L. Demidyuk V. Makarenko Indonesian Linguistics in the Soviet Union in the 60S and 70S

L. Demidyuk V. Makarenko Indonesian linguistics in the Soviet Union in the 60s and 70s

In: Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 136 (1980), no: 4, Leiden, 440-462

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INDONESIAN LINGUISTICS IN THE SOVIET UNION IN THE '60's AND '70's

The present review continues, in a way, a simiiar description of the history of Malayo-Polynesian philological studies in the Soviet Union made earlier by B. B. Parnickel and U. H. Sirk.1 While there has been great progress in Soviet Indonesian studies over the past fifteen years, the limitations of a short journal article 'have made it necessary for us to leave out works on general philology, studies on the history of literature, and translations into Russian from the various Southeast Asian languages. All of these aspects were nevertheless treated, along with Hnguistics, in the above-mentioned article, which covered the vast period between the late eighteenth century and the middle of the 1960's. The present review provides a systematic analysis of the most essential studies on the Indonesian, Malaysian, Malay, Javanese, Sundanese, Buginese and other languages of the Republic of Indonesia, Malaysia and. Singa- pore, and on Tagalog, Cebuano, Iloko and other languages of the Republic of the Philippines, as well as, to some extent, Malagasy, which were made mosdy in Moscow and Leningrad in the second half of the 1960's and in the 1970's. Due consideration is given to the lacunas in

LYUDMILA N. DEMIDYUK, who is at present assistant professor at the Institute of Asian and African Countries, is interested mainly in word formation and the morphology of modern Indonesian. Her tvvo most important publications are Udwoenie kak sposob slowoobrazowania i formoobrazowania w sisteme glagola w BI [Word Duplication in the BI System of Word-Building], sb. Yazyki Yngo- Wostochnoi Azii, Moscow: Nauka, 1967, and Udwoenie w prcdikatiwah sowremen- nogo BI [Predicative Word Duplication in Modern BI], Wostochnye yazyki, Moscow: Nauka, 1971. VLADIMIR A. MAKARENKO, a graduate from Moscow University who is eurrently assistant professor at the College of Asian and African Studies of the Moscow State University, is specialized primarily in Philippine and Austronesian philology and lexicography and the translation of fiction and poetiy. Two important publications are Tagal'skoje slovoobrazovanije [Tagalog Word Formation], Moscow, 1970, and 'Some Data on South Indian Cultural Influences in Southeast Asia', Tamil Culture, 1964. Dr. Makarenko's address is Apt. 9, 93 Vernadskogo Pr., V-526 Moscow, USSR, 117526.

Downloaded from Brill.com09/27/2021 07:01:11AM via free access Indonesian Linguistics in the Soviet Union 441 previous descriptions in similar reviews of that period by both Soviet and foreign authors.2 This review focuses on major works in socio-linguistics and linguistic typology, phonetics and phonology, word structure and word-building, morphology and syntax, and the lexicography of individual languages in the Indonesian group and as compared with other, similar works on these aspects. Soviet general and comparative linguistics use materials and facts concerning the Indonesian languages, especially Bahasa Indo- nesia and Tagalog or Pilipino, on an ever widening scale. Due to lack of space we shall simply point out that they were used in articles written earlier by V. V. Ivanov and Y. K. Lekomtsev, and still earlier by N. V. Yushmanov and E. D. Polivanov, as well as others. During the years under review general as well as more specific materials concerning these languages were for the first time published in plenty in the third edition of the [Greater Soviet Encyclopaedia] and in the [Goncise Literary Encyclopaedia]. An encyclopaedia of linguistics is currently being prepared for publication. At many conferences and symposia papers have been presented on genetic and areal connections, typological characteristics and genealogy, and the history of national linguistics in some of the Southeast Asian countries, as well as on other problems. Of the comprehensive studies on history and culture, which also include linguistic problems of the Indonesian-speaking countries, special mention should be made of a monograph by a group of autKors which contains a systems analysis of the regional community of states in Southeast Asia.3 As an example of comparative studies of materials from the various Indonesian (and in a broader sense, Malayo-Polynesian) languages, we would like to point to a series of articles written by N. A. Syromyatnikov which were published in the period under review. These articles deal with the common elements of the Indonesian, Tagalog and Japanese vocabularies; ways of determining cognate roots; Nostratic correspondences; and the problems of the genesis of Japanese in relation to the Austronesian languages.4 Unlike previous times, this period saw the appearance of a great many critical and bibliographical works, including detailed reviews and original essays.5 In view of the larger number and the more thorough training of students of Indonesian at the Moscow and Leningrad institutions of higher education, research and methodological work have improved con- siderably. A textbook of Tagalog for first and second year students has been published,6 as well as programmes for theoretical courses in Indo-

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nesian.7 A grammar of Tagalog is being prepared by G. E. Rachkov. Programmes for general (practical) courses in the Indonesian and Malay languages are 'being drawn up by L. N. Demidyuk, N. P. Kashtanova, and T; V. Dorofeyeva, while V. A. Makarenko is working on a similar programme for Tagalog.

I. Socio-linguistics and linguistic typology During the '60's and '70's Soviet linguists (after the '20's and '30's) became greatly interested in socio-linguistic studies, the interrelations between language and thinking, the psychic activities of man and his social Life. Prime attention was given to the social role of languages in the newly independent states of Southeast Asia, for which the problems of conscious influence on their languages have become crucial, particularly in such multiracial and multilingual countries as Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines. The essential socio-political processes in these countries are directly refleoted in the language situation obtaining here. The study of the evolution of these languages will help to promote a bétter understanding of current developments in these countries. The following are among the most prominent works written collectively by authors concerned with this region: [Modern Literary Languages of Asian Gountries] (1965), [The Language Situation of Asian and African States] (1967), [Studies of the Language Situation and the Language Problem in Asian and North African Countries] (1970), and [Language Policy in Afro-Asian Countries] (1977). During the period under review many studies were made of the role of languages, the language policy and the language situation in individual countries, as well as in the Southeast Asian area as a whole (i.e. the comparative aspect). E. A. Kondrashkina pointed out the broadening communicative functions of Bahasa Indonesia over the past thirty years of independent Indonesian development, the growing 'bilingualism, and the penetration of English vocabulary into Indonesian languages. She cites the common, unitary orthography that was introduced in Indonesia and Malaysia in 1972 and the trend towards an international standardization of terminology as important steps dn the development of language policies in these countries. As she observes in her work, local languages have developed slowly in Indonesia over the past few years, and the number of studies devoted to them is insufficient. T. V. Dorofeyeva wrote a series of articles on various aspects of the language situation and policy in Malaysia, language standardization, and the development of a scientific and technical terminology in Malay.

