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1-1-2009 Settling and 'selling' Canada's West : the role of immigration Johnny Malciw Ryerson University

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Recommended Citation Malciw, Johnny, "Settling and 'selling' Canada's West : the role of immigration" (2009). Theses and dissertations. Paper 535.

This Major Research Paper is brought to you for free and open access by Digital Commons @ Ryerson. It has been accepted for inclusion in Theses and dissertations by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons @ Ryerson. For more information, please contact [email protected]. SETTLINGAND 'SELLING'CANADA'SWEST:THEROLEOFIMMIGRATION

by

JohnnyMalciw,BA,UniversityofWaterloo

A MajorResearchPaper

presentedtoRyersonUniversity

inpartialfulfillmentoftherequirementsforthedegreeof

MasterofArts

intheProgramof

ImmigrationandSettlementStudies

Toronto,Ontario,Canada2009

JohnnyMalciw,2009

PROPERTYGF BYERSONUNIVERSITYLIBRARY Author'sDeclaration SETTLINGAND 'SELLING'THEWEST:THEROLEOFIMMIGRATION

JohnnyAmandaMalciw IherebydeclarethatIamthesoleauthorofthismajorresearchpaper.

MasterArts, of2009

IauthorizeRyersonUniversitytolendthispapertootherinstitutionsorindividualsforthe ImmigrationandSettlementStudies purposeofscholarlyresearch. RyersonUniversity

ABSTRACT

Signature Thismajorresearchpaperexploresthepromotionalimmigrationmaterialcreatedbythe

DepartmentofAgricultureduringSirJohnA.Macdonald'stimeasPrimeMinisterandwithin

thecontextofwesternmigration.Thepaperbeginsbyexaminethehistoriographyof Canadian

westernexpansionandcontinuesbyexploringtheideaofwesterndevelopmentasespousedby IfurtherauthorizeRyersonUniversitytoreproducethispaperbyphotocopyingorbyother means,intotalorinpart,attherequestofotherinstitutionsorindividualsforthepurposeof thebusinesselitesinUpperandLowerCanada.SirJohnA.Macdonald'sNationalPolicy,which scholarlyresearch.

focusedonincreasedtariffs,thecompletionofatransnationalrailway,andimmigrationare

exploredaswell.ManyattributetheactivepromotionofCanadatoEuropeansoverseaswith

Cliffordand SiftontheLauriergovernment.Siftonisknownforhavingenvisionedan

Signaignature

agriculturalparadiseinwesternCanadaandtheideaofattractinghardworkingpeasantfarmers,

yetthecontentsofthepromotionalmaterialproducedbytheDepartmentofAgriculturecontain

thesamethemes.

Keywords:

Westernexpansion,promotionalimmigrationliterature,theimageofwesternCanada,andthe

DepartmentofAgricultureandImmigration.

iii TABLEOF CONTENTS WesternexpansionmarkedacriticalpointinCanadianhistorywhichcontributedgreatly

tothecreationofmodernCanada.ThegeographicalextensionofCanada'sboundariesallthe

waytothePacificcoasthelpedtopropelCanadafromacolonytoanationstate.Following

Author'sDeclaration —-ii Confederation,Canada'smarchwestwardwaswellunderwayandthenewlyfounded

governmentofJohnA.Macdonaldbecameresponsibleforrecruitingsufficientamountsof Abstract — —-----iy

immigrantstoensuretheprosperityofthenation.Largesuppliesoflabourers,particularly

Introduction-

agriculturalworkers,wereactivelysoughtafterinhopesofcapitalizingontheabundant

Historiography- opportunitiesforfarmingandsettlementthatCanada'swesthadtooffer.Animportanttaskfor

theDominiongovernmentwassellingCanadaasanattractivedestinationforprospective

Macdonald'sNationalPolicy- --14

immigrantsabroad.Todaymanyhistoriansacknowledgetheimportanceofwesternexpansion

Guidebooks 19 andimmigration,withmostattributingthevigorouspromotingandsellingofCanada'swestto

Conclusion -42 CliffordSifton,MinisteroftheInteriorunderSirWilfridLaurier'sLiberalgovernmentduring

thelatenineteenthcenturyandearlytwentiethcentury.AlthoughthereisnodoubtthatSifton

Bibliography— —46

wasindeedinstrumentalinoverseeingthecreationofmaterialpromotingwesternCanada,the

governmentofSirJohnA.Macdonaldalsohadahandincreatingmaterials similarwhichwere

distributedabroad.MuchofthepromotionalmaterialcreatedduringJohnA.Macdonald's

governmenthasbeenoverlookedinhistoricalanalysissincetheperioddidnotseeaslargeofan

influxofimmigrantscomparedtothelate1890sandearly1900s1.Studyoftheguidebooks

publishedinthe1880sbytheMacdonaldgovernmentareparticularlyinteresting,foritallowsus

theopportunitytoexplorepromotionalimmigrationmaterialbeforethebetterknown'great

migration'ofthelatenineteenthcenturyandearlytwentiethcentury.Althoughthiseraof

immigrationwasnotgivenasmuchattentionbyhistorians,Macdonald'sgovernmentsetthetone

1N.Kelley&Trebiicock,TheMakingoftheMosaic:AHistoryofCanadianImmigrationPolicy(Toronto:University

ofTorontoPress,2000),64.

IV ■■■■■.■■-1 - forthecontentandmethodsusedbythenextgovernmentanddepartment.Thepromotional FrontierThesisthereforearguesthatthecreationofAmericaasanationcanbeinpartattributed

materialproducedbytheMacdonaldgovernmentfocusedonavarietyofthemesthatwerefound tothefrontierexperienceandexpansion.

withintheLauriergovernment'spromotionalmaterialaswell.

