pumice found by 0strem originated on Jan Mayen or whether it drifted there from elsewhere. Me

Noe-Nygaard (1951, pp. 41-45) also discussed the age of the pumice f in d s . The samples from Sovkrog in n o rth e rn Denmark were 10-11 m above sea level. They were found on sand in the basal layers of the overlying peat, which J. Iversen determined to be of Sub-boreal age.

~~The sample from Blompy near Bergen, Norway was c o lle c te d 12 m above sea level; it comes from the highest of three pumice levels, and as~~

~~Undas (1945, p. 434), the collector of this sample, says, "the highest pumice drift is also a good indicator for the Tapes level.~~

~~Undas (1938, p. 97) has also shown, by the relation of the pumice to~~

~~^Writer’s translation, 225 the Tapes beaches, that this first pumice drift arrived at the end of~~

~~Tapes time.~~

~~Faegri (1943, pp. 43 and 50), the collector of the pumice near~~

Boml^, stated that this sample was from the highest pumice. It was found on level ground at 11 m elevation, and he believed this level represented the maximum of the younger Tapes transgression. By pollen analysis Faegri dated this transgression to just before the transition between Atlantic and Sub-boreal (Climatic optimum) time.^

~~In northernmost Norway, near Varangerfjorden, Simonsen (1961, pp.~~

90, 105, and 503-504) has carried out archeological investigations of various Stone Age sites. The Late Stone Age in this area has been divided preliminarily into four periods. Grooved bits of pumice, used for sharpening implements, first appear with finds from Period 2, the

~~Nordli-period, whose estimated age is about 4200 to 4000 years B.P.~~

~~2200 to 2000 B.C.). The fact that the pumice was not used earlier suggests that it first arrived shortly before about 4200 to 4000 years ago.~~

Noe-Nygaard (1951, pp. 43-46) cited a number of references to pumice on the southwest coast of Sweden, but did not discuss any of the finds in detail. Frodin (1906, pp. 18-21), who found pumice (used for sharpening needles, etc.) during archeological excavations near

~~Stromstad, stated that on the basis of axes, spearheads and arrowheads.~~

^The Atlantic period is pollen zone IX; the Sub-boreal, zone X, according to Faegri (1943, p. 95), but in present Danish pollen stratigraphy these zones are VII and VIII, respectively, and the boundary between them is placed just slightly before 2600 B.C. (i.e., about 4600 B.P.) by C^ dating (see Iversen, I960, Figure 7)» 226 the kitchen midden there, on a sand terrace 18,5 m above sea level, belonged to the third period of Norden's Younger Stone Age, i.e .,

2500 to 2000 B.C. (4500-4000 B.P.). Among the shells in the kitchen midden was Tapes decussatus, which is now rare so far north. The color of these pumice bits is not recorded, but A. G. Hogbom said they were of basaltic type, probably originating in Iceland (Prodin, 1906, p. 1 8 ).

~~Probably this pumice is the same as another sample reported from~~

Stromstad by Backstrom (1890, pp. 36-37). His sample was in a post glacial shell bank 22.2 m above sea level. The pumice was yellow-brown in color, and sSckstrom classified it as andesitic, but he was not sure if it belonged to the same pumice drift as the andesitic pumice from

~~Norway and S p itsb erg en .~~

Larsen (in Larsen and Meldgaard, 1958, pp. 48-49, 59) reports one piece of pumice from each of five paleo-Eskimo sites in the Disko Bugt area. West Greenland. These pumice fragments have been used for sharpening implements by the people of the Sarqaq culture. A radiocarbon date on charcoal from the Sarqaq site, one of those where pumice was found, gave an average age of 2?60 ± 100 years B.P. It should be noted that this charcoal was obtained from the locally growing Betula nana L., not from driftwood (Tauber, 1960b, pp. 18-19).

~~Another date is on peat immediately overlying implements of the Sarqaq~~

~~Culture at Sermermiut, near Jakobshavn, and here the average age of three measurements gave an age of 2740 ± 100 years B.P. (see also~~

~~Mathiassen, 1958, p. 22). Finally, pumice was found in 1958 in a~~

~~Sarqaq Culture house at Itivnera, Godthaabsfjorden, and this site was~~

C^ dated at 1000 B.C. (3000 B.P.) according to information received 227 from H, Larsen (August I 96O). I have examined a piece of pumice from the last locality; it is dark brown in color, with round vesicles, many of which are under one millimeter in diameter, and in hand specimen it appears identical to the pumice from Norway and Spitsbergen.

Pumice has also been reported from the 25 and 40 feet (8 and 12 m) raised beaches of Ayrshire in western Scotland, and from the mouth of the River Bann in Northern Ireland. Smith (1896, p. 352) describes the pumice pebbles as follows;

In colour they are pale reddish-brown, and dark brown. When broken with the hammer the fractured surfaces are remarkably fresh-looking, and the vesicles are seen to be elongated, but nothing like to the same extent as they are in "painters' pumice." Some are minutely vesicular, others much more open in texture. Some specimens have an occasional sanidine crystal here and there in the larger gas-spaces, and numerous microscopic crystals of olivine are dispersed through the glassy magma. They all float in water.

Smith further noted that he found the pebbles to be much more coinnon in the 40 foot beach than in the 25 foot beach. He did not see pumice at the present shore in Ayrshire, but Macgillivray (1831, p. 270) reported that pumice and slags are occasionally found on the west coast of the Outer Hebrides.

Donner (1959, pp. 1-23) has studied the raised beaches in Scotland recently, and much of his work was carried out on Kintyre, the peninsula west of the coast where Smith found pumice. Donner states that the 25 foot beach formed during the transgression of Atlantic time (pollen zone Vila), and he has given the time of beach formation as 7000 to 5000 B.P., based on correlation with the datings from

Scaleby Moss in England. He further notes that this same transgression 228 in Ireland reached its maximum at the end of the Atlantic period, corresponding to the boundary between zones Vila and Vllb about 3000

~~B.C. (pOGG B .P .). A peat sample dating the Vlla/VIlb boundary at~~

Scaleby Moss in England is dated at 4932 ± 134 years B .P. (Godwin and W illis, 1959, p. 64), whereas peat samples in zones Vila and Vllb are dated at 5430 ± 130 and 4440 ± 130 years B .P ., respectively

~~(Godwin and W illis, I96O, p. 6?).~~

~~Synge and Stephens have also studied the raised beaches on~~

~~Kintyre, and their mapping has shown that the upper two raised beaches of Post-glacial time are at 20-29 feet O.D.,? and 32-43 fe e t O.D.~~

Synge has written me (June 196I) of their conviction that the Post glacial Littorina Raised Beach reaches as high as 43 fe e t O.D. in some places on Kintyre. Thus the 25 fo o t ra is e d beach as mapped by Donner, which included observations between 8.5 and 12 m (28 to 39 f e e t ) , appears to be two beach levels, and these probably correspond to the

~~25 and 40 foot beaches mentioned by Smith in A y rsh ire.~~

~~To return to Norway again, much recent work on the pumice has been done by Marthinussen, who has distinguished four different Tapes lines.~~

Marthinussen (1945, pp. 238, 255) noted that tlie accumulations of pumice are often at the maximum limit for the Tapes transgressions, and at only one locality did he find two or three pieces at a higher le v e l. Like Undas he found three main lev els o f pumice, but dark pumice, not just brown, occurred at the uppermost le v e l. Whereas

^Ordnance Datum 229 Undas suggested separate volcanic outbursts to account for the three lines, Marthinussen (1945, p. 255j I960, p. 422) suggested that the pumice drifts are connected with transgressions, I agree that the pumice may have been deposited during transgressions; in fact much evidence suggests that it was. However, transgressions are not necessary, and whether or not transgressions have occurred the possibility of separate eruptions is not precluded. Probably Undls is right in suggesting more than one eruption, but on the other hand it should be borne in mind that the pumice pebbles in Spitsbergen were in general smaller at the lower levels (2-3 cm vs. 5 cm). Thus they may be reworked high le v e l pumice. Also, pumice from a sp ecific volcanic outburst may be continually or intermittently transported to the sea g long afterwards.

~~Because the ice that once covered Norway was bhicker than that in Nordaustlandet, u p lift has been greater in the former area. Hence~~

~~Marthinussen (i960, p. 427) has found pumice at the Tapes I line as high as 45 m above sea level (in Bindalsfjord, Nordland), and it is~~

By way of illustration, during a visit to Iceland in I960 I observed large quantities of grayish-white pumice along the banks of the river Jokulsa a Fjollum, and S. Thorarinsson informed me (July i 960) that this pumice is from the 1875 eruption of Askja. This poses the question: why is most of the pumice found the dark brown andesitic ty p e , when eru p tio n s such as th a t of Askja in 1875 and Ôræfajokull in 1362 (the white rhyolitic tephra produced then is estimated by Thorarinsson, 1958, p . 93, to be the third largest amount in postglacial time) are known to have occurred? Thorarinsson has said (March 1961) tliat material more basic than andésite is too heavy to float, whereas the more acidic material is lighter and thus much less resistant to destruction by waves and grinding on the shore. This perhaps helps explain why the light liparitic pumice reported by Backstrom (1890, pp. 25- 27) is so scarce. Two samples from the Lofotens had 67.08 and 67.85 percent SiOg. 230 over 20 m in the lo c a litie s he l i s t s in Finnmark, In Nordaustlandet all the Tapes lines are not present, and the well developed beach where the uppermost pumice is found may have been formed during the time represented by one or more of the Tapes beaches in Norway, i . e , , the sea may have occupied the same beach during more than one transgression,

~~Marthinussen (i960, p. 424) has obtained radiocarbon dates on material from several of the Tapes beaches, and the results are summarized in Table 9.~~

~~Table 9, Radiocarbon Dates on Peat and Driftwood from Finnmark~~

~~Corresponding Elevation Age Locality Material Genus shore level (m a.s.l.) (years B.P.)~~

~~7ads^ Peat below (Tomaselv) shore bar Tapes I 25.0 7860 ± 150~~

Ingpfy Driftwood (Djupdalen) in bog Pinus Tapes I-II? 8.9 6350 ± 150 (found at Tapes 17 le v e l) S^r^y Driftwood Picea Tapes I I-II I 10.5-11.0 5700 ± 150 (B^rfjord- in bog D istinct botn I) • shore lin e S^r^y Driftwood Picea Tapes I I -I I I 11.2-11.7 .5500 ± 150 (B^rfjord- in bog botn II)

~~Seiland Driftwood Picea Tapes 17 15.0 4830 ± 160 (Oldervik) in bog~~

~~Ing^y Driftwood Larix N 6.5 4100 ± 100 (Saraberget) in bog~~

^After Marthinussen (I960, p. 424) 231 The peat below Tapes I beach gravel gave an unexpectedly high age, but as Marthinussen (l9oC, p. 424) points out, the upper part of the peat may have been removed during this transgression. Likewise, regarding a sample of peat collected by E. Bergstrom (see Olsson, i 960, p, 122) below gravel o f the youngest Tapes transgression on

Vestvag^y in the Lofotens, Marthinussen also suggests the possibility that the upper part of th e peat, dated at 5S60 ± 100 years B .P., has been removed. This lo c a lity i s of particular in ter est, for peat also lie s above the boulders and gravel of the Tapes IV transgression; th is upper peat i s 3440 ± 90 years old. Thus the la st Tapes beaches were formed during a transgression which took place sometime between 5860 ±

~~100 and 3440 ± 90 years B.P,~~

Although the radiocarbon dating will be discussed in detail later in this chapter (see Tables 10 and 11), it is appropriate to mention some of the dates here. Five driftwood samples and one whale bone collected from the w ell developed beach where the uppermost pumice occurs have been dated. The positions of the samples are shown in

Figures 31 and 32. All samples were buried in the beach shingle, not lying on the surface (Figure 1, Plate LVII); thus they cannot have arrived after the beach formed. Five of the six driftwood samples and the whale bone were between 6200 ± 100 and 69OO ± 110 years old. The sixth sample from th is beach, dated at 4020 ± 90 years B.P. may represent a later transgression, which might have lifte d the older logs higher to o . However, because only one sample of th is age was found, and because there are many possible sources of error (see 232 discussion later), I prefer to draw no conclusions from this isolated occurrence.

~~Correlation and discussion~~

Marthinussen (I96O, pp. 428-429) summarizes h is discussion of the pumice and the radiocarbon dates by stating: "1. It does not seem possible to correlate shore levels in the North Atlantic area on the base of pumice fin d s. 2. Pumice of one and the same type need not belong to the same eruption." However, then he concludes that, "it seems certain that the la tte r (and here he i s referring to the pumice in Hinlopenstretet) has an age of the same order as the pumice in

~~Norway."~~

I agree with the last statement of Marthinussen, but disagree with point 1, It is certainly true that pumice of the same type need not belong to the same eruption, but that does not matter too much as far as the uppermost pumice is concerned. To me the evidence presented in th is section indicates convincingly that the beach with the uppermost pumice in Nordaustlandet corresponds to at le a st one of the Tapes beaches in Norway. To summarize :

~~1) The pumice from Greenland, Denmark, Norway, and Spitsbergen is of similar color and appearance, and it a ll has the same index of refraction.~~

~~2) The absolute datings on driftwood from Norway and~~

Spitsbergen are in good agreement. The pumice in Denmark was at the base of Sub-boreal peat, and Sub-boreal time began about 46OO years ago. The pumice from Boml^ in western Norway is o f the same age, as i s that from StrBmstad in southwestern Sweden. The pumice near 233 Varangerfjorden in northern Norway must have arrived before about 4200 years ago. The available evidence from Scotland suggests that the pumice there, in part at least, is 4900-5000 years old. The pumice in Greenland must be older than 3000 B .P ., since i t was used by the Eskimos at that time. The pumice on the Tapes beach in Nordaustlandet may have arrived on more than one occasion, but not before 7000 years

B.P. The fact that the pumice lies on gravel which covers the driftwood and whale bones (see Figure 1, Plate LVIl) indicates that the pumice arrived after the driftwood, and the youngest reliable driftwood date from th is le v e l i s 6200 ± 100 years B.P.

The source and the number of eruptions involved are as yet unknown, but Noe-Nygaard has w ritten (Nay 1959) that the Hekla region of Iceland s t i l l seems to be the best p o ss ib ility . In I960 I collected brown and blackish-brown pumice in a road cut a few kilometers southeast of Stong, Iceland, itself about 15 km north of Hekla. The pumice layers are both from the same eruption, and although their exact stratigraphie position is uncertain, they occur somewhere between tephra layers and H^ according to S. Thorarinsson (July I960). Layers H^ and H^^ are 3000 and 4000 years old, respectively (see Tauber, 1960a, pp. 9-10).

Refractive index determinations on th is m aterial were kindly carried out by J. Tomasson in Oslo. The brown pumice, which was a much lighter brown than the Spitsbergen pumice, had an index of refraction between 1.532 and 1.535; the overlying blackish-brown pumice was between

~~1.5Ô0 and 1.588 and some was at 1.570. For comparative purposes~~

~~Tomasson also checked two samples from Spitsbergen, both from the uppermost pumice; the determinations gave between 1.510 and 1.520 234~~

~~for the dark brown pumice, 1.530 for the black pumice. Although these determinations are a l i t t l e at variance with those done in Copenhagen,~~

nevertheless it does not appear that this particular Icelandic pumice can be considered a p o s s ib ility . This pumice is probably the same as that described by Thorarinsson (1951, pp. 7, 85, Plate I) as occurring

~~immediately above tephra layer at Ofaerugil about 10 km north of~~

Hekla, and about which he said: "One i s tempted to hazard a guess that the brownish pumice d r ift near the mximum of the younger Tapes transgression corresponds to the brownish pumice layer immediately above layer in the s o il p ro files near Hekla." Because the layer

has been dated as being about 4000 years old i t seems more lik e ly that the pumice, if it has originated in Iceland, should come from a layer below in the stratigraphie sequence. The pumice mentioned earlier as having as Si02 content of 62.60 and occurring below H^^ (i.e ., more than 4000 years old), is probably a better possibility.

~~Furthermore, it should be noted that according to Thorarinsson~~

(1944, p. 89) there is a relation between SiO^ content, refractive index, and color in Icelandic glasses (ash). Brownish-black to black pumice stould be between 1.565 and 1,610, whereas the samples having refractive indexes of 1.520 to 1.530 are yellow-gray to yellow-brown in color. Tomasson's determinations of the Icelandic pumice mentioned above f i t th is rela tio n , but the pumice found in Spitsbergen does not have the same color-refractive index relation as the Icelandic glasses.

~~Finally, pumices with about 63 percent SiOg should be in the yellow - gray to yellow-brown category, those of dark brown color should have~~

~~57 percent or less SiOg. Thus more research is needed before it 235~~

~~can be said that the pumice d e fin ite ly comes from Iceland,~~

It is to be hoped that information concerning pumice w ill be forthcoming from other areas around the North A tlan tic, By using the pumice it should prove possible to correlate certain beach levels, particularly the highest le v e l where pumice occurs. Pumice is certainly present in many more localities; it is just a question of looking for it carefully,^

~~Absolute Age Determinations~~

~~Radiocarbon Dating~~

In an attempt to establish an absolute chronology of events since deglaciation, 30 samples of driftwood, whale bones, shells, and peat have been dated by the radiocarbon method. The primary goal of the dating was to obtain information about the age of the raised beaches; a secondary aim was to date the last significant advance of S;^re

~~Franklinbreen. In view of the surprisingly oH dabes obtained on some~~

^For instance, driftwood is found on the beaches in Pearyland, Greenland, so pumice might be expected there or along the East Greenland coast. Likewise, although most workers in VestSpitsbergen have not found pumice, i t is certainly there. In addition to the pumice found in Tempelfjorden by Nathorst, De Geer (1896, p, 266) reported volcanic and artificial slags after visiting various parts of Isfjorden, Birkenmajer has informed me (November I 96O) that lie found one or two small pieces of pumice on the morthern shore of Nottinghambukta, north of Hornsund, One of these pieces was 6 x 3.5 x 2,5 cm in s iz e , dark gray or blackish on freshly-cut surface, yellowish or rusty when weathered. It was found at about 1,2 meters above sea level on the surface of the modern shingle bar (storm ridge). From its description i t sounds more lik e slag than pumice, but nevertheless i t shows that drift products do arrive. The situation in VestSpitsbergen is made additionally d iffic u lt by the more abundant vegetation in many areas there. 236 of the sh e ll samples, however, i t has also proved possible to gain an idea of the length of time the last major ice cover persisted.

~~All the samples have been dated by Dr. Ingrid Olsson at the~~

~~U niversity of Upsala C-14 Laboratory, and the dates have been published in the standard dating lists (Olsson, 1959, pp. 90-91; I960, pp. U6-~~

121). The dates are also listed in Appendix II to this report, and the collection localities are shown in Figure 32. Preliminary articles discussing various aspects of the dating have been published by Blake (1961b, pp. 122-145) and by Olsson and Blake (1961-1962),

~~Sample collection and problems~~

Driftwood. A number of samples of driftwood were collected from the raised beaches, and ten of these have been dated. The sanples were all logs that were imbedded in the beaches; thus they arrived when the beaches were forming and have not been moved la te r by some agency such as storm waves, wind, polar bears, or man. None of the dated logs, or any of the logs observed above the shingle bar at the present shore, show signs of having been worked by man. Two examples of the sort of logs that were dated are shown in Plate LVII.

~~Figure 2 in this plate shows the log at 36.7 m elevation near Sveanor,~~

~~9270 ± 130 years old. The log is 20 to 25 cm in diameter and the exposed part is 2.8 m long. It is the same log found by Ahlmann in~~

~~1931, and my lev elin g is v irtu a lly id en tica l with Ahlmann's determination of 36.5 m (see Kulling, 1936, p. 3; 1958, p. 112).~~

~~Figure 1,Plate LVIII, shows the situation which is common at the present shore, in contrast to the logs higher up. The shingle bar at~~

~~Kvalrosshalv^ya has migrated so &r shoreward that a lagoon i s no 237~~

~~Legend~~

~~C 5 û l a e i t r Latcrol moroini~~

~~o Wood e D riftw ood □ Whole bonei Logeyo A Old" fhtUs~~

~~A Young" e h e lls X Llmnlc peat (3)6000 15 Uppeolo doting number ^ Somplei on which Ro/U ^ determinotion were mode ^ Recent ehell eomplee for Ro/U doting (no C-M doting)~~

~~(004 Lomont dating number~~

~~Kopp Lady~~

~~Mormorpynten 0 5 0 0 0 r~~

~~120W s^oll^nbukta m 6000 \ 'f(.~~

~~600A i >~~

~~N“V ^ Skj,lvotn,t 4 *®‘ V1M 35 F^o-^linbreen 72 1 1 ^ -V îrm '^Teodol ilkoUer f Tvillingneiet 1B2 117~~

~~111 BiUingtr~~

~~Oddnts«t~~

~~Nordr# f RusmgydU { ^ Weastlbukto~~

~~Û B tinbukta Kroieeyo Jo 136 indri Rueseyc~~

~~t? .~~

~~a Sveanor~~

Figure 32, Map showing location of samples on which absolute age determinations have been obtained. 238 longer present. Fresh beach material is being thrown up onto the older shingle by storm waves and the action of sea ic e . A number of logs have been pushed and thrown up also, so that they l i e on top of the beach shingle. Once a log has been thrown 2-3 m above sea le v e l, as have some of those shown in the photograph, it is difficult to see how it could become covered by shingle unless a transgression of the sea occurred.

Most of the driftwood probably comes from Siberia, as was noted long ago by Agardh (1869, pp. 97-119). Feilden (1898, p. 340) provides a good description of the mouth of the Pechora River east of Ostrov

Kolguev (Figure l); "The great river had awakened into life, and was pouring its volumes into the ice sea. All around the ship trees, branches, roots, the tribute of Russian forests, were floating broadcast,"

~~And this is just one of many rivers. Driftwood has often been noted in the sea around Spitsbergen (e.g., see Parry, 1828, p. 119; Nathorst,~~

~~1900, pp. 194, 295) as w ell as on the pack ice (Andrée e t. ^ . , 1930, pp. 423-424; Sverdrup, 1930, p. 265).~~

~~Ingvarsson (1903, pp. 59-68) carried out a detailed study of~~

S pitsbergen driftw ood and concluded th a t some o rig in a te d in Norway and America, although the greater part of it came from Siberia. Most of the trees were coniferous types, but Ingvarsson also recorded

Salix and Populus. as well as birchbark (Betula). However, recent research has shown that it is often very difficult to separate Larix from Picea (Hudson, 1958, pp. 22-30), let alone determine the species.

~~The driftwood collected for dating has been studied by G. W. Burns,~~

~~H. A. Core, and B. F. Kukachka, and their results are presented in 239~~

~~Table 10. For most of the samples th eir determinations o f the genera were the same, but the difficulties with Picea and Larix are evident.~~

All the trees are Larix, Picea, or Pinus. Of particular interest is the Pinus which Core lias identified as Pinus sylvestris and Kukachka as Pinus prob. s y lv e s tr is . Pinus sy lv e str is grows fron Norway to the

Okhotsk Sea, and as far east as Taimyr it is the species of pine that grows farthest north; in fact, in the Scandinavian peninsula, it is the most northerly of the coniferous trees (Hustich, 1952, p. 9).

~~Thus it is natural to find Pinus sylvestris among the driftwood in~~

~~Nordaustlandet, and its presence is proof that somecf the wood comes from Eurasia,~~

If a log lay in the water too long it would sink, but since most of the logs probably come from Siberia i t seems most unlikely that the time they are in the sea exceeds a few years, Sverdrup (quoted in Lynge, 1938, p. 128) says, "Driftwood from the Jenisej River may reach the coast of Spitsbergen in one year, whereas driftwood from the rivers of Eastern Siberia will probably take three years or more,"

~~(See also Charlesworth, 1957, p. 196), Even if logs are on top of the pack ice, the maximum is probably a few tens of years.~~

Whale bones. Numerous whale bones were also observed on the raised beaches in the field area. Most of the bones are ribs or sections of vertebrae, and never more than a few bones were observed at any one place. Ribs are sometimes found lying on the surface of the beaches where they were often partly covered by moss (Figure 2,

Plate LVI), and Scholander(1934, p. 134) noted that special plant communities develop near old whale bones. The heavier vertebrae. 240 on the other hand, are often buried deeply in the beach shingle, but th eir presence may be indicated by vegetation on the surface. Large accumulations of whale skeletons within a few meters of the shore, such as those of the white whale (beluga) pictured by Nathorst (1900, pp.

139-143) from Van Keulenfjorden, Vestspitsbergen, were not seen in the field area. There is no evidence that large scale hunting has ever taken place in the parts of Nordaustlandet that I visited, nor is there any evidence suggesting that the bones found are from whales t la t were killed by hunting. Instead, the bones seem to be the remains of the occasional whale that died a natural death and whose carcass washed ashore. In some cases perhaps predators drove whales into such shallow water that they became stranded and could not make their way to open water again. According to Jahn (1959b, p. 172), Dibner has suggested this to account for the whale bones found on the terraces of the Soviet Arctic Islands.

Naturally whale bones may have been redistributed by storm waves or sea ice action, but none have been moved by a glacier such as the carcass reported in an ice-cored lateral moraine in Vestspitsbergen by Dineley and Garrett (1959, p. 2?2). However, because the bones are heavy they are le ss lik e ly to have been thrown up any sign ifican t height by storm waves, and sea ice push would only be expected to move them a few meters upward at most. In any event they have not been moved since the shingle beach developed around them, and they would seem to be a good indicator of the approximate position of sea le v e l at the time of their death. 241 Shells. Shells are the third kind of organic material collected from the raised beaches. Lack of time prevented me from making excava tions in the beaches, and good natural exposures are rare. For these reasons shells were collected from the surface of the raised beaches, usually in muddy places where the shingle was not well developed; i . e . , sh ells were rarely found among pebbles and coarser m aterial.

Most shells occurred where the underlying t ill was exposed at the surface or where fro st action had pushed plugs of t i l l up through the shingle cover. The dated shells were predominantly Hiatella arctica (L.) and Mya truncata L.; both are species that can live at depths from the in ter tid a l zone to over 100 m (Odhner, 1915, pp. 120-129; Feyling-

Hanssen, 1955, pp. 148-150). Because of intense frost action in the top 50 cm the sh e lls of these burrowing pelecypods were never found in living position, but care was taken not to collect from the comparatively few localities that had obviously suffered from the effects of s o liflu c tio n . It is s t i l l d iffic u lt to determine vdiether the sh e lls have (1) been washed downward by wave, current, or stream action; (2) been moved to their present position by a glacier advance which scraped them up from the bottom of the fiord and incorporated them in the till; or (3) burrowed into the t ill and sediment covering the fiord bottom after the ice had retreated, but when the land was still lower in relation to sea level than it is today.

Discussion, It is thus clear that imbedded driftvrood, whale bones, and shells may be the same age as, or older than, the beach on which they l i e . There is no evidence that wood or bones can be pushed up more than a few meters above sea level by ice action, but this must 242 be considered as one means by -which younger(?) organic material might be moved to a higher level, A log on a wide flat beach, such as the

Tapes strandline, could have floated in near the end of the period of a few hundred (or thousand) years during which the beach was forming, assuming that the sea was at the same level relative to the land. In such a case the log would date a late phase in the formation of the beach.

During an eustatic transgression the sea might reoccupy or rise above the level of an older beach. In this way it is possible to have organic remains of two ages (or more, depending on the number of transgressions) at the same level. If driftwood logs were not too waterlogged or were not buried too deeply, they would be lifte d higher during a transgression, but whale bones and shells would not be so apt to be moved since they do not float.

~~Results~~

Driftwood. The results of the dating on the driftwood are shown in Table 10, Earlier in th is chapter the s ix logs from the Tapes beach have been mentioned; the fact that fiv e of them are between 6200 ± 100 and 6900 ± 110 years of age suggests that the beach was indeed forming at that time.

~~Some pertinent data are also available from Barents/6ya, where R. W. Feyling-Hanssen has studied material from a section excavated by J, Budel. A peat layer 2,3 m below the surface of a terrace at~~

~~14.4 m in southwestern Barents^^a has been dated at 6OOO 1 400 years~~

~~B,P. (Olsson et. 1961, p. 83), Sand and clayey silt below the peat, and sand above, contain marine mollusks and Foraminifera. Table 10, Radiocarbon Dates on Driftwood~~

~~Sample Uppsala Elevation Age No, No, (meters)^ Location Genus (years B.P.)~~

~~B-1 U-33 2,0 Kvalro sshalvj^ya Picea sp, (Larix sp.) 6780 ± 100~~

B-12 U-112 6.7 ) Kapp Lady Pinus sy lv estris 6900 ± 110 B-8 U-107 7.8 ) Upper Vestre Tvillingneset Larix sp. 6200 ± 100 B-9 U-111 8 ) Pumice Oddneset-Billingen Picea sp. (Larix sp.) 6740 ± 110 B-5 U-36 8,6 ) Level S^re Russ^ya Larix sp. 6490 ± no B-24 U-116 8.9 ) Indre Russ^ya Pinus sylvestris 6650 ± no B-2 U-34 9.8 ) Kvalrosshalvj^ya Picea sp. (Larix sp.) 4020 ± 90

~~B-3 U-175 11.3 Kvalrosshalvj^ya Larix sp. 7500 ± 150 B-7 U-38 12.7 Kvalro sshalv^dya Larix sp. 7830 ± 120~~

~~S-27 U-70 36.7 Sveanor Larix sp. 9270 ± 130~~

~~For the 3 samples for which 2 possibilities are given, the first species listed is that determined by two investigators, the species within parentheses is that determined by one investigator. 244~~

~~t l Feyling-Hanssen (communication at the Spitsbergen Symposium, Wurzburg,~~

~~Germany, April 1961, and in ms.) has interpreted the sequence here as~~

~~indicating a marine transgression after the peat was deposited, i.e.,~~

~~after 6000 ± 400 years B.P. Fairbridge's (1961, p. 158) curve for tlie~~

~~eustatic changes of sea level, based on dated material from stable~~

coasts, and included in Figure 33, indicates a rapid rise of sea level between about 6500 and 5750 years ago.^^ Possibly this eustatic rise overtook the isostatic rise — i.e ., became a transgression — sooner in Nordaustlandet than in Barents^ya, as uplift may have been more rapid in the latter locality. This would explain the slightly older driftwood (6200 to 6900 years) on the Tapes beach in Nordaustlandet,

The driftwood samples collected at higher levels are older, as would be expected. The difficulty comes with U-34, the sixth sample collected from the Tapes beach, but whose age is only 4020 ± 90 years.