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She pointed out that there are many contradictions in the various classifications of Malaysian languages (which distinguish from six to seventeen language groups) and that there is a complex ethno-linguistic situation in the country. As her article entitled [Language Situation and Language Policy in Malaysia] argues, despite the 1967 proclamation of Malay as the only state and official language of Western Malaysia, English often replaces it in official situations, such as instruction at secondary schools and institutions of higher education. She gives an interesting analysis of language distribution for various spheres of social activity (government, education, the press, belles-lettres, etc), and discusses various types of Malaysian bilingualism. In her opinion there is a slow but steady shift towards the use of Malay in education, however, and this will help to eventually oust English from the country's social life. V. V. Gordeyev, whose monograph tackles the sensitive nationalities question, inevitably touches upon the language problem in modern Malaysia and analyses the social interrelation of these two phenomena.8 Various aspects of the language situation and language policy in the Republic of the Philippines are discussed by V. A. Makarenko in a number of articles which cover both the situation obtaining here today and the history of the language problem, along with trends in language development in that country. The main aspects of this research are systematized in this author's article entitled [The Language Situation and Language Policy in the Philippines], which analyses diverse factors in the present-day language situation in the country, shows their historical origins and outlines the stage-by-stage changes in the country's language policy in accordance with. its socio-political development. Special consideration is given to the interrelations between the language situation, literature, and the mass media, as well as to secondary and higher education. In analysing the post-war language situation and the language policy of the independent Republic of the Philippines, the author emphasizes the fact that Tagalog, which has been used as the national language since 1937, has at present an ever widening function. He agrees with those Philippine linguists who predict a further extension of these functions by the year 2000 as a resultof.a purposeful, although not always effective, language policy, and in particular the policy of bilingualism in education. Makarenko does not agree, however, with the idea that there exist obvious and essentdal linguistic differences between modern Tagalog and the so-called "Philippine language" or "Pilipino", which is intended to be based on Tagalog and used as an official national language. What he believes to 'be a significant problem

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is the difference between literary and colloquia] Tagalog, which remains yet to be described by linguists. The linguistic aspects proper of the evolution of Tagalog have been described in articles by V. A. Makarenko and I. V. Podberezsky.9 N. F. Alieva deals with the specific nature of the development of language norms in the process of the evolution of classical Malay and with the development of Indonesian on this basis.10 Socio-linguistic problems, both inter- and intra-linguistic, are also frequently dealth with in many non-socio-linguistic works containing analyses of vocabulary, grammar, word building, etc.

II. Phonetics and phonology Since 1965 Soviet students of Indonesian have made extensive studies of phonetics and phonology. In the Soviet Union the phonetic theory of Indonesian is based largely on experimental phonetic research, the foundation for which was laid by A. P. Pavlenko (1939-1970) and L. G. Zubkova. Pavlenko used the results of these studies in his dissertation, which described the acoustic charaoteristics of sounds and determined specific features of their pronunciation, depending on their position, definite valency and distribuition within a given word in Sundanese as compared with Indonesian.11 Later, the phonetic system of Indonesian, the articulation and acoustic characteristics of speech sounds and the principles of their classification were described for the greater part by L. G. Zubkova, who devoted her first article to a combined spectral and auditory analysis of vowels.12 This work forms part of a project of the experimental phonetic description of the Indonesian vowel system. It is devoted to the deter- mination of the acoustic characteristics of Indonesian vowels on the basis of a spectral analysis. It contains a number of conclusions (essential for characterizing Indonesian vowels) about the three different types of vowels which differ in their points of articulation, the correct division of Indonesian vowels into three rising levels, and the acoustic differences 'between labialized and non-labialized vowels. Soviet scholars have also given a great deal of attention to the a pepet characteristics, which are of special significance in the Indonesian vocalic system. An analysis of the system.' relations of Indonesian vowels, supplemented by the results of experimental phonetic research, makes it possible to solve the problem of the phonemic value of the Indonesian a. The role of tfhe harmony of vowels in root morphemes and its possible evolution is yet another important problem. According to L. G. Zubkova,

Downloaded from Brill.com09/27/2021 07:01:11AM via free access Indonesian Linguistics in the Soviet Union 445 the harmony of vowels is one of the most important means of achieving the semantic integrity of a word in Indonesian, and this is largely due to a specific organization of the segment means within a word.13 The question of phonologic articulation is connected, as a rule, with the analysis of Indonesian diphthongs. The few works touching upon the phonemic value of dipbthongs all give varied in terpre tations: they are either not considered as phonemes or are regarded as independent phonemic units. The latter view is shared by, for example, A. K. Oglo- blin,14 who does not, however, substantiate this. The character of diphthongs as biphonemic combinations has nevertheless been proved, especially by empirical experiments.15 Experimental studies of the Indo- nesian vocalism may be found in complete form in L. G. Zu'bkova's candidate thesis. Soviet students of Indonesian have also concerned themselves with problems of the Indonesian consonantal system on a large scale. A. P. Pavlenko took the first steps in his experimental study of sounds (both vowels and consonants) .10 A more detailed approach to the problems of the Indonesian consonant system is found in an article by P. S. Vovk,17 who proved experimentally that, for example, the consonants t, d and n, which functionally belong to one and the same local class of apical sounds, differ from one another in the position and form of an active organ, as well as in the position of articulation focus. In his dissertation Vovk gives a fairly complete description of the methods and instruotions for teaching the pronunciation of Russian consonants.18 The works of L. G. Zubkova contain the most interesting ideas and views on methods of solving the problem of the functions of occlusives in Indonesian.10 She investigates the functioning of occlusives on paradigmatic and syntagmatic planes. On the basis of an analysis of distri- butive-statistical and experimental-phonetic daita, it is proved that the phonetic and functional characteristics of the members of correlated oppositions in the subsystem of occlusives vary greatly, depending on their position and the quality of 'the consonants themselves. It would be extremely worthwhile to determine the laws governing the valency of consonants in Indonesian. A consideration of the phonetic characteristics of morpheme junctions (affix-root) in derivative formations is essential for the description of the phonetic structure of words in various types of languages. As is well-known, the mode of connection, or the way in which morphemes are joined in a word, is one of the most significant features of the typological characteristics of a language. Differences in the phonetic

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realization of various types of morpheme junctions — regarding ways of characterizing these types, the rate of cohesion of the morphemes, and hence the intensity of the assimilation processes at the junotions of morphemes — have been found not only in fused languages, but also in those wiüi agglutinative affixation, such as Indonesian. All these problems are dealt with in the works of Zübkova.20 Studies on differences in the phonetic realization of prefix-root and suffix-root junctions play a major role both in theories concerning Indonesian and in the methods of its teaching. Special stress has been laid on the phonetic characteristics of vocalic morpheme junctions. In this connection, attention has been paid to the important problem of the functional meaning of the guttural juncture ? in the realization of morpheme junctions in Indonesian. A special case, in which a guttural juncture preceding the root morpheme appears even where the prefix ends in a vowel and not a consonant, is discussed. This case shows that the division into syllables of Indonesian words can have morphological significance. Studies of differences in the phonetic realization of prefix-root and suffix-root junctions pose yet another significant problem, namely that of the coincidence/non-coincidence of the morpheme and syllable boundaries at ilie junction of a root morpheme and a prefix and at the junction of a root morpheme eind a suffix. Specific features of the phonetic realization of vowel combinations are determined 'by their morphemic characteristics. Also important are comparisons between intra-word and inter-word vocalic junctions and the resultant obeservation that as fax as phonetic characteristics are concerned, prefix-root junctions do not differ from inter-word junctions, but are in opposition to suffix-root junctions. All the above types of morphemic position, which determine the nature of the phonetic realization of Indonesian vowels, can hence be divided into two main groups, the first of which contains inter-word and prefix-root positions, while the second type embraces suffix-root and intra-word morpheme positions. Soviet students of Indonesian, in particular L. G. Zubkova,21 have further concerned themselves with the phonetic theory of syllables and the problem of division into syllables. An analysis of the consonantal and syllabic structure of words in Indonesian was based on statistical studies of seven literary texts and three texts from political journals, containing a total of 59,997 phonemes. The various types of consonant were divided into nine major categories, depending on the types of their components, i.e. fricative occlusives, fricatives, affricates, and sonants. As a result of this survey it was established that: (1) the syllable boun-