Incontrast,whenweexaminethemostnotablemythsurroundingCanadianwestward

Whendiscussingwesternmigrationandpromotionalmaterialdestinedtoattract expansionwedonotsee thefrontierorhinterlandsasbeingthebirthplaceofCanadian

immigrantstosettleandsecureCanada'sfuture,mythsofonesortoranothercometolight.In character.Infactweseequitethereverse.Canada'simaginedmythofthewestwasexploredby

ordertodiscusstheconstructedvisionofCanadathatwassoldtoprospectiveimmigrants,itis theeconomicHistorianHaroldInnis.InniswasthefirsttohavedifferedfromtheTurnerFrontier

importanttofirstunderstandthevarietyofmythsthathavearisenconcerningtherolewestern thesisbyarguingthatitwasnotthefrontierexperiencewhichshapedCanada,butitwasthe

migrationplayedinthecreationofanation.Asnewnations,bothCanadaandtheUnitedStates exportationofstapleproductssuchasfur,timberandwheatbymerchantsintheColonyand

experiencedwesternmigrationasfurthersettlementcontinuedtopushpopulationsdeeperinto abroadwhichcontributedtotheeconomicdevelopmentofCanada4.HistorianDonaldCreighton

unsettledland.PerhapsthemostnotableAmericanHistoriantohavestudiedwesternexpansion builtonthisconceptbyplacingparticularimportanceontheSt-Lawrencewatersystemandits

intheUnitedStatesisFrederickJacksonTurner.HedevelopedtheTurnerFrontierThesisinhis relationshiptotransnationalandtranscontinentaltradeascentraltothedevelopmentofCanada.

well-knownwork"TheSignificanceoftheFrontierinAmericanHistory"publishedinl893.The ThisconceptwhichviewedthecentrallocationofCanadiandevelopmenttoitscentersof

TurnerFrontierthesisviewedAmericanwestwardexpansionasrepresentativeoftheoverall commercefoundwithintherangeoftheSt-LawrencebecameknownastheLaurentianThesis.

developmentofAmericansociety2.HearguedthatthroughoutAmericanhistorytherewere Drawinguponthis,anotherconceptwasdevelopedbyJ.M.SCarelesscalledtheMetropolitan

periodswhensettlersencountereduntamedlands,whichtheythendevelopedandmadecivilized, Thesis.ThisconceptissimilartotheLaurentianThesisyetitdrawsfurtherattentionand

withthisprocesscontinuingonasspacelimitationsrequiredfurthermovementintoundeveloped importancetotheurbancitiesashavingeconomicpower,andthereforethepowertodominant I

land.TurnersawthefrontierasthelocationforthecreationofAmericansocietyandallits themajoritypolitically,economicallyandsocially.InthecaseofCanada,suchcitiesasToronto

characteristics.AccordingtoTurner,suchAmericancharacteristicsasdemocracy,independent andEnglishMontrealweretheprimelocationsforCanadiandevelopment,andthedevelopment

living,individualityandsocietalprogressevolvedandwerecreatedasaresultofthefrontier ofthehinterlands.Theeconomicpowerofaselectfewallowedthemtocreatebusinessventures

experience3.Thosecharacteristicswhichareneededtosurviveafrontierlifestyleareexactlythe andtodevelopandprofitfromthewest.

typeofqualities,inTurner'sview,whichsettlershadtoexhibittobesuccessful.TheTurner

2R.DouglasFrancis,'TurnerVersusInnis:TwoMythicWests"inOneWest,TwoMythsII,ed.C.LHigham&

RobertThacker(Calgary:UniversityofCalgaryPress,2006),16. 4J.M.S.Careless,"Frontierism,Metropolitanism,andCanadianHistory",CanadianHistoricalReview35(March

3Ibid. 1954):14-17

-2- -3- TheMetropolitanThesisismostfittinginitsrelationtothetopicofthisessay,butsome Canada'shinterland,andinparticularPrinceRupert'sLandintotheidealagriculturalareainan

havecriticizedthethesisfornothavingamoreregionalapproachandnotfullygivencreditto efforttoreapthebenefitsofdevelopment.Owrambookhasbeenacontributiontothenotionthat

Canada'sdiverseethnicbackgroundwhichhelpedtosettlethewest.R.DouglasFrancis,inhis UpperandLowerCanadaeliteshadavestedinteresteconomicallyinthedevelopmentof

articleentitled,"TurnerversusInnis:BridgingtheGap",drawsfromLiteraryTheoristNorthrop Canada'swestandwereinstrumentalinreconstructingandpromotingtheimageofwestern

Frye'sconceptoftheTowerofBabel.FryeexaminesthewaysinwhichBiblicalstorieshave Canada.ForthepurposeofthisessayOwram'sbookcan shedlightontheideaofwestern

foundtheirwayintowesternliterature,andattributestoday'ssocietyashavingbeenbasedonthe CanadaanditsrelationtothepromotionalmaterialcreatedbySirJohnA.Macdonald's

TowerofBabel.Today'ssocietiesarelinkedthroughacommonlanguageoftechnology,andthe Conservationgovernmentinthelatenineteenthcentury.

TowerofBabelcanbeseenasthebuildingofthetechnologicalage5.Francisusesthisconceptto

AnotherimportantHistorianwhohascontributedtoabetterunderstandingofwestern

exploreCanada'sdevelopmentinthewayinwheredifferentethnicitiescanbeincluded.In

Canada'sdevelopmentisGeraldFriesen.HismostnotableworkisthebookTheCanadian

settlingCanada'swestavarietyofethnicitiescametoestablishthemselvesinCanada'swest.At

Prairies:A History,inwhichFriesenexploresextensivelythehistoryofwesternCanada,

thetimethough,manyCanadiansarguedthattheTowerofBabel,orCanada'sfuture,mightfall

focusingontheeconomicandpoliticaldevelopmentoftheareafromseventiethtoearly

indisarrayduetothemulticulturalcompositionofwesternCanada.Insteadofacollapseof

twentiethcentury.OnedistinctiveaspectofFriesen'sbookishisconcentrationontheaboriginal

westernCanadiansocietyduetoethnicmigration,Canada'swestdidindeeddevelop,andit andimmigrantexperienceinwesternCanada.Theinformationprovidedbytheabove mentioned

developedregioncharacter,witheachethnicgroupcontributingtotheoverallgoalofsettling

authorhascontributedgreatlytoanunderstandingofthehistoricalcontextsinwhichthe

Canada'swest.Thisconceptallowsustoincludethe ethnicnatureofthedevelopment of

guidebookswerefabricatedduetotheauthorsin-depthexaminationofMacdonald'sNational

Canada'swestandunderstandthedualityoftheprocessthroughtheuseoftheTowerofBabel

PolicyanditsrelationtothedevelopmentofwesternCanada.

concept.