~~In an earlier publication (Blake, 1961b, pp. 139-140) I suggested that this sample, plus the presence of pumice which was believed to be about~~

4000 years old (Noe-Nygaard, 1951, p. 44), indicated that the Tapes beach was forming at that time as well as earlier when the older driftwood arrived. No difficulties were encountered in the dating of

U-34, so there is nothing to indicate that the date is not valid except the possible variation in initial activity and the 32 percent probability that the age of any given sample does not fall within its

lOor as Fairbridge (1961, p. l62) describes this, the Middle Littorina Submergence, "If we date the positive phase from the midpoint on the rising (transgressive) side to the midpoint on the regressive side of the oscillation, we can say that the period ranged from 6000 to 46OO B.P.; there may have been negative swings about 5500 and 4900 B.P." 245 limits of error. However, since there is a 95 percent probability that

~~the age of a sample is within twice its lim its of error (see Olsson, 1961,~~

~~pp. 167-168 and Olsson and Blake, I96I-I962, for discussions on this~~

~~point), the log is still much younger than the other logs on this beach le v e l.~~

If a transgression had occurred about 4000 years ago, and one did according to Fairbridge (196I, p. 158), it might have lifted the older wood samples higher. One fact arguing against this is that the whale bone at Vestre Tvillingneset (U-110, 6380 ± 150 years old^^) is very nearly the same age as the driftwood log (U-1Œ/, 6200 ± 100 years old; see Figure 1, Plate LVII) collected only a few meters distant at the

~~same l o c a l ity and a t e x ac tly th e same le v e l, and as noted e a r lie r i t is less likely that whalebones would be moved upward during a transgression.~~

Feyling-Hanssen (in ms., 1961) suggests that a transgression may have occurred shortly after 4800 years ago. This conclusion is based on a dating of peat (4800 ± 120 years B.P., see Olsson et ^ ., 1961, p.82)

~~1.5 m below the surface of a terrace at 17.7 m in Skansbukta,~~

Billefjorden, Vestspitsbergen (Figure 2). Feyling-Hanssen (1955&, pp. Ill, 114) first thought that the covering of sand and gravel over the layer of peat, which itself overlies sand and gravel, might be the result of solifluction, but now he feels thab this occurrence can be better explained by a transgression. In connection with rising land

~~(regressing sea) a transgression would certainly explain the sequence~~

^^See discussion of whale bone ages below. 2 4 6 gravel-sand-peat-sand-gravel better than solifluction, and it should be noted that marine shells occur both above and below the peat. According to Feyling-Hanssen (in ms.) this transgression would seem to correspond to the transgression at the Atlantic-Sub-boreal boundary, the time at which the pumice on the Tapes beach probably arrived.

Peat. A, Haggblom, whose study of lakes in the field area will be the subject of a separate report, has obtained a date which is important regarding possible transgressions. Trippvatnet is a small lake 5.2 m above sea level on Celsiusodden, and its outflow goes to

~~Nordvika via two lower lakes (see Figures 3 and 32 and Plate IV),~~

The lake is 9.6 m deep, and Haggblom has recovered cores 118 and 127,5 cm long from the bottom sediments. The lower 25 to 30 cm in the cores contain marine diatoms, then for 5 to 10 cm the diatoms are brackish- water forms, but from about 85 cm depth to the surface only fresh water diatoms are present according to Haggblom (November 1953 and

~~October 1961), The limnic peat in clayey gyttja was within this zone,~~

~~6O-67 cm below the surface, and this material has been dated at 5160 ±~~

~~400 years B.P, (Olsson, I960, p. 12l),~~

Because the marine and brackish-water diatoms disappeared from the lake before the vegetation developed, it appears that the lake was cut off from the sea sometime before 5160 ± 400 years ago. It might be argued that a transgression occurred after the vegetation grew, but that marine diatoms were not present for some reason. However, Haggblom and Seppanen also measured the chloride content of the sediments; the layers with marine diatoms contained over 3Vooi those with brackish water forms, about 2°/oo, and the fresh-water part of the core had less 247 th an l®/oo. No rise in chloride content was noticed at any point above 85 cm depth. These determinations of chloride content support the evidence provided by the diatoms.

As I have pointed out earlier (Olsson and Blake, 1961-1962) it is impossible to reconcile the evidence provided by the stratigraphy and dating in Trippvatnet with the 4000 year old log at 9.8 m only 4.5 km away (Figure 32), for it must be remembered that this log, like all others dated, was buried in the beach where it could not have been tossed up later by storm waves. However, there is one other possible source of error regarding this log and a log at 2.0 m (U-33, 6780 ± 100 years old) on the same series of beaches; that is, that they have been mixed. Of course it is easy to explain an old log at low level. It may have become waterlogged and sunk to the bottom. It may have been buried on a sand bar in a Siberian river for a few hundred or thousand years before being picked up as the river changed course or flooded. Or it could have been deposited at a higher level somewhere in Spitsbergen, only to be later carried to sea again as a result of stream erosion or wave a tta c k .

These two samples, and only these two, were collected the same day and dried at the same time in an electric oven at Kinnvika. Although I do not recall any confusion regarding these two samples, nevertheless it is impossible to say with certainty that they have not been reversed.

~~The only way of resolving the dilemma is to collect new samples for dating, and until that is done these dates cannot be taken into consideration.~~

~~S till, the whole problem cannot be solved so simply. Haggblom's 248~~

~~dated layer is not at the base of the sédiment containing fresh-water~~

~~diatoms, but is about 20 cm above that point. If a constant rate of~~

~~sedimentation is assumed the last sea water came in about 6750 years~~

~~ago. Yet the other datings on driftwood indicate that the sea was at~~

~~the Tapes beach level at that time or slightly more recently. If this~~

~~is correct, what is now the 9.8 m level on Kvalrosshalv^ya was then at~~

~~sea level, so that the sea could easily have entered Trippvatnet through~~

~~its present outlet at 5.2 m.~~

~~Furthermore, even if there is a mistake concerning the 4000 year~~

~~old log at Kvalrosshalv^ya, there still remains the dated peat from~~

~~Vestspitsbergen, which, if Feyling-Hanssen's interpretation is correct,~~

~~indicates that a transgression occurred sometime after 4800 ± 120 years ago. Why is this transgression not reflected in the chloride or diatom content of the sediments above the peat in Trippvatnet?~~

~~There is no evidence that faulting has occurred recently in~~

~~MurchisonfJorden, so it seems to be impossible to account for tie~~

~~situation at Trippvatnet by local bloclc recovery. The only possible~~

solution that occurs to me, assuming tle t the peat date is valid and that there are no marine diatoms above the peat, is that the outlet of Trippvatnet has been cut down since the lake became isolated from the sea. As Plate IV shows, there is a rock ridge several meters high

~~separating Trippvatnet from the next lake to the west, H^gvatnet,~~

Likewise there is a bedrock ridge several meters higher on the side toward Nordvika, and the wall of Celsiusberget lies to the south. Only near the present outlet is there any loose material, and I believe that the morainic ridge on this side must have been higher at the time 249 the lake was shut off from the sea.

~~Thus the effective elevation of this sample, which is actually below sea level, was several meters above 5.2 m. In the intervening~~

6000-7000 years the outflow from the lake, fed by meltwater from the snowfields above on Celsiusberget, must have eroded the outlet to its present level. Apparently the height of the moraine barrier and the rate of uplift were such that the transgression(s) recorded by

~~Feyling-Hanssen was not of sufficient magnitude to enter Trippvatnet.~~

The sea le v e l curve in Figure 33 indicates an eustatic rise beginning about 4500 years ago, following a regression, and sea level was s till rising 4000 years ago. Thus the possibility of the 4000 year old log being a correct date cannot be ruled out, but it does necessitate the outlet of Trippvatnet being blocked by a moraine ridge at least four meters higher, and this is a little hard to visualize.

Whale bones. As a check on the driftwood datings two samples of whale bones were dated. The results are given in Table 11, As Olsson has pointed out, the bone samples were too small to allow thorough treatment; i.e ., it would have been safer to remove more of the outer layers. "The two fractions, inorganic and organic, correspond to the carbon dioxide liberated by the addition of hydrochloric acid and the carbon dioxide obtained by the combustion of the remaining parts of the bone, respectively" (Olsson and Blake, 1961-1962). Actually, three dates were obtained on each sample, since the first portion of the

GO2 from combustion was dated as well as the COg obtained at the end of combustion. The dates on the organic fraction are considered to be more reliable than the date on the inorganic fraction, since the former Table 11, Radiocarbon Dates on Whale Bones

~~Sample Uppsala E lev atio n Age No, No. (meters) Location (years B.P.)~~

( U-109 6220 ± 110 (organic fraction — ( after partial combustion) ( B-8A ( U-110 7 .8 V estre 6380 ± 150 (organic fraction — ( Tvillingneset after complete combustion) ( ( U-108 4570 ± 100 (inorganic fraction)

( U-114 8270 ± 170 (organic fraction — ( after partial combustion) ( B-13 ( U-115 16.3 Teodolitkollen 8530 ± 180 (organic fraction — ( after complete combustion) ( ( U-113 6560 ± 170 (inorganic fraction)

o 251 is less susceptible to contamination, but the magnitude of the age difference between the two fractions suggests that the ages are too low (O lsson, i 960, pp« 117, 119; Olsson and Blake, 1961-1962),

~~Therefore the age of the organic fraction after combustion, the oldest of the three dates for each of the bone samples, is that used in discussing the dating results.~~

Measurements in Uppsala and other laboratories indicate that marine samples give ages about 400 years too high. Recently living shells from the present-day beach in Vestspitsbergen have been dated at 400 ±

~~60 years B.F., and two samples from Nordaustlandet are 540 ± 70 and~~

~~295 1 70 years old (Olsson, I960, pp, 115-117). By way of comparison~~

~~Fonselius and Ostlund (1959, p. 80) found the mean age of five samples of surface water from the Gulf Stream, Denmark Strait, and Barents~~

Sea, plus one sample of water from 337 m depth in the Barents Sea, to be 370 years, a value which corresponds rather closely to the mean age of the shells. However, since it is not certain that this correction should be applied to whale bones, both the corrected and uncorrected dates are plotted in Figure 33. The close correspondence between the age of the lower whale bone sample and nearby driftwood has already been mentioned. The whalebone at l6.3 m is intermediate in age between the driftwood at 12,8 and 36,7 m elevation.

~~Shells. Olsson (in Olsson and Blake, 1961-1962) has described the~~

1 ^ In preliminary articles the elevation of this whale bone sample has been given variously as 17.6, 14.9, and 16,2 m above sea level; the final value, with tidal corrections applied and early mistakes in the calculations rectified, is 16,3 m. 252

~~treatment of shell samples, in which particular care was taken since~~

~~shell dates have often been regarded with suspicion.~~

After the in itial scraping and cleaning, the remainder has been separated into different fractions ty removing layer after layer with hydrochloric acid. The two or three innermost fractions have been used for age determinations. If the ages of these fractions agree within the lim its of error, it can be assumed that the cores of the shells have not been contaminated.

~~The dates on shells are summarized in Table 12, These are the~~

~~dates on the innermost shell fraction, the "b" dates of the dating~~

~~lists. The error for the "b" fraction is less than that for the "a"~~

~~in most cases because the former was measured over a longer period of~~

~~time. In each case except one the innermost part was older, an~~

~~expectable result because the outer parts are more easily contaminated.~~

~~For this reason the dates on the innermost part are regarded as being~~

~~the most reliable, and they will be used in the following discussion.~~

~~Thinner shells are naturally more subject to contamination, whereas~~

~~thick shells of equal size and without pitting are more satisfactory~~

~~for dating. The material available did not always allow such~~

~~discrimination, however, and in the following discussion it should be~~

~~remembered that some shell samples were pitted (especially B-3B and B-34)~~

~~and some consisted of many small and thin fragments (B-39 and B-43), In~~

~~fact B-43 (U-173, U-174) showed an age difference greater than twice the~~

~~lim it of error oetween its two fractions; hence its age must be regarded~~

~~with suspicion.~~

~~In one sense the dates obtained on shells were disappointing, because all the samples collected below 44 m on the raised beaches~~

~~were of approximately the same age. Five of the six samples were Table 12, Radiocarbon Dates on Shells~~

~~Sample Uppsala E lev atio n Dominant Age No, No, (m eters) Location S h ell Type (years B.P.)~~

~~B-41 . U-121 0 ,9 Diabasvika Astarte borealis (Chem.) 540 ± 70 B-42 U-122 1.7 Mordre Russ^ya Buccinum glaciale L, 295 ± 70~~

B-35 U-120 8.5 Tollenbukta Hiatella arctica (ij 9540 ± 130 B-43 U-173 8.6 Langerunnodden %tilus edulis L, 9070 ± 190 B-8B U-162 8 Vestre Tvillingneset Hiatella arctica (L,) 9730 ± 130 B-45 U-179 22 Kvalrosshalv^ya Hiatella arctica (L,) 9660 ± 130 B-40 U-95 30 Weaselbukta liya truncata L, 9830 ± 130 B-47 U-166 44 Weaselbukta Hiatella arctica (L,) 9640 ± 120

~~B-34 U-89 44 Sevrinberget Hiatella arctica (L.) 39.700 ( U-71 36,000 :|500 ( 37,000^3000 B-30 ( U-118 51.4 Teodolitkollen Hiatella arctica (L,) ( ( U-172 35,000~~

~~( U-72 38,500 B-33 ( 57-59 Skjelvatnet ' Hiatella arctica (L.) ( U-181 6 0 ,3 » %%~~

~~B-39 U-87 77 Wargentinflya Hiatella arctica (L.) >37,000~~

~~lO VjO 254 between 9540 ± 130 and 9830 ± 130 years old, but they were all~~

Hiatella arctica (L.) and Mya truncata L., bui'rowing pelecypods that can live in the bottom sediment at varying depths. However, the dates do give us the apparent age of the highest beaches. Earlier in this chapter we have seen that the liighest beaches in the inner part of

Murchisonfjorden are between 50 and 60 m in elevation. The highest shells, Hiatella arctica (L,) at 44 m near Weaselbukta, are 9640 ± 120 years old. Yet shells of Mya truncata L, from 30 m at the same locality are 9830 ± 130 years old. When these Mya lived sea level must have been somewhere above 44 m but below the marine lim it, which in Weaselbukta is at about 51 to 52 m, or using the maximum value obtained in inner Murchisonf jorden (at Austvilca), 60 m. Also, when the fragments of vegetation were being deposited ';ri.th the sediments in Krystallvatnet, enough uplift had occurred so that the sea did not enter this lake, whose outlet is now at about 62 m. The limnic peat formed there is 9900 ± 550 years old. Thus the highest beaches in inner Murchisonfjorden, somewhere between 50 and 60 m in elevation, are very close to 9800 years in age. By analogy, the beaches which rise to 100 m or more in Lady Franklinfjorden and outer Murchisonfjorden are more than 10,000 years old.

The sixth sample, B-43 (U-173), dated at 9070 ± 190 years B.P., is probably too young in age for the reasons given earlier. This sample is Mytilus edulis L,, a pelecypod that attaches to a hard substratum, chiefly in the intertidal zone. Probably these shells have been washed down from a higher level, and such reworking would help to ejœlain their highly broken condition. They were found at 255

~~the 8,6 m level, and the highest part of Langgrunnodden is about four~~

~~meters higher^^; ie., the highest possible source for the shells here~~

~~is at about 13 m. Shells of Hvtilus edulis L, were also observed on~~

~~the beaches at nearby Dolomittkollen at 14-15 m elevation, but these~~

~~have not been dated, and they may also have been washed downward.~~

~~Shells younger than 9000 years old have also been found in the~~

~~field area, but because they do not relate to the raised beaches they~~

~~are not discussed here.~~

~~The most interesting result of the shell dating was that four~~

~~samples collected southwest of Lady Franklinfjorden gave ages of~~

~~35,000 to 40,000 years B.P., as indicated in Table 12. These samples~~

~~were collected between 44 and 77 m above sea lev el,^~~

~~Six dates (three sets) were obtained on sanrole B-30, from 51.4 m~~

~~on Teodolitkollen. The set of dates represented by U-172 (inner~~

~~22 percent of shells), U-171 (next 8 percent), and U-178 (next 10~~

~~percent), gave ages of 35,000 32,500 and 35,200 years B.P,, respectively (see Appendix II and note that 60 percent of~~

~~the shells was removed by washing), The variation in age between~~

~~these fractions is less than the standard deviation, indicating, as~~

~~Olsson (Olsson and Blake, 1961-1962) has pointed out, that the ages may be true. Olsson also noted that the difference in ages between~~

~~three fractions of B-33, from 57 m at Skjelvatnet, exceed the standard~~

~~^^Altimeter determination (corrected value).~~

^The elevation of sample B-30 from Teodolitkollen was determined by precise leveling, the three other elevations were determined by Paulin altimeter (corrected values). 256 deviation b;- so little that the three fractions may be the same age.

~~Here the datings on U-181 (inner 14 percent), U-182 (next 13 percent), and U-183 (next 12 percent) gave 40,300 ^oQOO» 33,700 t|ioO>~~

~~34,500 lllOOi respectively. The dates on the various fractions of the other old shells do not match so closely. Two dates on B-34, from 44 m near Sevrinberget, are~~

~~39,700 ^i|oo U-89 (inner 68 percent) and 27,500 for U-8S~~

~~(next 24 percent). U-87 (inner 59 percent) and U-86 (next 39 percent), the two fractions of B-39 from 77 m near Tverrberget, are >37,000 and~~

33,000 1^00 years old, respectively. It is obvious that better results were obtained when more of the outer shell layers were washed away, for these last two samples (B-34 and B-39) had only 8 and 2 percent removed, respectively, whereas B-30 and B-33 had 60 and 6l percent taken away. This suggests that the outer layers, perhaps the entire shells, are contaminated in B-34 and B-39. It must be ronembered that in B-34 the shells were especially pitted and in B-39 the shells were thinner, both conditions making them more liable to contamination.

In sample B-46 (U-170) from Kross^ya the inner 40 percent of the shells were used, but because of the date (>40,000 years) there was no reason to date any other fraction. This sample also consisted of small and thin fragments, and the sample was made additionally hard to handle because of its snail size,

01sson(1960, p. 112) has stated that "most of the high-level shell samples from Spitsbergen, with finite ages higher than 30,000 years, are probably only minimum ages." For samples B-30 and B-33 she further concludes that "the probability that they are contaminated 257

~~and give too low ages is about the same as the probability that they~~

~~are not contaminated.” (Olsson and Blake, I96I-I962.)~~

~~Such old ages were not expected, and since all the dating results~~

~~were obtained after the second summer in the field, the localities~~

~~could not be revisited for further study. At one time during the~~

~~working up of the material I considered the possibility that the higher~~

~~beaches were much older than those at lower elevations. This seemed~~

~~to fit the morphological evidence provided by the beaches themselves;~~

~~i.e ., there is often a sharp break at 35 to 40 m, below which level the~~

~~shingle beaches are much better developed than those above. However,~~

~~as I will explain below, a complete study of all the pertinent data~~

~~indicates that this hypothesis is not valid.~~

~~Origin of old shells~~

~~Introduction. The problem is to determine whether the old shells~~

~~occur where they once lived, or if they have been moved by a glacier,~~

~~and a number of points are worth discussing in this regard. Although~~

~~all shells were collected below the marine lim it, none of them were~~

~~found in areas of well developed shingle. Instead they occur in places~~

~~where the underlying till is exposed at the surface and where patterned~~

~~ground is often developed. Most of the shells dated were single valves~~

~~of Hiatella arctica (L.), although some Mva truncata L. and fragments~~

~~of Balanus sp, were also present. The shells were lying on the ground~~

~~surface and were partially or wholly imbedded in the till.~~

~~Sample B-30, from Survey Point 2 near the top of Teodolitkollen, was collected among the fine material of sorted polygons. This material~~

had apparently undergone thorough washing as it had a sand-silt-clay 258 ratio of 93:4:3 (Figure 22). Samples B-33 and B-34 were collected on the flat area known as Wargentinflya, near Skjelvatnet and Sevrinberget, respectively. Here the till exposed at the surface was more normal in composition. Figure 1, Plate LIX is a general view at the shell collection locality near Skjelvatnet, and Figure 2 in this plate shows details of the ground surface here. Sample B-39 was collected from the surface of till underlying beaches south of Tverrberget, The shells were 5 to 7 m below the surface of the beaches, and the exposure is tte result of stream dissection. The sand-siüt-clay ratios of the till at

~~Skjelvatnet and near Tverrberget are 48:33:19 and 35:46:19, respectively (Figure 22),~~

~~Shell size and abundance. Feyling-Hanssen has suggested that if the size and weight of the shells are unlike those of the rock particles~~

(e,g,, heavy shells in fine sand or silt), then probably the fossils are in situ, particularly if pelecypod valves are still joined and the periostracum is still preserved. On the other hand, if fragments of shell and rock particles are of similar size and weight, then they may have been brought together by the same agency (Feyling-Hanssen,

1955a, p, 18; Feyling-Hanssen and Olsson, 1959-1960, p, 124). There are undoubtedly exceptions to the first of these statements; e.g., shells, including pelecypods with valves still joined, were so much more abundant than till at several places along the S^re Franklinbreen lateral moraine that the surface was white, but still they have been moved by the g la c ie r .

However, the second statement is perhaps more generally true, and when, as in the case of the old shell samples, the shells and shell 259 fragments occur only very occasionally in the till (Figure 2, Plate LIX), there is an even better chance that they have been transported. The occurrence such as that shown in this photograph contrasts greatly with samples of the 9000 to 10,000 year old shells, such as those from Vestre

~~Tvillingneset (Hiatella arctica (L.)) and Weaselbukta (Mya truncata L,),~~

In these last two localities a large number of shells were concentrated in one square meter, whereas at Skjelvatnet the collection was made along a traverse of several tens of meters. At the other localities where old shells were collected they were somewhat more abundant, but not to the same extent as the younger shells mentioned above.

Distribution of pelecypod valves. Another possible way of distinguishing a transported deposit from in situ material was suggested to me by Professor A, La Rocque, In a biocoenose there should be an approximately equal number of right and left valves among the pelecypods; this should hold true even considering the disturbing effect of frost action which is responsible for the shells of burrowing pelecypods not remaining in living position. But in a thanatocoenose there might be more right than left valves, or vice versa. To test this hypothesis

I counted all shells in these collections. Unfortunately this was not done until after part of each sample had been sent for dating (although any shells left after dating were counted too), but since there is no reason that valves of only one kind should have been selected during collection or when sending shells for dating, it is thought that the r e s u lts , shown in Table 13, are re p re s e n ta tiv e . 260

~~Table 13, Distribution of Right and Left Pelecypod Valves~~

~~Sample^ Elevation Hiatella arctica(L.) Mya truncata L. No. (meters) Location Right Left Right Left~~

~~B-30(347) 51.4 Teodolitkollen 9 15 7 24 (167)2 51,4 Teodolitkollen 3 0 0 0 B-33(393) 57-59 Skjelvatnet 42 49 7 10 "(umbonal fragments only) 57-59 Skjelvatnet 28 31~~

~~B-34(403) 44 Sevrinberget 8 15 0 1~~

~~B-39(419) 77 Tverrberget 1 0 1 0 (420)2 77 Tverrberget 1 2 0 1~~

^The numbers in parentheses are collection numbers referring to all geological specimens; the "B" numbers refer specifically to samples submitted for dating, p These samples were collected to study the till, and the shells were found only as a result of washing before mechanical analysis.

The resu lts vary considerably. Only a very few sh e lls remain from the samples collected near Tverrberget, so it is impossible to draw any conclusions. In the two samples collected from Teodolitkollen (one of till in 1957, one of shells in 1958) there are significant differences in number of right and left valves, and the same is true of the sample from Sevrinberget. However, both these samples contain only small number of shells, and it would be best to count at least 100,

In B-33, the sample with the most shells, the numbers of right and left valves agree rather closely. Although in all these sanples most of the H iatella valves were whole or large enough fragments so that 261 mistakes in counting were impossible, in B-33 more small fragments were present. Thus a second count was made using only umbonal fragments of

H iatella. but the resu lts were sim ilar. However, i t should be pointed out that the similar numbers of right and left valves do not necessarily mean that they are pairs; in fact, the opposite seemed to be true. It must be remembered that sample B-33 was co llected over a much larger area than B-30 or B-34. Thus the similar number of valves appears to be a chance resu lt, although they may indicate that the sh e lls have only been transported a short distance. Regarding the Mya, no complete valves were present in any of these samples, as this relatively thin and large shell apparently breaks up easier than the smaller and thicker

~~H ia tella . With one or two exceptions a l l preserved Mya consisted of umbonal fragments, the most massive parts of the shell.~~

Condition of shells. It may be significant that many of the shells in samples B-30, B-33, and B-34 had chalky and pitted surfaces, and worm borings were present in some, on the in sid e as w ell as on the outside. The Hiatella were often misshapen and 6-7 mm thick. Neither teeth nor periostracum were preserved, and most sh e lls appeared worn.

Of particular interest was the presence of brownish incrustations on some of the shells, on the inside as well as on the outside, although the samples sent for dating were ones without incrustations, Woimi borings and incrustations, when on the inside of the valves, are both characteristics of a thanatocoenose.

~~Distribution of Foraminifera. Evidence is provided also by the~~

~~Foraminifera. Some of the differences between assemblages of various ages have been mentioned earlier, but a few more remarks are appropriate 262~~

~~here. Samples 394 and 420, tills from the shell collection localities~~

~~at Skjelvatnet and Tverrberget, respectively, have Elphidium bartletti~~

~~as one of the abundant species (Table 5). This species is not~~

~~abundant in any of the samples from the lateral moraine of S^re~~

~~Franklinbreen built as a result of an advance since the beaches formed,~~

~~but it is abundant in several samples of the reddish-gray till in~~

~~MurchisonfJoiden. Sample 394 is of less interest because in addition~~

~~to pelecypod fragments and an ostracod only 10 individuals of~~

~~Foraminifera were found, all in the 0.500 to 0.250 mm size fraction,~~

~~but of these, six were E, bartletti. However, 278 individuals were~~

~~counted in sample 420, of which 127 were E. b artletti, and 69 were~~

~~E. clavatum. another abundant species in both the reddish-gray and~~

~~greenish-gray tills of Murchisonfjorden. The latter species occurs~~

~~in the lateral moraine, but it is not abundant. Pelecypod fragments,~~

~~echinoid spines, and fish bones were also present in sample 420, Thus~~

~~the foraminiferal fauna in both these till samples, from which shells~~

~~dated at 35,000 to 40,000 years B.F. have been collected, is similar~~

~~to that of the older tills (predating the raised beaches) in~~

~~Murchisonf jorden. The fauna is not similar to that in S^re Franklin~~

~~breen's lateral moraine, which is composed, in part at least, of~~

~~sediments that were accumulating in the lower parts of tip fiord at~~

~~the same time that the higher beaches were forming.~~

~~Shells in till. Some shells are known with certainty to have been~~

~~moved by glaciers. Those near the base of the uppei- greenish-gray till~~

~~on Kross^ya have been dated at >40,000 years old. The date is~~

~~indefinite because of the small size of the shell sample, but it seems 2Ô3 probable that these shells belong to the same age group as those from~~

Lady Franklinfjorden for which finite ages of 35,000 to 40,000 years have been obtained (see discussion below). The shells on Kross^ya, together with bottom sediments, have been picked up by a glacier flowing through Hinlopenstretet and redeposited as till. If enough ice was present to the southeast so that a glacier could flow through

~~Hinlopenstretet, it can be assumed with a high degree of probability that Franklinbreen was more extensive too.~~

~~Shells and shell fragments have also been observed in exposures of till in sections at two places along the south side of Lady~~

Franklinfjorden, but no datings have been obtained. At one locality near Kapp Lady, light gray (lOYH 7/2), hard, compact pebbly till with shells (not in living positions) overlies sandstone bedrock and in turn is overlain by beach shingle. This till (342 in Table 5) contains a foraminiferal fauna showing many sim ilarities to the tills in Murchisonfjorden, although it also contains a number of species which were mostly restricted to the lateral moraine in the inner part of Lady Franklinfjorden,

~~Even more important is an exposure of till near S/re Franklinbreen»~~

The stream flowing parallel to the ice edge above the ice-dammed lake of Plate VIII has cut down through the beach shingle into the under lying till. The point where the small gorge was deepest was about

~~20 to 25 m above sea level, Plate IX is an overall view of the area, and Plate IXI is a closer view of the till-beach shingle sequence.~~

~~In addition, this second photograph shows an ice wedge underlying a trough on the surface, Plate IXII is a second detailed view of the 264~~

~~stratigraphy showing the till and beach shingle. Here shells can be~~

~~clearly seen in the till. The shape of two of the shells suggests that~~

~~they are Hiatella, and it should also be noted that all tlie shells occur~~

~~as single valves or fragments without any particular orientation. A~~

~~small sample of the finer-grained part of this ccmpact till, reddish-~~

~~yellow ( 5IR 7/6) in color, contained a few pebbles and a few~~

~~Foraminifera, However, only four individuals were found in the 0,500~~

~~to 0,250 nm grade size; two were Elphidiella arctica. two were~~

~~Cibicides lobatulus. The former was not found outside of Lady~~

~~Franklinfjorden, where it was present in both older and younger tills ,~~

~~whereas the latter was found in.nearly every sample of till from both~~

~~fiords. Thus the Foraminifera are of little use because so few~~

~~individuals were found in the small sanple of till, and because neither~~

~~of these species exhibit variations with time in this area. However,~~

~~fragments of other shells, probably pelecypods, and echinoid spines~~

~~were also found during the microscopic examination. Thus the main~~

~~significance of the exposure is to show that the till underlying the~~

~~shingle beach material in tliis area does contain shells. These shells~~

~~must have been picked up by the glacier as it moved over the fiord~~

~~bottom .~~

~~This locality is only 4 to 6 km from the samples of old shells at~~

~~Teodolitkollen, Sevrinberget,and Skjelvatnet, At these localities,~~

~~perhaps because of their position on a hilltop or on extensive flat~~

~~areas, no shingle beach is preserved, and till appears at the surface.~~

~~As stated previously (Blalce, 1961b, pp, 142-143), it is believed that~~

(1 ) this till is the same till that is exposed in the stream cut 265 described above, and (2) the dated shells have been moved by a glacier also. The level at which the shells originally lived is not knownj they may have been picked up from the deepest part of the fiord by the glacier, or more probably, in view of vrinat we know about ice motion in the area, they may have lived in the near vicinity of lAere they now occur. Under the chapter on Geomorphology the preglacial or interglacial age of the strandflat was demonstrated; thus it is obvious that the s h e lls need not have been moved upward frcm some deeper p a rt o f the fiord. They may have been living in the bottom sediments on the strandflat when the sea was higher relative to the land.

Time of uplift, Probably the best evidence tliat the old shells have been transported by a glacier, and that the area has not been ice-free since they lived 35,000 to 40,000 years ago, is that the other radiocarbon dates on driftwood, whale bones, and shells indicate that rapid land uplift began shortly before 10,000 years ago. In the field area the highest organic samples which come close to dating the beaches with which they are associated are the shells at 44 m in

Weaselbukta and the driflwood log at 36.7 m near Sveanor, 9640 ± 120 and 9270 ± 130 years old, respectively. Between 44 m and the highest beaches at over 100 m no organic material has been dated except the

35,000 to 40,000 year old shells. Yet why should a rapid uplift of the land start about 10,000 years ago unless a more extensive and th ic k e r ic e cap was ju s t in th e process o f m elting away? I f th is part of Nordaustlandet became ice-free 40,000 or more years ago, then the rapid uplift should have occurred then, not 8000 to 10,000 years ago. 266

~~The reader may ask if it is not possible that the glaciers expanded during the interval of at least 25,000 years for which dates~~

~~are lacking, but that this expansion was not extensive enough to cover~~

~~and thus destroy the high beaches, i.e ., those about 40 to 50 m.~~

~~However, it must be remembered that the zone between 50 and 100 m in~~

~~elevation extends inland a considerable distance, and any ice advance~~

~~extensive enough to cause rapid uplift to begin about 10,000 years ago~~

~~must inevitably have encroached upon the higher beaches. It is known~~

~~from Greenland that an ice cap may advance over unconsolidated material~~

~~without eroding it. I have observed undisturbed patterned ground, with~~

~~lichens on the boulders and moss between the rocks, 30 m behind the~~

~~front of a glacier and under about 40 m of ice in a tunnel at Red~~

Rock Lake, Nunatarssuaq (also see Goldthwait, 1956, p. 143; 1957, pp. 151-153; 1961 , pp. 107-115; Hilty, 1956, pp. 48, 52; M errill, i 960 , p . 76; Wolfe, 1956 , p . 136). However, it seems doubtful that unconsolidated material, particularly an uneven surface such as that presented by a series of beach ridges, could escape erosion, either by ice or by meItwater, over any considerable area. And yet beaches above 40 to 50 m are present all along the south side of Lady

~~Franklinf jorden up to the edge of the glacier (see Plate VIII and~~

~~Figure 2, Plate LIl), where they are being dissected by the marginal~~

stream. To me it is inconceivable that these beaches (particularly the prominent one at 65-70 m) could have existed for 40,000 years, for only a slight fluctuation of S^re Franklinbreen or Vestfonna would have detroyed them. 267

Other dates from Spitsbergen Recently some datings on high level organic material have become available from other parts of Spitsbergen. Professor J, Budel reported the discovery of two whale bones frozen into high level beaches at

~~74 m at Lechnegel, Edge^ya, and at 84 m at Uffingwall, Barents^ya~~

~~(communication at the Spitsbergen Symposium, Wurzburg, Germany, April~~

~~1961 ), They are 9880 ± I 60 and 9790 ± I 6O years old, respectively.~~

Because Barents^ya and Edge^ya lie nearer to the presumed center of glaciation more uplift should have occurred there than in Nordaust® landet. Thus it is natural that the beaches at 74 to 84 m in southeastern Spitsbergen are the same age as those at 50 to 60 m in inner Murchisonfjorden.