Downloaded from Brill.com09/27/2021 07:01:11AM via free access Indonesian Linguistics in the Soviet Union 447 dary is found inside intervocal consonances; therefore, in analysing the syllabic structure of words with intervocal consonances, their component consonants will be seen 'to refer to different syllables; and (2) the following is the most typical syllabic structure in Indonesian: fricative + vowel + (sonant).22 In this connection it is worth noting that there is a certain typological similarity between Indonesian and the syllabic languages, i.e. they have similar morphological boundaries whioh in the syllabic languages are found after the initial consonant in a syllable and in Indonesian after the initial consonant of a root morpheme. There is also a likeness between Indonesian and the syllabic languages in the phonological role of their division into syllables. I. B. Bratus uses Indonesian to investigate an aspect of the extensive and genera! linguistic problem of the connection between sounds and meaning.23 After analysing 406 original Indonesian acoustic onomatopes taken from the Purwadarminta, Iskandar, Zain and Winstedt dictionaries, the author classifies them. The [Grammar of Indonesian] contains, in its section on phonetics, a contribution by A. K. Ogloblin which is a general description, of an applied nature, of the phonetic system of Indonesian. In most cases the author proceeds from the results of available experimental studies. Throughout his paper he describes the phonetic features of Indonesian arid compares them with Russian. He points out some specific features of the Indonesian phonetic system, such as the lack of velarization in pro- nouncing consonants, which are sof ter, therefore, than the hard Russian consonants.24 Phonetic problems are only touched upon. For the most part, phonetic and phonological studies of Indonesian undertaken by So- viet students meet the most important methodological requirement: they consider units with regard to their interrelations and interdependencies with other units, and with due regard to the unity of form and meaning. All levels of initerrelation and interconnection of language structures are dealt with in a contribution by L. G. Zubkova entitled [The Sound Form of the Parts of Speech].25 In Indonesian the study of the sound forms of the parts of speech is of great theoretical significance because separate words often coincide with root morphemes, and words, due to the lack of distinot differentiation between the lexical and grammatical word levels, tend to be subdivided primarily on the basis of their functional properties. Is has been established that in Indonesian differences in the sound form of the parts of speech are connected with the specific features of their syntactical use.

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L. G. Zubkova's monograph [The Organization of Words into Seg- ments] 26 is a fundamental research work which deals for the first time with the segmented struoture of a word foy using typologically and gene- tically different languages. What is new and essential about this work is that a simple word, both in syllabic and non-syllabic languages, is taken as a "syntagmatic unit", and not as a simple combination of phonemes. Special emphasis should be placed on the scientific significance of a new concept of the sound organization of words. Zubkova's chapter entitled [Japanese-Indonesian Language Parallels of a Given Synchronous Section] dwells on the segmented organization of root words and morphemes, with a view to revealing typological similarities and differences in Indonesian and Japanese syntax. It is established not only that a word is charaoterized by a definite sound structure, or inherent system, but that the laws of its sound organization can be discovered. Zubkova devotes a special chapter to the phonetic structure of words and morphological phenomena in Indonesian. Of primary irnportance is her conclusion concerning the existing trend towards varied positions within a word, or in different words, and concerning the regular type of the segmented organization of words. In discussing the specific nature of the sound organization of root and auxiliary morphemes with regard to Indonesian, one can say that the phonetic organization of various types of morphemes is determined by the sound model of a word as a syntagmatic, integral, and independent phonological unit.27 The regular and common model for a word has been determined for the entire group of Indonesian languages. Either a simple or derivative word is built and its most essential feature is the growing sonority of its consonant and vocal structure. The vowels are harmonieus with regard to all vocalic features (specifically on the level of their rise) within a root morpheme, and the initial root occlusives are in harmony with the middle ones with regard to sonority. The phonetic nature of word stress has been the subject of several independent studies, which analyse the role of various stress components, such as pitch, strength and length. Some of the works express the view that there is no word stress as such in Indonesian.28 An outline of intonation, which sums up the results of various studies of this problem, is found in the section on intonation in the [Grammar of Indonesian],which has been contributed by A. K. Ogloblin.29 E. S. Bel- kina's ^ works on intonation discuss the structure of various communicative types of sentence. Special studies have been devoted to the intonation of hortative sentences as a separate communicative type. A. P. Pavlenko 31

Downloaded from Brill.com09/27/2021 07:01:11AM via free access Indonesian Linguistics in the Soviet Union 449 has tackled.the problem of the smallest intonational unit of speech (in terms of linear indivisibility), i.e., the syntagma. He has dealt with the problems of correspondence between syntagmatic and logical segmentaüon. As a result, it has been concluded that syntagmas formed by a subject group are characterized by an intonation of imperfection, while predicate groups are characterized by an intonation of perfection. The lack of experimental studies in Tagalog phonetics constitutes a serious obstacle to research on specific phonetic processes and explana- tions of syllabic division and stress, morphological changes, etc. In actual fact, all the works dealing with phonetics in one way or another fail to take this subject as an end in itself, but also ask diverse questions on other language levels, usually concerning morphology and word-building. Works by I. V. Podberezsky and V. A. Makarenko serve as examples. The latter presents a detailed system of the phonemic structure of modern Tagalog as a preliminary to making an inventory of the morphological elements of words. This kind of approach is necessary because the phoneme distribution determines the systemi of boundary signals marking the beginning and end of phonemes, morphemes and words in the speech flow, while the laws of phonetic correspondences are connected with the laws of morpho-phonemic changes, which reflect the natural trend towards elimination of the disturbances in that flow. Furthermore, in Tagalog stress is an additional means of word-building. The guttural juncture also has an important role to play in the word- building pattern, and division into syllables is closely related to word- building.32 L. I. Shkarban has determined morpheme boundaries in derivatives, passive verbs with -in or -an, and in verbs and nouns with prefixes with final velar nasal consonants. She has shown that in Tagalog morpho-phonemic changes are determined by the phonological system.33

III. Morphology During the period under review Soviet scholars have improved the methods and quality of the work in Indonesian grammar and have widened the scope of the problems being tackled. One feature of Soviet Indonesian studies is that they embrace both the formal aspects of grammatical phenomena and their meaning and contents. The most important aspeots of the morphological system of Indonesian have been studied in depth over the past fifteen years. One of the first problems — first both in time and as regards significance — to be discussed was that of verb affixation, as well as the verb as a whole. N. F. Alieva has dealt with the problems of verbs in many works. Special emphasis should