Asalreadymentioned,manyarefamiliarwiththesellingofthewesttoprospective

A notableHistorianwhohascontributedtothemythssurroundingthedevelopmentof immigrantsbyCliffordSiftonandtheLauriergovernment,yetfewhaveexaminedthematerial

westernCanadaisDougOwram.Inhisbook,ThePromiseofEden:TheCanadianExpansion publishedbytheDepartmentofAgricultureduringMacdonald'stime.Beforeexaminingthe

MovementandtheIdeaoftheWest1856-1900,Owramexploreshowtheideaofthewestwas

contentsoftheprimarysourcesthemselves,itisimportanttoexaminethepoliticalstructuresthat createdandpromotedbyexpansionistsinUpperandLowerCanadainthemidnineteenth wereresponsibleforthecreationandpromotionofprospectiveimmigrantguidebooks.After

century.OwramarguesthatselectbusinesselitesfromcentralCanadamovedtochange

Confederation,theDominionofCanadawasgivenfullcontrolofimmigrationandemigration

5R.DouglasFrancis,"TurnerversusInnis:BridgingtheGap",AmericanReviewofCanadianStudies(Winter2003):

7-8.

-4- -5- issuesoutlinedbythetermsoftheBritishNorthAmericaActof18676.TheDepartmentof publication13.Duringthe1880saseriesofguidebookswerepublishedbytheDepartmentof

Agriculturewascreatedin1867,andshortlythereafter,in1868,thedepartmentwasgiven Agricultureentitled,"Canada:AhandbookforIntendingSettlers".Avarietyofguidebooks

controltooverseeimmigrationandemigrationforthenewlycreatedDominionofCanada.The specificallydealingwithwesternProvincessuchasManitoba,werealsodistributedgreatlyby

DepartmentofAgricultureoversawissuespertainingtoimmigrationuntil1892,whenthe theDepartmentofAgricultureduringthelate1880s.Althoughinlateryearstheexactnameof

DepartmentoftheInteriortookoverthetask8.DuringtheyearswhentheDepartmentof theguidebookdidchange,thecontentremainedthesame.Theconsistencyofthecontenthas

Agriculturewasresponsibleforimmigration,itwasveryactiveincreatingpromotionalmaterial madetheguidebooksanimportantsourceforexaminingthewaysinwhichthegovernmentof

suchaspamphlets,guidebooks,andposterstoprospectiveimmigrantsabroad.Suchmaterial Canadaattemptedtoattractimmigrants.

waswrittenusuallybyclerkswithintheDepartmentofAgricultureusingdepartmentaldata

Sincethevastmajorityofpromotionalmaterialswerecompiledandwrittenbycivil

compiledbyimmigrationagentsthroughoutCanada9.Althoughmanyguidebookswere

servantswithinthedepartment,itisoutofthescopeofthispapertoidentifyexactlywhowrote

producedanddistributedbeginningin1868,thelargeportionoftheDominion'spromotional

andselectivelygatheredthecontentofsuchmaterial.Furthermorethereislittleliteraturewhich

materialwasproducedduringthe1880s10.Forexample,in1873barelytwomillioncopiesof

hasfocusedonhowadministrativelyandlogisticallysuchguidebookswerecreated.Insteadwe

promotionalguidebooksweremadeandintheyear1888overthreemillionwereproduced11.

canexaminethosewhohadbroaderroleswithinthedepartmenttoseehowthematerialmay

Duringthe1880saso-called"readingrevolution"emergedthatallowedtheDominiontoreach

havebeeninfluenced.TheDepartmentofAgriculturehadtwoMinisterswhileithadthetaskof

moreprospectiveimmigrantsthroughprint,whichmightaccountforthesurgeinpromotional

overseeingimmigration.JohnHenryPopewastheMinisterfrom1878to1885,and JohnCarling

materialhavingbeenproduced12.Furthermore,the1880s duringtheDepartmentofAgriculture

heldthepostfrom1885to189114.IncontrasttoCliffordSifton,andtheMinistryoftheInterior,

wasnottheonlyoneouttoenticeprospectiveimmigrants.TheCanadianPacificRailwaybegan

wedonothearmuchaboutthesetwoministersinimmigrationhistoryliterature.Therefore,itis

collaboratingwiththeDepartmentofAgriculturebyprovidinginclusivetripsontherailto

quiteimpossibletoknowexactlywhatextenttheMinisterofAgriculturemayhavehadin

westernCanadainthehopesthatpositiveaccountswouldresultandcouldbeusedfor

influencingthecreation,content,andpublicationofsuchpromotionalmaterial.Whatwedo

knowisthata concreteplanforthepromotionoftheDominionofCanadaoverseaswasnot 6Kelley&Trebilcock,TheMakingoftheMosaic:AHistoryofCanadianImmigrationPolicy,77.

7DepartmentofAgriculture.TheHistoricalSeriesoftheDepartmentofAgriculture."TheEarlyYears".(2001-04-06,

AgricultureandAgri-foodsCanada),http://epe.lac-bac.gc.ca/100/205/301/ic/cdc/agrican/pubweb/maine.asp,2 officiallylauncheduntil1872atwhichpointSirJohnA.Macdonaldrequestedanimmigration

(accessedJune30th2008).

8PatrickA.Dunae,"PromotingtheDominion:RecordsandtheCanadianImmigrationCampaign,1872-1915",

Archivaria19(Winter1984-1985):86.

9Ibid,79. 13 Ibid. 10Ibid,84.

11JarettHenderson,"MostofourCountryisWildandUnspoiled":AdvertisingGender,Race,andEmpireoffor GovernmentofCanadaPrivyCouncilOffice."GuidetoCanadianMinistriessinceConfederation",

WesternCanada,1867-1911[MAThesis,UniversityofManitoba,2004),10.Checkcitationstandardfortheses http://www.pco-bcp.gc.ca/»ndex.asp?doc=min/03e.htm&lang=eng&nage=information&sub=publication5

(accessedonOctober15th2008). 12Dunae,"PromotingtheDominion",84.