~~In the Billefjorden area of Vestspitsbergen shells (apparently~~

~~Mya truncata L,, see Feyling-Hanssen, 1955a, p, 85 ) a t 56 m are~~

~~9840 ± 150 years old, and Mya truncata L, from 50,7 m is 9880 ± 140 years old (Olsson, I960, p, II 6 ; Feyling-Hanssen and Olsson, 1959-~~

~~1960 , p. 123-126), These shells are in the Mya Terraces which Feyling-~~

Hanssen ascribes to the Post Glacial Temperate Period; they are above the marked morphological change occurring on the beaches at about 40 m, where the above beaches give way to the so-called Upper Astarte Terrace of the Post Glacial Warm Period (Feyling-Hanssen, 1955a, p. 48). This break in the beaches may correspond to that in Nordaustlandet at 35-

40 m, and it is interesting to note that a sançle of Mya truncata L, or Hiatella arctica (L.) from 42 m (just above the break) in Billefjorden i s 9310 ± 200 years old, an age which is between that of 9640 ± 120 obtained on Hiatella arctica (L.) from 44 m in Weaselbukta and that of 268

~~9270 ± 130 obtained on the log near Sveanor (Figure 2, Plate LVII) at~~

~~36,7 m, just at the level where the change in beach morphology occurs.~~

~~Fragments of Hya truncata L, and Hiatella arctica (I^ collected by R. W. Feyling-Hanssen and Ingrid Olsson at 77 to 84.5 m and~~

~~constituting the highest shells found in the Billefjorden area, have~~

~~been dated at 21,300 ± 500 years B.P. (Olsson et I96I , p . 8 3 ).~~

~~Olsson notes that because the shells were onlj" small pieces they were more subject to contamination, and hence the age may be a minimum value.~~

~~It is not yet known whether these shells date the raised beaches or~~

~~if they, too, have been transported by a glacier. However, the curve~~

showing rapid land uplift occurring in Billefjorden 8$00 to 10,000 years ago (Feyling-Hanssen and Olsson, 1959-1960, p. 123) suggests that the shells have been transported, and it is possible that these

~~shells belong to the same "old” group that are present in Nordaustlandet.~~

~~Radium-Uranium Dating~~

~~Some of the dated shell samples were also submitted to Dr. W. 5.~~

Broecker at Lamont Geological Observatory in order to provide him with material of known age for control purposes while testing a method of 22Ô age determination of marine carbonate utilizing the ratio of Ra to y 238 ^ The results are summarized in Table 14.

~~The method is still in the experimental stage, but it is hoped that it may eventually provide a means of dating materials that are~~

~~beyond the range of dating, normally 40,000 years but extended to about 70,000 years by the enrichment method of de Tries. The samples Table 14. Radium-Uranium Age Determinations~~

~~Sample Elevation Shell type(s) Uppsala Fraction^ c^Age Lamont F ractio n Ra/U Age No, (meters) No. No.~~

~~0-20 0-12 B-41 0.9 Astarte borealis(Chem,) U-121 20-100 540170 L-600B 12-100 — —~~

undated 0-18 B-41 1-2.5 Buccinum glaciale L, ——- — —— — Recent L-600D sample 18-100 I. Hiatella arctica (l.) 0-10 0-10 22,00012000 B-32 1-2 and 10-48 L-600A 10-48 19,00012000 Mva truncata L, U-85 48-100 4970+110 48-100 27.00013000 0-73 0-10 B-43 8.6 K’/tilus edulis L. U-174 73-87 84001190 L-600C 10-51 —- U-173 87-100 90701190 51-100 Û-45 0-9 B-8B 3 Hiatella arctica (L.) U-1Ô1 45-70 93801150 L-572A 9-55 13,00011000 U-162 70-100 97301130 55-100 7,8001800 Av.9-100 10.00011000 0-35 0-9 B-35 8.5 Hiatella arctica (L.) U-119 35-55 91001180 L-572B 9-55 16,00011000 U-120 55-100 95401130 55-100 11,00011000 AV.9-100 14,00011000 1 st run 0-55 ---- +2500 1st run 0-9 B-30 51.4 Hiatella arctica (L.) U-71 55-100 36, 000_ ^ ^ L-572G 9-54 54-100 208,000150,000 Av.9-100 >250.000

~~^The fractions are measured from the outside inward. The outermost fraction is always removed by washing.~~

~~vO 2 7 0~~

~~submitted were roughly in the modem ( 0- 500), 5000, 9000-10,000, and~~

~~35^000-40,000 year age groups.~~

~~Sample B-32 (U-S5, L-600A, Hiatella arctica (L.) and Mya truncata~~

~~L.), dated at 4970 ± 100 years by C^, had an age four times as great~~

~~according to the Ra/U determination. B-43 (U-173, L-600C, Mytilus~~

~~edulis L.), 9070 ± 190 years old by contained too little~~

~~for dating according to a letter from Broecker (March 1961). However,~~

~~the two other sançiles in the 9000-10,000 year old range yielded better~~

~~r e s u l t s . The in n e r 45 p ercen t of B-8B (L-572A) gave a Ra/U age of~~

~~7800 ± 800 years, the next 45 percent gave 13,000 ± 1000 (Broecker,~~

~~i 960 . Tables 3 and 6). The date on the inner 30 percent (U-162)~~

~~i s 9730 ± 130, on the next 25 percent (U-I 6I), 9380 ± I 50, The average~~

~~of these two Ra/U determinations is 10,000 ± 1000 years, a value which~~

~~is close to the age. The same shell fractions of B-35 (L-572B)~~

~~were 16,000 ± 1000 and 11,000 ± 1000 years old, respectively. The~~

~~date on the inner 45 percent (U-120) is 9540 ± 180 years B.P. In this~~

~~case the Ra/U date on the inner 2,5 percent of the shells was closer to~~

~~the date on the same fraction than was the average value of the~~

~~two Ra/U dated fractions (14,000 ± lOOO).~~

~~Sample B-31 is the old sample on which the most consistent G^~~

~~dates were obtained on the various fractions. Determinations on the~~

~~inner 45 percent (U-71), inner 40 percent (U-118), and inner 22~~

~~percent (U-172) gave ages of 36,000 ^^WO' 37,000 and~~

~~35,000 respectively. However, the Ra/U results indicate a much~~

greater age. The inner 45 percent (L-572G) is 208,000 ± 50,000 years old, and the averages of both the two inner fractions and all three 271 fractions are >250,000 years (Broecker, I960, Table 6), A second analysis of this sample confirmed the original results. In this sample, as in the other determinations made by this method, the innermost part of the shell gives the youngest age, the opposite of the results obtained by the dating.

Broecker reports that the great age differences obtained by the two methods cannot be explained as yet. He states, "the most likely reason for the gross disagreement are (l) the ages are too low because of contamination with secondary carbonate or (2) the U-Ra are too old because of the in itial presence or measurable quantities of Th^^O.'il^

(Broecker, I960, p. 11). He goes on to say that the first of these two possibilities is the most reasonable for sample L-572C (-30). In his second report on this work Broecker (1961, pp. 13, 16) states:

Olsson's (i 960 ) measurements on L-572C indicate rather uniform finite amounts of for inner fractions despite varying degrees of acid leaching. Such evidence does not in itself varify the age however. Again our present knowledge does not wariant a conclusion as to whether the finite ages in the 30,000 to 33,000 year range or the much greater tj 230 inequilibrium ages (100 to 200 thousand years) are reliable. If, however, the ages are correct then the anomalies indicated by these samples are among the largest observed. Based on the data in tables 1 and 2 a preliminary evaluation of the U^38 inequilibrium method can be made. It seems clear that any finite ages obtained will be either equal to or greater than the true age of the sample,.,. In conclusion, whereas comparisons between and Ra226_ y238 results indicate that in many cases the two methods yield identical age estimates, some way to separate these "concordant" carbonates from those yielding excessively high ages must be found. Until this is done ages determined by the U^38 inequilibrium method must be considered maximal.

~~is a decay product of Th^^^, itself a decay product of U 38. A negligible Th^30 content is assumed to be initially present in marine carbonate (Broecker, I960, pp, 2-5; 1961, pp, 1-4). 272~~

~~Interglacial (?) in Nordaustlandet~~

~~Thus the Ra/U age determinations support Olsson's (I960, p. 112)~~

~~conclusion that the finite ages above 30,000 years probably~~

~~represent minimum ages. The true age of the sançiles is apparently~~

~~somewhere between 35,000 to 40,000 and 250,000 years. Assuming that~~

~~Nordaustlandet was covered by ice in glacial times, these shells must~~

~~be interstadial or interglacial in age.~~

~~Although it might seem unlikely that the relatively minor~~

~~fluctuations of the southern ice margin occurring during interstadials~~

~~in the northern part of continental Europe could have counterparts~~

~~farther north, caution must be exercised. Recently Brotzen (1961,~~

~~pp. 144-150; see also Ostlund and Engstrand, I960, p. 18?) has~~

~~described marine clay in bore holes at two localities near Goteborg,~~

~~Sweden, and five radio-carbon dates give ages of 26,000-30,000 years~~

~~for these deposits. This interstadial may correspond to the Paudorf~~

~~Interstadial, according to the dating of the latter presented by de~~

~~Vries (1958, pp. 14-15) and Andersen et al. (i960, p. 40).~~

~~The ice-free period in Nordaustlandet cannot, however, correspond~~

~~II " to the Gota Alv — Paudorf Interstadial unless the latter extends farther~~

~~back than 30,000-32,000 years B.P. Other interstadial possibilities~~

~~are the Gottweiger (whose exact length is s till indefinite and~~

~~providing that it is not the same as Paudorf; see Flint and Brandtner,~~

~~1961 , p. 324), the Br;^rup at about 55,000-59,000 years B.P., and the~~

~~Amersfoort at about 64,000 years B.P. (Andersen et al., I960, p. 40).~~

~~Earlier are the Eemian (Riss/Wurm) Interglacial, 70,000 and more 273~~

~~years ago according to Andersen ^ (i960, p, 40), the Mindel/Riss~~

~~Interglacial, dated at 130,000 to 175,000 years by Rosbolt _et a l.~~

~~(1961, p. 172), and the Gunz/Mindel Interglacial, estimated at~~

~~200.000 to 265,000 years B.P. by Emiliani (1955, PP. 565, 569; 1961,~~

~~p. 530), as well as possible interstadials in Riss and Mindel time,^^~~

~~However, the Foraminifera would be less apt to be preserved through more than one glaciation, and the moUusk shells would likewise~~

~~presumably disintegrate during continued exposure to weathering and the solvent action of groundwater. Hence it seems most probable that the shells date from the Riss/Wurm Interglacial,~~

~~In any event, because the shells are now known to be ^ least~~

35.000 years old, it becomes even more evident that they do not date the strandlines with which they are associated. If they did it would mean that Nordaustlandet was unglaciated throughout most or all of Wurm time, making it even more difficult to explain a rapid lard uplift

~~beginning about 10,000 years ago.~~

Further support for an interglacial age for the old shells is provided by observations in the Russian Arctic, There, one of the main horizons in Pleistocene stratigraphy is provided by the deposits of the Boreal transgression, equivalent to the Eemian transgression of Holland, Denmai’k, Poland, and Germany (Lavrova and Troitskey, i 960, pp, 124-136; see also Sachs and Strelkov, I96I, pp, 6O-67),

l^Richter (1958, p, 23), utilizing the fluorine method, gives the age of the Holstein (Mindel/Riss) Interglacial as before about 240,000 years B.P,, the Cromer warm time (Gunz/Mindel) as before about 640,000 years B.P, If his chronology is correct regarding these older inter glacials the Gunz/FIindel can be ruled out as a possibility for the shells in Nordaustlandet, 274

Such deposits have been recognized along most of the northern coast of the U.S.S.R., but they are particularly well developed in western Siberia and the northern part of European Russia, Strandlines and deposits of this transgression have also been recognized on Severnaya Zemlya, according to Urvantsev (Ahlmann, 1933b, p. 391), and on Novaya Zemlya, where the highest strandlines, up to 420 m above sea level, are believed to be interglacial in age (Zagorskaya, 1959, pp. 20-36; see also Gr^nlie, 1924, pp. 86-116; Samoilovich, 1937, pp. 86-90; and

Yermolaev, 1937, pp. 107-116). To my knowledge no absolute datings are available from Novaya Zemlya, but in Zagorskaya's (1959, pp. 26-27) table of marine fossils only three are associated with the 400 and

~~410-420 m strandlines on the northern part of the northern island; these are Hva truncata L., Hiatella arctica (L.), and Turritella erosa Couth.~~

The first two of these are represented in all four of the samples found between 44 and 77 m south of Lady Franklinf jorden. Fui-theimore, most of these shells, particularly the Hiatella. were thick and massive, a characteristic that Lavrova and Troitskey (1959, pp. 124-136) report as being one of the features which seems to differentiate the fauna of the Boreal transgression from the post-glacial marine beds.

Although no high strandlines were observed in Nordaustlandet that can definitely be ascribed to interglacial time, as noted earlier the morphology and glaciated nature of the coastal plain (strandflat) indicate that this landscape element is preglacial or interglacial, or both, in age. Thus it may well be that the old shells near Lady

~~Franklinfjorden represent a fauna that lived at the approximate level where they now occur during the Riss/Wurm Interglacial, Since then 275~~

~~they may have been moved only a relatively short distance as the bottom~~

~~sediments were picked up by the ice, mixed with larger fragnents of~~

~~bedrock, and deposited again.~~

~~According to Sachs and Strelkov (I96I, p. 6$), the work of Lapina~~

~~on the bottom sediments of the Arctic Ocean has shown the duraticn of~~

~~the Boreal transgression to be 40,000 years, from 105,000 to 56,000~~

~~years B.P., a span of time which corresponds fairly closely with the~~

~~estimate of 100,000 to 65,000 years B.P. for the duraticn of the Riss/~~

~~Wurm interglacial proposed by Hosholt et aL. (1961, pp. 171-172) on the~~

~~basis of Pa^^^/Th^^^ dates and paleo-temperature curves. This span of~~

~~time also accomodates the possible age of the old shells in Nordaust~~

~~la n d et .~~

~~Land Uplift~~

~~U plift Curve for Nordaustlandet~~

The absolute datings of organic material from the various raised beach levels have made it possible to construct a diagram showing the rate of land uplift. This diagram. Figure 33, has already been referred to several times, and only a few further ccmments are necessary here.

~~Naturally it is much safer to date a given level on the basis of~~

several age determinations rather than on only one, but the only level for which several dates are available is the Tapes beach. If the 4000 year old log is omitted for the reasons given earlier, the other five logs and the one whale bone sample from this beach are between 276

~~5 0~~

X PCAT oNirrwooD 4 0 □ WHALC 6 0 N IS L A SHELLS a 34 UPPSALA DATING NUMBER O SAMPLES FROM THE SAME STRANDLINE Z 30 LIMITS OF ERROR U SEA LEVEL IN REFERENCE TO SAMPLE CORRECTION FOR MARINE SAMPLES f EFFECTIVE ELEVATION OF SAMPLE HIGHER UNCORRECTEO CURVE

~~10 162 173 112 110~~

~~10 S • 7 iT“ AGE. THOUSANDS OF YEARS B.R~~

~~Figure 33. Diagram showing land uplift in Nordaustlandet, 277 6200 ± 100 and 6900 ± 110 years old. In drawing the curve it does not~~

~~matter greatly which of these sanples is used, with the exception of~~

~~the oldest sample (U-112, 6900 ± 110 years). Only a few samples were~~

~~available from the higher beaches, but because of the close internal~~

~~agreement of the samples from the Tapes beach, it is thought that~~

~~driftwood and viiale bones collected at higher levels also date their~~

~~respective beaches with a fair degree of accuracy.~~

~~Subtracting 400 years from the samples of marine origin only~~

~~affects the curve in tliree cases, because most of the shell samples~~

~~are much older than the beaches with which they are associated.~~

~~However, the uppermost shell sanple (U-166, 9640 ± 120 years) and the~~

two whale bone samples are important points on the curve, and for purposes of comparison both curves have been drawn on the diagram. The uncorrected curve is essentially the same as ttet presented in two preliminary reports (Blake, 1961b, p. 143j Olsson and Blake, 1961-1962),

~~Uplift was very rapid at first, but the rate has become increasingly~~

slow er w ith tim e. At the same time th a t th e lan d was r is in g isostatically, sea level was rising eustatically, so that the total land uplift has been much greater than is indicated by the height of

~~samples above present sea level.~~

~~The curve showing the changes of sea level in Figure 33 is taken~~

~~from Fairbridge (1961, p. 1$6), but a number of other writers have~~

~~recently discussed this topic also (e.g., see Shepard and Suess, 1957, p. 1082; Godwin et a l., 1958, pp. 1518-1519; Curray, I960, p. 1708).~~

~~Because agreement is not complete among the various workers, it was thought better not to attempt to correct the land uplift curve for sea 278~~

~~level changes, and the eustatic curve is included here merely to show the general nature of the changes according to one of the more detailed~~

~~studies, based on world-wide data.~~

~~The eustatic curve shows that the time during which the Tapes beach was forming was a time of rapidly rising sea level. According to~~

~~Fairbridge sea level reached its present position between 6000 and~~

~~5500 years ago, and since then it lias not fluctuated more than four 17 meters in either direction.~~

~~Comparison with Vestspitsbergen~~

~~The curve of shoreline displacement in Billefjorden presented by~~

~~Feyling-Hanssen and Olsson (1959-1960, p. 123) is similar to that in~~

Nordaustlandet, except that the slope of the curve for the last few thousand years is steeper in the former area. The rates of shoreline displacement per century given by these writers refer to present sea le v e l, and th u s th ey re p re se n t minimum v a lu e s . Feyling-H anssen and

Olsson's curve is of particular interest because it is based entirely on dated shells collected in stratified beach deposits, whereas only the highest point on the Nordaustlandet curve is determined by a shell date; the other points are dated driftwood and whale bones. Considering this, the sim ilarity between the two curves is strilcing.

~~The fluctuations since 6000 B.P. and the time at which sea level reached its approximate present position are two of the points on which there is disagreement between the authors cited above. 279~~

~~Hypotheses Favoring Rapid Uplift~~

The present rate of land uplift in Spitsbergen has been the subject of considerable debate in recent years, and two schools of thought have developed, one favoring rapid uplift, the other favoring negligible uplift or perhaps even a sinking of land in some areas.

~~Driftwood~~

Donner and West (1957, pp. 17-23) were two of the first in recent times to suggest that rapid uplift was occurring. They found driftwood at 9 to 10 m on the raised beaches south of West Lake, an ice-dammed lake near the north end of Brageneset (Figures 3 and 37). Some of this driftwood consisted of pieces of barrels and other worked wood. They suggested that the worked wood might date from the time of the whaling activity in Vestspitsbergen, and if so, it could not be much older than about 350 years, since the whaling started about tte beginning of the

17th century. Donner and West (1957, p, 17) say, "It can be concluded that if the drift-wood is local or comes from Vestspitsbergen the relative uplift of the land must have been nearly 3 ni in a hundred years, a shore-line displacement which has been surprisingly rapid,"

~~This is indeed an extremely rapid rate of uplift, and I suggest that such is not the case for the following reasons (see also Blake,~~

1961a, pp, 107-108); (l) No absolute dates are available for the driftwood from Brageneset, (2) It may be fortuitous that the natural driftwood and worked wood occur together. (3) The worked wood was not imbedded in the beaches, but was lying loosely on the surface, according to a letter from J, J. Donner (August, 1959). (4) The worked wood need 280 not have come from Vestspitsbergen, for drift products from many parts of the world are found in Spitsbergen, (5) The worked wood may have been carried to a higher level by earlier visitors, as Donner and West themselves suggest to explain a barrel found at 17 m, (6) The location of this wood above West Lake, on north-facing beaches, suggests the possibility that when the ice advanced in the 19th century and created West Lake, as the water level rose to 8.8 m some driftwood, including worked wood, was floated to a higher level,

~~On the basis of their estimation of the rate of uplift. Donner and~~

West (1957, p. 22) concluded that the pumice levels were young, the upper level being only about 500 years old, thus making it impossible to correlate the pumice with the pumice found on the Tapes beaches in

Norway. However, because of dating of driftwood and vrtiale bones found together with the pumice in my area of study, and because of sim ilarities between the pumice and tta t found in Scandinavia, there is, in my opinion, every reason to believe that the uppermost pumice is several thousand years old.

~~Whale bones~~

~~In a series of publications Birkenmajer (1958b, pp. 153-161;~~

1958c, pp. 151-157; 1958d, pp. 545-549; 1959b, pp. 197-202; 1960b, pp. 281-294; and 1960c, pp. 76-86) has discussed the problem of land uplift, based chiefly on observations in the Homsund area, southern

~~Vestspitsbergen (Figure 2). He has used the whale bones, so common on the beaches, as a means of determining the rate of uplift. The~~

~~18 The lake is now at 4.4 m and the original outlet has been abandoned because the ice edge has receded. 281~~

~~essence of his so-called "whale method" is that older-appearing whale~~

~~bones, probably those of the Greenland or right whale (Balaena mysticetus~~

~~L,) are found most commonly between 6 and 8 m above sea level in~~

~~Hornsund, These are believed to date from the 17th century, when~~

~~whaling was the major occupation in Spitsbergen, Better preserved bones~~

~~at lower elevations, supposedly resulting from 19th century hunting,~~

~~are apparently those of the finback whale (Balaenoptera physalus (L.))~~

~~and the white whale or beluga (Delphinapterus leucas (Pall.)), Except~~

~~for some whale bones in push moraines in the inner part of Hornsund,~~

~~none were found higher than nine meters above sea level.~~

~~Assuming that the whales were slaughtered in the intertidal zone,~~

~~and that the larger bones, at least, have not been moved upward by ice~~

~~action or storm waves, Birkenmajer (l960c, pp. 77-31) calculates that an~~

~~uplift of 2,3 m per century is necessary in order for the 350 year old~~

~~bones to have attained an elevation of eight meters. Applying this~~

~~method to other parts of Spitsbergen by incorporating the results of~~

~~others, Birkenmajer (1953d, p, 543j 1960b, p, 290) has drawn tentative~~

~~isobases of uplift for the whole of Spitsbergen, His latest diagram is~~

~~included in the present report as Figure 34,~~

~~Criticism regarding many of Birkenmajer's statements and conclusions~~

~~can be made, and Jahn (1959a, pp, 254-257, 261; 1959b, pp, 171-176), a member of the same expedition, is one of those who has expressed doubts,~~

~~Jahn, in fact, has concluded that there have not been any marked changes~~

~~in Hornsund in the last 50 years, and that uplift may have ceased~~

~~completely, îîy objections to Birkenmajer’s hypothesis are listed below:~~

~~l) In my opinion the two diagrams in Birkenmajer's (l960c. 282~~

~~» Karl~~

~~NordausflcindeV~~

~~fsberg~~

~~Figure 34, Map showing isobases of uplift for Spitsbergen. After Birkenmajer (1960b), based on map by Ahlmann (1933a). 283~~

~~pp. 77-78) final report, indicating the distribution of whale bones on the coasts of Hornsund, do not indicate clearly that the majority~~

~~of the bones are between 6 and 8 m above sea level. The "very old"~~

~~and "old" bones, i.e ., those of his upper whale level on the north~~

coast of Hornsund, are between 3 and 9 m, and many, if not most, are between 3 and 7 m. On the other hand, several cranial "young" whale bones were recorded between 4.5 and 6.0 m, so the reader is left with uncertainty as to just how definite the various levels are,

2) The validity of the assumption that whales were killed in the intertidal zone is doubtful. Surely whales were killed and dragged ashore at high tide as well as at low? It seems particularly probable that the relatively small white whales would have been dragged above high tide level (see photographs of skeletons and description of whale hunting in Nathorst, 1900, pp, 139-143).

3) Although it is quite true that wliales have been hunted for many years in Spitsbergen, this does not mean that all whale bones on raised beaches are the remains of whales killed by man, as has been noted earlier in this chapter (see also discussion by Jahn, 1959b, pp, 171-

~~173; Feyling-Hanssen and Olsson, 1959-1960, pp, 127-128; and Blake,~~

~~1961a, p, 108),~~

~~4) Birkenmajer (1958c, p. 156; 1960b, p, 265; 1960c, p, 84) mentions that some whale bones found by other investigators are above~~

~~8 to 10 m, but the higher bones, such as those reported by Feyling-~~

Hanssen and J^rstad (1950, p, 58) at 56 m in inner Isfjorden, are ignored in his calculations of land uplift. Table 15 is a compilation of occurrences of higher level whale bones, based on the literature 284

~~and information I have received from collectors.~~

~~These whale bones, all but one above 8 m in elevation, cannot be~~

~~ignored. The four dates available at the time of wr-iting give some~~

~~indication of the ages we may expect; i.e ., even the one sample below~~

~~8 m is over 6000 years old. This sample is from the upper pumice level~~

~~at Vestre Tvillingneset, Nordaustlandet. It is the pumice at this~~

~~level which Donner and West (1957, p. 22) suggested was only 500 years~~

~~old, and which Birkenmajer (I958d, p. 547) suggested was 460 years old.~~

~~Feyling-Hanssen and Olsson (1959-1960, p. 128) have pointed out~~

~~that in Birkenmajer's scheme an uplift of 2.8 m per century in~~

Billefjorden (Figure 2) means that the 9.7-9.8 m terrace is only 350 years old, but dates on shells indicate that this terrace "is most probably more than 5000 years old;" i.e ., samples from 5.6 and 17 m

~~have been dated at 3810 ± 90 and 7595 ± 110 years B.P., respectively.~~

~~However, peat at l6.2 m, 1.5 m below the surface of a terrace, is~~

~~4800 ± 120 years old (Olsson et ^ ., 1961, p. 82), indicating that a transgression since 4800 years ago reached above the 9.8 m terrace~~

~~level in Billefjorden. Thus this terrace level need not be 5000 years old, but it is certainly more than 350,~~

~~There seems to be little doubt that whale bones are more common at low levels than at high levels on the raised beaches in Spitsbergen.~~

Fqyling-Hanssen and J^rstad (1950, p. 58) and Dineley (1954, p. 8) found zones at 3 to 10 m in VestSpitsbergen, and in 1861 A.J. Malmgren noted that viiale bones were especially common at 3 to 9 m above sea level at Langgrunnodden, Nordaustlandet, as well as everywhere in

~~Spitsbergen (see Hagg, 1950, p. 341). The same is true in the area 285 Table 15. High level «hale bo n ee in Spitebergen~~

~~Elevation Reference, or Age, if dated (matera) Locality obearver and year (yeara B.P.)~~

ca. 12 UillefJorden Summerhayea and Elton (1923, p. 27ti) ce 37 liU lef Jordon Halchln (1941, Fig. 2) ca. 40-50 QiilefJorden Meling (1960) 30-36 St. JonafJorden Dineley (1954, p. 7) •jb Uiptvlka Feyl ing-Hanaaen and J^ratad (1950, p. *jti) ca. IC.I2 Glpohuk Feyling-Hanaaen and Olaaon (1960) 15,21,24,1 Hellaund^ Lament (ItloOb, p, 43ti) 24,30,30 I IL,14,15 S near Kapp Llnntf*' Christlanaaon (I960) lü,ca. 25 near Kuatekeila 00+V Agardhdalend Uanaood and Gregory ( 1U9U, pp. 205, 200)

76 eaat of Tore!tneaet Sandfurd (1929, p. 24] lu Torellneaet Thumpaun (1953, p. 300} / , u 9 Veatre Tvlllinyneaet [make (1961a, p. 10b( 1961b, p, 141), joiaaon (I960, pp. 117-119), Feyllng- In. j M Lady FranklinfJorden] (llanaaen and Olaaon (1959-1960, p. 12b) Indre Ruaa^ya make (1961b, p. 139) M.'l 7 . S^re Ruaa/ye make (195b) Sparreneaet Tullen (19»jb)

~~ÜÜdol (i960)~~

~~bd'je^ya 'ludnl (I960) Edfje^ya Lamont (IbtiOb, pp. 43’), 43t«)~~

~~Kong Karla Land Pike (lu9M, p. 36b)~~

I he uCLurrence of Mhalo bunea at "lO m In 4el 1 aund, cited by mrkeninajer ( I960' , p. o4), Is explained in that the atructore of the raiaed marine terrace with the whale bonea "clearly indicated that it naa folded and puahttd-up to 1 ta preaent height by the advancing Penckbroen, probably In the XVIllth '.entury." U( courte whale honea may be moved by g laciera, but can all the high level bonea in »e11aund reported by Lamunt be accounted for In thia wayV '‘Nitaie bonea were aiau ubaerved higher, probably at about 30 m above tea level. '^Fragment uf whale honea, ahe 11a, and driftwood were found in the moralnic dobrla of Elfvnhelnporten, ilie bulbuua terminal part of what waa then called Ivory Glac 1er. N<> hoachea wore seen above .'00 feet (i,0 m), t>ut the sheila and bonea cannot have been uplifted appreciably by the g lacier, because It flows from higher land. I suspect that higher beaches must occur, perhaps aa filgh at 100 m, because the ice-dammed take on the nurthweat aide of Elfvnhelnporten Is at i/O feet (113 tn) ('wrwoud and Gregory, Iii'hi, p. 201). where I have worked, and in particular many whale bones were noticed between Langgrunnodden and Dolomittkollen at about 8 m. However, by now it should be clear that not all the low whale bones are the result of hunting, let alone the high ones.