Downloaded from Brill.com09/27/2021 07:01:11AM via free access 450 L. N. Demidyuk and V. A. Makarenko be placed on two of her articles. One of these is concerned with verb semantics,34 while 'the other treats verb categories in Indonesian.3"" In her opinion such verb categories as aspect, reciprocity, comitativity and transitivity can be classified as both lexical and morphological. In [Grammar of Indonesian]3G she gives a detailed description of verb morphology. Both transitive and intransitive verbs, as well as adjectives, are regarded as a single lexical and grammatical class of words, referred to as predicatives because of a number of their syntactical features. In her monograph entitled [Indonesian Verbs; the Category of Transitivity] 3T she sums up the results of many years of research on verb morphology. This work discusses the specifically Indonesian morphological means of expressing objective relations between verbs and nouns. The syntactical essence of affixes is revealed; particularly their ability to express the relations of verbs to objects. A separate chapter contains materials from cognate Indonesian languages. The work presents a fairly definite interpretation of verb transitivity, which makes it possible to systematize the relevant material. For 'the sake of comparison, the author uses examples of Tagalog verbs in the passive voice. Following E. Gonstantino, she supports the view that there are six types of passive sentences rather tfian the traditional three, and distinguishes between two types of verb affixation systems, i.e., those of Malay and Tagalog. The problem of the parts of speech has not been discussed indepen- dently in Soviet Indonesian studies. An interesting treatment of this problem is suggested by Ü. H. Sirk in the section [Word Classification; Parts of Speech] of [Grammar of Indonesian]. All Indonesian words are divided into two groups, namely as autonomous and as syntactic units. The autonomous words are further divided into two subgroups, viz. full words and word substitutes. The classification of full words, according to the parts of speech, becomes a classification of lexemes. The syntactical features of words and the semantic categories of the units classified are the main criteria for .the distribution of lexical units according to relevant types.38 L. N. Demidyuk39 has undertaken studies devoted to the specific grammatical problem of duplication. She gives special consideration to the semantics of duplicated derivatives. Her candidate thesis dealt with the problems of die function of duplication in detail.40 The first complete [Grammar of Indonesian] 4X was published in 1972. It sums up the results of twenty years of study of the varied problems and aspects of Indonesian by Soviet linguists. In its many sections (such as :those on phonetics, descriptions of the verb, the syntactic word yang.

Downloaded from Brill.com09/27/2021 07:01:11AM via free access Indonesian Linguistics in the Soviet Union 451 syntax, and so on) this Grammar contributes a great deal to linguistic information published earlier in other countries, including Indonesia itself.42 Soviet scholars of Tagalog are concerned with the morphological aspects of the differentiation of classes and their characteristic features, and the establishment of criteria for differentiating 'between the parts of speech at the morphological, syntactical and word-building levels. I. V. Podberezsky suggests using the syntactical' "surrounding", or the funcrioning of a word in a sentence, as the main criterion.43 Proceeding from the morphological features of words in Tagalog, L. I. Shkarban has worked out a comprehensive approach to this intricate problem.44 She presents the main syntactical features of verbs in Tagalog in terms of syntactical surroundings that make this class different from the class of nouns. Paradigmatic relations are considered within the voice forms, and the indicators of vöice are associated with relation-derivative morphemes. The structural and semantic aspects of noun and verb formation in Tagalog are the subject of generalized studies in several sections of a monograph by V. A. Makarenko.46 An article by G. E. Rachkov tackles the interesting problem, both practically and theoretically, of the use of voice and tense forms in Tagalog.46

IV. Word structure and word-building Grammarians have also given a great deal of attention to the problem of the relations between morphology and word-building. The form-building and word-building of Indonesian verbs are closely connected and do not have strict dividing-lines.47 There is great interest in the problems of word-building proper. In this respect scholars are particularly interested in nouns, since the pure word-building functions of affixes are especially pronounced in substantives. The problems of the semantics, productivity and composition of word-building affixes in Indonesian have also been posed alongside those of the means of word-building.48 V. I. Pechkurov has provided a thorough treatment of these problems in his candidate thesis.48 It is important to point out the semasiological emphasis of studies on the formation of sooio-political terminology and the general lexicölogical principles of its formation. In studying word-building, Soviet students of Indonesian tend to take into account the meaning of affixes, their realization depending on the lexical grades of basic word- buildingj and the semantic structure of die derivative word and its relation to the initial basis. An article by N. P. Kashtanova, for example, dwells on the problems of dependence of the morpheme composition of

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words on derivation processes, and classes and subclasses of derivative nouns with the ^e-prefix, along with their meaning and semantics.60 Prime attention is given not only to word-building with affixes but also to problems of word composition. An article by N. M. Timonina B1 is devoted to nominative compound words with fixed components, or such compounds in which one component is present in a number of compound words. The author also discusses the structural-grammatical and semantic characteristics of nominative compounds with fixed components and touches on the problem of the productivity of models of these compounds . V. A. Makarenko's and I. V. Podberezsky's studies on word-building in Tagalog centre around analyses of the morphological elements of words, i.e. affix and root morphemes, their structure and semantics, the laws of their junction and morpho-phonemic boundary processes. These authors discuss the most general aspects of word-building in Tagalog, such as 'the main structural and semantic types and the models of words, and the main ways of word-building (affixation, duplication, composition). They point to the close structural-semantic similarity of .affixation and partial duplication (reduplication), and word composition and complete duplication. In their works word-building analyses prevail over word-building syntheses. They also provide an almost complete inventory of the means of affixation in Tagalog.62 Following L. Bloomfield and using his materials, L. I. Shkarban established a set of rules governing certain word-building phenomena in Tagalog. They are to be used in every definite case of affixation. The word-building pattern of words, the characteristics of root and affix morphemes, and sterns and words, as stages in word-building processes, are also discussed in her article.53 V. A. Makarenko's monograph [Tagalog Word-Building] presents a systematic analysis of word-building relations, as well as posing the question of specific relations 'between word-building and form-building and indicating a great number of syntactical means of word- and form- building. Such an analysis of a word-building system on a synchronous plane, and a consistent and systematic descriptdon of die main word- building processes and acts in Tagalog, which has an extremely diversified word-building system, not only is important in itself, but also contributes greatly to comparative and general linguistics. This study of the word- building system and its simultaneous classification of word-building models along widi their comparative productivity reveals the main trends of morphological word-building in Tagalog. The author establishes

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and describes in consecutive order the structurally significant elements of a word and their specific relations. In this way, a detailed description is followed by a systematic enumeration of word-building instances in Tagalog. The boók contains a "maximum formula of Tagalog word composition" and a "maximum formula of Tagalog morphological word- building". This monograph also' has an extensive bibliography on Tagalog word-building (pp. 154-164, listing about 240 works).54 It is based on Makarenko's more detailed thesis.55 Gomparative studies of word'building problems have also been made. Mention should be made first of all again of V. A. Makarenko's works. Nominative word-building in Tagalog is especially important for typological studies because the main features of the general formula for Tagalog word-building can be applied not only to Indonesian languages, but also to cognate Polynesian languages. What is new in these studies on word-building is that they concentrate on the semantics of derivative units.56 This makes it possible to discuss the problems of word-building synthesis in modern Indonesian languages.57