-6- -7- conferencetosetoutguidelinesforanimmigrationrecruitmentcampaign.Althoughthe descriptions.Thedescriptionsincludedintheguidebooksgivethereadersomeinsightastohow

conferencewasmoreconcernedwithfindingacommongroundbetweencompetingfederaland theagentsmanagedtoportrayCanada'swestinapositivelight,withoutactuallyhaving

provincialinterestswithregardstoimmigration,itdidsetoutcertainguidelinesthathave fabricatedinformation.

contributedtothecontentandadministeringofpromotionalmaterial.Themostimportant

Ofparticularimportanceinunderstandingtheliteratureaimedtowardsprospective resolutionsfromtheConferencewerethecontinuedmaintenanceanimmigrationagencyinthe

immigrantsisdeterminingwhyalluringimmigrantsbecameapriorityofCanada'sDepartment

UnitedKingdom,stationedinLondon,andaplantocontinuetopromoteCanadainmaterials,

ofAgricultureduringJohnMacdonald's A. tenure.Therewereseveralsentimentsexpressed butwithanewemphasisonManitobaandtheNorthwestTerritory.Thesettlementofthese

duringthenineteenthcenturybytheelitesofOntarioandQuebecscities.Beginninginthe1850s regionswereseenbytheMacdonaldgovernmentasbeingofupmostimportanceinensuring

astrongmovementcoincidedwitheffortstoaccomplishConfederationinCanada18.What overalleconomicsuccessforCanadaandavarietyofguidebooksemergedwithafocusplaced

emergedwasamovementbyurbanelitestoobtainlandinnorthwesternCanadawhichhadlong uponManitobaandtheNorthwestTerritory.Suchguidelineshavingbeenestablished,the

beenlookedafterbytheHudsonBayCompany.Thosewhoproposedtheideahavegenerally majorityofCanada'spromotionoccurredthroughimmigrationagentswhoweresentoverseasto

beenreferredtoasexpansionists,whoconsistedonurbanelitesfromUpperandLowerCanada. promotetheDominiontoprospectiveimmigrants.Manyagentstravelledthecountryside

TheurbaneliteofcentralCanadahadanationalisticsentimentinsettlingCanada'swest19.The

throughoutEuropehandingoutpamphlets,postingpromotionalpostersaroundvillages,and

pushforConfederationhadmostobviouslybeenthecreationofaself-governingDominionof

givinglectures16.ImmigrationagentswerethemainengineofthepromotionofCanada.The

Canada,butinmoreabstracttermsitsymbolizedtheunityofCanada.Thenewnationalistic

higherechelonsoftheMinistryofAgriculturedidnothavedirectinvolvementintheproduction

sentimentwhichemergedamongelitesduringthetimeofConfederationwasusedintwoways.

ofpromotionalmaterial.Thematerialwascreatedbyclerksandimmigrationagents,although

First,itwasusedbyexpansionistsasaplatformtoarguefortheannexationofPrinceRupert's

managersdidhavearesponsibilitytomonitorthecontentanddidsetoutcertainguidelines,

landandthecontinuedexplorationandsettlementofthewest.Secondly,itwasusedtobyelites

mainlybeingthatofportrayingtheDominioninarealisticwayandencouragingitswritersnotto

toargueforasenseofunityamongCanadiansinthe faceofthepossiblethreatfromtheUnited

embellishorcreatefalsehoods,buttosubtlydownplaysomenegativeaspects,suchasthe

Statesencroachingonthenorthwestanddestroyingtheabilityoftheelitestoprofitfromthe

weather17.Althoughitwascertainthattheemployeesresponsibleforthecreationoftheguide

region. r

booksdidnotfabricateinformationtoenticeimmigrants,theagentswereencouragedtoprovide

apqsitivespinoncertaintopics,andtheywereespeciallyencouragednottoincludeanynegative

18ArthurLower,WesternCanada,AnOutlineHistory(Vancouver:Douglas&MclntyreLtd.,1983),85 15Dunae,"PromotingtheDominion",75.

16Keliey&Trebilcock,TheMakingoftheMosaic:AHistoryofCanadianImmigrationPolicy,78 19SarahWayland,"Immigration,MulticulturalismandNationalIdentityinCanada",InternationalJournalonGroup

Rights5(1997):33-58. 17Dunae,"PromotingtheDominion",81

-8- -9- Urbanelitesnationalsentimentarguedforwesternexpansion,andinturntheneedfor Apartfromageneralsenseofnationalismandnationbuildingthatwasfeltbyelites

immigrants,basedonnotionthatCanada'sfuturewithintheBritishEmpirewasdependenton duringJohnA.Macdonald'stime,therewasalsoapro-Britishsentimentamongthisgroup.The

westernexpansiontoliftCanada"fromcolonytonation"innotsimplylegalterms,butinthe latenineteenthcenturymeantmuchsuccessandgreatnessfortheEmpireofBritain.Duringthis

termsofitsglobalpower20.Furthermore,elitesbelievedCanadawouldbecomethe'Eldest timetheBritishEmpirestretchedacrossglobe theand"adoctrineofimperialismemerged[and]

DaughteroftheEmpire"bysettlingthewestandsecuringtheuntappedwealthwhichwaited21. imperialistpropagandasaturatedBritishsociety"25.Thispositiveportrayalofimperialismwas

SomeexpansionistsevenarguedthatCanadawouldsurpasstheBritishEmpireand"tobecome adoptedbyeliteCanadianswhowereeagertoexpandwestwardandcontributetothepowerof

toanempireinitsownright"22.ImmigrationwasthereforeneededtoensurethatCanada'swest theEmpire,botheconomicallyandgeographically.InCarlBerger'sbook,TheSenseofPower:

wasdevelopedquickly,andimmigrantswereremindedthroughtheguidebooksthat"TheBritish StudiesintheIdeasof CanadianImperialism,theimperialistsentimentthatwasseeninCanada

subject,ortheincomerfromEuropeorotherpartsoftheglobe,willthereforehavethe canbetracedtothe Loyalisttradition26.Althoughwesternexpansionwasseenbyelitesasbeing

satisfactionoffeelingthat,insettlingtheCanadianNorth-West,hetakesanindividualpartin goodforCanada'snationbuildingendeavors,itwasalsoveryimportantfortheBritishEmpirein

buildingagreatnationofthefuture"23.InRayTaras'book,LiberalandIlliberalNationalisms, thatCanadawouldbecomeagreatpartnerincontinuingandsupportingimperialinterests27.The

UlfHedetoft,awellknownphilosophyprofessorwhohaspublishedmuchonthepolitical LoyalisttraditionkeptalivetheideathatCanada'sfoundationswerethatofaBritishnatureand

semioticsofnationalisminEurope,describesnationalidentityasthe"commondestinygluedto allofCanada'sgreatnesshadBritishroots,thereforeCanada'scontinuedsuccessdependedon

keepingtheBritishimperialtraditionongoing.SuchgroupsastheCanadaFirstandthe citizensasafactofnature,andnormativelydeterminingtheirloyaltiesandmoralsentiments".