~~As to the rest of the few points used by Birkenmajer in drawing his~~

~~isobases of uplift, some of the data that Lament (1960a, p. 152) cites from Edge^ya are only the opinions of fishermen, and are thus of dubious value, as pointed out by Jahn (1959b, p. 175).~~

Birkenmajer (l960c, pp. 84-85) obtained a rate of uplift of over four meters per century at Torellneset, southern Nordaustlandet, on the basis of Thompson's (1953, p. 300) discovery of whale bones at l6 m and the latter's statement that "the lack of cliffing at the sea's edge and the gentle and continuous slope of the lower beaches, certainly 286 suggest that elevation still persists," Although cliffing may indicate a stable shore, the lack of it does not necessarily indicate uplift, for much depends on exposure and currents, as was very obvious in the area to the north that I studied,

~~Birkenmajer's figure of uplift of 0,9 m per century at Mosselbukta~~

~~(Figure 30) is based on Donner and West's figure of 3.0 m for the elevation of the upper pumice le v e l in t h is lo c a lity . Thus the same objections may be raised as at Brageneset,~~

~~Data on Present-day Uplift in Nordaustlandet~~

~~Russian hut~~

~~In northwestern Nordaustlandet evidence of several kinds suggests that little or no uplift of the land is occurring at the present time.~~

~~One of the sources of information is the old Russian hut on Nordre~~

~~RussjZ^ya, This has been described in some detail in an earlier publication (Blake, 1961a, pp. 101-111), but a brief summary is appropriate here.~~

From what is known of the Russian hunters, many of whom were sent out from the monastery on Ostrov Solovetskie in the White Sea, they first wintered around Storfjorden (Figure 2) in the early part of the

~~18th century. Then they apparently made their way up the west coast of Vestspitsbergen, and the first recorded wintering north of Prins~~

~~Karls Borland was in 1770-1771 (Conway, 1906, p. 247). In many places the Russians put up large crosses, and some of them are still standing.~~

~~In 1934 there was one at Krosspynten on the v/est side o f Wijdef jorden with the date 1792 inscribed on it (Ingstad, 1931, facing p. 80), 287~~

In lîurchisonfjorden there are crosses on Kross/ya and Nordre Rnss/ya (Figure 1 and 2, Plate LXIIl), The exact date when they were erected is unknown, but Carlheim-Gyllenskold (1900b, p. 170) reported that in

~~1898 the date 1798 could be fa in tly seen on the Nordre Russ^ya cross.~~

The hut may have been b u ilt at the same time that th e cross was erected, or later. In any event the hut was standing and in good condition when the island was visited in 1861 (NordenskiWld, 1863, P»7;

Chydenius, 1865, p. 164). Thus the minimum age for the hut is 100 years, although it is probably older, since the last recorded Russian expedition sailed from Arkhangelsk’ to Spitsbergen in 1851, wintered at Raudfjorden on the north coast, and left in the summer of 1852

~~(Rrman's Archiv, 1854, pp. 261-265; Duner et a l., 1867, pp. 101-102).~~

~~Since it was known that the Russians did not rely on finding driftwood but brought wood for building houses with them (Erraans'~~

Archiv, 1854, P. 262)^^, a 0^ age determination was made on one of the base timbers of the hut. Tliis log (U-37, Picea) is 260 ± 100 years old (Olsson, 1959, p. 91); i.e ., there is a 68 percent probability that the tree was liv in g sometime between 1600 and 1800, and th is does not contradict the historical evidence that the hut was built sometime between 1771 and 1851.

~~The hut ruins are about 8 m from a tidal lagoon, which in turn is separated from the sea by a prominent shingle bar 30 m wide (Plate~~

~~LXIV), A precise leveling showed that the rubble in the middle of the hut is 1,7 m above mean sea level, but the flat area of beach~~

~~^^According to Christiansscn (1956, p. 287) the houses were brought to Spitsbergen in sections, ready for assembly. 288 shingle around the hut is at only 1.4 m. The top of the shingle bar is at 1,3 m.~~

~~As noted earlier the tidal range in this area is about 0,6 m, therefore the outside of the hut is only 1,1 m above high tide level.~~

Furthermore, a lin e of seaweed on the inner side of the lagoon indicates the water level at times of extreme high tides and during storms, and the hut is only 0.7 m above this level (Figure 1, Plate LKV),

Interpolations from Donner and West's (1957, P» 22) shoreline diagram suggests u p lift at Nordre Russ^ya of the order of 1,5 m per century, whereas in Birkenmajer's diagram of land u p lift (Figure 34) the one meter per century isobase crosses this island. Corbel (i960, p, 261) has also indicated uplift of one meter per century in this area, based on the assumed presence of an ice sheet covering the whole Barents

~~Sea, These values cannot be correct, for then the hut would have been underwater when it was built. In fact, as Figure 2 in Plate LaV shows,~~

~~Nordre Russ^ya is a very low islan d , completely open to wind and waves.~~

~~Considering this, it is extremely doubtful that the hut was closer to sea level when ib was built than it is now.~~

~~Shore morphology~~

The nature of the shore itself provides a second line of approach to the problem of coastal s ta b ility . The w ell developed shingle bars have been mentioned several times in this report. They are not characteristic features along a coast which is rising rapidly with respect to sea level, and the general lack of them at higher levels on the beaches is good proof of this. However, lagoons dammed up behind bars do exist at certain levels, notably at nearly 100 m on 289 Tverrberget (Plate I and Figure 1, Plate XLVIII), at 46 to 47 m north of Kinnvika and north of Drikkevatnet (Plates XIV and XXVI), at 36 to 37 m southeast of Teodolitkollen (Plate XLIX), and at about seven meters behind the Tapes beach at Tollénbukta. A ll these bars are associated with prominent cut strandlines, and all the evidence available indicates that such strandlines were formed during times of eustatic transgressions or when sea le v e l was risin g rapidly enough so that i t balanced the isostatic rise.

~~The two photographs of Persodden in Plate LXVI show that very few changes have taken place between 1899 and 1958. The lagoons at~~

Persodden are completely closed off from the sea by shingle bars; there are no gaps kept open by tidal currents or streams. A closer examination of the largest lagoon shows more land e^qjosed in 1899 than in 195s , whereas the reverse would be expected since sediment is being carried into the lagoon continually by streams fed by melting snow, as shown in Figure 2 of this plate. Unfortunately the exact day and hour that the 1899 photograph was taken is not known, except that it was sometime between September 3rd and 8th (Ringertz, 1900a, p. 22 ), The

1958 photograph was taken at about midnight on July Uth, and according to the marigraph record this was a time of high tide in Kinnvika. If it is assumed that the 1899 photograph was taken at low tide, this would explain why fewer islands are visible in the second photograph.

However, the combined effects of sedimentation over a period of 59 years, plus land r ise , i f it has been occurring, should have been enough to offset the relatively small tidal changes, particularly if the 1899 photograph was not taken at low tide. The similarity between 290 the photographs suggests that little or no uplift is occurring at Persodden, This peninsula lies close to Birkenmajer’s 0 isobase of uplift (Figure 3k), so that this one isobase, at least, may accurately reflect the rate of land uplift.

~~Caves~~

In the dolomite areas of Murchisonfjorden, caves are quite common; e.g., on Indre Russ^ya, Flyndra, KvalrosshalvjZ^ya, Oskar^ya, and on the east side of Kinnvika. Plate DCVII is a photograph of one of the caves on Indre Russ/ya. It takes time for such caves to form by solution and by wave action in the jointed rock (and perhaps helped by ice action; see Corbel, 1954, pp. 4-5), and thus their presence implies a balance between sea and land over a considerable period. It is of interest to note that similar' small caves are present at about 10 m elevation

~~(visual estimation from boat) along the east coast of Kinnvika, near to where pumice associated with the Tapes beach is at eight meters.~~

~~D iscussion~~

~~The Russian hut, the well developed shingle beach bars, the caves at the present shore — all of these features indicate stability.~~

Furthermore, the quantities of driftwood on the bars and behind the lagoons (within two meters of sea level) are far greater than the amounts of driftwood at higher elevations. This is partly because the shoreline has remained in the same position for a longer time recently than ever before; it is not because trees were unavailable 291 earlier,^ There is absolutely no basis for Grad's (1874, pp. 346-349) contention that the land is rising because StorsteinhalvjzJya and the area between Murchisonf jorden and Wahlenbergfjorden, origin ally shown as islands on the 17th century Dutch maps, are now known to be peninsulas.

~~As noted earlier, the lowest point on the divide between Lady~~

Franklinfjorden and Murchisonfjorden is at 112 m, and the land south and east of the la tte r fiord r ise s to 200 m. Furthermore, Ekman’s seismic soundings (Figure 9) show that the elevation of the rock surface is never le ss than 150 m above sea le v e l between the western edge of

~~Vestfonna and Alhmann Station (Figure 9). The only possible conclusion is that the early Dutch maps were wrong, probably because the ships did not sail into the heads of the fiords,~~

~~Eustatic Changes of Sea Level~~

Thorarinsson (1940, p. 151) has estimated the present eustatic rise of sea level at five centimeters per century on the basis of glacier shrinkage, whereas Gutenberg (1941, pp. 721, 731) determined i t as about 10 cm per century from his study o f tide-gauge records. These and other values are summarized in Table 16,

^^Birkenmajer (I960b, p. 283) says "it is well known fact that the intensive clearing of Siberian forests, whence comes the driftwood, goes back not more than a hundred years." However, we have seen that some of the driftwood is much older, and trees have certainly been growing near’ the Arctic coasts of northern Europe and Asia for thousands of years; e .g ., Lundqvist (1959, pp. 3-19) has found nine stumps the whole length of the mountain chain in Sweden. Most of these stumps from the high mountains of western Sweden are above the present tr e e -lin e , and they are between 4240 ± 90 and 8220 ± 190 years old . 2 9 2

~~Table 16, Eustatic Rise of Sea Level~~

~~Rate (mm/yr) Intei'val Reference~~

1.1 ± 0.8 ca, 1880 to 1930 Gutenberg (1941) 0,5 or more few decades before 1940 Thorarinsson (1940) 0.5 1832 to 1942 Kuenen (1945) 1.2 to 1,4 1880 to 1950 Kuenen (1945) 1.14 ± 0.28 1890 to 1950 Dietrich (1954) 1.18 ± 0,18 300 A,D, to present Hafemann (I960) 1.22 1900 to 1950 Maksimov (I960)

~~^Adapted from Hela (I960) as quoted by Wexler (1961, p, 869). See references cited by these authors.~~

~~The majority of these figures suggest a rate of slightly over 10 cm per century. No long term marigraph records or repeated precise~~

~~levelings are available in Nordaustlandet, but the evidence cited~~

~~earlier indicates that if isostatic uplift of the land is still~~

~~occurring, it is doing so at a very slow rate, and it is probably balanced by the eustatic rise of sea level.~~

~~Data on Present-day Uplift in Other Areas~~

~~Vestspitsbergen Van Mi.ienf.jorden. The Russian huts also afford valuable informa~~

~~tion about land uplift in other parts of the Spitsbergen archipelago,~~

~~Hogbom (1911, p, 51) reported ruins of a Russian hut in the innermost~~

part of Van Mijenfjorden (Figure 2), and he says, "as an indication that land uplift has ceased it can be mentioned that the ruins under 293 discussion lie so low on the beach that today one would not set up a 21 tent nearer to water level,"

~~Kapp VJi.ik, At Kapp Wijk north of Isf jorden Feyling-Hanssen~~

~~(1955b, pp. 19-20) reported ruins of an old hut, which is probably~~

Russian according to Orvin, The hut is 11 m from the high-water line, and 1.25 m above it. It is built on beach gravel, but as the beach ridges decreased in height landward, it is 0.8 m below the crest of the present day storm ridge. Feyling-Hanssen also noted that a sparse cover of vegetation occurs in the swales between the various beach ridges, but that this vegetation is now being destroyed by incursions of sea water. Similar series of beach ridges with decreasing crest heights landward vrere also observed in the Sassenfjorden and

Billefjorden areas by Feyling-Hanssen, and he concludes that most probably these observations indicate a slight positive shift of the shoreline, i.e., a rise of sea level relative to the land (see also

~~Feyling-Hanssen, 1955a, pp. 48-49, 87-88).~~

~~Russekeila. Finally, Christiansson (1961, pp. 115-117; see also~~

~~Christicinsson, 1956, pp. 286-289; Simonsen, 1957, pp. 76-84) has recently carried out an intensive study of the Russian settlement at~~

Russekeila, near the mouth of Isfjorden (Figure 2). One of the roof timbers had the date 1778 inscribed on it, and, as noted earlier, the last recorded Russian visit to Spitsbergen, but not to the Russekeila area, was in 1851. The ruins themselves are at about seven meters, but the kitchen midden extends down to two meters above high-tide le v e l.

~~^^/riter's translation. 294~~

The bottom part of the midden is covered by beach shingle, but it shows no signs of having been washed or eroded by wave action, nor does it appear to have suffered from solifluction. Therefore Christiansson has concluded that little, if any, uplift is occurring, and certainly not the two meters per century suggested by Birkenmajer (Figure 34) for this area.

AmsterdaiWya. A lo c a lity which has been the subject of considerable discussion is the northwest corner of Vestspitsbergen, On Amsterdam^ya and certain neighboring islands are a number of ruins of vats for cooking whale blubber, tîany of them were b u ilt in the early part of the l?th century by the Dutch whalers, Vogt v isite d th is area in 1928 and mapped several groups of vats. Because beach shingle was heaped up around some of them, and thqy were being eroded by wave action, Vogt (1930, pp, 10-11; 1932, pp, 564-569, 572) postulated that the land had sunk rela tiv e to the sea by at le a st 0,65 m in 300 years, i . e . , about

~~0,22 m per century. However, after visiting the same area in 1952,~~

~~Feyling-Hanssen (1954, pp. 76-97) concluded that the present position of the vats was not the result of land subsiding, but of shore erosion.~~

As Feyling-Hanssen pointed out, the vats were probably not built so low that th ^ could be reached by waves, but they were certainly built near to the shore for convenience, Vogt's measurements showed that the lowest part of one vat on Amsterdam/ya was 0,65 m below high-tide level, and his other observations, plus Feyling-Hanssen's profiles, show that the lowest parts of all vats are less than two meters, and often le ss than one meter, above high-tide le v e l. Perhaps a sinking of the land has not occurred, but on the other hand, the vats could not 295 have been b u ilt any lower. Thus, as Christiansson (1961, p. 116) has noted, no uplift of the land can have occurred here in the last 300 to

~~350 years,~~

~~B.i^rng^ya~~

~~Corbel (I960, p, 263) includes in his discussion of uplift~~

~~around the Barents Sea, He refers to Horn and Orvin's work there, and~~

~~suggests that measurements made in 1899 and 1922 indicate an u p lift of~~

~~one meter per century, with a value of 0,7 m per century probably being~~

~~correct for the island as a whole. Yet Horn and Orvin (1928, p, 56) themselves did not conclude that any such uplift was occurring.~~

~~NordenskiBld set up a marker in June 1864 that was 119 cm above mesin~~

~~water le v e l. In July-August 1899 th is marker was 113 cm above mean~~

~~water level (see Fosberg, 1899^ p, 16), but applying a correction of~~

~~four centimeters because the general water level is higher in July-~~

~~August, the difference over the 35 years is only two centimeters,~~

Horn and Orvin conclude that "no measurable change of le v e l has taken place in the intervening period," In 1922 the markers which had been inserted in 1899 were remeasured, and a difference of 9,6 cm was found

(Koller and Luncke, 1944, p, 64) , However, after applying corrections the difference increased, and in 1922 the markers were found to be about 20 cm higher relative to sea level. But Horn and Orvin (1928, p, 56) state:

Owing to frequent wind and rough seas it was difficult, however, to obtain quite accurate measurements in 1922. Moreover, bhe observations were not made at id en tical places in both years. It is also possible that local disturbances may have had an influence. If the latter measurements indicate any change in lev el i t must be a 296

r ise of the land. Pending future measurements that may confirm or invalidate this result, the island should be regarded as being at rest or to be undergoing changes of level too small to be measurable.

~~Summary~~

In summary there appears to be little evidence for appreciable land uplift in Nordaustlandet, Vestspitsbergen, or Bj;$rnp$ya, Measurable uplift may be occurring to the southeast on Barents^ya, Edge/^ya, and in

~~Kong Karls Land, and it is hoped that the results of the 1959-1960~~

~~German expedition w ill help to clarify the situation in those areas.~~

~~In his report after the 1959 summer's work Budel (I960, p, 83) suggested that on Barents^ya the average rate of uplift for the last~~

~~9000 years had been about 1,7 m per century. Certainly uplift at this rate, or even faster, may have occurred, but is the process still going on so rapidly?~~

~~The evidence presented in this report shows that during the last glacial maximum the ice mass was thicker over the Olgastretet- Kong~~

~~Karls Land region than over Nordaustlandet (and perhaps Vestspitsbergen?),~~

Thus greater total uplift to the southeast would be expected, and it may be continuing at the present time, Birkenmajer's isobases of uplift as shown in Figure 34 may approximate the correct form, but I believe that the rates of uplift are considerably less than

~~Birkenmajer has suggested. GLACIER VARIATIONS AND MOTION~~

~~Marginal Fluctuations near Murchisonf .jorden and Lady Franklinf .jorden~~

~~Vestfonna~~

~~Introduction~~

End moraines are extremely rare around the edges of Vestfonna. A few occur at and near Brageneset, but groups of concentric end moraines are lacking except in front of Lindhagenbreen on the north side of

Vestfonna, an area that was not visited in the field. A well developed lateral moraine is present along the southwest side of Sj^re Frahklin- breen, and it is only near this outlet glacier that significant amounts of morainic debris are appearing on the surface of Vestfonna as a result of shearing (Plates I and II).

Not only are end moraines lacking in general, but there is no organic matter that can be used for radiocarbon dating near the edge of the ice cap. Thus it is difficult to know how long the ice edge has been in its present position. However, some information can be obtained by comparing photographs taken at different times and by lichenological studies.

~~Comparison of photographs~~

~~Fortunately the field area lies within the part of Nordaustlandet visited by the Swedish section of the Swedish-Russian Arc of Meridian~~

~~Expedition, 1899-1902. A group under Ringertz carried out topographic mapping by means o f te r r e str ia l photogrammetry in 1899 (see Ringertz,~~

~~1900a, pp. 21-23; 1900b, pp. 25-30), and their work was continued in~~

~~297 298~~

~~1901, The maps resulting from this expedition were published by De Geer~~

~~(1 9 ^ ).~~

~~Ahlmann (1933a, p. 16$), who worked in the area between Brageneset and Celsiusberget in 1931, noted that there had been no appreciable~~

~~change in the position of ice edge since the ea rlier map was made. The same statement can be made a fter ny v is it s in 1957 and 1958. Plate~~

~~L3CVIII shows two photographs of Vestfonna from Celsiusberget, one taken~~

~~in 1899, the other in 1957. The position of the ice edge has remained the same over this span of time, but the permanent snowfields were more extensive in 1899.~~

~~Plate LKIX shows the area to the southwest of the previous plate.~~

The margin of Vestfonna has not fluctuated, but the size of the snow fields has. In 1899 the basin now occupied by Firnvatnet was nearly filled by snow; no lake is visible. By 1931 a cliff had developed as the snowfield diminished in size, and a lake was present. In 1938 the air photograph (Plate XI) shows that the lake was nearly its present siz e , but a smaller ice-dammed lake s t i l l existed west of

~~Firnvatnet. This lake had merged with Firnvatnet by 1957, and the~~

~~cliff of ice and snow was higher (Plate XX).~~

~~Plate LXX includes two photographs of the edge of Vestfonna at W ulffvatnet; one i s an oblique from 1938, the other a v ertic a l from~~

1957. The le v e l of the lake was a l i t t l e higher in August 1938 than in August 1957, but, as noted under the chapter on Geomorphology, a large outburst of water from Wulffvatnet had occurred on July 31, 1957, presumably as the result of an ice dam breaking. Although the difference in water level makes comparison more difficult, the position 299 of the ice edge is essentially the same in both years, the only difference being that the snowfield fringing Vestfonna extends a little farther westward toward Wulffvatnet in 1957.

~~Patterned ground~~

The presence or absence of patterned ground near a glacier can also give us information about the stability of the ice edge. Figure 1 in Plate LXXII is a low lev el a ir photograph near Vindheimen. It shows part of the ridge seen in Figure 15 and in Plates XXXVIII and LXVIII.

~~Ice-wedge polygons are well developed in the felsenmeer and bedrock, and a pattern continues up to and under the snowfield at the edge of~~

~~Vestfonna. Such polygons are presumed to take ^ le a st a number of years or several tens of years to form, and according to present knowledge they do not form under a perennial cover of ice or snow.~~

Thus their presence indicates that the ridge has been ice-free for some time. Furthermore, since the ridge would certainly be subject to erosion i f ice were flowing over i t , the assumption that the ic e edge has not advanced farther since these polygons developed seems reasonable.

~~Botanical evidence~~

At Vindheimen a number o f samples of sandstone and shale bedrock, on which lichens were growing, were co llected about 75 to 100 m frcm the snowfield at the ice edge. The lichens have been studied by Dr.

R. E. Beschel, and they are listed in Table 17, together with other elements of the flora. Several species of the genus Rhizocarpon are of special interest because they grow slower than the Parmeliae and the Umbilicariae. Rhizocarpon inarense (Vain.) Vain., a yellowish 300

~~crustose lichen, attains a maximum diameter of 13 cm on the slopes of~~

~~M attikollen (Figure 15 and Plate XXXVIIl), On the basis o f the known~~

~~growth rate of lichens in the Alps and Greenland (Beschel, 1950,~~

~~pp. 152-161; 1957, pp. 1-22; 1961, pp. 1044-1062; Heuberger and Beschel,~~

~~1958, pp. 73-100), and taking the harsh climatic conditions in~~

Nordaustlandet into consideration, Beschel has informed me (April 1959), that he estimates the lichens with this diameter are at least 2500 years o ld . Another piece of sandstone from the rock outcrop surrounded by snow

~~in Figure 2, Plate LXXI, had molded before it could be studied, but the~~

~~Rhizocarpon, which is 10 cm in diameter, is probably R^ inarense,~~

~~judging by the chemical reaction. However, the fruits do not contain~~

spores any more according to Beschel (May 1959). To the best of my recollection th is sample was fresh when collected , and i f so it must be at least 2000 years old. However, Beschel has stated that if it was dead at the time of collection the site had probably been covered by snow for a decade or more during the last century. Thus there is

~~some doubt regarding th is sample, and it certainly would not be~~

~~surprising if these low rocks, which were le s s than two meters above the~~

~~snow surface in August 1957, were covered by snow during some summers.~~

~~However, as Figure 2 in Plate LXXII shows, lichens were p le n tifu l on the rocks immediately outside the ice edge and there is no doubt about the ones 75 m away.~~

Thus, except for very minor changes in the size of the marginal snowfield, in the Vindheimen area Vestfonna has not advanced beyond i t s present position in the la s t 2000 to 2500 years, and the evidence from 301

~~TaUlr I/» Vc'jPtat Um a l Vlndhwlman~~

~~: h n a-ci s~~

~~Lvcallun and dm la H * (*ee Fljurff T») Sfi-g ïtî 5:5 a-sf 5.“5 s Exposure Flat W W w~~

Approximate distance lOOO •*0-75 100 I Approximate elevation (m) HO 95 100 93 Sample No. 3 6,14,15 16 17 VâtcuUr plantt^*^ Ueramllum arctlcum var. vcalltum Cochlear la uffIçlnella Luzula arcuata ("confuaa” ) Papavef radlcatum Phloptla alqlda Poa abbrevlata Ranunculua aulphufgua SaxlfrMa caeaoltoaa && cTJiua 2 c nlvalla ^ oppoaUlfolla iJryophytea^ Andreaea paollloaa

Hrvum crvophllum Cal 1 jargon turdeacena (ncranowalaala crlapula Drepanocladub revolvena Isopltfi-YnluTTi pulchallum Puqunatum aiplnum P hlla ctuda Uhacomltrlum lanuqlnoaum Temnoma aetitomv Lichen»'* Alactorla nlofIcani Ax ochfoLeuca Cetrar.L-1 ci lapa IL. nlvalla Rhizocarpon Üt ■iroenlandlcum* ' IL. Inarenaa" Ai. jamUaMlcum* At auperflclalc aap boreala»^' At «P * Sporaalalla leaWdlnea" Cfroocaulon denudatum ümbllicaria probgacldea*

M d n n llfle d by lU s a e lro l. •In addition to the plant» 1latfd above, Draba j^llll wa» collected from the hill north of Mattikollen, about IbO m a.a.l. AUo on the polygon» (till, plu» Ice lake »edlmenta( V ) ) ea»t of Mattikollen, m from the Up I'dge, were Pa Paver radlcatum. Saxlf raqa cernua, and ^ opootU Ifol la. •'id e n tifie d by H. Per#»un and 0. M8rton»»on. All are mo»»ea except lemnoma sell form#. an hepatic, ‘*3tarrpd lichen* wore growing on rock and were Identified by H. :Je»cheli I'ther» wpfe with vascular plant». The iJmbllUarla waa Identified by both. 'Rhizocarpon uroenlandlcum Lynge, perhaps new for Spitsbergen according to letter from R. llëëchol (Aprl( A | 1...... Wb'O. Listed only for üreonland by Lynge. (lOgo. pp. 31(i-317). c ry s ta l 1 lutffium Lyngc If emphasizing chomlcal reaction# according to R. iieschoI (A pril ld*,g). 3 0 2 the ice-wedge polygons suggests that at some time Vestfonna has been less

~~extensive than it is now.~~

~~Isolated Snowfields and Dead Ice Masses~~

~~In addition to the permanent snowfields, which are less extensive today than in 1899 or 1931, there are numerous dead ice masses,~~

~~Ahlmann (1933a, p. 166) has discussed Forsiusbreen and Backabreen~~

(Figure 8), and because they thin out evenly at the edges and have no moraines he regarded them as evidence of waning glaciation. However, although neither of these glaciers appear to be growing larger, on the other hand they do not appear to have diminished in size since 1931.

The Swedish-Finnish-Swiss IGY Expedition maintained a thermograph on top of Backabreen, which is completely separate from Vestfonna, from the end of May to the end of July 1958, On July 28th 35 cm of porous snow s till remained above glacier ice, and the first snow of the 1958-

~~1959 winter fell before the end of August. Liljequist (1959, pp. 119-~~

~~120) has described the situation in 1958 as follows:~~

A marked difference exists between the south and north sides of Murchisonf jorden, at least in the outer part of the fiord; the south side is considerably more barren and has more snow. At the end of July, when the north side of the fiord was free of snow except for occasional patches, the south side between Backabreen and Sveanor was up to 30 percent covered by deep snow. In the same way animal life is scarce on the south side. Obviously the location of Backabreen is not just by chance. It appears as if the air currents through Hinlopenstretet, during times of southerly winds, veer in over land just in this area. The orographic cloud formation and precipitation which therefore occur, together with katabatic winds and drifting snow from Vestfonna, would seem to explain Backabreen's origin and continued existence. 303

~~As the ice lies there, even and gently domed, it does not give the impression of being dead ice.l~~

~~Palsuofonxia, a dead ice mass lying in the valley between Fogberget~~

~~and Brekollen, has been mentioned earlier, and a comparison of Plates~~

~~VIII and XXIII shows how it has thinned between 1938 and 1957. De~~

~~Geerfonna lies at a higher elevation but s till occupies a depression.~~

~~According to information received from S. R. Ekman (November 1958), a~~

~~seismic sounding indicated that it is about 40 m thick. Evidence of~~

~~its former extent is present in Figure 2, Plate LXX, where a series of~~

~~lateral drainage channels can be seen leading into Wulffvatnet beside the stream that now drains from De Geerfonna to this lake. After these~~

~~channels were made the lobe of De Geerfonna in this valley has retreated about two kilometers. The exact time when De Geerfonna reached~~

Wulffvatnet is unknown, except that it was sometime before 1899. The lake as mapped then was the same size as today, and Ringertz (1900b, p. 26), in describing the snow cliff at the water's edge on the Vestfonna

~~side, mentions only streams flowing in from the north, not another ic e lo b e.~~

Probably at one time De Geerfonna and Palosuofonna were connected, and they may have been joined as late as 1924, The center air photograph of Plate LXXIV was published earlier by Tymms (1925, facing p, 132), and in this photograph Palosuofonna is obviously much larger.

~~Although it is difficult to judge the position of De Geerfonna because the photograph is a high-angle oblique, this ice mass may have extended~~

~~^Writer's translation. 304~~

~~farther to the northwest on Fogberget in 1924. In any event. De Geerfonna and Palosuofonna appear to have been connected at that time.~~

~~Although the permanent snowfields are now less extensive, they are~~

~~still large enough to overlap the raised beaches in many places. This~~

~~indicates that when these beaches were forming the snowfields were~~

~~considerably less extensive than today, or perhaps nonexistent, A~~

~~snowfield covering some of the higher beaches below Tverrberget is~~

~~shown in Figure 1, Plate XLVIII, and Figure 1, Plate LXXI shows a permanent snovrfield overlapping some of the higher beaches in Austvika,~~

~~Sometimes these snowfields help in transporting debris. East of~~

~~Weaselbukta a protalus rampart several meters high has been built on top of the raised beaches by debris sliding down the snowfield on the~~

~~south side of the valley (Figure 2, Plate IXXI), This snowfield could not have been present when the higher beaches were forming, because it~~

~~covers them today. On the other hand, the snowfield does not reach the moraine-like rüge now, nor did it in 1938 (see Plate III), indicating that it has been larger in the recent past,~~

~~Franklinbreane~~

~~The two outlet glaciers reaching the sea in Lady Franklinf jorden have fluctuated much more than the edges of the ice cap, S^re~~

~~Franklinbreen, the larger of the two, has been studied in particular detail because of its relation to the raised beaches.~~

~~H isto ry~~

~~S^re Franklinbreen, The front of S^re Franklinbreen must have been at least six kilometers southeast of its present position in order 305~~

~~for the high level beaches below Brekollen to' form. Furthermore, the~~

~~shear moraine visible in Plates I and LXXVII, separating a lobe of~~

~~Vestfonna from the drainage basin of S^re Franklinbreen farther east,~~

~~apparently contains marine shells, although it was not visited in the~~

~~field. As Plate LXXVII shows, some of the debris in this moraine is~~

~~being picked up by the faster moving ice of S^re Franklinbreen, The~~

~~debris is then carried along on the surface, where it assumes the form~~

~~of dirt cones because of its insulating effect on the ice. The cones~~

~~visible in Plate XLIX were visited, and fragments of pelecypod shells,~~

~~Balanus sp,, and Foraminifera were found among the sand and gravel,^~~

~~Since the material in the shear moraine must originate east of where~~

~~it appears on the surface, tM s also shows that at one time the front~~

~~of S^re Franklinbreen must have been at least six kilometers farther~~

~~southeast. If it is assumed that there are shells in all parts of the shear moraine, then the front may have been even farther back.~~

The shells on the glacier have not been dated, but because the beaches at 50 to 60 m in innermost Murchisonfjorden formed about 9800 years ago, the beaches at 68 m and higher near Brekollen must be more than 10,000 years old. Therefore, 10,000 years ago, and earlier, the front of S^re Franklinbreen was 6 to 10 km southeast of its present p o s itio n .

~~Shells in till at the outer end of S^re Franklinbreen's lateral moraine (Figure 32) have been dated at 4970 ± 110 years B.P., but~~

~~Mechanical analysis showed that nearly all material finer than medium sand (0.500-0.250 mm) has been washed out by meltwater on the g la c ie r . 3 0 6~~

~~because the advancing glacier may have picked up shells of mollusks~~

~~which had been dead for some time, this date is of little value.~~

~~However, in addition to shells, pieces of driftwood that were previously~~

~~on the low beaches or on the fiord bottom were picked up when the ice~~

~~advanced. Several such pieces of driftwood were found on the surface~~

~~of the till between the ice edge and the lateral moraine. Since the~~

~~sea has not entered this area after the moraine was built, the arrival~~

~~of the driftwood must predate the advance of the glacier. The one~~

~~sample that has been dated (U-35, Larix) is 1775 ± 80 years old. It was collected 3 to 5 m above sea level and about one kilometer behind~~

~~(so u th east o f) th e g la c ie r fro n t (F igure 3 2 ), I t is not known when th e glacier started to advance, how long it took to reach its maximum~~

~~extent, or what other fluctuations may have taken place. All that can be said is that one recent advance occurred sometime after 1775 ±~~

~~80 years ago (185 A,D,).~~

~~A comparison between the extent of the glacier in 1899 (De Geer,~~

~~1923 , Plate A) and the extent of the lateral moraine shows that S^re~~

~~Franklinbreen did not advance beyond its 1899 position, at least not along the southwest side of the fiord. It is worth noting, though, that Figure 1 in Plate LXVI shows large tabular icebergs in Lady~~

~~Franklinfjorden in 1899,^ Such icebergs cannot have drifted in through~~

~~Franklinsundet, as it is too shallow, and even the channel east of~~

~~Lag^ya has some islands and is probably not over 200 m deep. Therefore,~~

^See Sandford (1955, pp, 164-170) for a discussion of tabular icebergs in Spitsbergen, 307 the tabular icebergs must have broken off from S^re Franklinbreen, indicating that the glacier was more extensive along some parts of its front shortly before it was mapped.