V. Genealogy and genealogical classification of languages Among 'the works dealing with the genealogy and genealogical classification of Indonesian languages reference should be made to V. A. Makarenko's studies concerning kindred vocabulary in Tagalog and Indonesian.58 In order to establish the degree of kinship the author used the lexico-statistical (glotto-chronological) theory and methods of M. Swadesh. Yet another important contribution is that of Ü. H. Sirk, who introduced us to the scientific achievements in the study of problems of the classification of languages of the Malayo-Polynesian family and discussed the nature of the classifications suggested.59 In Soviet Indonesian studies N. F. Alieva was the first to pose the question as regards a specific type of Indonesian agglutination. Her articles devoted to this problem presented the characteristics of the main differences in Indonesian agglutination, which amount to the following: (1) the same Indonesian affixes, showing no difference in their com- binability with various sterns, can perform different functions, i.e., form^building and word-building; (2) there is a lack of synharmonism; and (3) there is a prevalence of prefixes, over against suffixes, etc.60 These differences were discussed in more detail by A. P. Pavlenko, who feit that it was only possible to speak of an Indonesian type of agglutination witfi respect to Western Indonesian languages (i.e., those to the west of the so-called Brandes line). I. I. Revzin and O. G. Revzina 81

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suggested a different approach to specifying the typological features of Indonesian. They afctempted

VI. Syntax Studies of Indonesian syntax are of primary importance because there is no clear distinctdon between ithe lexical and grammatical levels. During the past decade students of Indonesian have shown a growing interest in syntactical problems. The works of this period show a clear distinction between the actual and formal grammaticization of sentences. Syntactical problems have been dealt with in studies of: (1) the semantico- syntactical features of the verb and verbal constructions; (2) syntactical groups; (3) the segmentation of simple sentences; and (4) syntactical structures. A. K. Ogloblin has discussed the semantico-syntactical features of the verb. He has described C2 the mechanism of changes in the valency of Indonesian verbs and determined the place of stems of verbs with causative meaning. The mechanism of valency changes involves a specific way of forming several stems and verbs with different valencies from a given initial stem. There are five ways of changing the valency of Indonesian verbs, all of which are achieved •through the use of affixes. Two levels are distinguished for the application of the mechanism of change: the level of stems and the level of words. Hence, two types of valencies are distinguished: a syntactical valency, which is typical of the verb, and a semantic valency, typifying the stem. There is an essential difference between them'. As a result, several types of formal morphological opposition have been established, and they serve as the means of realization of semantic causative opposition. The problem of the causative as a whole is treated in A. K. Ogloblin's candidate thesis.63 In order to describe the Indonesian causative he introduces the term "syntactical paradigm", which implies a number of constructions compared formally and semantically. His thesis deals with questions of the existing varieties of causative syntactical paradigms (Sa - synparadigms), and dètermines the types of non-causative synparadigms and the similarities and differences between syntactical paradigms connected with varied meanings. On the basis of all this hé has formulated a formal definition of the verbal class of the morphological causative. Leningrad linguists 'have introduced .the notion of diathesis in order to

Downloaded from Brill.com09/27/2021 07:01:11AM via free access Indonesian Linguistics in the Soviet Union 455 study the Indonesian causative in depth. As a result of this study nine syntactical paradigms out of sixteen which are connected with causative meaning have been singled out. It has also been established that differences between proper non-causative synparadigms are due to the grammatica! features of initial verbs. A. K. Ogloblin's work in this area will facilita'te further studies of syntax. It marks an important stage in the development of Soviet studies of Indonesian. Works by Ü. H. Sirk are devoted to the problems of the structural group of nouns.64 He suggests an original view concerning the method of representation of an extended Indonesian sentence made up of %locks". These blocks can change their place in a sentence without basically changing its meaning. The term "group" is used to denote a continuous linear unity, which is brought together by certain syntactical relations within a sentence. A group can 'be labelled extended if it includes sübordinate elements. As a result of these studies it has been established that the structure of an extended substantive group is an inherent feature of the Indonesian syntactical system and that the semantic valency of words is one of the major means of overcoming the contradictoriness typical of the structure of a substantive group.65 The semantic-symtactical aspect of verb groups in Indonesian has also been discussed by Soviet linguists; the works of S. V. Kologrivova 66 can be cited as an example. Questions concerning the segmentation of a simple sentence are posed together with questions concerning the relations between the division into segments and the rhythmical and intonational articulation of sentences, as well as questions concerning the role of subsidiary means in marking the segment boundaries in a sentence and the role of subsidiary lexical means in marking the subject and predicate.67 Problems of syntax are discussed at length in [Grammar of Indo- nesian],68 which devotes a great deal of space to the problem of sentence segmentation and the description of various types of sentences. This book reveals an apt use of the transformation method of establishing the categories of certain syntactical phenomena. G.I. Prokofiev's (1925-1978) thesis, entitled [Thematic Construction (with the pronominal enclitic duplicating thé theme) in Indonesian],68 is an important contribution to Soviet studies of Indonesian. This work was preceded bya series of publications dealing with various aspects of the same problem.70 It contains a convincing demonstration of the unity of various constructions, which are merely variations of a given thematic construction. Thematic construction is described in terms of its formal

Downloaded from Brill.com09/27/2021 07:01:11AM via free access 456 L. N. Demidyuk and V. A. Makarenko features and grammatical contents as well as its links with other con- struotions used in building an Indonesian sentence. With regard >to Tagalog syntax mention should be made of I. V. Podberezsky's71 analysis of the modern two-member sentence. Also important are a series of articles written by G. E. Rachkov, a specialist in Tagalog from Leningrad. They discuss various aspects of the simple sentence system of Tagalog and particularly the nominative homogeneous members or "availability predicates", to use the term introduced by the author, as well as some other questions.72

VII. Regional languages Over the past fifteen years individual regional languages in the Indo- nesian group have been studied extensively. Two books on such languages have been published. The first gives a description of Sundanese 73 and compares its problems of phonetics and phonology, and morphology and syntax, with those of Indonesian. It contains samples of texts with translations, vocabularies and commentaries. The second book describes Buginese.74 Prior to its publication its author had written two articles which tackled several problems of Buginese. One of them dealt with the semantics of Buginese personal pronoun morphemes and their connection with specific language units.75 The other put forward an interesting hypothesis concerning traditions in the development of the Buginese literary language.76 [The Buginese Language] presents a lively description of the phonetics, phonology, morphology, grammar (including a discussion of the word and the main word classes), syntax, the basic features of the simple sentence system, the construotion of sentences, and so on. It is worthwhile to note the use of the term "syntactical complex" to denote a nucleus and clkics. This term can aptly be used in the description of other Indonesian languages. The book presents texts and translations, and vocabularies and commentary. The works of L. A. Kartashova are prominent among studies of Malagasy. They deal mostly with the structure of root and derivative words, morpho-phonological processes ("external and internal" sandlü), and some questions concerning various word-building mechanisms of modern Malagasy, including the prefix-suffix and infix types.77

VIII. Lexicography Prior to the middle of the 1960's there was an Indonesian-Russian dictionary, a Tagalog-Russian dictionary, and a few other dictionaries. There were also conversation and tourist books and vocabularies. Since