Thecommondestiny,expansionistshadhoped,ofCanadiansduringthenineteenthcenturywas ImperialFederationLeaguewhichemergedafterConfederationinthelate1800swereevidentof

thatofwesternexpansionandthecreationofanation-statefromcoastto coast.Nationalidentity theimperialisticsentimentwhichcouldbefoundwithinCanada'surbanelitethe attimeof

alsoinvolvesaprocessofself-identificationbythemembersofthenation-state.Ifexpansionists westernexpansion.Thesegroupspromotedpro-BritishandimperialsentimentandthatCanada

weretogetCanadiansenthusiasticandwillingtotakeonthechallengeofsettlingtheWest,then wasanintegralcomponentoftheEmpire.Someevenwentsofarastoassertthat,through

expansion,CanadacouldonedayreplaceBritainasthecenteroftheEmpire29.Overpopulation theyneededtoensurethatasenseofnationalidentitywasfeltamongstitssupporters.

andthescarcityoflandmeantthatBritainwouldonedaydeclineinpowerandCanadawas

25Moyles&Owram,ImperialDreamsandColonialRealities,5.

26CarlBerger.TheSenseofPower:Studiesinthe IdeasofCanadianImperialism(Toronto:UniversityofToronto 20Owram,PromiseofEden,3. Press,1970),78. 21MoylesandOwram,ImperialDreamsandColonialRealitiesBritishViewsofCanada,1880-1914,6.

27Owram,PromiseofEden,126. 22Owram,PromiseofEden,3.

28Berger,TheSenseofPower,78. 23DepartmentofAgricuIture,ManitobaandtheNorthwest:informationforsettlers,1.

29R.DouglasFrancis,ImagesoftheWest:ResponsestotheCanadianPrairies(Saskatoon:WesternProducerPrairie

24 Books),74. Ibid/45.

-11- -10- traditionofcolonization33.AsHenderson'sthesispointsoutalso,imperialismandtheongoing thereforeseenasthesuccessorofBritain.TheEmpiredidnotwishtoseeanendtoitspowerand

influenceuponhumancivilization,for"theBritishEmpirewasthoughttorepresentman's continuationoftheBritishwayoflifewaspromotedthroughtheseguidebooks,andCanada's

westwasseenasthenewcolony,wherelandlessandimpoverishedBritain'scouldrelocateto highestachievementinthedevelopmentofgovernmentalandsocialinstitutions".Canada

thereforebecameimportanttothefutureoftheEmpire,andbothfutureswouldbesecure giveBritainreprieveandhelpbuildtheDominionofCanadafortheEmpire.

throughexpansionsince"theNorthWest,promisinggreateconomicwealth,seemedtogive ThesymbolicnotionofCanada'srisetogreatnesswithintheEmpireandperhapslater

Canadaauniqueopportunitytoimplantfirmlythesenobleinstitutionsinarisingworld withintheWorldhadcreatedasenseamongstexpansionistthatCanadaneededtomoveforward

power"31.ToexpansionistsCanadahadaclearroletofillinensuringthattheBritishEmpire andsettlethewest.TheUnitedStateshadasimilarnationalisticdesireinvolvingthemove

continuedtoflourishandcontinuedprogressandvitalitywasseenasbeingdeliveredthroughthe westward.In1845JohnO'Sullivancoinedtheterm'ManifestDestiny'torefertothemissionof

settlementanddevelopmentofthewest.Notonlyweretheelitesmotivatedtoensurethefuture theUnitedStatesofAmericatoexpandenmasse"acrossNorthAmericainthenameof

oftheBritishEmpire,butitalsohadtheopportunitytogainglobalstatusthroughitsinheritance liberty"34.Drivenbyadesiretofindself-realizationthroughexpansionism,Americansbegan

astheheadthe ofEmpire.IntheimmigrationguidebookspublishedbytheDepartmentof settingouttothewestbeginningin1790andcontinuingintothe1850s35.Theidealsof"manifest

Agricultureonecanseethatimperialistictonewhentheauthorstatesthat:"Englandisagreat

destiny"createdgreatsfearsinelites,andinparticularSirJohnA.Macdonald,thatevenfurther

civilizer;themightycolonizeroftheworld,naturefittedhertoplaythepart;andtheworkso

Americanwesternexpansion,unbeknownstoflimitsitseemed,mightresultinCanada's west

grandlybegunbytheCabotsandothers,nearlyfourcenturiesago,mustgoon,nomatterwho

beingannexedbytheUnitedStates36.Thereforeitisimportanttonotethatunderlyingfearof

opposes.ThiswasseentobepartofEngland'sdestiny,theworkthat,asanation,shemust

expansioniststhatCanada'swestneededtobesettledtoensurethatitdid notgetintothehands

perform"32.FromtheguidebookswealsoseethatBritishsubjectsthemselveshadadutyto oftheUnitedStates.

ensuretheEmpirecontinuedtoflourishbyimmigratingtoCanadaoranotherBritishColonyto

Toreallyunderstandtheimportanceofthematerialwrittenandpublishedbythe ensurethatpopulationpressuresinEuropeandtheriseofpovertydidnotholddownBritain's

DepartmentofAgricultureitisimportanttounderstandhowJohnA.Macdonald'sNational economicsuccess.JarettHenderson,inhisMaster'sThesisentitled,"MostofourCountryis

Policy,whichwasfirstpromotedduringtheelectionof1878,contributedtothepushforsuch

WildandUnspoiled":AdvertisingGender,Race,andEmpireforWesternCanada,1867-1911",

materialtobecreatedandtheimportancethatimmigrationingeneralhadinnationbuildingin discussesthewayinwhichthepromotionalimmigrationliteratureduringthelatenineteenth

33 JarettHenderson,MostofourCountryisWildandUnspoiled":AdvertisingGender,Race,andEmpireoffor centurywaswritteninsuchawayastoenticeimmigrantsfromBritaintocontinueonthe WesternCanada,1867-191L(M.AThesis,UniversityofManitoba,2004).