~~Parry (1828, p. 125) observed more large icebergs in Lady~~

Franklinfjorden than in any other place since his visit to Baffin Bay, west of Greenland. These icebergs, too, must have been of local origin, indicating that S^re Franklinbreen was an actively calving tidal glacier in 1827, although the exact position of the front is unknown.

~~The position of S^re Franklinbreen in 1899 is shown in Plate~~

~~LXXIII. The even and uncrevassed surface of the glacier, reflecting inactivity, suggests that the advance had taken place some years before th a t d a te .~~

Plate LXXIII also shows that W argentinfjellet was completely covered by snovf. This was probably a permanent snowfield, not just l a te summer snow (th e photograph was taken sometime between September

~~3 and 8, 1899), and thus it is also evidence that the permanent snow fields were much more extensive in 1899 than they are now.~~

~~In 1939 Moss and Glen published a short paper about the retreat of S^re Franklinbreen, based on the plane table map of the area made in 1936 , air photographs taken in 1924, and the Arc of Meridian~~

~~Expeditions’ map. There are a numoer of errors in Moss and Glen's~~

~~( 1939 , p. 228) sketch map which should now be corrected. Their map is included in the present report as Figure 35» and the errors are listed below,~~

~~1 ) De Geer's (1923, Plate A) map shows the position of the ice front as mapped by Ringertz in 1899, not 1901, and a preliminary map 3 0 8~~

~~had already been published in 1900 (De Geer, 1900a, Plate 13; Ringertz,~~

~~1900a, pp. 22-23).~~

~~2) The 1924 position, of the ice front is incorrectly plotted.~~

~~The 1924 air photographs were taken by Tyioms on August 15th (Binney,~~

~~1925 , p . 3 3 ). The photograph that Moss and Glen (1939, facing p. 229)~~

~~published is the middle one of three, and the same one was also~~

published by Binney (1925, facing p. 36) with the title "Air photograph of glacier just west of Lady Franklin Bay." Tymms (1925, facing p. 132) used both this photograph and the adjacent one to the northeast, which

shows the contact of the glacier with Gerardodden, in his discussion of aerial surveys. However, the third photograph making up the panorama of Plate LXXIV and showing the southwest side of the glacier, has not been published before. As Plate LXXIV shows, although the glacier had receded on the northeast side by calving, the southwest edge was close to the same position that it had occupied in 1899. It had not retreated to Sevrinberget.

3 ) The fro n t of Sj^re F ranklinbreen in 1936 cannot have been in the position it occupies on Moss and Glen's map. They have indicated the front lying to the northwest of the stream floiving into the fiord at Tunnelbreen, but their accompanying photographs, taken from the northwest side of Tunnelbreen, shows that the glacier front lies farther to the southeast. Figure 1 in Plate LXXVI, a photograph taken in 1936 from Teodolitkollen (southeast of Tunnelbreen) shows the correct position of the glacier front very clearly, and the position has been plotted more accurately in Figure 3 6 .

~~Sometime between 1938 and 1956 a great change in S^re Franklinbreen 309~~

~~took place, as Plates I, LXXV, and LXXVI show. The glacier advanced~~

~~slightly, both forward and laterally, and its surface became~~

~~chaotically crevassed. As more ice flowed out the glacier became~~

~~thicker and began to calve actively. Figure 1 in Plate LXXVII is a~~

~~detailed view of the front in 1957 from the lateral moraine. Leveling~~

~~in 1958 showed the middle part of the front to be 30 m h i^ , whereas~~

~~the pinnacled area near the southwest side, shown in Figure 2, Plate~~

~~LXXVI, is 60 m in height. According to a chart received from K. Z.~~

~~Lundquist (December 1957), soundings in 1957 showed that the water~~

~~120 m in front of the glacier was only 185 m deep, hence the glacier is probably not afloat.~~

~~In Figure 36 the positions of the glacier front between 1899 and~~

~~1957 are plotted. This map is still only a sketch map regarding the~~

1924 , 1936 , and 1938 positions, since the first and last are plotted by eye from oblique air photographs and the 1936 position is taken from Figure 1, Plate LXXVI. The 1931 position has been omitted because the only photographs available are some taken by 0. Kulling from just above sea level near Sevrinberget, and the presence of tabular icebergs and sea ice in the fiord make it difficult to see exactly where the front is. For the same reason the 195,8 position has been omitted, but both this and the 1956 position (Plate LXXV) are very close to that of 1957. The latter has been used because it can be plotted most accurately from the vertical air photographs.

~~Thus the front of S^re Franklinbreen was between 9 and 13 km farther to the northwest in 1899 than it was about 10,000 years ago.~~

~~Between 1899 and 1 9 3 8 , the years which can be compared most easily, the 3 1 0~~

~~Jàderii Peninsula.~~

~~o .~~

~~2 m iles~~

~~Figure 35. Map showing fluctuations of Franklinbreane. After Moss and Glen (1939). 311~~

~~S0RE~~

Figure 36, Revised map showing fluctuations of Franklinbreane, 3 1 2 front retreated about three kilometers (see also Ahlmann, 1933a, p. l66; Moss and Glen, 1939, p. 229, and Glen, 1939, p. 8, for estimates of the retreat). No part of the front advanced more than one kilometer between

~~1938 and 1957, and the average appears to be nearer 500 m.~~

Nordre Franklinbreen. The fluctuations of the smaller outlet glacier, Nordre Franklinbreen, have not always coincided with those of S^re Franklinbreen. However, high beaches southeast of Jaderinf jorden that are now truncated by this glacier indicate that Nordre

~~Franklinbreen was also well back of its present position a few thousand years ago.~~

The 1899 (not 1901) position of the glacier is shown in Figure 36; this position is based on De Geer's (1923, Plate A) map and was incorrectly plotted by Moss and Glen (1939, p. 228). Ringertz's photograph of the glacier front in 1899 shows that it was heavily crevassed and actively calving, and it ended in a steep slope against

~~K ullingfjellet. The glacier was probably advancing in 1899, and the~~

1924 air photographs show that it continued to advance, both forward and laterally. In 1924 the glacier was apparently not as active as in 1899 although some calving was occurring. The 1936 map and photographs from 1938 and 1957 show retreat from the 1924 position, and Nordre Franklinbreen did not show signs of renewed activity in

~~1956 to 1958.~~

~~Ice motion~~

~~Some observations on the motion of S^re Franklinbreen were made in 1957-1958. It had been hoped to implant stakes all the way across~~

S^re Franklinbreen, but because of the intensely crevassed surface 313 of the glacier, which made progress across it extremely slow, it was necessary to curtail this part of the program, A baseline was established on Teodolitkollen and five aluminum stakes were set out in

September, 1957. Four of these were between the ice edge and the dirt cones shown in Plates XLIX and LXXV, in a profile roughly normal to the southwest side. They were read four times over a period of nearly one year, using a Wild T-2 theodolite, A fifth stake, set out beyond the dirt cones, moved so rapidly that by May 1958 it was hidden behind the seracs near the ice edge, so no results were obtained. Likewise

~~Stake 4 was hidden by the time the last set of readings were made in~~

~~July, 1958,~~

~~The data obtained are summarized in Table 18, The figures given refer to total motion, not to the component of motion normal to the glacier front or side, Plate LXXV shows the flow pattern of S^re~~

Franklinbreen, and as a result of the inflow of ice from the east the resultant motion of all stakes is toward the southwest, corner of the front, just the area vfoere the pinnacles build up. Stakes 1, 2, and 3 moved approxim ately in s tr a ig h t lin e s th e whole tim e, whereas Stake 4 veered more sharply toward the west between May and mid-July, 1958,

~~As is common on glaciers, motion varied according to the time of year. Rates per day were about three times as rapid in July as between~~

May and July, and rates during the latter period were more than double the rates from September to May. The dirt cones are one-quarter of the distance across the glacier, that is, about 850 m out of a total width of 1800 ra. Most valley glaciers move fastest near the middle, and the results on S^re Franklinbreen show that this glacier is no exception Table 18, Motion of Sjrfre Franklinbreen

~~TOTALS~~

~~Sept, 8, 1957 to î^ay 26 to July l6 to Sept. 8, 1957 to Sept. 8, 1957 to May 26, 1958^ July 16, 1958 July 29, 1958 July l6, 1958 July 29, 1958~~

~~Stake Total No. T o tal No, T o tal No, T o tal No. T o tal No. No, motion of motion of motion of motion of motion of (m) days m/day (m) days m/day (m) days m/day (m) days m/day (ra) days m/daj~~

~~Ice edge~~

~~1 32 260 0.12 12 51 0 .2 4 12 13 0 ,9 2 44 311 0 ,1 4 56 324 0 .1 7~~

~~2 40 260 0.15 25 51 0.49 21 13 1,62 65 311 0.21 86 324 0 .2 7~~

~~3 84 260 0 ,3 2 39 51 0 .7 6 26 13 2.00 123 311 0 .4 0 149 324 0 .4 6~~

~~4 142 260 0.55 89 51 1.75 -- - 231 311 0.74 - - -~~

~~D irt cones~~

mistake in reading the theodolite during the first set of observations means that the coordinates for stakes 1, 2, and 4 could be in any of four positions, those for stake 3 in two. The coordinates used are average values. For stakes 2, 3, and 4 this value is very close to two of the possibilities. An error of 10 m in the total motion of stake 1 during the first period would cause a change in daily rate of 4 cm (to 0.16 m/day), an error of 20 m for stake 4 results in a daily rate change of 8 cm (to 0.63 ra/day). 315 to the rule. From the available data it appears that Stake 4 has a

~~yearly rate of close to one meter per day, and therefore it seems~~

~~reasonable to assume that at its fastest moving point S^re Franklinbreen~~

~~has a yearly mean rate of at least two meters per day. The motion can~~

~~be followed visually in Plates LXXVIII and LXXIX, series of photographs~~

~~taken from the southeasterly theodolite position on each of the four~~

~~occasions when the motion stakes were surveyed.~~

~~Lateral moraine~~

~~Description. Along the southwest side of S^re Franklinbreen is~~

~~a well developed lateral moraine. In some places it is a single ridge,~~

~~in other places, double. In 1938 the ice tapered down to a thin wedge~~

~~at the side and ended several tens of meters from the inner moraine~~

~~ridge. By 1956, as a result of its renewed activity, the glacier also~~

~~had advanced laterally. Although in places the outer moraine ridge is~~

as much as 100 m from the ice, along much of this side the glacier is within a few meters of, or in contact with, the lateral moraine. The ridges are hummocky and sinuous; they rise up to 10 m above the adjacent

~~stream and a re 5 to 50 m wide.~~

~~Figure 1 in Plate LXXX is a general view of the lateral moraine.~~

~~The change in the nature of the ice edge is obvious when this photograph~~

is compared with Plate VIII. The marginal stream, which in 1938 flowed between the lateral moraine and the beaches until just before it entered the fiord, now cuts through the moraine ridge about one kilometer farther upstream and flows between the moraine and the ice edge until disappearing under the glacier. The nature of the till in the lateral moraine has been described earlier (see Figure 22). In addition to 316

~~the finer fractions this pinkish-gray (7.5YR 7/2) blocky till always~~

~~contains boulders, many of them striated. Figure 2, Plate LSXX, shows~~

~~that the moraine is ice-cored in places. Crystallqg rap hie investigations~~

~~were not made, so it is not known if the buried ice is true glacier ice~~

~~or ice derived from snow that accumulated at the ice edge.~~

~~A push moraine being formed in 1957 is shown in Figure 1, Plate~~

~~LXXXI. This locality is near the front of S/re Franklinbreen where the~~

~~glacier is advancing across a flat till area toward the lateral moraine.~~

In such a situation snow lying at the edge of the ice might be pushed under till and then preserved, but probably most of the buried ice is glacier ice. In another place where the edge was even steeper, the glacier was advancing in a sort of rolling fashion (Figure 2, Plate

~~LXXXI), but till is also being squeezed up in front of the ice.~~

~~There do not seem to be any significant age differences between the two moraine ridges in terms of morphology, and patterned ground~~

has not developed on either. The outer one is almost certainly a result of the advance to the 1899 position, and the inner ridge presumably represents slight advances or standstills during general recession of the ice away fran the outer ridge. One kilometer behind the glacier front a till-outw ash-till sequence was exposed. This was in a 1,5 m deep cut made by the marginal stream on the flat till area inside the lateral moraine, and it is apparently the result of some of these minor fluctuations of the ice edge.

~~All the ridges appear to be mainly the product of pushing up of older till and bottom sediment, although some till is being brought up 317~~

~~shear planes at the present time (Figure 1, Plate LXXX), and no doubt~~

~~this has occurred in the past too.~~

~~Vegetation, Table 19 shows the nature of the vegetation on the~~

~~lateral moraine and in some selected nearby areas. The collections are~~

~~almost certainly not complete, and j'-et with the exception of the~~

~~solifluction lobe an effort was made to collect all types of vegetation~~

seen at each locality. At the one point where collections were made on two separate moraine ridges, 30 and 80 m from the ice, respectively, there was more vegetation on the outer ridge, but still the time needed fo r t h i s c o m m u n ity to develop is not known. All that can be assumed is that the outer ridge is at least 60 years old.

~~There are significant differences between the vegetation on the moraine and that found on the 68 m raised beach and on top of~~

Sevrinberget (155 m), Salix nolaris and Dryas octopetala were developed in both these higher and older localities, and Dryas octopetala is also abundant on till ana beach shingle near the lake on the southeast side of Teodolitkollen, where mats 25 to 40 cm in diameter were observed. No lichens were found in any of the samples from the lateral moraine^, whereas crustose lichens were common on the higher beaches and bedrock areas, and other lichens were mixed in with the vascular plants. The absence of lichens, Salix, and Dryas is also an indication of the relative youth of the lateral moraine.

^The absence of lichens cannot be attributed to instability in the moraine, for in some places, particularly on the outside facing the beaches, firmly-imbedded large boulders were common. Slumping such as that shown in Figure 2, Plate LXXX, is almost completely confined to the inside of the moraine. 3 1 8

~~Tâbl* 19. Vegetation in inner Udy Frenkllnf jorden~~

L • t e r i 1 Single ridge til |.l Location and detail# *53 # 1 * till III m it 3344 Hi Ineide Outeide Inner Outer III E xpoeure NE SH A ll A ll F l a t A ll A ll F la t NE NE F la t Approx. dletence from Ice edge (a) 95 100 3 0 8 0 100 2 0 0 2 6 0 0 3 0 8 0 0 1200 1900 Approx. elevation (a) 10 10 10 10 5 2-5 1,5 2-3 60 70 155 S am ple N o . ______24 25 3 0 31 23 22 32 26 21 2 0 33 Vaicular planta^ Cereatiua eretlcua var.veatltum X XXX?XX X? CochleeriaiXfililA offtnlealla D. B e l l l l fiiu âlitoiallitâ apec. Indet. Q C to a e ta la Dupontla Plaherl Luxule arcuate f ecnfuaa"!

~~Papaver radleatua Phippeia alQi^i Ph. concinna £ftl ahhrewtata PolvQOnum vlviparim Potentilla hvparetlea Ranuneulua aulahureua Salix polaria Saaifxaoa caeipltoaa~~

n l v a l i a âa aaMiUUgiu Stellaria lonolnea aap. eraaaioea Bryophytea^ Diatichlum Haaanii^ Ditrlchum flexicaule G rilla incurva PoQonatum alplnum PQlvtrichum Piliferum Pottia Qbtualfoiia Rhaeomltriua ianu-ilnoiun Sohenolobua minutua L ichena^ »^ Aleetoria niorlcana At pubeacena* Cetrarla nlvalia Cladonia aracilia var. chordalia Lecidea ap.* Ochrolechla frialda Parmeliaommhalodea Inteatlniform ia* Za wfrttttni HhixQcarpon copelandii*

g* auperficiala aap. boreale"' Z a «P Sohaerophorua fraollia Sporaatatle teatudlmea*

pxoboaeldaa*

Îdentified by Haaielrot. Îdentified by H. Peraaon and 0. ulrtenaaon. All are noiaea except Sohenolobua minutua. an hepatic. ^PllUthUm tUiUnU Ryan, n # * for Spitabergen according to a letter from H. Peraaon (February 1960). llchena mere growing on rock end were identified by H. Beacheif other# were with vaacular planta. Aleetoria pubaacent and filRlWMldUi identified by both. Only aample from raiaed beach waa atudled by Beachel. În ed ition to the localitlea listed above, the moea Schiatidium apocsroum and the lichen Cetrarla Deltaal were found on the ÎÎ ÎÎS* * .*t*î of the raiaed beachea about 3 km behind the front of ^re Franklinbreen, about 20 m a.a.l., and not more than 200 m outaida of the lateral moraine.

for the area according to a letter from R. Beachel (April 1959). According to Lynge (1936, p. 31^1 19^, Plate V) Scholander collected thli apeclei from Oakar^ya In Murchiaonfjordan, but It haa not bean reported from Lady FrankllnfJorden previously.

~~, Zi. Mfiidtnult Lynge If amphaalzlng the chemical reaction according to R. Beachel (April 1959). 319~~

Fluting. The la te r a l advance of S^re Franklinbreen has already been mentioned. Theodolite observations on Stake 1, approximately 20 m from the southwest edge of the S^re Franklinbreen and about 300 m down-glacier from the fluting, gave a total lateral movement of 6.7 m for the period from July 16 to 29, 195Ô. This corresponds to an average daily motion of 51*5 cm.

~~The fluting was first observed on July 22nd at a point about~~

1.7 km southeast of the glacier front, A tongue of firn and ice one meter wide and 28-50 cm thick was acting as a gouge (Plate LXXXII), and nearby a 3 m wide section was behaving in a sim ilar manner. Both were pushing up small moraine ridges, and because of the arching-up of the ice, which created caverns, it was possible to go under the glacier and observe the fluting behind the edge of the ice.

The formation of these caverns, as I visualize it, takes place as follows: In places along the edge of the glacier tongues of ice extend outward and upward due to basal shearing and overthrusting. Some of these extend out so far that they bend downward from their own weight plus the effects of snowdrifts accumulated each winter, and as the glacier advances they eventually meet the lateral moraine ridge. Side views of the ice tongue gouging into the la te r a l moraine are shown in

~~Plate LXXXIII.~~

~~The flu tin g being produced by the small ic e tongue was on a 12° slope. The moraine is a clayey t ill with some pebbles and cobbles.~~

~~Boulders are common elsewhere along the lateral moraine^ but none happened to be present at this point, and it is mainly this lack of larger stones that has restricted the size of the fluting. On 320~~

~~July 22nd the fluting was 0.6-1.0 m in length. In some cases as much~~

~~as 50 cm o f th is length was under the ice tongue. However, the flu tin g could be observed beneath the ice as the underside had melted up 10-20~~

~~cm above the moraine surface in most places, and oily the front edge of the ice tongue was in contact with the moraine.~~

The furrows varied from 2 to 25 ram in width, but most were in the range 5-10 mm. Several smaller furrows often occupied the side of a larger furrow in the same that g la c ia l striae are found along the

sides of glacial grooves. The larger furrows were 12-30 cm wide and up to 10 cm deep; the ridges were up to 7 cm wide. Most individual furrows were 1-5 mm deep, with a maximum depth of 1 cm, but in the latter

case the furrow had been deepened (i.e ., much of the finer fractions had been removed, leaving sand and pebbles) by the action of tin y rivulets due to meltwater dripping from the ice above. The t ill under the ice was saturated by this water, but the lateral moraine lying in front of the advancing ice was dry and hard.

Pebbles and cobbles up to 7 cm in diameter appeared to loave been pushed down into the water-sodden t ill as the ice advanced, so that their surfaces were flush with the furrow or ridge in which they lay.

Or it can perhaps be better said that some stones may have beai pushed down, but that in general the ice dug deeper into the soft t ill on either side of a stone. Where larger cobbles were present the ridge or furrow was sometimes interrupted, and if a number of pebbles or cobbles occurred together a rough ridge resulted which was devoid of the smaller fluting on its surface. Some pebbles were lying loosely on the surface, and these showed no relation to any ridges or furrow. They have 3 2 1 probably melted out from the ice above and dropped onto the flu tin g after its formation.

The under surface of the ice tongue which was in contact with the moraine conformed in shape to the flu tin g beneath. The advancing tongue of ice acted as a gouge and easily dug into the soft water-soaked till, pushing up a moraine ridge in front and leaving the fluting at its back edge. The fluting took on whatever form the uneven bottom of the ice happened to have. When the ice tongue encountered pebbles or cobbles, many of them were partly pushed down as noted above (none were frozen into the till), but in other cases depressions in the ice surface developed as a result of pressure melting.

The under surface of the ic e v isib le at the back edge of the tongue did not show a fluted bottom but was cuspate. However, were the ice surface not melting up away from the moraine, furrows would undoubtedly have been visible on it. They were apparently present on the thin front edge of the tongue which was digging into the moraine, but they could not be seen except in cross section from the back edge.

As Figures 1 and 2 in Plate LXXXI7 show, ridges do originate at pebbles and cobbles. But in this case the ridges seemed to be at least partly due to the pressing down of the ice tongue, which has conformed to the shape of the stones, rather than to the pressing up of material into furrows on the ic e surface. However, the two processes are difficult to differentiate and must, in fact, occur together. Pressing down is only emphasized in this discussion due to the nature of the ice gouge in this particular situation.

Some sand grains and pebbles were also frozen in the ic e . As the 3 2 2 under surface melted and these were exposed, they too acted as cutting to o ls, gouging small furrows of th eir own. Furrows were also occasionally produced by pebbles and cobbles being pushed along by the ic e . It should be emphasized, however, that a pebble or cobble, either in the till or in the ice, was not present to account for every ridge or furrow. Thus many must be due simply to irreg u la rities in the under surface of the ice tongue.

Near the above-described fluting another area of a few square centimeters was observed where ridges and furrows had been formed in a similar manner on a 2-3 cm thick layer of unfrozen, somewhat more sandy till which was lying directly on ice. These furrows, which were on a horizontal surface, were 5-25 mm wide and up to 10 mm deep.

Behind the 3 m wide ice tongue furrows up to 5 m in d epth, more than 10 mm in width, and 120 cm in length were being produced on a steeper slope (maximum inclination, 34*). Here the ice surface which had done the furrowing had since been arched up forward by continuing pressure frcm behind, exposing the fluting. As this cavern was deeper under the glacier the air was colder and much of the ground had refrozen.

~~Meltwater seeping in had formed a coating of ice over the ridges and fu rro w s.~~

IVhen the fluted moraine area was next visited on July 25th an advance of 70-80 cm had occurred at the small ice tongue during the three day interval (see Plates LXXXIII and LXXXIV), or an average of about 25 cm per day. During the hour that measurements were being made on this second v isit, an advance of one centimeter was observed.

~~The ice tongue was continuing to push up a ridge of t ill in front and 323~~

~~along the side. A second section of ice had now bent downward from the~~

~~roof of the cavern, and it too was acting as a gouge. This ice tongue~~

~~was also pushing up a ridge of till in front, destroying the old fluting,~~

~~and leaving its own fluting behind on a slightly lower surface (Figure 2~~

~~in Plate LXXXII).~~

~~It is doubtful that any of this fluting will become a permanent~~

~~feature on the side of the moraine. However, it seems to me, in spite~~

~~of the rather unique situation here, that these small scale features~~

~~may be genetically related to the larger features known as fluted~~

~~moraine; hence it has been thought worthwhile to discuss them in detail,^~~

~~Marginal Fluctuations Elsewhere~~

~~Northern Nordaustlandet~~

~~Brennevinsf.jorden~~

~~No glaciers reach this fiord (Figure 8), but regarding the lobe~~

~~of Vestfonna which comes close to the innermost bay Glen (1941, pp. 69-~~

~~70; see also 1937, p. 202; 1939, p. 8) says:~~

It is also worth recording that Duner's map, drawn in 1865, shows a glacier forming the head of Brandy Bay; this suggests a retreat of not less than 1 mile in seventy-give years. Duner and Nordenskiold established an astronomical station on the h ill immediately to the north of Franklin Valley, from which a perfect view can be obtained of the interior of Brandy Bay, so there is no reason to doubt their report.

^For descriptions of the larger features see Dyson, 1952, p. 209; Ford, 1958, p. 250; Hoppe, 1953, p. 253; Hoppe and Schytt, 1953, pp. 105-115; Kautsky, 1953, pp. 490-492; Moser, 1955, pp. 345-349; Nichols and mailer, 1952, p. 46; Ray, 1935, pp. 310-311, and Schytt, 1959, pp.222-224; references to the older literature are found in Hoppe and Schytt, 1953. 324 It is certainly true that both Duner and Nordenskiold's map and an

~~earlier map by Nordenskiold (1863), based chiefly on observations made in lS6l in this area, show a glacier entering Brennevinsfjorden,~~

~~but it should be pointed out that 1,6 km would be the maximum retreat~~

~~probably, for Wright's (1939) map, based on the 1935-36 mapping, shows~~

~~part of this lobe only 500 m from the fiord,~~

~~Laponiahalvü^ya~~

~~No detailed observations are available, but as Glen (1939, p, 14)~~

~~has mentioned, and as Plate LXXXV shows, a number of cirque glaciers~~

~~are present on this peninsula, particularly on the west.side of~~

~~Severlysundet (Figure 3), Snotoppen, the highest point in~~

~~Nordaustlandet, is covered by a small icecap, and the outlet glacier~~

~~from it extended to vnthin about 750 m of Brennevinsf jorden east of~~

~~Depotodden in 1935-1936 (Wright, 1939, map).~~

~~One of the most remarkable features of Laponiahalv)z(ya is the~~

~~glacier entering Ekstremfjorden (Figure 3 and Plate LKXX7I), As the~~

~~ice cap thinned and eventually disappeared this glacier lost its~~

accumulation area, Glen (1937, p. 204) described the area and noted that the glacier ended in a cliff 21 m high. Apparently conditions were the same in 193&, when the photograph in Plate LXXXVI was taken, for Glen also noted that a lake was dammed up behind the glacier.

~~Whether or not this glacier still exists is unknown. It is difficult~~

~~to see how it could survive, since its highest part lies just slightly over 100 m above sea level, well below the snowline in this area.~~

~~Perhaps its position is such that it is maintained by the accumulation of drift snow each winter. Of interest here is the fact that 325~~

~~Nordenskiold's (1863) map shows a broad band of sand and shingle between~~

~~this glacier and the sea, and the glacier itself is shown as extending~~

~~farther inland. Possibly i t advanced to the sea sometime after 1861,~~

~~and then later the ice thinned and disappeared from the plateau area~~

~~inland toward Vestfonna.~~

~~Lindhagenbukta~~

~~Again no exact measurements are availab le, but Glen (1939, p. 8; 1941, p. 69) quotes a Capt. Olsen as saying that Lindhagenbreen has retreated about as much as S^re Franklinbreen in a similar period,~~

~~i.e ., about 2.8 km since the turn of the century. According to Ahlmann~~

~~(1953a, p. 166) Olsen said that one of the north coast glaciers~~

~~receded so much in the last 20 or 30 years that in 1931 it could not be seen from the shore, whereas it used to reach the shore. Perhaps th is statement refers to Lindhagenbukta?~~

~~The series of recessional moraines in front of Lindhagenbreen~~

~~(Plate LSXXV) are unique around Vestfonna to my knowledge. One moraine ridge even extends out into the inner part of the bay as a peninsula.~~

~~Furthermore, the absence of raised beaches in front of the glacier~~

~~is proof that the recession has indeed taken place relatively recently, although not necessarily since 1900, since land uplift is believed to be virtually nil now,~~

~~Bengtssenbukta~~

~~This bay is interesting because it is the only locality known in Nordaustlandet where a glacier has advanced across a fiord (Figure 3).~~

~~As a resu lt of th is advance, which occurred sometime before 1935~~

~~(Wright, 1939, map), the inner part of the fiord became a lake. 3 2 6~~

~~No record is available of developments since the 1938 air photographs were taken.~~

~~Western and Central Nordaustlandet~~

~~Brageneset~~

~~Donner and West (1957, pp. 26-2?) discussed the fluctuations of the ice edge at Brageneset and noted that according to Duner and~~

~~Nordenskiold'3 (1866) map this peninsula was called HyperitBn~~

(Diabase Island). Since Nordenskiold landed there in 1861 and made astronomical observations, he presumably had good basis for callin g i t an island (see also Nordenskiold, 1963, map). Donner and West also point out that van Keulen's map of about 1710 (described in Ahlmann,

~~1933a, p. 13; Conway, 1906; Wieder, 1919) also shows the area as an island, although this map is not as accurate as the later one.~~

~~De Geer's (1923, Plate B) map resulting from the 1899-1902 expeditions shows Brageneset as a peninsula, and therefore Donner and~~

~~West conclude that the ic e advanced here sometime between 1861 and~~

~~1899. However, the span of time can be narrowed by one year at le a s t, for Garlheim-Gyllenskold (1899, p. 900) noted that Brageneset was already a peninsula in 1898.~~

Donner and West (1957, p. 26) found abundant sh e lls in the "young" moraines, indicating that the ice advanced across a marine basin, whereas the presence of raised beaches on a ll sides of Brageneset is the best proof that it was an island. The beaches continue up to the highest point on the island at 46.5 m. On the basis of the radiocarbon datings in Murchisonfjorden and the absence of other moraines outside 327

~~(west of) the recent ones, i t would appear that Brageneset was an island~~

~~from more than 9000 years ago u n til the ice advanced between 1861 and~~

~~1898 .~~

~~The gravity data obtained by the 1955 Oxford expedition (see discussion of ice thickness under Geomorphology) also indicate land below~~

~~sea le v e l from near the present ic e edge for nearly 10 km toward the~~

~~north-northeast. Depths up to 125 m below sea level were recorded.~~

~~Figure 37 is reproduced from Donner and West (1957, p. 28). This map shows the changes of the ice edge at Brageneset and to the north~~

~~between 1923-1924, when the area was photographed from the air by~~

~~Mittelholzer (1925, facing p. 135) and Tymms, respectively, and 1955. Figure 1 in Plate LXXXVII is one of the air photographs taken by~~

~~Tymms in 1924; it has previously been published by Binney (1925, facing~~

~~p. 20). It shows one of the same ice lobes as Figure 36; in 1924 this~~

~~lobe had ceased to be active and was receding. By 1938 (Figure 2,~~

~~Plate LXXXVII) the lobe had disappeared, and the outline of the ice~~

~~edge was much the same as in 1955. The next lobe to the north, however, did not change position appreciably between 1924 and 1938 with respect~~

~~to the moraine i t had pushed up from the sea bottom during advance.~~

~~In general it can be said that the ice edge in this entire area is much~~

~~the same now as i t was in 1938 and 1955. 3 2 8~~

~~VESTFONNA~~

~~HINLOfÇNSTRETET~~

~~r r m «« h n t i c i m a jis in~~

~~TTTT ICC UHPOIN l«H . LAIS MAAGIN I* ::~~

~~Figure 37. Map showing fluctuations of the ice edge at Brageneset, After Donner and West (1957).~~

~~Wahlenbergf .1 orden~~

~~Several outlet glaciers from Vestfonna enter the north side of Wahlenbergfjorden, but none of them have been studied. However, the~~

~~1938 photographs show that in several places these glaciers are more~~

~~extensive now than they were when the raised beaches were forming. Sandford (1929, p. 547) noted similar relations on the south side of~~

~~Wahlenbergfjorden (Figure 28) where small glaciers descend to sea level,~~

~~over beaches. These beaches rise to about 6l m and as Sandford notes,~~

~~"if these glaciers had reached sea-level, as they now do, during~~

emergence they would have prevented the formation of the beaches upon which they lie," Glittnefonna, the small icecap lying on the plateau between Palanderbukta and Hinlopenstretet changed very little in size between the time when it was mapped at the turn of the century and 329 1931 (see Ahlmann, 1933a, pp. 167-168; Glen, 1941, p. 13). No records are available since 1931.