Downloaded from Brill.com09/27/2021 07:01:11AM via free access Indonesian Linguistics in the Soviet Union 457 that time several new works, such as Russian-foreign dictionaries of the Indonesian languages, have appeared. The [Russian-Indonesian Dictio- nary] (about 27,000 words) contains words used in modern literary Russian as well as terms, idioms, and phraseological units. It can be used as a teaching aid for those studying either Russian or Indonesian. To meet the needs of its Indonesian readers this dictionary has not only a Russian preface with instructions for its use but also an Indonesian one, as well as a list of abbreviations. The authors found it particularly difficult to translate terminology.78 In the past fifteen years a number of Malagasy dictionaries have also been compiled.79 They have been included in the series of medium-size Oriental dictionaries. The Malagasy-Russian dictionary, for example, contains 21,000 words. Like the other dictionaries of Indonesian languages, it is based on a root (root morphemes) system and reflects the vocabulary of belles-lettres and newspapers. It also includes some col- loquial expressions and words from older usage. Such dictionaries are helpful in reading ordinary, unspecified texts of average difficulty. Only the basic meanings of derivatives are given in this dictionary. Mention should also be made of another lexicographic work, the [Malay-Russian- English Dictionary].80 This work reflects the modern language situation in Malaysia, where English as well as Malay is the language of com- munication between 'the different ethnic groups. It is based on literary and newspaper texts and includes, apart from generally used vocabulary, terminology and geographical denominations (1,500 lexical units in all).

IX. Languages in the Indonesian group possessing a script There are some works on languages in the Indonesian group possessing a script. Proceeding from and giving a summary of former studies,81 V. A. Makarenko and K. Y. Meshkov have systematized the most essential problems of the old Filipino script, which by the middle of the 18th century had given way to the Roman alphabet in Tagalog, Bisayan, Ilokano and some other Philippine languages. Their articles support the view that the Philippine script is of South-Indian (Dravi- dian) origin and was introduced via the old Javanese written language by a process of cultural interference.82 The modern written languages: Buginese, Bahasa Indonesia, Mala- gasy, Minangkabau, Sundanese and Tagalog, have been dealt with in a well-known reference work on the world's written languages. There have already been several editions of this work and it has 'been trans- lated into English.83

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As this review has shown, Soviet Indonesian studies cover a wide range of problems on practically every aspect of contemporary Indonesian languages. In some areas their history is also being studied. The works mentioned above, with their numerous objectives, illustrate various up-to-date methods of linguistic research. Many of the above works, particularly the scientific-methodological and lexicographic ones, have not only a purely scientific, but also an important applied significance. Tfaey have paved the way for funther studies as well as a theoretical understanding in the Soviet Union of the various languages of the Indonesian (Malay) group, a branch of the Malayo-Polynesian (Austro- nesian) language family. NOTES 1 B.B. Parnickel and Ü. H. Sirk, 'Austronesian Philology in the Soviet Union', BKI 1965/121-2: 245-258. - V. A. Makarenko, 'Izuchenie v SSSR filippinskikh yazykov do i posle Ok- tyabrya', Narody Azii i Afriki (NAA), Moscow, 1967-6: 100-107; J. Genzor, 'Philippine Studies in the Soviet Union: Part II', Asian and African Studies .(AAS), Bratislava, 1979-XV: 165-176. 3 [Southeast Asia; Problems of a Regional Community], Moscow: Nauka, 1977, 343 pp. 4 N. A. Syromyatnikov: [Common elements of Japanese vocabulary with those of the Indonesian and Tagalog Languages], in: [Problems of Japanese Philo- logy], first ed., Moscow: IzdatePstvo Moskovskogo Gosudarstvennogo Univer- siteta (MGU), 1970; [Ways of Determining Cognate Roots], Voprosy Yazy- koznaniya 1972-2: 109-123; [Ways of Differentiating between Borrowings and Genuine Common Features in Altaic], Voprosy Yazykoznaniya 1975-3: 50-61; [On Metathesis in Foreign Correspondences], in: Problemy lingvisticheskoi tipologii structury yazyka, Leningrad: Nauka, 1977; and some other works. 5 Reviews by Ü. H. Sirk of V. D. Arakin, [Indonesian Languages] (1965) in NAA 1966-6: 132-135, and Teodoro A. Llamzon, A Subgrouping of Nine Philippine Languages (1969) in NAA 1973-4: 191-194; V. A. Makarenko, Philippine Journal of Linguistics (1970-72) in NAA 1974-5: 169-174; etc. 0 I. V. Podberezsky, Uchebnik tagal'skogo jazyka [Textbook of Tagalog], Moscow: Nauka, 1976, 479 pp. 7 V. A. Makarenko, [Programmes of the Theory of Indonesian], Moscow: MGU, 1977, 104 pp. 8 L. B. Nikolsky, [Introduction: Role of Language and Language Policy in Afro-Asian Countries] ; E. A. Kondrashkina, [On the Language Situation and Language Policy in Modern Indonesia] ; and T. V. Dorofeyeva, [The Language Situation and Language Policy in Malaysia], in: [Language Policy in Afro-Asian Countries], Moscow: Nauka, 1977; T. V. Dorofeyeva, [Some Aspects of Language Policy in Modern Malaysia], in: Vostochnoye Yazykoznanie, Moscow: Nauka, 1976; T. V. Dorofeyeva, [The Scientific and Technological Revolution and Progress in Languages in Eastern Countries (an example in Malaysia)], Vestnik MGU Mid. XIII Vostokovedenie No. 3, 1977; V. V. Gordeyev, [The Nationalities Question in Malaysia], Moscow: Nauka, 1977, 146 pp. 8 V. A. Makarenko: [Development of the Modern Language Situation in the Republic of the Philippines and its Main Trends], in: [Studies of the Language