AndersStephanson,ManifestDestiny(NewYork:HillandWang,1995),3.

35DonaldCole,HandbookofAmericanHistory(1968),89. DougOwram,PromiseofEden,176.

35DonaldCreighton.TheRoadtoConfederation:Confe TheEmergenceofCanada,1863-1867.(Toronto:MacMillanof Ibid. 32 Canada,1964),212-214,244,273-276. DepartmentofAgriculture.Canada:A HandbookofInformationforIntendingEmigrants,73.

-13- -12- themindoftheelitesineasternCanada.TherewerethreemaincomponentstoMacdonald's Canada'selitebusinessmenexclusively39.Itisarguedthatthetariffsforcedwesternstopaid

NationalPolicy,thefirstbeinganincreaseintariffs,thesecondbeingthecompletionofthe higherpricesformanufacturedgoods,andtheso-calleddistributionofcapitalfromeastwest to

CanadianPacificRailwaycoast fromtocoast,andthethirdbeingthepromotionofimmigration wasunbalancedandcenteredaroundcentralCanadianbusinessinterestsandensuringthey

towesternCanada37.ThesecomponentsofMacDonald'sNationalPolicyallhadthe goalof profited.ThetariffpolicyoftheMacdonaldgovernmenthad,andstillhas,generatedmuch

assuringthatCanada'snationbuildinggoalswouldbesuccessful,withthemajorityofthe debateastoitseffectivenessandfairnessandsomeevenargueitledtothealienationofwestern

successdependinguponthesettlingofwesternCanadathroughimmigration.TheNational Canadians.

Policywasthoughtofasnationbuildingpolicies,buttheywerealsodesignedtoensurethat

ThesecondcomponentofMacdonald'sNationalPolicywasthecompletionoftheCPR. centralCanadianCapitalistshadfavourableconditionsforinvestmentwithinthewestandthe

TherailwaystretchingfromwesternCanadatoeasternCanadawasverymuchinneedfor railway.

variousreasons.ToaccomplishthefirstcomponentofMacdonald'sNationalPolicyitwas

ThefirstcomponentofMacdonald'sNationalPolicywastoincreasetariffs.Tariffs, imperativethatCanadahaveamethodoftransportationtobringnaturalresourcesandother

Macdonaldargued,wereincreasedbetweentheDominionandtheUnitedStatesinaneffortto productsfromthewesternregionstotheeastforexportationanddistributiontoEurope.

stimulateCanada'snationalmarket38.ThelogicforincreasedtariffswastoensurethatCanada's Furthermore,toattractimmigrationitwasalsoimportanttohaveatransportationsystemto

nationalmarketwouldbestimulatedbymakingitmuchmoreprofitableforCanadian'stobuy connectsettlerstogoodsandproductsandtomakeitknownthatthegoodsproducedby

CanadiangoodsandproductsratherthanAmericangoodsandproducts.Furthermoreit agriculturalistscouldbedistributedtootherareasofthecountryandtheworldtoensure

encouragedCanadianbusinesstodependoneachotherbyhavingthewestsupplytheraw profitablesales.ApartfromthelogisticalconsiderationsfortheMacdonaldgovernmenttopush

materialtotheeasttosupplyproductstowest;awaytoensurethatbotheconomieswould forthecompletionoftheCanadianPacificRailway,itwasalsoaprerequisiteofthoseinfavour

flourish.IftheDominionofCanadawastoprosperandachievethebuildingofagreatnation, ofexpansionthatCanadabeunitedunderapoliticalstructurethatwouldensureeconomic

accordingtotheelites,thenitneededtoensurethatitsnationalmarketwasprosperous.Oneway cooperation.OneofthemainconditionsofBritishColumbia'sjoiningtheConfederationwasthe

toensuresuccesswasinreapingthe vastnaturalresources,andcreatingnewindustries,suchas stipulationthatatranscontinentalrailwaybeconstructed40.Thecompletionofthetransnational

agriculture,inwesternCanada.Ofcourse,some,likeHistorianV.C.Fowke,arguethatthe railwayin1885wasseenthen,andstilltoday,asoneofthegreatestachievementsinCanada's

tariffsdidnotbenefitallpartsofCanadaequally,andinfactthetariffsseemedtofavourcentral

GeraldFriesen,TheCanadianPrairies,186-189.

37Kelley&Trebilcock,TheMakingoftheMosaic,61. DepartmentoftheSecretaryofState,OurHistory;CanadianCitizenshipSeries,(Ottawa:Queen'sPrinter,1948),

38DesmondMorton,AShortHistoryofCanada,5thEdition,(Toronto:McClelland&Steward2001),115. 58.

-14- -15- history41.TheguidebookspublishedbytheDepartmentofAgricultureindeedpromotedthe stepstocounteractthem.Oneofthefirstthingstodedoneistoshowunmistakablyour

resolvetobuildthePacificRailway."45

splendoroftheCanadianPacificRailway,itsconvenienceoftravelforsettlersoutwest,andits

Macdonald'sfearofAmericanAnnexationhadtodowiththeneedtofindprivateinvestmentin

easeforproduceshipmentandthuscommerce.The"Pacific[CPR]isbyfartheshortestfora

ordertofundthelarge-scaleandexpensiveendeavor.During1869and1870JohnA.

railway"42,andalthoughnotcompletelyfinishedtoBritishColumbia,itsprogressisdescribedas