Etonbreen i t s e l f was separated from Oxfordhalvjiya in 1924 by a channel about nine meters wide (Figure 28). Sandford (1929, p. 548) found red-brown t i l l up to nine meters above sea le v e l overlying the raised beaches on the southeast side of Oxfordhalv^ya nearest Etonbreen, whereas farther north on th is peninsula the debris was heaped up to a height of about 30 m. These deposits apparently represent the terminal moraine of the last major advance of Etonbreen since the raised beaches formed. Sandford also noted that much of the lagoon was choked with red-brown t ill containing many striated boulders.

Nordenskiold (1874, p. 96) mentioned the widespread moraines in this area, too. He believed that the moraines had been pressed up by the glacier and that the ic e edge was advancing, not receding. Sandford

~~(1929, pp. 549-550) has interpreted this to mean that the ice was at the moraines in 1873 when Nordenskiold's v is it was made, and from Ahlmann's~~

(1933a, p. 65) account, based on Nordenskiold' s d ia ries, i t would appear that the ice extended up to the moraines. Thus Etonbreen must have f ille d much of the lagoon in 1873. Sandford particularly emphasized the fresh appearance of the moraine and the complete absence of patterned ground and vegetation in contrast to the abundance of both on the nearby older moraine and rock surfaces. Unpublished photographs which Dr. Sandford has kindly given me show that in 1924 the lagoon area immediately east of Oxfordhalv^ya had the same appearance, though on a smaller scale, of tte Lehmmauern landscape described by Gripp 330

~~(1929, Plates 22 and 23) in his classic report on moraines and glaciers~~

~~in Spitsbergen,~~

~~The maps resulting from the 1861 expedition (see Nordenskiold,~~

~~1863; Duner and Nordenskiold, 1866) show Etonbreen farthest to the~~

~~west in its center, with bays on both sides aid no trace of Oxfordhalvjz^ya.~~

~~Probably these maps are inaccurate at this locality, since no journeys~~

into the inner part of Wahlenbergfjorden were made in 1861, but if the map does represent the true picture it suggests that Etonbreen advanced laterally on its south side, and perhaps on its north, between 1861 and

~~1873, for Nordenskiold's 1874 map does not show these bays, and in 1873 he traveled through this area after his sledging trip across Austfonna,~~

~~Ahlmann's 1931 traverse o f the ic e caps started a few kilometers east of Palanderbukta and led d irectly south onto S^rfonna (Ahlmann,~~

~~1933a, p. 56), so that the position of Etonbreen was not studied. Nor did the oceanographic group of his expedition go farther east in~~

~~Wahlenbergfjorden (Mosby, 1938, p,55), so that the front of Etonbreen~~

~~is plotted- from the map of the 1924 Oxford expedition (Ahlmann,~~

~~1933a, p. 24, Plate 2) . However, sometime between 1924 and 1938 a readvance of Etonbreen occurred. This advance nearly closed the entrance of Kl^verbladbukta (Cloverleaf Bay in Figure 28), It also~~

~~closed the connection between the fiord and the lagoon, forcing the ou tlet river to flow behind some of the moraines Sandford described.~~

~~Furthermore, the water level in the former lagoon rose enough so that some outflow began to take place over the divide to Bodleybukta, across the north side of Oxfordhalv/^ya.~~

~~The ice has maintained this position, or perhaps even advanced a 331~~

little more, up to the present time, as is shown in Figure 7, a topographic sketch map made by Winsnes in 1957. His photographs and my own from 1958, a ll taken from Cairn V on Sandfordkollen, show that the major stream draining the ice-dammed lake flows directly to Bodleybukta,

The outer ice-cored moraines of Winsnesbreen reach the edge of the lagoon, but not farther. On the other hand, the part of Etonbreen directly south and southwest of the end of Winsnesbreen has been larger, for moraine ridges are visible on the land area between the two glaciers and in the lagoon in the 1938 photographs. These moraines were s till present in 1957 and 1958, indicating little change in the ice margin.

~~R i.jpdalen~~

Perhaps the most fascinating of the ice-free areas in Nordaustlandet is Rijpdalen. In the chapter on Geomorphology the role played by the north-south bedrock ridges under Vestfonna and Austfonna was discussed.

These ridges help to prevent ice flow into the valley, but the fact that a larger ice cap does not cover this area must be the result of meteorological conditions; i.e ., the area lies in the precipitation

~~shadow of the southeasterly winds that are responsible for the large accumulations of snow on the east side of Austfonna, but it also lies~~

~~in the precipitation shadow of northwesterly winds sweeping in over~~

~~Vestfonna.6~~

~~However, Rijpdalen may have been partially or completely covered~~

At Ahlmann Station at 622 m on top of Vestfonna (Figure 3) I recorded winds in the northwest quadrant almost continuously between May 14 and 24, 1958. These winds often carried drift snow, although sometimes new snow fell, or fog deposits or rime resulted. 332 by ice in the not too distant past. Plate LXXXVIII, a 1938 air photograph, is a view northward up Rijpdalen from a position over the

northern lobe of Winsnesbreen, immediately south of the largest lake in Figure 7. The dead ice masses present in 1938 filled several valleys, and in two cases they nearly encircled hills whose tops were already

ice-free. Some lake ice is also present, but much of the floating ice may be dead ice remnants. Were the ice only a few tens of meters thicker it would form a continuous cover between Vestfonna and the largest of the dead ice masses to the east (Plate LXXXVIII), and the latter lies less than two kilometers from Austfonna,

~~By 1957 most of the dead ice masses had disappeared and those remaining were much reduced in size, according to observations by T, S,~~

Winsnes, In June 1958 I traversed the area twice, but the extensive snow cover made it impossible to distinguish any dead ice masses which may have existed, with the exception of the large one near Austfonna in

~~P la te LXXXVIII,~~

~~End moraines are generally lacking in Rijpdalen as elsewhere in~~

Nordaustlandet, but Ahlmann (1933a, p . 169) observed one at the edge of Austfonna where he crossed Rijpdalen, This locality was about eight kilometers northeast of where our expedition ascended Austfonna in 1958

(F igure 7 ). The "terminal” moraine observed by Ahlmann was up to 10 m high and extended to the northeast as far as he could see. Enormous boulders were included in it, and he believed it to have been made recently by an expanded Austfonna, probably during an advance.

~~During a trip from the edge of Vestfonna to Sandfordkollen and~~

~~W insnesbreen I made a number of rock c o lle c tio n s . One o f th e se was 333 from the area marked "schist” in Figure 7, five kilometers south of~~

Gamp III, The locality was on a hilltop which was blown free of snow because of its exposed location.? The bedrock here is phyllite and schist of the Kapp Hansteen formation. One rock fragment was submitted to R, Beschel for determination of the lichens, and the results are listed below in Table 20,

~~Table 20, Lichens from Rijpdalen^~~

~~of, Acarospora sp,~~

~~Lecidea cf. lulensis (Hellb.) Stizenb. f, cinerella Vain~~

~~sp.~~

~~Rhizocarpon carpaticum Runem,~~

~~R. geographicum~~

~~R. parvum Runem,~~

~~R. eopelandii (Kbr.) Th. Fr,~~

~~Sporastatia tenuirimata (Th. Fr.) Lynge~~

~~S. testudinea (Ach.) M a s s ,^~~

~~^Identified by R. Beschel p New for Spitsbergen, According to Beschel this species has so far only been found in the Carpathian area, 3 The most common species on th is rock sample.~~

~~?The hilltop was at about 175 m elevation, the snow-filled valley to the east at 138 m. These are uncorrected values obtained with a Thommen pocket altim eter. 334~~

~~Beschel commentai on this assemblage in a letter (May 1959) as~~

~~follows, "There may be a few more species on the stone. On the whole~~

~~it gives a very young appearance, but the weathering may be rapid on~~

~~it which would prevent the formation of larger thalli. None of them~~

~~seems older than a few hundred years, yet the presence of the~~

~~Sporastatiae would indicate that it is from a more exposed place and~~

~~definitely not from a snow bed,"~~

~~It is certainly true that the phyllite and schist weathers more~~

~~rapidly than the hard quartzose-sandstone or red shale at Vindheimen, although the shale is not as resistant as the sandstone. This may be~~

~~sufficient explanation for the difference in lichen flora between the~~

~~two localities, for none of the species found at Vindheimen was present~~

~~in Rijpdalen, and vice versa. Thus it may be impossible for lichens~~

~~such as those on Vindheimen to develop on the softer and less stable phyllite and schist. Stone stripes and solifluction lobes were noted on the same hill in Rijpdalen, indicating a certain degree of~~

~~instability. However, Saxifraga oppositifolia was observed in bloom on the schist fragments of the hillside, and other vegetation was present in places.~~

In summary, there is nothing in the Rijpdalen assemblage indicating great age, even though the hilltops have been ice-free longer than the valleys. Although the lack of certain lichen types cannot be taken as proof of short exposure, for the reasons given above, there is no evidence available as yet which contradicts my hypothesis that much of Rijpdalen has had a more extensive ice cover relatively recently; i.e ., sometime since the end of the %rpsibhermal Interval, the warmer period which 335

~~Deevey and Flint (1957, pp. 182-184) have defined as extending from~~

~~9500 to 2600 B.P.~~

~~Southern and Eastern Nordaustlandet~~

~~South coast~~

~~Thompson (1953, pp. 300-30?) noted that in the area on both sides~~

~~of Ulvebukta the hilltops have been ice-free longer than tbs valleys,~~

~~similar to the situation described above for Rijpdalen (Figure 3). He~~

~~also noted that Mariebreen and Rosenthalbreen, the outlets of Vegafonna~~

~~reaching the sea to the north and east of Torellneset, respectively,~~

~~( M and R of Figure 3), are of comparatively recent origin as they~~

~~encroach on the raised beaches. The same is true of the lobe of~~

~~S^rfonna extending southward toward Vibebukta, Comparing Koldewey's~~

~~1868 map (published in 1 8 ?l) w ith th a t made in 1949, Thompson (1953, p . 3 1 7 ) concluded that the front of Mariebreen had retreated about~~

~~800 m over the 81 year period, and he suggested a similar rate of retreat for a lobe of Vegafonna between Torellneset and Rosenthalbreen,~~

~~According to a sketch map by Elton this lobe of Vegafonna reached the sea in 1923 (see Sandford, 1926a, p. 640),~~

~~The most significant fluctuation of any glacier in Nordaustlandet was the advance of Brasvellbreen sometime between 1936 and 1938 (Glen,~~

~~1 9 3 9 , pp. 12-13j 1941b, pp. 206- 207) . Figure 38 shows the change in the ice edge here up to 1957, when Brasvellbreen was resurveyed by~~

~~Norsk Polarinstitutt, 336~~

~~2 3 2 4 ' 2 3 2 «'~~

~~S0RFONNA~~

~~I8000 CN~~

~~------~~

~~22 2 S ‘ 2C~~

Figure 38. Map showing the fluctuations of Brasvellbreen, After Norsk Polarinstitutt Charts S. 7 (1934 position) and 507 (1938 position) and unpublished telemeter observations by K. Z. Lundquist in 1957, Copyright Norsk Polarinstitutt. The front in 1936 was close to the 1934 position. 337

~~E ast coast~~

~~Isispynten was discovered by the 1924 Oxford Expedition (Binney,~~

~~1 9 2 5 , p. 2 5 ), and there Austfonna has advanced to what once was an~~

~~island or group of islands, Glen (1939, p. 10) found shells in~~

~~morainic material at an elevation of 60 m on the ice cap. The shape~~

~~of the ice edge and the distribution of moraine ridges in the 1949~~

~~map by Scott-Moncrieff and Hartog, published by Sandford (1954, p. 13),~~

~~suggests that the ice has been a few hundred meters farther forward,~~

~~and air photographs taken by Norsk Polarinstitutt in 1956 confirm this. As at Brageneset the ice cliffs on either side of the lobe of~~

~~ice reaching the former island are receding inward, and it is probably only a question of time before Isispynten is an island again,~~

~~assuming that another advance of Austfonna does not occur, Binney~~

( 1 9 2 5 , p . 2 5 ) may have been rig h t when he suggested th a t Isisp y n te n and the strip of land to the north (see Glen, 1937, pp. 299-300; also Worsley, 1927) represent the islands of van Keulen's map from about 1 7 1 0 , the implication being that this part of Austfonna has advanced sometime between the early 18th century and 1924. SUI#IARY OF lATE-PLEISTOCENE EVENTS

The earliest Pleistocene event of which a record has been found so far in Nordaustlandet is represented by five shell samples that are between 35,000 and more than 40,000 years old, according to radiocarbon age determinations. Several of these dates are finite, yet the condition of the shells and the variations in age between different fractions suggest that the ages must be regarded as minimum values,

Radium-uranium age determinations on one of these shell samples support this conclusion and indicate that the shells may be as much as 250,000 years oM. Since there is every reason to believe that Nordaustlandet was covered by ice during glacial times, the shells must belong to an interglacial or interstadial period, and the best possibility is the last (Riss/Wurm) interglacial.

Striae, stoss-and-lee surfaces, erratics, and till deposits indicate that the northwestern part of Nordaustlandet has been completely covered by ice. With the possible exception of Sju^yane, a group of islands north of Nordaustlandet, the other areas that are ice-free today have also been glaciated. Shells collected several meters below the surface of the upper till on Krossj^ya are more than

40,000 years old, and these shells have definitely been moved by a glacier. Although the other four samples of old shells were collected from the ground surface near Lady Franklinfjorden, a ll the available evidence indicates that they, too, have been transported at least a short distance. Thus the island has been ice-covered since the mollusks were living,

~~33Ô 339~~

~~At the time of the last glacial maximum a great outlet glacier~~

~~flowed northwestward through Hinlopenstretet, indicating that an ice~~

~~center lay to the southeast over Kong Karls Land or the area that is~~

~~now shallow sea south of Nordaustlandet, During tte waning stages~~

~~one center of outflow shifted northward, and the last direction of~~

~~motion in MurchisonfJorden was toward the west. In Lady Franklin-~~

~~fjorden stoss-and-lee surfaces show that flow was dominantly~~

~~northwestward out the fiord, but the distribution of erratics~~

~~indicates that some of the time, probably during a relatively late~~

~~stage, the direction of ice flow was more to the west, obliquely~~

~~across the fiord. Ice also flowed over the divide from Lady~~

~~Franklinf jorden to Murchisonf jorden at a late stage. The till near~~

~~Lady Franklinfjorden and on the islands in Murchisonfjorden was~~

~~deposited by the ice flowing out the fiords, but erratics in several~~

~~localities and fine rock fragments and Foraminifera in the upper~~

~~till on Krossj^ya indicate that during the waning stages the ice~~

~~flo;ri.ng northwestward in Hinlopenstretet became dominant in the outer~~

~~part of Fîurchisonf jorden.~~

~~Deglaciation began sometime before 10,000 years ago. Shells at~~

~~30 and 44 m near Weaselbukta lived 9830+130 and 9^40±120 years B.P., respectively. The highest driftwood log, at 36,7 m near Sveanor on~~

the south side of Murchisonfjorden, is 9270±130 years old; the highest whale bone, at 16,3 m on Teodolitkollen in inner Lady Franklinfjorden, is 8530+180 years old. Peat overlying till near the base of more than

one meter of lake sediments was collected from Krystallvatnet, a laJce at 62 m southeast of Murchisonfjorden, and this peat is 9900±550 340 years old. The lack of marine diatoms in the sediments from this lake and evidence from other localities indicate that the marine lim it in inner Murchisonf jorden is between 50 and 60 m.

~~The reason that the marine lim it is not higher must be that ice remained longer in the inner part of the fiord, because in the outer part of Murchisonfjorden and throughout the entire length of Lady~~

Franklinfjorden beaches rise to over 100 m above sea level. The dates on shells and peat indicate that the highest beaches in inner Murchison- fjorden are close to 9800 years old; thus, by inference, the beaches at 100 m elsewhere are about 10,000 years old,

A series of dates on driftwood, whale bones, and shells show that land uplift was rapid at first, becoming increasingly slower with time. A Russian hunting hut built at least 100 years ago and now only 0,7 m above the level of the highest tides indicates that little or no uplift is now occurring. Any slight uplift is probably balanced by the present eustatic rise of sea level. The fact that rapid uplift of the land began shortly before 10,000 years ago is proof that the island was glaciated during Wurm time,^

The warning that caused the ice cap covering Nordaustlandet to recede must have been of considerable magnitude, because among the shell samples was one 90?0±190 years old of Mytilus edulis L., and the dating results suggest that the age of this sample may be even greater. This mussel, which is not characteristic of high arctic

~~\)f course uplift began when the island was s till ice-covered as soon as the ice began to thin. However, the first traces of uplift are in the form of beaches now raised above the sea. 341~~

~~conditions (Feyling-Hanssen, 1955a, pp. 29-30), was the dominant species~~

~~in Spitsbergen littoral deposits during the latter part of the~~

~~Hypsithermal Interval (9000 to 2600 B.P. according to Deevey and Flint,~~

~~1957, pp. 182-184). Feyling-Hanssen describes beaches with abundant~~

~~Mytilus between three and six meters above sea level in Yestspitsbergen,~~

~~and one sample of Mytilus from 5.8 m is 3810+90 years old (Feyling-~~

~~Hanssen and Olsson, 1959-1960, pp. 125-126). He also notes that the~~

~~beaches below three meters do not contain Mytilus, and that only~~

~~recently does this mussel seem to have reoccupied Spitsbergen waters.~~

~~The Kvtilus from Nordaustlandet that is more than 9000 years old~~

~~indicates relatively mild conditions at an early date. Its presence,~~

~~and the fact that the ice had receded enough so that considerable areas~~

~~were ice-free 10,000 years ago, can perhaps be taken as support for~~

~~the hypothesis of Broecker et (i960, p. 435) that an abrupt change~~

~~of climate, including a significant warming of "a large portion of the~~

~~Atlantic Ocean," occurred within 1000 years of 11,000 B.P,~~

~~The data available at present do not tell us when the ice reached~~

~~its maximum extent during Wurm time in Spitsbergen. Thus it is possible,~~

~~as Liljequist (in Hoppe and Liljequist, 1956, p. 70) has suggested,~~

~~that the maximum glaciation in a polar area such as Spitsbergen was~~

~~reached at a time when the ice sheet in Europe was already receding.~~

~~However, starting sometime before 10,000 B.P., deglaciation proceeded~~

~~actively in both regions.~~

~~At certain times during uplift the eustatic rise of sea level was~~

~~so rapid that the relative positions of land and sea remained the same,~~

or transgressions of the sea occurred. Wave-cut cliffs and benches 342 are the result of such periods of balance or transgressions, and one prominent strandline of this type has been dated by the presence of five partly buried driftwood logs and one vhale bone, a ll between 6200£L00 and 69001110 years old. This particular beach can be traced for many kilometers without interruption, and the presence of abundant dark brown pumice at this level, but no higher, provides a means of correlating widely separated areas. Sim ilarities in chemical composition and indexes of refraction suggest that this andesitic pumice is the same as that found in Norway, Denmark, and Greenland, and a ll available evidence indicates that the prominent strandline on which the driftwood and pumice are found corresponds to one or more of.the Tapes levels in

~~Norway. The e lev a tio n of th e pumice is about fiv e m eters on LSgj^ya, but it rises to the southeast, and 45 km away at Brageneset it is at~~

~~13.8 m. The tilting of the beaches provides additional evidence for the existence of an ice center south of Nordaustlandet during the Wtirm maximum.~~

Following general deglaciation the ice caps of Nordaustlandet shrank until they were less extensive than at present, although whether they disappeared completely or not is unknown. This conclusion is based on the fact that in many places outlet glaciers have overridden high level raised beaches. Beaches up to elevations of more than 60 m beside S^re Franklinbreen indicate that the front of this glacier was at least six, perhaps 10 or more, kilometers behind (southeast of) its present position about 10,000 years ago. High level raised beaches at the south end of Rijpdalen, near the geographical center of

~~Nordaustlandet, show that even this area was deglaciated at an early 343~~

~~date. The ice caps may have continued to diminish in size during parts~~

~~of the Hypisthermal Interval,~~

~~Lichenological studies at the edge of Vestfonna east of Kurchison-~~

~~fjorden indicate that the ice cap proper has not advanced beyond its~~

~~present position in at least 2000 years. However, the dead ice masses~~

~~that were present in Rijpdalen in 1938 suggest that the latter area~~

~~was covered by ice at a more recent date. Most permanent snowfields~~

~~and dead ice masses in the northwestern part of Nordaustlandet diminished considerably in size or disappeared between 1899 and 1957-~~

~~1958, but a few small ice masses, such as Backabreen, do not show~~

~~signs of wasting away,~~

~~A radiocarbon date on driftwood inside the lateral moraine of~~

~~3fire Franklinbreen indicates that this glacier advanced sometime after~~

1775180 years ago. Nothing is known of other fluctuations of this outlet glacier since 10,000 years B.P., but none of the beaches adjoining it has been destroyed. Furthermore, the absence of other lateral or end moraines indicates that during postglacial time S^re

~~Franklinbreen has never advanced beyond the position it occupied in~~

~~1899, although some minor fluctuations of the front may have occurred between the time the R acier advanced and the end of the 19th century.~~

~~When S^re Franklinbreen reached the 1899 position it was 9 to 13 km, or more, in front of its position 10,000 years ago.~~

With the exception of the advance of Brasvellbreen sometime between 1936 and 1938, many of the outlet glaciers in Nordaustlandet were in maximum positions since general deglaciation during the latter half of the 19th century^ Between 1899 and 1938 S^re 344

~~Franklinbreen retreated about three kilometers, but sometime between~~

~~1938 and 1956 it became more active and has advanced slightly.~~

Motion observations of S^re Franklinbreen over a period of 324 days in 1957-1958 indicate that the central part of the glacier moves at a mean annual rate of at least one meter per day, perhaps more than two meters per day. APPENDIX I; MECHANICAL ANALYSIS PROCEDURE

Mechanical analyses of 86 samples of till, outwash, and weathering products were carried out at part of the glacial geological laboratory work. The chief aim was to determine the characteristics of the various tills ; the few samples of washed material and weathering debris were analyzed merely because they were of particular interest in some connection or for comparison purposes. Seven of the coarse samples

(gravel) were analyzed by sieving only to obtain the distribution of particles in the sand and granule size, but all other samples were analyzed by both sieving and pipette methods to obtain a complete picture of their composition. It should be borne in mind that the till analyses only deal with particles smaller than 4 mm in diameter. In actual fact the material in the tills ranges up to boulders of over one meter in diameter. The textbooks by Krumbein and Pettijohn (1938, pp. 70-172) and Fold (1959, pp. 16-38) were used as guides in this work. The procedure followed is outlined below,

1) Each sample was broken down with a wooden rolling pin on a sheet of brown paper. If a sample vra,s particularly compact and hard it was first broken into a few large pieces by use of a mortar and pestle.

~~Great care was taken during rolling not to crush rock fragments.~~

~~2) The sample was quartered so as to obtain a sample of about 15 g~~

(recommended by Folk) in the settling cylinder. This involved a visual estimate of the percentage of silt- and clay-sized material in the sample, and the resulting amount in the settling cylinder varied between 5 and

~~50 g.~~

~~345 346~~

3) After being weighed to the nearest hundredth of a gram the sample was put in a small commercial canning jar. Samples were run in groups of 10 to 12 at the same time. Two-hundred m illiliters of distilled water were added to the sample, plus 2 ml of peptizer. This amount of peptizer was used so as to keep its concentration the same at a ll times, as recommended by Folk. The peptizer used was a molar solution of sodium hexametaphosphate buffered with sodium carbonate,

4) The sample was allowed to slake for a length of time varying between eight hours and two days, although most samples were slaked fo r th e f u l l tim e . Any fragm ents o f v e g eta tio n (uncommon) were removed from the surface of the water in the jar.

5) The sample was wet sieved through a Tyler screen having a mesh diameter of 0,062 mm. Distilled water was used in all stages of the process and for all final rinsing. Great care was taken to use as little water as possible, so that the total amount in the settling cylinder would not exceed 1000 ml. The wet sieving was accomplished by the use of plastic wash bottles and was done over a large flat photographic tray.

~~This tray was convenient for pouring the suspension into a standard 1000 ml graduated cylinder,~~

6) The material left on the screen was washed into an evaporating dish. As little water as possible was left in the dish; that which remained was poured through the screen into the cylinder. This process was repeated again and again until most of the water was in the cylinder,

7) The material in the evaporating dish was allowed to dry for whatever time was needed — from a few hours to overnight — prior to dry sieving. The sample must not be oven dried as this will cause any 347

~~remaining silt and clay to harden so that it cannot be re-dispersed.~~

~~In a few instances the dishes were warmed slightly on top of the oven or~~

~~on a hotplate, but this practice should be avoided too,~~

~~ê) The suspension in the cylinder was poured into a milkshake~~

~~mixing jar equipped with baffles and stirred for five minutes, not at~~

~~the highest speed. To avoid loss by splashing the mixer should not be~~

filled to within 3 cm of the top*

~~9) The suspension was poured back into the cylinder, and the mixing~~

~~jar was washed out with distilled water. The remaining 8 ml of dispersant were added, and sufficient distilled water was added to bring the~~

~~suspension up to 1000 ml. In cases where this volume was exceeded the~~

~~suspension was allowed to sit until sufficient water was removed by~~

~~evaporation,~~

10) The suspension was thoroughly stirred with a metal stirring rod, and then it was allowed to sit for two days to see if any floccula tion was occurring. In general little trouble was experienced with flocculation, and in all but a very few of the cases where it did occur it was corrected by the addition of a second 10 ml of dispersant and re-stirring on the electric milkshake mixer. These few samples where only a slight amount of flocculation occurred were caught later when the samples were checked under the microscope.

11) After one day the material in the evaporating dish was dry, and it was carefully scraped out using a rubber policeman. After being weighed to the nearest hundredth of a gram, the sample was Ro-Tapped for 10 minutes using a set of Tyler screens (U.S. Series equivalents

~~Nos. 5, 10, 18, 35, 60, 120, and 230, having mesh diameters of 3.962, 348~~

1.981, 0.991, 0.500, 0 . 246, 0 , 124, and 0,062 mm, respectively), 12) After Ro-Tapping each siz e fraction was weighed to the nearest hundredth of a gram, and any material left in the pan (less than 0,062 ram diameter) was returned to the evaporating dish; then, using a rubber policeman, it was added to the suspension in the cylinder,

13) On the following day the sample was pipetted. A pipette was constructed from a dispensing pipette with rubber and glass tube attachments plus a clamp on one of the rubber tubes. This enabled the pipette to be used from a sitting position in front of the row of 10 to

~~12 cylinders that were handled together. The 10 and 20 cm depth marks on the pipette as w ell as t ’rs 20 ml sanrole le v e l were indicated by tape,~~

14) Following the procedure outlined by Folk, the sample was stirred vigorously with the metal stirring rod for 2 to 3 minutes to insure a conplete suspension. The samples in the group were read at five-minute intervals.

15) Twenty seconds after the cessation of stirring a 20 ml sample was pipetted from 20 cm depth. This gave a measure of the to ta l amount of material in suspension and served as a check on the same figure obtained by subtracting the total of the size fractions greater than

0.062 mm in diameter from the to ta l origin al sample. The 20 ml sample was put into a previously weighed and numbered 50 ml glass beaker, and then 20 ml of distilled water was pipetted into the beaker as a way of cleaning all particles out of the pipette (although some very small amounts of m aterial s t i l l remained in many cases). Following Folk's procedure the suspension was not re-stirred after tliis first reading.

16) On the basis of computations using Folk's formula the second 349 pipette sample was taken after 1 hour and 51 minutes. Temperatures were frequently taken before and after pipetting, and the room temperature was adjusted so that the temperature was constantly near 24“ G. (It varied between 23“ and 25“ G.) The second 20 ml sample was taken from 10 cm depth, and it was handled in the same way as the preceding one.

Again the different cylinders were read at five-minute intervals, which allowed sufficient time for washing of pipette, etc. In the first set of 10 samples no temperature correction was made, and the second reading was taken at 2 hours and 3 minutes following

Krumbein and Pettijohn, and Folk. When three of these samples were re-checked at 1 hour and 51 minutes with better temperature control, two of them showed no more than one percent error in sand-silt-clay ratios, the third sin wed less than three percent error.

17) After drying for 24 hours in an electric oven at 90 to 95“ C and then cooling for 2 to 3 hours, the beakers were weighed to the nearest thousandth of a gram on an analytical balance. After subtract ing the weight of the beaker plus the weight of the dispersant and multiplying by 50, the weights of (a) the total amount of suspended material and (b) the total clay were obtained. Total silt weight was obtained by subtracting (b) from (a). It was found that the total silt and clay value was always 1 to 3 g less than the value obtained by subtracting to ta l weight of pebbles, granules, and sand from the original weight of the sample. This is probably due to water loss, as the sample in the beaker was oven-dried, whereas the origin al sample was only air-dried, and thus contained some moisture (probably something of the order of 2 percent). 350

18) The sieve lo ss -was computed, and the individual weights were corrected. Then the value for total silt and clay (as derived by subtracting the weight of sand and larger p a rticles from the original sample weight) was used and the clay weight subtracted from i t to get silt weight. The values for sand, silt, and clay were added and the sand-silt-clay ratios ccmputed to the nearest percent and plotted on a triangular diagram. APPENDIX II; RADIOCARBON DATES'^

~~Sample Uppsala E lev, Mate- Location Age^ No. No. (m) rial'' (Fig. 32) Fraction (years B.P.)~~

~~B-1 U-33 2.0 D Kvalr0 s shalv^ya - 67801100~~

~~B-2 U-34 9.8 D Kvalrosshalv^ya - 4020190~~

~~B-3 U-175 11.3 D Kvalro s shalv^ya - 75001150~~

~~B-4 U-35 3-5 D S^re Franklinbreen - 1775180 la te r a l moraine~~

~~B-5 U-36 8.6 D S^re Russ^ya - 64901L10 B-6 U-37 1.7 W Nordre Russ;[(ya - 2601100~~

~~B-7 U-38 12.7 D Kvalro s shalvjdya - 78301120~~

~~B-8 U-107 7.8 D Vestre - 62001100 Tvillingneset~~

~~B-SA U-109 7.8 B Vestre Organic, 62201110 Tvillingneset after partial combustion~~

~~B-8A U-110 7 .8 B Vestre Organic, 63801150 Tvillingneset after complete combustion~~

B-8A U-108 7.8 B Vestre Inorganic 45701100 ______Tvillingneset ^he results listed here have previously been reported in the standard dating lists (Olsson, 1959, pp. 90-91; I960, pp. 116-121) All samples were collected and submitted by the writer, with the exception of B-47, collected by V. Schytt and E. Palosuo, and two samples of peat, collected and submitted by A. H^ggblom. R. Bergstrom also assisted in collecting samples.