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Situation and the Language Problem in Asian and North African Countries], Moscow: Nauka, 1970; [The Language Situation and Language Policy in the Philippines (main problems of research)], in: [Language Policy in Afro-Asian Countries], 1977; [The Language Situation in the Philippines in the Past and Present], NAA 1970-5: 123-135; [The Evolution of Modern Tagalog], NAA 1979-3: 114-122; [The Main Features of Post-War Philippine Literature], in: [Literatures of Foreign Asia in the Modern Age], Moscow: Nauka, 1975. I. V. Podberezsky, [Tagalog in the Philippines], in: [Problems of Language and Literature], p. 2, Moscow: MGIMO, 1969. 10 N. F. Alieva, [From the Malay Language to Indonesian (problems of norms formation)],^^^ 1976-2: 112-120. 11 A. P. Pavlenko, [The Main Problems of the Phonetics and Morphology of the Sundanese Language], Synopsis of Candidate thesis, Moscow: Nauka, 1966. 12 L. G. Zubkova, [The Spectral Characteristics of Indonesian Vowels], Vestnik Leningradskogo Gosudarstvennogo Universiteta (LGU) No. 2, 1967. 13 L. G. Zubkova, [On the Harmony of Vowels in Indonesian], in: [Languages of Southeast Asia; Problems of Morphology, Phonetics and . Phonology], Moscow: Nauka, 1970. 14 N. F. Alieva, V. D. Arakin, A. K. Ogloblin and Ü. H. Sirk, Grammatika indonezijskogo jazyka [A Grammar of Indonesian], Moscow: Nauka, 1972, 462 pp. 15 L. G. Zubkova, [Vocalism in the Indonesian Language (experimental phonetic studies)], Gandidate thesis, Leningrad, 1966. 1C A. P. Pavlenko: [An Experimental Phonetic Study of Word Stress in Indo- nesian], in: [The Spectral Analysis of Speech Sounds and Intonation], Moscow, 1969; [On Syllable Boundaries in Combinations of Homorganic Consonants in Indonesian], in: [Proceedings of the Colloquium on Experi- mental Phonetics and Speech Psychology], Moscow, 1966. 17 P. S. Vovk, [The Non-dichotomical Nature of the Opposition of Front Occlusives in Indonesian (On a System of Teaching Russian Front Occlusives for Indonesians] in: [Teachers' Aid for Teaching Russian as a Foreign Language], Moscow: MGU, 1970. 18 P. S. Vovk, [The Problem of Controlling Articulation in Teaching Russian as a Foreign Language], Synopsis of Candidate thesis, Moscow, 1970. 19 L. G. Zubkova, [The Opposition of Occlusives in Indonesian], AAS 1974-X: 17-39. 20 L. G. Zubkova, [On the Characteristics of Morpheme Junctions in Indo- nesian], NAA 1971-6: 127-132. 21 L. G. Zubkova, [The Consonant and Syllabic Structure of Words in Indo- nesian], in: [Malay-Indonesian Studies], Moscow: Nauka, 1977. 22 L. G. Zubkova, [The Consonant and Syllabic Structure of Words in Indo- nesian], 1977: 211. On the structure of Indonesian syllables see also N. D. Andreyev and L. I. Uluhanova, [The Structure of Indonesian Syllables], Uchenie zapiski LGU No. 282, Seria vostokovedcheskikh nauk, vyp. II, 1959. A certain amount of general information on the structure of words, the dissyllabic morpheme and syllabic division is also found in the section [The Structure of Syllables and the Forms of Meaningful Units] by A. K. Ogloblin in: N. F. Alieva et al., [A Grammar of Indonesian], 1972. See also the article by A. P. Pavlenko, [On Syllable Boundaries in Combinations of Homorganic Consonants in Indonesian], cited in note 16. 23 I. B. Bratus: [Acoustic Onomatopes in Indonesian], Candidate thesis, Leningrad: LGU, 1976; [Onomatopes —• Ways of Marking Stress and Non- Stress in Indonesian], Vestnik LGU no. 14, 1975.

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24 N. F. Alieva et al., 1972, pp. 23-75. 25 L. G. Zubkova, [The Sound Form of the Parts of Speech], NAA 1978-1: 121-128. 28 L. G. Zubkova, [The Organization of Words into Segments], Moscow: Nauka, 1977. 27 L. G. Zubkova, [The Organization of Words into Segments], 1977, p. 87. 28 See: A. K. Ogloblin, [Words and Intonation in Indonesian], in: [The Philology and History of thè Countries in Asia and Africa], Leningrad: Izdatel'stvo Leningradskogo Gosudarstvennogo Universiteta (LGU), 1967; A. P. Pavlenko, [An Experimental Phonetic Study of Word Stress in Indo- nesian], also cited in note 16; L. G. Zubkova, [On Word Stress in Indo- nesian], in: [Essays on Methods of Teaching Russian to Foreign Students], vyp. 3, Moscow: Patris Lumumba Univ., 1970. 29 N. F. Alieva et al., 1972, pp. 53-75. 30 E. S. Belkina, [Intonation of the Main Types of Communicative Sentences in Indonesian], in: [Intonation and Sound Composition], Moscow: MGU, 1965; [Intonation of Hortative Sentences in Indonesian], Candidate thesis, Moscow: MGU, 1974. 31 A. P. Pavlenko, [Observations on the Intonation Articulation of Sentences in Sundanese and Indonesian], in: [Languages of China and Southeast Asia], Moscow: Nauka, 1971. 32 I. V. Podberezsky, - [The Phonological System of Tagalog], in: [Institute of International Relations: Department of Russian and Foreign Languages, Collected Learned Papers], Moscow: MGIMO, 1969; V. A. Makarenko, [Tagalog Word-Building], Moscow: Nauka, 1970: 15-46. 33 L. I. Shkarban, [On Tagalog Phonetics in Connection with Studies of the Morphological System of Tagalog], in: [Essays on the Phonology of Oriental Languages], Moscow: Nauka, 1975. 34 N. F. Alieva, [Verb Semantics and Transitivity Differentiation (on Indo- nesian transitive verbs with a root stem)], in: [Languages of Southeast Asia; Problems of Morphology, Phonetics and Phonology], 1970. 33 N. F. Alieva, [On Characteristics of Verbal Categories in Indonesian; Historical and Philological Studies], A Collection of Articles for the 75th anniversary of the Academician N. I. Konrad, Moscow, 1967. 36 N. F. Alieva et al., 1972. 37 N. F. Alieva, [Indonesian Verbs; the Category of Transitivity], Moscow: Nauka, 1975. For details see L. N. Demidyuk, Vestnik MGU, Vostokovedenie no. 2, 1978. 38 For details see N. F. Alieva et al., 1972. 39 L. N. Demidyuk, [Duplication as a Means of Word-Building and Form- Building in the Indonesian Verb System], in: [Southeast Asian Languages], Moscow: Nauka, 1967; [Duplication at the Syntactical Level in Indonesian], in: [Languages of China and Southeast Asia], [Problems of Syntax], 1971. 40 L. N. Demidyuk, [Duplication in Modern Indonesian], Moscow: Nauka, 1972, 462 pp. 41 N. F. Alieva et al., 1972. 42 Please note that there is yet another work summarizing studies in Indonesian morphology, viz. A. S. Teselkin, [Lectures in the General Course of Malay (Indonesian) Grammar; Part I: Morphology] : Moscow, 1974, 271 pp. 43 I. V. Podberezsky, [Syntactical Characteristics of the Parts of Speech in Tagalog], in: [Problems of Philology], Moscow: International Relations Publishers, 1967. 44 L. I. Shkarban: [On Certain Morphological Features of Verbs in Tagalog], in: [Southeast Asian Languages], 1967; [On the Principles of Differentiation