Macdonald'sfearsoftheUnitedStatesmovingintowesternCanadawerewell-foundeddueto

"rapidlydevelopingherrailways"43.ItwasevidentfromtheabovethattheDepartmentof

theinterestedofanAmericanfinancierbythenameofJayCooke.Cookehadcomeupwith

Agriculturedidindeedunderstandtheimportanceoftherailwayinattractingimmigrantsdueto

plansfortheNorthernPacificrailwaytolinkfromtheGreatLakestoMinneapolis-St-Pauland

itsfacilitationoftravelandtransportation.Infact,therailwaymayhavecontributedtothe

thePacificOcean,andtodosoheproposedtomaketheroutedirectlybesidetheCanada-US

movementofpeopleouttowesternCanadaandthismighthavebeenevidencedbythefactthata

borderwhichwastooclosetotheAmericanborderforMacdonald,whobelievedthatsucha

largenumbermovedontotractsoflandsituatedbesidetherailway44inordertobenefitfromthe

routecouldleadtoeventualannexationofwesternCanada46.In1871twoCanadiancapitalists,

easeoftransportation.Thecompletionoftherailway,havingbeenincludedinMacdonald's

SirHughAllan,involvedwithsteamshipsandfromMontreal,andSenatorD.L.Macpherson,

NationalPolicy,wasdirectlyrelatedtotheconditionsofConfederation,buttheywerealsohave

leaderofaToronto-basedcapitalistgroup,becameembroiledinabiddingwarovertherightsto

beenlinkedtoMacdonald'sfearsconcerningAmericanannexationofwesternCanada.

buildthetranscontinentalrailway.SirHughAllanwonthebidandinFebruary1873the

Apartfromitsimportancetoeconomicgrowththrougheaseoftransportation,the CanadianPacificRailwayCompanywascreated.Allan'sfortherailwaywouldnothavearoute

completionoftheCPRalsoensuredthatAmericanannexationoreconomicprowessthroughan closetotheAmericanborder,andthiswasperfectforMacdonald'sconcerns.However,in

alternativerailwayroutedidnotoccur,whichwasnotamajorconcernforallCanadians,butwas Novemberofthatsameyear,theCPRandMacdonald'sgovernmentwereputonholddueto ill

IP' ofparticularfearMacdonaldheld.Forexample,JohnA.MacdonaldhimselfinalettertoC.J. evidencethatindicatedthatSirHughAllanhadcontributedalargesumofmoneyto

Brydges,Esq.,acompanion,datedJanuary28,1870statedthat: MacDonaid'sConservativegovernmentre-electioncampaignjustpriortoSirAllanbeing

appointedpresidentoftheCPR.Despitethissetback,intheearly1880sMacdonald's

"Itisquiteevidenttome,notonlyfromthisconversation,butfromadvicesfrom

Washington,thattheUnitedStatesGovernmentareresolvedtodoalltheycan,shortof governmentbegansearchingonceagainforcapitaliststofundtherailwayprojectduetothelack

war,togetpossessionofthewesternterritory,andwemusttakeimmediateandvigorous

ofpublicrevenue47.In1881JamesJ.Hill,aCanadian-bornrailwaybuilderintheUnitedStates,

45SirJohnA.MacDonaid,lettertoC.J.Brydges,Esq.,datedOttawa.28,1870 JanuaryfromJosephPope,Memoirs

41 Ibid. oftheRightHonourableSirJohnAlexanderMacDonaid,G.C.B,Vol.2,(London:EdwardArnoldLtd.,1894,

42DepartmentofAgriculture,Canada:AHandbookofInformationforIntendingEmigrants,6. republishedbyAMSPressInc.,1971),162.

43DepartmentofAgriculture,ManitobathePrairieProvince,thefinest agriculturalcountryintheworld,5. 46GeraldFriesen,TheCanadianPrairies,172-173. 47 44 Lower,WesternCanada,AnOutlineHistory,106. JohnMoir&RobertSaunders,NorthernDestiny:AHistoryof Canada,(Canada:J.M.Dent&SonsLtd,1970),319.

-16- -17- GeorgeStephen,presidentoftheBankofMontreal,andStephen'scousin,DonaldSmithtook LandActallowedanyheadofhouseholdorpersonsoftwenty-oneyearsofagetobeallotted

overtheventureofcompletingtheCPR48.AlthoughthecompletionoftheCPRwasone one-quartersection(160acres)oflandafterhavingtilledandplantedontheplotforaminimum

componentofMacdonald'sNationalPolicy,itmustbenotedthatitscompletionwasfundedby ofthreeyearsconsecutively52.In1874amendmentsweremadetotheActwhichloweran

capitalists,andwasnotadirectresultofpublicfunds.Theonlypublicfundstohave beenused eligibleimmigrant'sagetoeighteenyearsofage,andthehomesteaderhadtheoptionof

weresmallamountsoftariffrevenuewhichwasusedtosubsidizedthebuildingoftherailway. purchasingtheadjoiningone-quartersectionforonedollarperacre.Theseamendmentsmadeit

moreenticingforimmigrantstosettleinwesternCanada.ItwasevidentfromtheLandActof

ThethirdcomponentofSirJohnA.Macdonald'snationalpolicyismostimportanttothis

1872thattheMacdonaldgovernmentdidindeedwanttoensurethatitsNationalPolicy essayforitdirectlyrelatestothepromotionofwesternCanadatothoseabroad.Althoughmany

componentofattractingimmigrantsoccurredbyofferingfreelandgrants,andmakingthemove pointoutthattheLauriergovernmentincreasedspendingonpromotingwesternCanadaduring

totheDominionascosteffectivetotheimmigrantaspossible.Thiswasalsocitedintheguide theturnofthetwentiethcentury,thefactimmigration that wasincludedinMacdonald'snational

books,whichdescribeimmigrationtoCanadaasveryinexpensive,furthercateringtothosewho policyindicatesthatitwasof majorimportancetothedevelopmentCanadaand oftheLaurier

weretemptedbytheprospectsoffreeland. governmentmayhavesimplybeencontinuingwiththepromotion.Alreadynotedarethewaysin

whichthepromotionalmaterialwascompiledandcreated,butitisimportanttoexploretheActs Onetheme whichisclearlyseeninallpromotionalmaterialpublishedbytheDepartment

andpolicycreatedbytheMacdonaldgovernmenttoattractprospectiveimmigrantsinaneffortto ofAgricultureandwhichwasemphasizedduringthegreatmigrationofthelatenineteenthand

illuminatehowimportantimmigrationwas.In1869theDominionpassedtheImmigrationAct, earlytwentiethcenturyisthattheDominionofCanadawasmeantforagriculturalists.AsDoug

whichwasthefirstActconcerningtheissue49.TheActdidnotsetoutmanydetailsabout Owramandmanyhistorianshavepointedout,theCanadiangovernmentbelievedthatthebest

immigrationperseitwasmoreconcernedwithdiseasecontrolandsafepassagefornewcomers typeofimmigrantwasaEuropeanfarmer.Owramdiscussesinhisbook,ThePromiseEden of

toCanada50.OfmajorsignificancetoimmigrationtowesternCanadawastheDominionLands thatthemaingoaloftheDominionofCanadaandexpansionistsduringthenineteenthcentury