~~- Driftwood, W - Wood, B - Whale bone, S - Shells, P - Peat.~~

These dates are a l l based on a reference sample of wood from Uppsala that was liv in g from 1785 to 1795 A.D. Since I960, however, the dating in Uppsala has been based on a reference sample o f oxalic acid from the National Bureau of Standards. To convert the dates listed here to the new time scale 135^35 years should be added if ages in years B.P. are desired, or 125 years should be added to obtain years before 1950 (Olsson et a l., 1961, p. 81; Olsson and Blake, 1961-1962). 351 352

~~Sample Uppsala Elev, Mate Location Age No, No, (m) r ia l (Fig. 32) Fraction (years B.P.,~~

~~B-8B U-162 8 S Vestre Inner 30$ 9730+130 Tvillingneset B-8B U-161 8 S Vestre Next 25$ 93801150 Tvillingneset~~

~~B-9 u - n i 8 D Oddneset- - - 67401110 Billingen B-12 U-112 6,7 D Kapp Lady - 69001110~~

~~B-13 U-114 16,3 B Teodolitkollen Organic, 82701170 a fter p a rtia l combustion~~

~~B-13 U-115 16,3 B Teodolitkollen Organic, 85301180 after complete combustion~~

~~B-13 U-113 16.3 B Teodolitkollen Inorganic 6560H70~~

~~B-24 U-116 8,9 D Indre Russ^^ya - 66501110~~

~~B-27 U-70 36,7 D Sveanor - 92701130~~

~~B-30 U-71 5 1.4 S Teodolitkollen Inner 45$ 36,OOOlg§§~~

~~B-30 U-118 51,4 S Teodolitkollen Inner 40$ 37,000*|§0g~~

~~B-30 U-117 51,4 S Teodolitkollen Next 20$ 29,80011000 B-30 u-172 51.4 S Teodolitkollen Inner 22$ 35,000!gO g~~

~~B-30 u-171 5 1,4 S Teodolitkollen Next 8$ 32.50°!f§§g~~

~~B-30 U-178 51,4 S Teodolitkollen Next 10$~~

~~B-3 2 U-85 l-r2 S S^re Franklinbreen Inner 48$ 49701110 la tera l moraine 353 Sample Uppsala Elev, Mate*. Location Age No, No, (m) r ia l (Fig, 32) Fraction (years B.P.)~~

~~B-33 U-72 57-59 S Skjelvatnet Inner 45% 38,-500l||gg~~

~~B-33 U-181 57-59 S Skjelvatnet Inner 14%~~

~~B-33 U-182 57-59 S Skjelvatnet Next 13% 33,700*gO§~~

~~B-33 U-183 57-59 S Skjelvatnet Next 1^~~

~~Sevrinberget B-34 U-S9 44 3 Inner 68% 3 9 .7 W % o~~

~~B-34 U-88 44 S Sevrinberget Next 24% 27,500:|00~~

~~B-3 5 U-120 8.5 S Tollenbukta Inner 45% 9540+130 B-35 U-119 8,5 3 Tollenbukta Next 20% 9100±180~~

~~B-39 U-87 77 3 Wargentinflya Inner 59% >37,000~~

~~B-39 U-86 77 3 Wargentinflya Next 39% 33,000:^~~

~~B-40 U-95 30 3 Weaselbukta Inner 35% 9830+130~~

~~B-40 U-94 30 3 Weaselbukta Next 40% 9750±190~~

~~B-41 U-121 0,9 3 Diabasvika Inner 80% 540+70~~

~~B-42 U-122 1.7 3 Nordre Russ^^ya Inner 87% 295+70~~

~~B-43 u-173 8,6 3 Langgrunnodden Inner 13% 90701190~~

~~B-43 U-174 8.6 3 Langgninnodden Next 14% 84001190~~

~~B-45 U-179 22 3 Kvalrosshalv^ya Inner 17% 96601130~~

~~B-45 U-180 22 3 Kvalro s shalv^ya Next 12% 9640H80~~

~~B-46 U-170 2,5-5 3 Kross^ya Inner 40% >40,000~~

~~B-47 U-166 44 3 Weaselbukta Inner 10% 96401120~~

~~B-47 U-165 44 3 Weaselbukta Next 15% 10,0401200 354 Sample Uppsala Elev, Mate- Location No, No, (m) rial (Fig. 32) Fraction (years B.P.)~~

~~H/1 3 1 U-92 42^ p5 Krystallvatnet 9900+550 to 135 D/1 U-93 - 4.9 6 p7 Trippvatnet 5160+400 60 to 67~~

Effective level of this sample is 62 m, the level of Krystallvatnet. Where the sample was taken the lake is 19 m deep, and a l i t t l e more than 1 m of sediment overlies the sançile, 5 Limnic peat and algal mud,

^Effective level of this sample is 5.2 m, the level of Trippvatnet, Where the sample was taken the lake is 9.5 m deep, and about 60 cm of sediment overlies the sample. 7 Limnic peat in clayey g y ttja . REFERENCES CITBD^

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—----• 1959a, Report on the Geological Investigations of the Homsund Area, Vest Spitsbergen, in 1958, I, The Hecla Hoek Formation. Bull, Acad, Polonaise Sci,, Sér, sci, chim,, géol. et géogr,, v. 7, pp. 129-136.

— —« 1959b, Report on the Geological Investigations of the Homsund Area, Vest Spitsbergen, in 1958, Part III, The Quatemary Geology, Bull, Acad, Polonaise Sci., Sér. sci, chim,, géol, et géogr., v. 7, pp. 197-202,

~~----- , 1960 a, Relation of the Cambrian to the Pre-Cambrian in Homsund, Vestspitsbergen, Internat, Geol, Congress, Rept, 21st Session, Norden (Copenhagen), Proc, Sect, 8, pp, 64-74.~~

~~—----. 1960 b. Recent Vertical Movements of Spitsbergen, Internat, Geol. Congress, Rent, 21st Session, Norden (Cooenhagen), Proc, Sect. 21, pp, 281-294.~~

----- . 1960 c. Raised marine features of the Homsund area, Vestspitsbergen, in Geological Results of the Polish 1957-1958 Spitsbergen Expedition, Part 2, Studia Geologica Polonica, V. 5, 95 pp. Birkenmajer, K,, and Narfbski, W. I960. Precambrain amphibolite complex and granitization phenomena in Wedel-Jarlsberg Land, Vestspitsbergen, m Geological Results of the Polish 1957-1958 Spitsbergen Expedition, Part 1, Studia Geologica Polonica, V. 4, pp. 37-82,

~~Bisset, C. B, 1930, Geological Notes on North-East Land and Franz Josef Land, British Arctic Expedition of 1925, Trans, Edinburgh Geol, Soc., v . 12, Part 2, pp, 196-206,~~

~~Blake, W., Jr, 1958, Swedish Glaciological Expedition to Nordaustlandet, 1957. Polar Record, v. 9, No. 59, pp. 142-143. 358~~

~~______1959. Swedish Glaciological Expedition to Nordaustlandet, 1958. Polar Record, v, 9, No. 61, pp. 339-340.~~

~~, 196la. Russian Settlement and Land,Rise in Nordaustlandet, Spitsbergen. Arctic, v. 14, pp. 101-111.~~

—-----. 1961 b. Radiocarbon Dating of Raised Beaches in Nordaustlandet, Spitsbergen, in Geology of the Arctic (Proc. 1st Internat. Sym. on Arctic Geology, Calgary, Alberta, January I960). Toronto: Univ. of Toronto Press, pp. 133-145.

~~— —. 1961 c. Patterned Ground in Nordaustlandet, Spitsbergen. Abstracts of Papers, 6th INQÜA Congress, Warsaw, p. 88.~~

~~Bluthgen, J. 1941. Tatsachen und Deutungen zur Geschichte des Skandik (= Europaischen Nordmeeres). Geol. Meere und Binnengewasser, Bd. 5, pp. 83-117.~~

~~------. 1942 . Die diluviale Vereisung des Barentsseeschelfes. Naturwissenschaften, 30 Jahrg., pp. 674-679.~~

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~~Broecker, W. S. I960. U ntitled fin a l report to the Atomic Energy Commission, Project AT(30-1)-2364, 22 pp.~~

~~—----. 1961 . Age determination on marine carbonate based on inequilibrium in the U^38 decay series, (in ms.), 16 pp.~~

~~Broecker, W. S ., Ewing, M., and Heezen, B. C, I960. Evidence for an Abrupt Change in Climate Close to 11,000 Years Ago. Amer. Jour. Sci., V. 258 , pp. 429 - 448 .~~

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- . 1961 b, Glaziologische Arbeiten der Deutschen Spitzbergen- Expedition 1959. Assoc, internat, d’Hydrologie Sci., Assemblée Gén. de Helsinki, Comm, des Neiges et Glaces, Publ. No. 54, pp. 253- 255.

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~~— —. 1904 . Untitled note following article by W. Ramsay, Kvartârsystemet oster om Hvita Hafvet narmast med hansyn t ill forhallandena pa halfon Kanin. Geol. Foren. Forhandl., Bd. 26, pp. 20-21.~~

~~—----. 1905 . Bin Kugelgranit von Spitzbergen. Geol. Foren. Forhandl., Bd. 27, pp. 254-259.~~

Garlheim-Gyllenskold, 7 . 1899. Travaux de 1 ’expedition suédoise au Spitzberg en 1898 pour la mesure d'un arc du méridien. No. 2, Geologiska anteckningar. üfvers. K. Vet.-Akad. Forhandl., Ârg. 56, pp. 887-900.

. 1900a. Travaux de 1 'expedition suédoise au Spitzberg en I898 pour la mesure d'un arc du méridien. No. 6, Iakttagelser pa tidvattnet. üfvers. K. Vet.-Akad. FÜrhandl., Ârg. 57, pp. 499 - 515. ------. 1900b. Pa âttionde breddgraden. Stockholm : A. Bonniers, 256 pp.

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~~—------, 1961 . The Russian Settlement at Russekeila and Land Rise in Vestspitsbergen. Arctic, v. 14, pp. 112-118.~~

~~Chydenius, K. I865 . Svenska expeditionen t ill Spetsbergen âr 1861. Stockholm: P. A. Norstedt & Soner, 480 pp. 360~~

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- . i 960 . Le soulèvement des terres autour de la mer de Barentz. Rev, Géogr. Lyon, v . 35, pp. 253-274. Curray, J. R, 196 I. Late Quaternary sea level: A discussion. B u ll. Geol. Soc. Amer., v. 72, pp. 1707-1712.

~~Deevey, E. S., and Flint, R. F. 1957. Postglacial Hypsithermal Interval. Science., v. 125, pp. 182-184.~~

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~~— . 1947 .. Das Nordostland von Spitzbergen. Teil II. Polarforschung. Bd. 2, 17 Jahrg., pp. 154-163.~~

~~. 1949 . Welche Krafte wirken heute umgestaltend auf die Landoberflâche der Arktis ein? Polarforschung, Bd. 2, 19 Jahrg., pp. 274-278.~~

~~— —. i 960 , W issenschaftliche Beobachtungen auf dem Nordostland von Spitzbergen 1944-1945. Berichte Deutschen Wetterdienstes, Bd. 10, No. 72, 99 pp.~~

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~~—----- . 1900a. Om gradmatningsnate^ framforande ofver s8dra och mellersta Spetsbergen. Ymer, Arg. 20, pp. 281-302.~~

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~~. 1901 . Untitled note. Geol. Foren. FÜrhandl ., Bd. 23, p. 532. 361~~

- ——. 1902a. Rapport om den svenska gradmMtningsexpeditionen t i l l Spetsbergen sommaren 1901, I I. 16 ju li-1 4 September. Rapporter t i l l Kongl, Kommitten for Gradmatning pa Spetsbergen ofver den svenska gradmatningsexpeditionens arbeten 1901. Stockholm: Centraitryckeriet, pp. 8-19»

—----• 1902b, Die quartRren NiveauverSnderungen: der gegenwclrtige Standpunkt der Frage und Aufgaben ftir künftige Untersuchungen. Forhandl. vid Nordiska Naturforskare- och Lakaremotet i Helsingfors den 7 till 12 juli 1902, IF. Sectionen for geologi och mineralogi. Helsinki: Centraltryckeri och Bokbinderiaktiebolag, pp. 39-41 (publ. 1903).

~~— —. 1904 . Untitled note folloiving article by S. Svedmark, Jordbafningen den 23 oktober 1904. Geol. Foren. Forhandl., Bd. 26, pp. 465- 466.~~

~~. 1909 . Some leading lines of dislocation in Spitzbergen. Geol. Foren. Forhandl., Bd. 31* pp. 199-208.~~

— ----. 1910 . Kontinentale Niveauveranderungen im Norden Europas. Compte Rendu llt h Session Congrès Géol. Internat. (Stockholm), Sect. 1, Géologie générale et régionale. Tectonique, pp. 849-860.

~~——- , 1913 . The North Coast of Spitzbergen, Western Part. Ymer, Arg. 33, pp. 230- 277. ----- . 1916 . The Head of Wood Fjord. Ymer., Irg. 36, pp. 156-162.~~

----- . 1917 . Untitled note following article by 0^^ Holtedahl, Geologiske iagtagelser fra Finmarken. Geol. Foren. Forhandl., Bd. 39, p. 117. — — . 1919 . On the physiographical evolution of Spitsbergen. Geogr. Annaler, v. 1, pp. 161-192.

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Dineley, D. L., and Garrett, P. A. 1959. Whale Remains in Glacier Ice. Nature, v. 183, p. 272. Dollar, A. T. J, I960. Talk about the volcanic rocks of Jan Ilayen presented Internat. Geol. Congress, 21st Session Norden (Copenhagen).

~~Donner, J, 1959. The Late- and P o st-g la cia l raised beaches in Scotland. Suomalaisen Tiedeakatemian Toimituksia (Ann. Acad. Sci. Ferm.) Ser. A, III, Geol.-Geogr., No, 53» 25 pp.~~

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~~Duner, N., Malmgren, A. J ., Nordenskiold, A. B ,, and Qvennerstedt, A, 1867. Svenska expeditionen t ill Spetsbergen och Jan May en. Stockholm; P. A, Norstedt & Soner, 26l pp.~~

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~~Elton, C. S. 1925 . The Biology in Relation to the Geography, Appendix 1 dm F. G. Binney, the Oxford University Arctic Expedition, 1924. Geogr. Jour., v. 66, pp. III-II 4 .~~

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~~, 1955a. Stratigraphy of the Marine Late-Pleistocene of Billefjorden, Vestspitsbergen. Norsk Polarinstitutt Skr, No, 107, 186 pp.~~

—-----, 1955b. Late-Pleistocene Deposits at Kapp Wijk, Vestspitsbergen. Norsk P o la rin stitu tt Skr. No, 108, 21 pp, ------, 1961 . A Holocene Marine Section from Talavera, Barents Island, (in m s.), 23 pp, (Also presented as a communication at the Spitsbergen Symposium, Würzburg, Germany, April 196l).

~~Feyling-Hanssen, R. W., and Olsson, Ingrid. 1959-1960. Five radiocarbon datings of Post Glacial shorelines in Central Spitsbergen. Norsk Geogr. Tidsskr., Bd. 17, pp, 122-131. 364~~

~~Fjeldstad, J. E, 1939. Results of Tidal Observations at Brandy Bay, North East Land. Norsk Geogr, Tidsskr,, Bd. 7, pp. 369-376,~~

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~~Folk, R. L, 1959. Petrology of Sedimentary Rocks, Austin, Texas; Hemphill's and The Univ, of Texas, 154 pp.~~

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—----- . 1941b. The Latest Map of North East Land, Geogr. Jour,, V. 98, pp. 206-207. Godwin, H,, Suggate, R. P., and W illis, E. H. 1958. Radiocarbon dating of the eustatic rise in ocean-level. Nature, v, 181, pp. 1518-1519.

Godwin, H., and W illis, E. H, 1959. Cambridge University Natural Radiocarbon Measurements I . Amer. Jour. S oi. Radiocarbon Supp., V. 1, pp. 63-75. ------, i 960 , Cambridge U niversity Natural Radiocarbon Measurements II, Amer. Jour. Sci. Radiocarbon Supp., v. 2, pp. 62-72,

~~Goldschmidt, V. M. 1911, Petrographische Untersuchung einiger Eruptivgesteine von Nordvestspitzbergen, Skr. Vid.-Selsk, i Kristiania, I. Mat.-naturv, Kl, 1, Bd., No. 9, pp. 1-17.~~

~~Goldthwait, R. P. 1956. Study of an ice cliff in Nunatarssuaq, Greenland. Ohio State Univ. Research Found., Project 636, Rept, No. 11, 150 pp.~~

~~-. 1957 . Study of ice cliff in Nunatarssuaq, Greenland, Ohio State Univ, Research Found,, Project 636, Rept, No, 17, 167 pp.~~

— , 1961 , Regimen of an Ice Cliff on Land in Northwest Greenland, in Physical Geography of Greenland (19th Internat. Geogr. Congress, Norden, I960, Symposium SD 2), Folio Geographica Danica, v. 9, pp. 107- 115.

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~~Green, K. E, I960, Ecology of some Arctic foraminifera. Micropaleontology, v, 6, pp, 57-78,~~

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~~Groom, G. E., and Sweeting, M, M, 1958, Valleys and Raised Beaches in Bunsow Land Central Vestspitsbergen, Norsk Polarinstitutt Skr. No, 115, 18 pp. 366~~

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~~-. 1959. The Caledonian Sequence in Ny Friesland, Spitsbergen. Quart. Jour. Geol, Soc. London, v. 114, pp. 307-342.~~

~~. i 960 . The Development of Hecla Hoek Rocks in Spitsbergen. Internat. Geol. Congress, Rept. 21st Session, Norden (Copenhagen), Proc. Sect. 19, pp. 7-16.~~

------. 1961 . An Outline Structural History of Spitsbergen, dn Geology of the Arctic (Proc. 1st Internat. Sym. on Arctic Geology, Calgary, Alberta, January I960). Toronto: Univ. of Toronto Press, pp. 68-132.

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Hela, I , , and Koroleff, F, 1958. Hydrographical and Chemical Data collected in 1957 on board the R/V Aranda in the Barents Sea, Merentutkimuslaitos Julkaisu (Havforsksningsinstitutets Skr.) No, 179, 67 pp.

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~~1945 . Drag av Bergenfeltets kvartæ rgeologi, I. Norsk Geol, Tidsskr., v. 25, pp. 433-448.~~

~~Vogt, T. 1930 , Fra en §pitsbergen-ekspedisjon i 1928. Norske Vid.-Akad. i Oslo, Arbok 1929, Mat.-Naturv. Kl., pp. 10-12.~~

. 1932 . Landets senkning i nutiden pa Spitsbergen og 0st-Gr^nland. Norsk. Geol, Tidsskr., v, 12, pp. 563-574. de Vries, HI. 1958. Radiocarbon Dates for upper Eem and Wurm- in terstad ial samples. E isz eita lter u. Gegenwart, Bd. 9, op. 10- 17 . Washburn, A. L. 1956a. Unusual patterned ground in Greenland. B u ll. Geol. Soc. Amer., v. 67, pp. 807-810, 380

~~. 1956b, C lassification of patterned ground and review of suggested origins. Bull, Geol, Soc, Amer., v, 67, pp. 823-866,~~

Werenskiold, W, 1926, Physical Geography and Geology; Coal D eposits, Contributions to the Natural History of Hope Island, in T, Iversen, Hopen ((Hope Island), Svalbard), R esultater Norske Statsunderst^ttede Spitsbergenekspedioner, Bd, I , , No, 10, Norske Vid,-Akad, i Oslo, pp, 25-27,

~~-——, 1952-53. The Strand Flat of Spitsbergen, Geogr, Tidsskr,, Bd, 52, pp. 302-309. Wexler, H, 1961, Ice budgets for Antarctica and changes in sea-level. Jour, Glac,, v, 3, No, 29, pp, 867-872,~~

~~. Wieder, F, C, 1919, The Dutch Discovery and Mapping of Spitsbergen (1596-1329). Amsterdam: Netherland Ministry Foreign Affairs and Royal Dutch Geogr, Soc., 124 pp,~~

~~Wilhelm, F,, and Wirthmann, A. I960, Untersuchungen zur Géomorphologie von Sudost-Spitzbergen, Petermanns Geogr, M itt,, 104 Jahrg, pp, 172-178,~~

~~Wilson, C, B, 1958, The Lower Middle Hecla Hoek Rocks of Ny Friesland, Spitsbergen. Geol, Mag,, v, 95, pp, 305-327.~~

Wolfe, J, N, 1956 , Ecological Study of the Vegetation Patterns, in R, P, Goldthwait, Study of ice cliff in Nunatarssuaq, Greenland, Ohio State Univ. Research Found,, Project 636, Rept, No, 11, pp, 126- 138 ,

~~Wordie, J, M, 1921, Present-day Conditions in Spitsbergen, Geogr, Jour,, v, 58, pp. 25-49.~~

~~Worsley, F, A, 1927, Under Sail in the Frozen North, London: Stanley Paul, 295 pp,~~

~~Wright, H, 1957 , Stone Orientation in Wadena Drumlin F ield, Minnesota. Geogr, Annaler, v, 39, pp. 19-31.~~

Wright, J, 1939 . Methods of Survey in North East Land, Geogr, Jour., V, 93, pp, 210-227, Yermolaev, M, M, 1937, Russian Harbour glaciological Excursion, in The Novaya Zemlya Excursion, Part II, Routes, Internat, Geol, Congress, 17th Session, Leningrad: Publ, Office, Chief Administration Northern Sea Route, pp, 107-117, 381

~~Zagorskaya, W. G, 1959. Novaya Zemlya, in V, N, Sachs and S. A, Strelkov (editors). Quaternary deposits of the Soviet Arctic. Trudy Sci. Invest. Inst. Geol, Arctic, Tom 91, pp. 20-36 (in Russian).~~

~~O ^ Akerblom, F. 1904g Recherches océanographiques. Uppsala Universitets Arsskr. 1903, Mat. och Naturv. 1., pp. 1-80.~~

~~8stlund, H. G., and Engstrand, L. G. I960, Stockholm Natural Radiocarbon Measurements III Amer, Jour. S ci. Radiocarbon Supp., V. 2, pp. 186-196.~~

~~0strem, G. 1959. Ice Melting under a Thin Layer of Moraine and the Existence of Ice Cores in Moraine Ridges. Geogr. Annaler, V. 41, p p . 228-230, AUTOBIOGRAPHT~~

~~I , Weston Blake, J r ., was bom in Boston, Massachusetts,~~

~~February 26, 1930, I received my secondary-school education in the public schools of Weston, Massachusetts. In 1951 I was granted the~~

~~Bachelor of Arts degree in geologr by Dartmouth College, and in~~

~~1953 I received my Master of Science degree in geography from~~

~~McGill University, While in residence at McGill I was research a ssista n t to Professor F. K. Hare.~~

~~In 1955 I began my graduate studies at The Ohio State University, and while completing the requirements for the degree Doctor of~~

~~Philosophy, I have held the following appointments; Graduate~~

~~Assistant, 1955-1956; Bownocker Scholar, 1956-1957; and Bownocker~~

Fellow, 1959. During 1957-1958 I carried out the research on which this dissertation is based in Spitsbergen and Sweden under a grant from the Foreign Field Research Program, D ivision of Earth Sciences,

~~National Academy of Sciences -- National Research Council, From 1959 to 1962 I have been working under a grant from the National Science~~

~~Foundation, administered through The Ohio State University Research~~

~~Foundation and the Institute of Polar Studies, Professor R. P.~~

~~Goldthv/ait, D irector, During th is period I spent eighteen months at the Department of Geography, U niversity of Stockholm, doing additional research and writing.~~

~~382 GSOlyDRPHûLOGY MD GLACIAL GEOLOGY~~

~~BI NORDAUSTLAiNDET, SPITSBERGEN~~

~~Volume I I~~

~~DISSERTATION~~

~~Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University~~

~~Weston Blake, Jr., A.B., M.Sc.~~

~~xxxxxxxx~~

~~The Ohio S ta te U n iv ersity~~

~~1962~~

~~Approved by -é^cLÀ (P Richard P. Goldütjlwait Department of Geology PHOTOGRAPHS~~

~~Plate Figure Page~~

I View southeast in Lady Franklinfjorden at S^re Franklinbreen and Vestfonna ...... 3^3 II View southeast over W argentinflya ...... 3#4 III View southeast over Wargentinf jellet ...... 3&5 IV View southeast over inner Murchisonfjorden ...... 386 V View southeast at Kvalrosshalvj^ya ...... 387 VI View southeast at Backabreen, Forsiusbreen, and Vestfonna ...... 388 VII View northwest over Kordre Franklinbreen ...... 389 VIII View northwest beside S^re Franklinbreen ...... 390 IX View northwest over De Geerfonna ...... 391 X View northwest at Skardberget, Celsiusberget, and Storsteinhalvp^ya ...... 392 XI View northwest at Manedalen and Heimbukta ...... 393 XII View northwest over Kvalrosshalv^ya ...... 394 XIII View southeast over Claravagen ...... 395 XIV View of beaches between Claravagen, Kinnvika, and Drikkevatnet ...... 396 XV View southeast at raised beaches north of Kinnvika ...... 397 XVI 1 Looking northwest in Austvika ...... 398 2 View east from Mordre Russ^ya ...... 398 XVII 1 View west from Kinnberget at dolomite ridges ...... 399 2 Detail of weathering in jointed dolomite ...... 399 XVIII 1 Gorge and w aterfall near Sveanor ...... 400 2 Gorge at Kinnvatnet outlet ...... 400 XIX 1 Dissected marine terraces in inner Austvika ...... 401 2 Gorge in Haggblomelva near Vindheimen ...... 401 XX Manedalen ...... 402 XXI Kames(?) in lower part of Manedalen ...... 403 XXII 1 Kames(?) in upper Manedalen ...... 404 2 Valley of Wulffelva vdth kames(?) ...... 404 XXIII Palosuofonna ...... 405 XXIV 1 Aerial view of gorge through Skardberget ...... 406 2 Lake strandlines on Skardberget ...... 406 XXV 1 Delta at Drikkevatnet ...... 407 2 Strandlines around Drikkevatnet ...... 407 XXVI Ice-pushed ridge at Drikkevatnet ...... 408 XXVII 1 Sorted polygons in t ill near Langgrunnodden ...... 409 2 Nonsorted circles on beach shingle of Indre Russ^ya ...... 409 XXVIII 1 Nonsorted (ice-wedge) polygons in bedrock debris on Skardberget ...... 410 Solifluction lobe flowing over shingle beaches near Heimbukta ...... 410 XXK Solifluction lobe near Brekollen, 1938 ...... 4H Same so liflu c tio n lobe, 1957 ...... 411 3 D etail of same so liflu c tio n lobe, 1958 ...... 411 x ix Plate Figure Page

~~XXX 1 Striated dolomite overlain by t ill on Gra^ya ...... 412 2 Striated limestone on Telt^^ya ...... 412~~

XXXI Grossing striae in limestone on Telt^ya ...... 413 XXXII 1 Detail of grooves in shale at Kapp Lady ...... 414 Stoss-and-lee surfaces in shale on Celsiusodden ...... 414 XXXIII 1 Polished and rounded shale on Skiferpynten ...... 415 2 Fine striae on shale at Skiferpynten ...... 415 XXXIV 1 Stoss-and-lee topography on Rundi^ya ...... 416 2 D etail of N 35 stria e on Rund^ya ...... 416 XXXV 1 Striae on northeast side Rondalsberget ...... 417 2 Striae near top of Rondalsberget ...... 417 XXXVI 1 Sandstone and dolomite erratics on shale on Rondalsberget ...... -...... 418 Striated shale on southwest side Rondalsberget ...... 418 XXXVII Detail of striae and ice-friction features on Rondalsberget ...... 419 XXXVIII Area around Vindheimen at Vestfonna ...... 420 XXXIX 1 E rratics on Langgrunnodden ...... 421 2 Large gran itic erratic on Langgrunnodden ...... 421 XL 1 General view of south shore of Kross^ya ...... 422 2 Upper (greenish-gray) t ill and stratified beach deposits on Kross^ya ...... 422 XLI 1 Stratigraphie sequence on south shore Kross^ya ...... 423 o D etail o f contact between two t i l l s on Kross/ya ...... 423 XLII Some common Foraminifera from the greenish-gray t i l l on Xross^^a...... 424 2 View southwest along ridge of Ismasetoppen ...... «. 424 XLIII 1 Raised beaches along southwest side Lady Franklinf jorden ...... 425 Blocks of ice pushed up onto the beach at Skaraodden ...... 425 XLIV Ice-pushed ridges and ice at Persodden ...... 426 XLV 1 Collapsing ice foot at Kapp Lady ...... 427 2 Ice foot and erratics at Langgrunnodden ...... 427 XLVI 1 Raised beaches and shingle bar at Diabasvika, Lag^ya ...... 428 2 Tombolo at Skiferpynten in 1924 ...... 428 3 Tomuolo at Skiferpynten in 1957 ...... 428 XLVII 1 Structural terraces on Wargentinfjellet ...... 429 Detail of structural terrace and solifluction on Wargentinfjellet ...... 429 XLVIII nigh level beaches aid lagoons on Tverrberget ...... 430 View at high beaches on Tverrberget from Sevrinberget ...... 430

~~XX P la te F i| Page~~

XLIX Wargentinflya southwest of S^re Franklinbreen ...... 431 L 1 Cut strandline and beach material at 100 m on Sevrinberget ...... 432 2 Raised beaches and permanent snowfield on Kinnberget ...... 432 LI 1 Raised beaches and "marine limit" on southwest side Brennevinsf jorden ...... 433 2 Beaches above "marine lim it" in Franklindalen ...... 433 L II 1 Raised beaches between S^re Franklinbreen and Brekollen ...... 434 2 Truncated cuspate foreland near S^re Franklinbreen ...... 434 LI II 1 Tilted surface of truncated cuspate foreland at Skaraberget ...... 435 2 Beach ridges on surface of truncated cuspate foreland ...... 435 LÏV Aerial view of truncated cuspate foreland at Skaraberget ...... 436 LV 1 Taues beach below Sevrinberget ...... 437 2 Tapes beach at Kapp Ladj*- ...... 437 LVI 1 Pumice on Tapes beach in Franklindalen ...... 436 < , Whale bones on Tapes beach, west side Indre Russ^ya ...... I ...... 438 LVII 1 Driftwood log on Vestre Tvillingneset ...... 439 2 Driftwood log at 36.7 meters near Sveanor ...... 439 LVIII Shingle beaches and driftwood at Kvalrosshalvjiya ...... 440 LLi 1 Shell collection locality at 57 m ne^r SkjelVdtnet ...... 441 2 D etail of sh ells on ground surface near Skjelvatnet ...... 441 Lk Channel in beach shingle and t i l l near S^re Fi-anklinbreen ...... 442 LXI Ice-wedge in channel w a ll ...... 443 LXII Detail view of shells in till under beach shingle ...... 444 LXIII 1 Russian cross on Kross^ya...... 445 2 D etail of old Russian hut on Kordre Russ^ya ...... 445 LkIV A erial view of Kordre Russji^ya ...... 446 La V 1 Russian hut and lagoon on Nordre R uss^ya ...... 447 2 Nordre Russ^ya as seen from Flyndra ...... 447 LkVI 1 Persodden as seen from Fersberget, 1399 ...... 448 2 Persodden from Fersberget, 1958 ...... 448 ifOVII Shore cave in dolomite on west side Indre Russÿ)ya ...... 449 L kV in 1 Vestfonna near Vindheimen as seen from Celsiusberget, 1399 ...... 450 Vestfonna near Vindheimen as seen from Celsiusberget, 1957 ...... 450 xxi Plate Figure Page