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betvveen Word Classes in Tagalog], in: [The Theoretical Problems of the Parts of Speech], Leningrad: Nauka, 1968; [Studies on the Category of Voice in Tagalog], in: [Languages of China and Southeast Asia; Problems of the Grammatical Systems], Moscow: Nauka, 1974. 43 V. A. Makarenko, [Tagalog Word-Building], 1970. 40 G. E. Rachkov, [Choosing the Voice of Verbs in Translation from Russian into Tagalog], Vostokovedenie, Uchenie zapiski, LGU, 1977-3: 39-49. 47 N. F. Alieva, [The Interrelation of World-Building and the Syntactical Functions of Verb Affixes in Indonesian], Voprosy Yazykoznaniya 1963-2: 103-111. 48 V. I. Pechkurov, [On Productive World-Building Morphemes in the Socio- Political Terminology of Modern Indonesian], in: [Foreign Languages] no. 4, Moscow, 1968. 49 V. I. Pechkurov, [The Socio-Political Terminology of Modern Indonesian], Candidate thesis, Moscow, 1970. "° N. P. Kashtanova, [Derivative Nouns with the pe- Prefix in Modern Malay], Vestnik MGU no. 1, 1978. 51 N. M. Timonina, [Nominative Compound Words with Fixed Components in Modern Indonesian], Vestnik MGU Seria XIII, Oriental Studies no. 3, 1978. 52 V. A. Makarenko, [The Morphological Structure of Words in Modern Tagalog] in: [Scientific Conference "Lomonosov Readings"], Moscow: MGU, April 1965. I. V. Podberezsky: [The Morphological Structure of Words in Tagalog], in: [Southeast Asian Languages], 1967; [Duplication in Modern Tagalog], in: [Problems of Language and Literature], 1969. 53 L. I. Shkarban, [On the Systematization of Some Word-Building Processes in Tagalog], in: [Controversial Issues of Language Systems in China and Southeast Asia], Moscow: Nauka, 1964. 54 V. A. Makarenko, [Tagalog Word-Building], 1970. For details see a review by L. N. Demidyuk, Vestnik MGU Seria XIX, Oriental Studies no. 2, 1971. 55 V. A. Makarenko, [Morphological Word-Building in Modern Tagalog], Candidate thesis, Moscow: MGU, 1966. 30 V. A. Makarenko, [Tagalog-Indonesian Word-Building Parallels], in: [Pro- blems of Philology of Southeast Asian Countries], Moscow: MGU, 1965; V. D. Arakin, [Typological Features of Word-Building Systems in Some of the Indonesian Languages], in: [Southeast Asian Languages], 1967. 57 L. N. Demidyuk and V. A. Makarenko, [Structural Principles of Word-Building Systems of Substantives in Indonesian and Tagalog], Vestnik MGU, Oriental Studies no. 1, 1973. "8 V. A. Makarenko, [On the Extent of Kinship between Tagalog and Indo- nesian (with the aid of the method of the lexico-statistical theory of M. Swadesh)], in: [Problems of Philology of Southeast Asian Countries], 1965. 69 U. H. Sirk, [On the Classification of Austronesian Languages], in: [Southeast Asian Languages], 1967. 00 N. F. Alieva: [The Indonesian Type of Agglutination], in: [Linguistic Typo- logy and Oriental Languages], Moscow: Nauka, 1965; [Specific Features of Indonesian Agglutination], in: [Morphological Typology and the Problems of Language Classification], Moscow: Nauka, 1965. 01 I. I. Revzin and O. G. Revzina, [The Typological Characteristics of Indo- nesian in Terms of the Category of Number and other Means of Expressing Substantiality], in [Malay-Indonesian Studies], 1977. 62 A. K. Ogloblin, [The Mechanism of Valency Changes in Indonesian Verbs and the Place of Sterns with Causative Meaning], in: [Typology of Causative Constructions; Morphological Causative], Leningrad: Nauka, 1973.

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03 A. K. Ogloblin, [Causative Verbs and Syntactical Paradigms in Indonesian], Synopsis of candidate thesis, Leningrad, 1973. 04 Ü. H. Sirk, [The Structure of the Substantive Group in Indonesian], in: [Languages of China and Southeast Asia], 1971. 65 U. H. Sirk, [The Structure of the Substantive Group in Indonesian], 1971, p. 29. 86 S. V. Kologrivova, [On Certain Semantic-Syntactical Groups of Indonesian Verbs], in: [Languages of China and Southeast Asia], 1971. 67 N. F. Alieva, [On the Articulation of Indonesian Sentences], in: [Languages of China and Southeast Asia], 1971. 68 N. F. Alieva et al., 1972. 'iB G. I. Prokofiev, [Thematic Construction (with the pronominal enclitic duplicating the theme) in Indonesian], Candidate thesis, Leningrad: LGU, 1973. 70 See, for example, G. I. Prokofiev: [On the Thematic Construction of an Indonesian Sentence], in: [Philological Problems in Asian and African Countries], Leningrad: LGU, 1966; [Indonesian Pronominal Enclitics and their Role in the Sentence], in: [Philological Problems in Asian and African Countries], second ed., Leningrad: LGU, 1971; [Contructions with a Thematic Determinant in Indonesian], Vestnik LGU no. 8, ed. 2, 1971. 71 I. V. Podberezsky, [The Two-Member Sentence in Modern Tagalog], in: [Languages of China and Southeast Asia], [Problems of Syntax], 1971. 72 G. E. Rachkov: [Nominative Homogeneous Members in Tagalog], LGU Oriental Studies no. 2, 1976; [Availability Predicates in Tagalog], Vestnik. LGU Seria 2, History, Language, Literature, ed. I, 1967; [On the Character- istics of Tagalog Two-Member Attributes], Vestnik LGU Seria 2, History, Language, Literature, ed. I, 1973. 73 A. P. Pavlenko, [The Sundanese Language], Moscow: Nauka, 1966. 74 Ü. H. Sirk, [The Buginese Language], Moscow: Nauka, 1976. 75 U. H. Sirk, [The Main Syntactical Meanings of Non-Free Buginese Personal Pronoun Morphemes], in: [Languages of China and Southeast Asia; Problems of the Grammatical Systems], 1974. 76 Ü. H. Sirk, [On the Characteristics of the Buginese Traditional Literary Language], in: [Malay-Indonesian Studies], 1977. 77 L. A. Kartashova: [The Structure of Malagasy Words], Synopsis of candidate thesis, Moscow: MGU, 1966; [The Structure of Malagasy Words], NAA 1965-6: 128-135; [The Sandhi Phenomenon in Malagasy], in: [Southeast Asian Languages], 1967; and others. 78 [Russian-Indonesian Dictionary], compiled by E. S. Belkina, A. P. Pavlenko, A. S. Teselkin and L. I. Ushakova, edited by Shahrul Sharif, Moscow: Soviet Encyclopaedia, 1972. 79 [Malagasy-Russian Dictionary], compiled by L. A. Körnèev, edited by F. Rakutuson, with an appendix and a brief survey of Malagasy Grammar by Prof. V. Arakin, Moscow: Soviet Encyclopaedia, 1966; [Russian-Malagasy Dictionary], Moscow: Russkiy Yazyk, 1974. 80 [Malay-Russian-English Dictionary], compiled by N. V. Rott, V. A. Pogadayev and A. P. Pavlenko, Moscow: Russian Language Publications, 1977, 400 pp. 81 See V. A. Makarenko, 'Some Data on South Indian Cultural Influences in Southeast Asia; The History of the Origin and Development of the Old Filipino Script', Tamü Culture 11, Madras, 1964: 58-91. 82 V. A. Makarenko and K. Y. Meshkov, [The Main Problems with regard to Old Filipino Script Studies], in: [Soviet Ethnography No. 2], Moscow, 1973. 83 R. S. Gilyarevsky and V. S. Grivnin, Languages Identification Guide, Revised and Supplemented, Moscow: Nauka, 1970 (first published in 1965 in Russian).

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