LXIX Vestfonna and Fimvatnet from Celsiusberget, 1899 ...... 451 Vestfonna and Fimvatnet from Celsiusberget, 1931 ...... 451 Vestfonna and Fimvatnet from Celsiusberget, 1957 ...... 451 LIX Wulffvatnet in 1938 ...... 452 Wulffvatnet in 1957 ...... 452 KIXI 1 Permanent snowfield overlapping high beaches in Austvika ...... 453 2 Protalus rampart near Weaselbukta ...... 453 USII 1 Ice-wedge polygons at edge of Vestfonna ...... 454 2 3dge of Vestfonna at Vindheimen ...... 454 L lX III S^re Franklinbreen in 1899 ...... 455 LKXIV S^re Franklinbreen in 1924 ...... 456 LXXV SjZ^re Franklinbreen in 1956 ...... 457 LKXVI 1 S^re Franklinbreen from Teodolitkollen in 1936 .... 458 2 S/re Franklinbreen from Teodolitkollen in 1958 .... 458 Lx:wii Detail of front of S^re Franklinbreen in 1957 ..... 459 Liaviii Sj&re Franklinbreen from Survey point 2, Sept. 8, 1957 ...... 460 2 Same view after 260 days, I-îay 27, 1958...... 460 IXXIX 1 Same view after 51 days, July 16, 1958...... 46l 2 Same view after 15 days, July 31, 1958...... 461 IXXX 1 View southwest along S^re Franklinbreen la te r a l moraine ...... 462 2 Detail of blocky till in lateral moraine ...... 462 m x i 1 Push moraine beside S^re Franklinbreen ...... 463 2 "Rolling" advance of S^re Franklinbreen ...... 463 LXXXII Ice edge advancing into lateral moraine ...... 464 UüüCIII 1 Side view of ice tongue advancing into lateral moraine, July 22, 1958 ...... 465 2 Same view after three days, July 25, 1958 ...... 465 LXXXIV 1 Striated surface of lateral moraine, July 22, 1958 ...... 466 Same view after three days, July 25, 1958 ...... 466 LXXX7 View northwest over Laponiahalv^ya with end moraines in front of Lindhagenbreen ...... 467 m xvi View southeast at glacier in Ekstrembukta...... 468 L’iXXVII 1 Lobe of Vestfonna and moraine near Brageneset, 1924 ...... 469 2 Same area in 1938 ...... 469 LXXXVIII View north over Rijpdalen ...... 470

~~XXXI P U T E I~~

View southeast in Lady Franklinfjorden at S^re Franklinbreen and Vestfonna. Beaches at Tverrberget in foreground rise to over 100 meters above sea le v e l. Oblique a ir photograph by B, Luncke. No, Le 77-813, Aug, 26, 1938, Copyright Norsk P o la rin stitu tt, PIATE II 384

~~View southeast over Wargentinflya to Rondalsberget, Fogberget, and Vestfonna, Oblique air photograph by B. Luncke, No* Le 77-817, Aug, 26, 1938, Copyright Norsk P o la r in stitu tt, PLATE H I 385~~

~~s i s fiiimfmma~~

View southeast over Wargentinfjellet to Nordvika and Vestfonna, Note high level lakes in foreground. Oblique air photograph by B. Luncke. No. Le 77-819, Aug. 26, 1938. Copyright Norsk Polarinstitutt, PLATE IV 386

View southeast over inner Murchisonfjorden, including Floraodden, Celsiusodden, Celsiusberget, Kordvika, and Weaselbukta. Vestfonna in distance. Oblique air photograph by B. Luncke. No. Le 77-823, Aug. 26, 1938. Copyright Norsk Polarinstitutt, PLATE V

View southeast at inner Murchisonfjorden, including Snaddvika, Heimbukta, Kvalrosshalv^ya, Isvika and Sf(rvika. Vestfonna and Wahlenbergf jorden in VC distance. Oblique air photograph by B, Luncke. No, Le 77-826, Aug. 26, 1938. Copyright Norsk P o la rin stitu tt, PIAIE VI 388

View southeast at Backabreen, Forsiusbreen, and Vestfonna, Driftwood at 36.7 m was found immediately to left of stream debouching into Murchisonfjorden in center of photograph. S^re Russ^ya in foreground. Note folded bedrock structure. Oblique air photograph by B. luncke, No. Le 77-826, Aug. 26, 1938, Copyright Norsk P o la rin stitu tt, PLATE VII

~~View northwest over Nordre Franklinbreen to Lady Franklinfjorden and Lag/ya. Oblique air photograph by B. Luncke, No. Le 83-226, July 28, 1938. Copyright VjJO) Norsk Polarinstitutt. vO PLAïE VIII 390~~

View northwest along the southwest side of S^re Franklinbreen over Wargentinflya and Wargentinfjellet. Note Palosuofonna lying between Brekollen and Fogberget in foreground. Oblique air photograph by B. Luncke. No. Le 83-234, July 28, 193&. Copyright Norsk Polarinstitutt. PLATE US. 391

View northwest over De Geerfonna, inner Mirchisonf jorden, and W argentinfjelleb to Langgrunnodden. Oblique a ir photograph by B, Luncke. No. Le 83-238, July 28, 193S. Copyright Norsk P o la rin stitu tt, PIATE % 392

~~View northwest at Skardberget, Celsiusberget, and Storsteinhalvfï(ya. Oblique a ir photograph by B. Luncke. No. Le 53-241, July 28, 1938. Copyright Norsk P o la rin stitu tt, P U T E XI 393~~

~~View northwest at Manedalen, Heimbukta, and I^urchisonf jorden. Oblique air photograph by B. Luncke. No, Le S3-244j July 28, 1938, Copyright Norsk P o la rin stitu tt, PIATE XII 394~~

~~1-rr'~~

~~BWAf~~

View northwest over Haggblomelva, Krystallvatnet, Kvalrosshalv^ya, and islands in Murchisonf jorden. Oblique air photograph by B. Luncke. No. Le 83-247, July 28, 1938. Copyright Norsk P o la rin stitu tt, PLATE XIII

View southeast over Claravagen and Murchisonfjorden. Note influence that folded bedrock structure, priraari)^ in dolomite, has on coastline. Oblique air photograph VjO by B. Luncke. No. Le ?6-4Zp6, Aug. 26, 1938. Copyright Norsk P o la rin stitu tt, vO PLATE XIV

~~View of beaches between Claravagen, Kinnvika, and Drikkevatnet, Vertical air photograph by G. G. Wesslén, Swedish Air Force, No, 20-05, Aug. 28, 1957. PIATE 397~~

~~View southeast at raised beaches north of Kinnvika. May 8, 1958. PLATE X7I 398~~

Figure 1, Looking northwest at beaches on north side of Austvika and steeply dipping strata on west side of Celsiusberget. Note plateau-like nature of country north of Murchisonfjorden as well as erosion surfaces on Celsiusberget. Aug. 9, 1957.

~~m m~~

~~Figure 2. View east from Nordre Russ^ya showing even skyline. Note trough from ice-wedge in foreground. Sept. 12, 1957. PLATE 2711 399~~

~~Figure 1, View west from Kinnberget at dolomite ridges and shore features in Kinnvika, Houses are the base station of the Swedish- Finnish-Swiss I.G.Y. Station. Aug. 23, 1957.~~

~~Figure 2. Detail of weathering of jointed dolpmite ridges north of Kinnvika into a series of tors. Entrenching tool gives scale. Aug. 30, 1957. PLATE XVIII~~

~~Figure I, Gorge and ■waterfall in stream valley east of Sveanor (cf. Plate VI). Aug. l6, 1958.~~

Figure 2. View west of gorge cut by outlet stream of Kinnvatnet to Kinnvika. Note that the gorge is now tidal and that the shingle beach bar completely closes the o u tlet. Aug. 12, 1958. PLATE XIX 401

~~Figure 1. Inner Austvika showing marine terraces dissected by streams as a result of land uplift, and sandurs being built at lower levels. Aug. 9, 1957.~~

~~Figure 2. View southeast at gorge in Haggblomelva near Vindheimen. Vestfonna in distance. July 30, 1957. PIATE XX 402~~

View of W ulffelva, Manedalen, Heimbukta, and Fim vatnet, Note kames (?) and lateral drainage channels. Enlargement of vertical air photograph by C. G. Wesslén, Swedish Air Force. No. 10-07, Aug. 27, 1957. PLATE XKI 403

~~View at kames (?) in lower part of Manedalen. l'îan gives sca le. Note 50 m raised marine terrace arKi shorelines on kames (?) indicating temporary lake levels. Aug, 12, 1957. PLATE XXII 404~~

Figure 1, Kames(?) in upper l'îanedalen. View west down-v a lley . Note man on terrace to right and accordant level of kame(?) and terrace. Bedrock exposed by stream erosion in foreground. Aug. 15, 1957.

~~Figure 2. Valley of Wulffelva above Manedalen. Note terraces and tops of kames(?) projecting above permanent snowfield. Aug. 18, 1958. PIATE x x n i 405~~

Palosuofonna, Note bedrock outcrops in middle of this dead ice area as a result of thinning of ice since 1938. Vertical air photographs by C. G. Wesslen, Swedish Air Force, Nos. 10-11, 18-10, and 18-11. Aug. 2? and 28, 1957. PIATE XXIV 406

~~Figure 1. Aerial view of gorge through Skardberget; Wulffelva to right, De Geerfonna and Vestfonna in d istance, Aug. 19, 1957.~~

~~iïSSS-S~~

~~Figure 2, Upper part of gorge through Skardberget and Litle Skardvatn, Note strandlines of former lake and present insignificant outflow through gorge, Aug. IS, 1958. PLATE XXV 407~~

~~Figure 1, Delta at Drikkevatnet. Note prominent cut strandline at 51 m on far side of lake. Sept. 28, 1957.~~

~~Figure 2. Strandlines around Drikkevatnet. Lake is at 33 m, prominent strandline at 51 m, Aug. 24, 1958. PLATE XX'^I 408~~

~~Detail of ice-pushed ridge at 51 m strandline on north side Drikkevatnet. Aug. 2k, 1958. PIATE XXVII 409~~

~~Figure 1, Sorbed polygons in t ill near sea level between Langgrunnodden and Dolom ittkollen. Geological hammer gives scale. July 9, 1958.~~

~~Figure 2. Nonsorted circles on beach shingle of Indre Russj^ya. View north to north side of Murchisonf jorden. Sept. 15, 1957* PIATE XXVIII 410~~

~~Figure 1, Nonsorted (ice-wedge) polygons in bedrock debris (felsenmeer) on Skardberget, Aug. 18, 1958,~~

~~Figure 2, Solifluction lobe flowing over shingle beaches. Note also s p its, bars, and abundant driftwood along shore at entrance to Heimbukta, Aug. 9, 1957. PLAIE XXIK~~

Figure 1, Solifluction lobe between Figure 2, Same solifluction Brekollen and S^re Franklinbreen, lobe, 150 m wide where it Enlargement of oblique air photograph crosses prominent 70 m raised by B. Luncke, Mo. Le 83-233, July 28, beach. Enlargement of vertical 1938. Copyright Norsk P o la rin stitu tt. air photograph by G. G. Wesslen, Swedish Air Force. No. 18-10, Aug. 28, 1957.

~~Figure 3. Detail of same solifluction lobe as seen on the ground, July 27, 1958. PLATE XXX 412~~

~~Figure 1. View north at striated dolomite overlain by t ill and beach shingle. South end Gra^ya. Ice moved toward the west (from right to left in photograph), Aug. 17, 1958.~~

~~Figure 2. View south at striated limestone on east side Telt^ya. Ice moved toward the west (from left to right in photograph). Note erratic boulders in overlying till. Aug. 13, 1958. PLATS XXXI 413~~

D e ta il of crossing striae in limestone at north end of Telt^ya. Older E-W striae are represented by white lines parallel to the carpenter's rule. South is at top of photograph, Aug, 13, 1958, PIATE XXXII 41A

~~Figure 1. Detail of grooves in shale at Kaop Lady, View northwest. July 13, 1957.~~

Figure 2, View northwest at stoss-and-lee surfaces in steeply- dipping f i s s i l e shale on C elsiusodden. Ice moved toward th e southwest (from right to left in photograph). Talus slopes of Floraberget in distance. Aug. 17, 1958. PLATE XXXIII 415

Figure 1. Looking southeast at glacially polished and rounded shale on Skiferpynten. Stoss-and-lee topography indicates ice motion toward the northwest. Note brash ice packed against the shore here. Sept. 5, 1957.

~~Figure 2. Detail of same rock outcrop looking north. Note fine striae at N 30®E resulting from later glacial action or from sea ice. Sept. 5, 1957. PIATE XXXIV 416~~

~~Figure 1, View northeast at stoss-and-lee topography on Rund^ya. Ice moved toward the northwest (from right to left in photograph). Aug. 1, 1956.~~

~~Figure 2. Detail of N 3 5 striae on rounded shale hillock in previous photograph, typical of many with similar orientation at this locality, Aug. 1, 1956, PLATS x m 417~~

Figure 1, N 40“E striae on shale, northeast side Rondalsberget, View northwest toward Tverrberget, July 28, 1958*

~~Figure 2. Detail of N 40®S striae on water-smoothed shale near top of Rondalsberget. July 28, 1958. PIATE XXXVI 418~~

~~Figure 1. White sandstone and dolomite erratics on red shale on top of Rondalsberget at I 7 O-I8 O m above sea level. View north across Lady Franklinfjorden. July 28, 1958,~~

~~Figure 2, Striated shale surface on southwest side Rondalsberget. View northeast parallel to these M 40"F striae. July 28, 1958. PMThi XXXVII~~

Detail of striae on the above surface, with crescentic goug:es (Sichelbrüche) and I'kschelbruche or Flak. The ice moved toward the southwest (from right to left in the photograph), July 2d, 1958, •p- PIATE XKX7III 420

View of area around Vindheimen at the edge of Vestfonna (of. Figure 1 5 ). Note lateral drainage channels partly filled after first snowfall of 1957-195Ô winter. Enlargement of vertical air photograph taken by C. G. Wesslen, Swedish Air Force, No, 11-15, Aug. 27, 1957. PLATE XXXIX 4 2 1

~~Figure 1, Erratics on Langgrunnodden. Note also abundant driftwood near tidal lagoons. View northeast. July 10, 1958.~~

~~Figure 2, Large granitic erratic on Langgrunnodden. ïÿpical of several on east side of this dolomite ridge. July 9^ 1957. PLATE XL 422~~

~~Figure 1, General view at south shore of Kross^ya, Note erratics along shore, snowbanks, and bedded marine deposits overlying till, Aug, 1 5 , I 95 Ô.~~

~~figure 2. Detailed view of upper (greenish-gray) till on Kross^ya with stratified beach deposits lying above the line of boulders. Aug. 15, 1958. PIATE XLI~~

Figure 1, Stratigraphie sequence along the south shore of Figure 2. Detail of this exposure. The line Kross^ya; shale bedrock, reddish-gray till, greenish-gray drawn with the knife marks the division till, and beach shingle at the top. The hammer marks the between th e two t i l l s . Mote th e w hite division between the two tills . shell fragments in the upper (greenish- -p- gray) till. Aug. 1 5 , 1 9 5 8 . PIATE XLII 424

~~Figure 1, Some common Foraminifera from the greenish-gray till on Kross^ya. Lines on grid are 2 mm apart. Photograph by F. Brotzen, Sveriges Geologiska Undersokning.~~

~~. ,- ■ ■ ■cmÊÿrnËÊ'~~

~~Figure 2, View southwest along ridge of Ismasetoppen. Note profile of hills and rock strata dipping gently southeastward. Photograph by 5. R. Ekman, 1958. PIATE XLIII 425~~

Figure 1, Looking northwest from Sevrinberget at raised beaches along southwest side of Lady Franklinf jorden. The Tapes beach, on which pumice and driftwood are found, is indicated by the arrow. Note the lateral moraine of Sjire Franklinbreen on the right, July 3 1 , 1958.

~~Figure 2, Blocks of ice pushed up onto the beach at Skaraodden, View southeast, Aug. 3, 1958. PIATE XLT7 426~~

~~Ice-pushed ridges and partly buried ice blocks at Persodden. View north. July 15, 1958. PLATE XLV 427~~

~~Figure 1, Collapsing ice foot at Kapp Lady, View northeast, Ju ly n, 1958.~~

~~Figure 2, Ice foot and erratics at Langgrunnodden. View northeast into Detterbukta. July 10, 1958. PLATE XLVI 428~~

~~Figure 1. Raised beaches and shingle bar at Diabasvika, Lagjdya. Diabase bedrock in foreground. View southwest. Aug. 6, 195S.~~

~~Figure 2. Tombolo at Skiferpynten. View southwest. Enlargement from an oblique air photograph by F. Tymms, Oxford University- Arctic Expedition, 1924. No. B-3Ô, Aug. 15, 1924.~~

~~Figure 3. Tombolo at Skiferpynten. Note change in shape from previous photograph because of pressure of ice in Lady Franklinfjorden. View southeast. Sept. 5> 1957. PIATE XLVII 429~~

~~Figure 1. Structural terraces on W argentinfjellet as seen from near Tverrberget. View south-southwest. Aug. 2, 1958,~~

~~Figure 2, Detailed view of uppermost terrace shown in previous photograph, showing modification by solifluction. Front edge of terrace where lobe begins is at 216 m. Aug. 2, 1958. PIATE XLYIII 430~~

~~Figure 1, High level beaches and lagoons below snowfield on northwest side Tverrberget (cf. Plate l). View southwest. Aug. 2, 1958.~~

~~Figure 2, Tverrberget fron Sevrinberget. Note beaches at elevations above 100 m (snowfield on northeast side of Tverrberget lies partly along 95 m beach). Julj’- 31, 1958. PIATE XLIX 431~~

~~Wargentinflya southwest of Sj6re Franklinbreen. Reduction of vertical air photograoh by C. G. V/esslén, Swedish Air Force, No, 17-10, Aug. 28, 1957. PIATE L 432~~

~~Figure 1, Cut strandline and beach material at 100 m on south side Sevrinberget. July 31, 1958.~~

~~Figure 2. Raised beaches and permanent snowfield on Kinnberget, View northeast. Highest prominent beach level south (to the right) of Kinnberget is at 57 m. Sept. 14, 1957. PLATE LI 433~~

Figure 1, Raised beaches and "marine limit" on southwest side B rennevinsfjorden. View southeast. Enlargement of part of an oblique air photograph taken by B. Luncke. No. Le 77-799» Aug. 26, 1938. Copyright Norsk Polarinstitutt.

Figure 2. View northwest at same area (cf. two stream deltas) toward Kapp Hansteen shown in previous photograph. Note beaches high above "marine lim it" on south side of Franklindalen. Enlargement of part of an oblique air photograph by B. Luncke. No. Le 97-290, Aug. 26, 1938. Copyright Norsk Polarinstitutt. PLATE LII 434

~~F igure 1 , View south from Sfire Franklinbreen at raised beaches between the glacier and Brekollen, Mote prominent beach at 68 m and also fainter beach (?) at 103 m. Sept, 7, 1937.~~

~~Figure 2, View southeast down sloping surface of truncated cuspate foreland at 60 m (cf. Plate VIII). Note ice-wedge polygons developed on this smooth surface. July 27, 1958. PIAT3 LU I 435~~

Figure 1, Tilted surface of truncated cuspate foreland at Skaraberget as seen from Lady Franklinfjorden. Note pronounced tilt toward bhe inner part of the fiord (left). Lowest horizontal snowbanks lie along the Tapes beach, July 15, 1958.

Figure 2. View northw est from S karaberget down onto t i l t e d su rface of truncated cuspate foreland, showing how it is composed of a series of beach ridges. Note ice-wedge polygons. Aug. 3, 1958. PIATE LIT 436

View of truncated cuspate foreland near Skaraberget,- shotdng beach ridges and ice-wedge polygons. Upper end of cuspate foreland (in upper left-hand corner of photograph) is at approximately 37 m. Enlargement of low-level vertical air photograph taken by C. G. hesslén, Swedish Air Force. No, 01-02, Aug. 26, 1957. PLATE LV 437

Figure 1, Tapes beach below Sevrinberget showing prominent cut in bedrock. Pumice here is at 9.3>ni, back edge of terrace at 9.7 m. View northwest out Lady Franklinfjorden. Lateral moraine of S^re Franklinbreen to the right and at point in distance. July 30, 1958.

~~Figure 2, View southeast along Tapes beach on Westmanbukta side of Kapp Lady, Note typical rock outcrops and steep slope at back edge of this beach, here at about 7.4 m. July 14, 1958, PIAIE LVI 438~~

~~Figure 1, Detail of Tapes beach at west end Franklindalen, showing abundant dark broivn pumice on beach shingle at 6.7 m. Aug. 5, 1958.~~

~~Figure 2, Partly buried whale bones at about 9 m on Taoes beach, west side Indre Russj^ya. Black marks on ground around man are b its of pumice. Aug. 14, 1958. PIATE LVII 439~~

Figure 1, Driftwood log almost completely buried by dolomitic beach shingle on Vestre Tvillingneset. This log, at 7.8 m elevation, is 6200±100 years old (U-107). Note b its of dark pujnice (beside hainmer) on same beach in distance. July 6, 1958.

~~Figure 2, View south at partly buried driftwood log at 36.7 m near Sveanor (U-70, 9270±130 years old). Note higher beaches across stream valley in the distance. Aug. l6, 1958. PIATE LVIII 440~~

Shore at Kvalrosshalv/ya, Note how modern beach m aterial i s being thrown up over the older beach shingle under the influence of ice push and storm waves. Also note how logs thrown up onto the older beaches l i e on the surface. View southwest. Aug. li(., 1958. PIATE LK 441

Figure 1, Shell collection locality at 57 m near Skjelvatnet, View northeast at Sevrinberget, Note poorly-developed patterned ground and absence of beach shingle. Shells here are >35^000 years old (see Table 12), July 28, 1958,

~~Figure 2, Detail of ground surface at above locality. Note how isolated pelecypod valves (arrows) lie on the surface or are imbedded in the till, July 28, 1958, PIATE LX 442~~

~~View north at channel cut through beach shingle into underlying till by stream flowing beside S)i5re Franklinbreen. Note several shallower abandoned channels also, July 27, 1958. PIAîïï LXI 443~~

Detailed view of part of this channel wall showing how upper part ox till has been reworked into beach shingle. Note thin ice-wedge underlying depression in shingle surface. July 27, 1958. PLATE LXII 444

Detailed view of permanent snowfield over beach material over till at another place in the same stream channel. Note single valves, apparently of Hiatella arctica, imbedded in the till. July 27, 1958, PIATE LXIII 445

Figure 1, View northeast at old Russian cross oliKross^ya. Inscriptions are in Church Slavonic, Note well developed beach shingle and ice-wedge polygons on top of this island at 17 m elevation. Aug. 15, 1958.

Figure 2. Detailed view of ruins of Russian hut on Nordre Russ^ya. Note bricks from fireplace. Horizontal base log in right foreground (arrow) is 260±100 years old (U-37). Another cross is visible in the distance. Aug. 15, 1958. FLATS IXIV 446

View of Nordre Russ^ya showing relation of hut (arrow) to lagoon and shingle beach bar. Enlarged vertical air photograph taken by C. G. Wesslen, Swedish Air Force. No, 21-02, Aug. 28, 1957. PLATE LXV 447

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F igure 1 , View n o rth a t hut ru in s on Nordre RussjzJya, lagoon, and shingle beach bar. Note line of seaweed and debris (arrow) on inner side of lagoon, marking high water level. Hut is only 0.7 m above this level. Aug. 15, 1958.

Figure 2, Nordre Russj|(ya (with isolated hillock at north end) as seen from Flyndra, This low island is very exposed to storms. Mountains rising above fog in distance are in Ny Friesland across Kinlopenstretet. July 22, 1957. PLATS LXVI 448

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~~Figure 1, Persodden as seen from Persberget. Note tabular iceberg, Photograph by N. C. R in g e rtz , S ep t. 3-8, 1899,~~

~~Figure 2, Persodden from Persberget, Note sim ilarity to previous photograph. July 12, 1958. PIATE IZ7II 449~~

~~Shore cave in dolomite on west side Indre Russf(ya. Note how till and beach material overlying bedrock have been washed away by wave a c tio n . Aug. 14, 1958. PLATE LXVIII 450~~

~~Figure 1. Vestforma near Vindheimen as seen from Celsiusberget, Photograph by W, C. Ringertz, sometime between Aug. 14-20 or Aug. 2ô-3epb. 1, 1899.~~

~~Figure 2, Same view as in previous photograph. Note similarity in position of Vestfonna's margin, but permanent snowfields are much le s s ex ten siv e. Aug. 10, 1957. PIATE LXIX; 451~~

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Figure 1, View toward Vestfonna and Firnvatnet from Celsiusberget. Note size of pex*manent snow fields, The th re e d o ts mark th e su rface of the ice cap. Photograph by N. G. Ringertz sometime between Aug, 14-20 or Aug. 26-Sept. 1, 1899.

Figure 2, Same view. Note slight reduction in size of permanent snowfields, development of ice cliff at Firnvatnet, and appearance of shear moraine on ice cap. Photograph by Swedish-Norwegian Arctic Expedition, 1931.

~~Figure 3. Same view. Note smaller size of permanent snowfields, particularly at Firnvatnet, Aug, 10, 1957. PLATE LKX 452~~

F igure 1 , W ulffvatnet in 193Ô. Mote le v e l o f vra.tei' and p o sitio n of snowfield at edge of Vestfonna. Enlargement of part of an oblique air photograph taken by 3. luncke. No. Le 78-725, Aug. 26, 1938. Copyright Norsk Polarinstitutt.

Figure 2. Wulffvatnet in 1957. Note water le v e l, p o sitio n of snow field, and well developed lateral drainage channels cut when De Geerfonna reached this lake. Enlargement of part of a vertical air photograph by C. G. Wesslen, Swedish Air F orce. No. 11-12, Aug. 27, 1957. PLATE LXXI 453

~~Figure 1» View east at permanent snowfield overlapping high level raised beaches (at about 60 m) in Austvika. Aug. 9, 1957.~~

~~Figure 2. View south of permanent snowfield on steep wall in valley east of Weaselbukta. Mote protalus rampart overlying raised beaches in front of snowfield. Aug. 10, 1958. PLATE LXXII 454~~

Figure 1, View of ice-wedge polygons in felsenmeer on ridge near Vindheimen (cf. Figure 15). Note how snow-filled troughs of polygons continue under permanent snowfield at edge of Vestfonna. Enlargement of a low level vertical air photograph by G. G-. V/esslen, Swedish Air Force. No. 06-14. Aug. 26, 1957.

■ =» - - Figure 2. Edge of Vestfonna at Vindheimen. Man is standing in a snow-filled drainage channel. Vegetation at ice edge was collected on isolated rocks behind him. Note lichens on sandstone blocks in foreground, itidge in background is that shovm in detail in previous photograph. Aug. 5j 1957. PIAïS LXXIII 455

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S^re Franklinbreen in 1899, as seen from Jaoobpynten. Front of glacier is immediately to the right of the vertical centerline, hote relation of glacier front to Sevrinberget, w'argentinfjeilet appears to be covered by a permanent snowfield. Photograph by w. Ringertz, Sept. 3-8, 1399. PMTiS LKXIV

S^re Franklinbreen in 1924. Note relation of front to lateral moraine and Tixnnelbreen. Oblique air photographs by F. Tymms, Oxford University Arctic Exoedition, 1924. Nos. B-38, 39, 40, Aug. 15, 1924 .

~~■p- vnO PIAÎE LXXV~~

S^re Franklinbreen in 1956. Note crevassed surface of glacier, active calving and relation of front to Tmmelbreen. Oblique air photograph by B, Luncke. No, Le 77a-973, Aug. 13, 1956 . Copyright Norsk Polarinstitutt. PMTE LXXVI 458

Figure 1 , Sfére F ranklinbreen in th e summer of 1936. View n o rth e a st from T e o d o litk o lle n . Photograph by N, A, C. C ro ft, Oxford University Arctic Expedition, 1935-36. No. C-793. Reproduced courtesy of Scott Polar Research Institute,

Figure 2. S^re Franklinbreen as seen from the same position on Teodolitkollen in 1958. Note the slight advance of the front (arrow) since 1936. The glacier is also more active and thicker. July 24, 1958. PLATE LXXVII 459

~~Detail of front of S^re Franklinbreen in 1957. View northeast from la te r a l moraine. Glacier front is about 30 m high. Sent. 6, 1957. PLATE LXXVIII 460~~

~~Figure 1 View across S^re Franklinbreen at K ullingfjellet from southeastern survey point (2) on Teodolitkollen. Sept. 8, 1957.~~

~~Figure 2. Same photograph repeated after 260 days. Note change in seracs in foreground. May 27, 1958. PIATS LXXIX 461~~

~~Figure 1, Same photograph repeated after 51 days. Note motion of seracs in foreground. July 15, 1958.~~

~~Figure 2. Same photograph repeated after 15 days. Note motion of seracs in foreground and dirt cones to right, July 31, 1958. FIATE IXXX 4 6 2~~

~~Figure 1, View southeast along S^re Franklinbreen's lateral moraine. Man gives scale. Sept. 6, 1957.~~

~~Figure 2. Detail of blocky till in lateral moraine. Note ice below ice aoce and in exposure in distance. July 25, 1958. PLA.ÏE LXXXI 463~~

~~Figure 1, View northwest along edge of S^re Franklinbreen showing how glacier is pushing up a moraine ridge as it advances laterally into a flab till area, Sept. 6, 1957.~~

~~Figure 2, View of another portion of side of S^re Franklinbreen showing i t s "rolling" advance. Some t i l l i s being squeezed up at the ice edge. July 2$, 1958. PIATJL LXXXII 464~~

~~Ice edge advancing into la te r a l moraine. Note ridge being pushed up and surface of till being striated. July 25, 1958. FIAIS L m iI I 465~~

~~Figure 1. Side view of ice tongue advancing into lateral moraine, July 22, 1958.~~

~~Figure 2. Same view after 3 days. Note relation of ice edge to marked pebbles. July 25, 1958. PIATE DŒXI7 466~~

~~Figure 1, View at striated surface of lateral moraine behind ice tongue. July 22, 1958.~~

~~Figure 2. Same view after 3 days. Note relation of ice edge to marked stones. July 25, 1958. PIATE DQDCV~~

View northwest over Laponiahalv/^ya. Note series of end moraines in front of Lindhagenbreen in foreground, and absence of raised beaches. Ice-capped peak in distance is Sn^toppen, Oblique air photograph by B. Luncke. No, Le 83-207, July 28, 1938. Copyright Norsk Polarinstitutt. PLATE LXXXVI 468

~~View southeast at glacier in Skstrembukta, Note absence of accumulation area, and lake on inland side of glacier. Oblique air photograph bj 3. Luncke. No. Le 77-781, Aug. 26, 1938, PIATE L X m i l 469~~

~~Figure 1 , View at lobe of Vestfonna and moraine pushed up from sea bottom north of Brageneset. Oblique air photograph by F. Tymms, Oxford University Arctic Expedition, 1924» No. A-21, Aug. 13, 1924.~~

Figure 2. Same area in 1938. View north. Ice lobe in previous photograph has disappeared, but next lobe north(arrow) has remained in the same approximate p osition . Note ice-dammed West Lake and moraines on Brageneset in foreground. Oblique air photograph by B. Luncke. No. Le 92-099, Aug. 24 or 27, 1938. Copyright Norsk Polarinstitutt. PLATE IXXXVIII

View north over Rijpdalen to Rijpfjorden from Winsnesbreen. Vestfonna »n left, Ahlmannfonna in distance. Note many dead ice masses. Oblique air photograph by B, Luncke. No. Le 92-520, Aug. 24 or 27, 1938. Copyright Norsk P o la rin stitu tt, is o