Actof1872.ThisActsettheperimetersforlandtobedistributedtoimmigrantsinwestern wastosecurethewest,andtodosorequiredsettlers.Ofcourse,thefactremainedthatthe

Canada51.ThevastnessofwesternCanadameantthatefficientandeffectivelanddistribution Canada'swesthadbeenlargelyunpopulatedandwaspreviouslyunderthecontroloffurtraders,

neededtooccurtoensurethatimmigrantswouldbeabletosettleasquicklyaspossible.The suchastheHudsonBayCompany,whichgaveCanada'swestanimageofbeingavast

Ibid.

Kelley& Trebilcock,TheMakingoftheMosaic,62.

50 Ibid. 52 JohnThomasCulliton.NationalProblemsofCanada:AssistedEmigrationandLandSettlement,withSpecial

51JeffreyS.Murray.LibraryandArchivesCanada,"FreeLandi", ReferencetoWesternCanada.{Montreal:theFederatedPressLimited,fortheDepartmentofEconomicsand

http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/immigrants/021017-2210-e.html(AccessedOctober31st,2008). PoliticalScience,1928),17-18.

-18- -19- wilderness53.AlmostovernightthewesternlandsofCanadaweretransformedintravelliterature, andassesswesternCanada'spotentialasanagriculturalparadise55.Furthermore,theVictorian

and,moreimportantly,promotionalimmigrationliterature,fromforestandhinterlandstoan ideassurroundingprogressspurredbythescientificrevolutioncontributedtothenotionthat

agriculturalparadise.Canada'smainindustrywasagriculture,andassuch,thewestwas expandingcivilizationintothewildnesswasanaturalprogress56.Iftheexpansionistshadtheir

envisionedasthenewfrontier.TheolderProvincesofCanadahadbecomequitepopulatedand way,naturewouldbetamedandCanadiansocietywouldsucceedinsettlingthewest.

newfarmablelandtosettlewasin shortersupply.Itwasthereforeimportanttofindnew a

AsMoylesandOwramdiscussintheirbook,ImperialDreamsandColonialRealities,

agriculturalfrontierandnewlandtoensurethatCanada'seconomicfuturedidnotstagnate.As

theGovernmentofCanadahadasetgoalinmindto"fillupthewest"withimmigrantstoensure

mentioned,beginninginthelate1850sCanada'swestbegantotakeonanimagedistinctfrom

Canada'snationbuildingendeavorsetoutbytheMacdonaldgovernmentwassuccessful57.An

theperceiveddistantwildernessofthefurtradeera,andshiftedtoafertile,climaticallypristine

ideaemergedtoattractmiddletolowerclassfarmers,ortenantfarmers,tosettlethewest.This

areanaturallysuitedtoagriculture.

ideatoattractpeasantfarmersfromEuropeismostcommonlyassociatedwithCliffordSifton,

Landsurveyexpeditionstravelledoutwesttoassesstheregion.Sotoodidtouristsand whobelievedthattheseheartypeople,usedtoahardlife,wouldbeableto"perseverethrough

adventurists.Theseearlyexpeditionsdescribedindetailtheclimateoftheareaanditspotential harshCanadianwintersandworkhardthroughtheshortsummers"58.Ofcourse,thepromotional

foragriculture.Manybusinessmenwerefascinatedwiththeprospectsofwhatcouldbemadeout materialfromtheDepartmentofAgriculturepriortoSiftonindicatesthattheMacdonald

ofthevastuntouchedlandofthewestandwhatpotentialithadforbecomingagreatagricultural governmenthadalreadydecidedsuchpersonswerewellsuitedasimmigrantstoCanada.Inthe

regioninCanada.ExpansionistsbelievedthatCanada'scommercialfuturelayinthe DepartmentAgriculture's of materialitismadeabundantlyclearthatthosefromtheupper

developmentofthewestin agriculturalterms,andasaresult,thelandqualityofCanada'swest classes,andespeciallyBritishgentlemen,werenottoemigrate.Infact,thispointwasrepeatedly

isthemostprevalentthemethroughoutallimmigrationguidebooks.IftheDominionofCanada stressed.OneexampleofthiscanbefoundintheDepartmentofAgriculture'sguidebookfrom

wishedtodevelopeconomicallyitwasespeciallyimportanttoensurethatimmigrantsand 1886:

agriculturalistswereattractedtoCanada'swesternregion54.Inherbook,LandofPromise,

"Canadaisacountryof andforworkers-noneothersarewanted.Idlers(unlesstheyhave

moneyto liveon),allpersonsaccustomedtolightemployment,lawyers,doctors,clerks, PromisedLand:TheCultureofVictorianScienceinCanada,SuzanneZellerdescribestheway

shopmen,teachers,etc.,shouldnotgottoCanadaunlessplacespreviouslyengaged.Such

inwhichVictorianscience,andinparticulartheuniformitarianview,wasusedtocollectdata

55 SuzanneZeller.LandofPromise,PromisedLand:TheCultureofVictorianScienceinCanada(Ottawa:The

CanadianHistoricalAssociation,1996).

56Zeller,LandofPromise,PromisedLand,20.

57MoyfesandOwram,ImperialDreamsandColonialRealities(Toronto:UniversityofTorontoPress,1988),116-

118,199.. DougOwram,PromiseofEden,43-59,61,74-75. 58 Ibid,117. Ibid,112.

-21-; -20- •'■'•■■ -■■ persons,iftheywent,mighthavetoperformmanuallabourforaliving,andforwhich,as UnitedKingdomatthistime,althoughitmustbenotedthattheguidebookswereaddressedto

arule,theyaretotallyunfitted"59.

Europeansingeneral.TherewasalargeshiftinEnglandawayfromtheagriculturalsectortoa TheguidebooksexplicitlystatedthatCanadasoughtagriculturallabourers,andeven

moreurbanizedandmanufacturingorientedeconomy,meaningthatmorepeoplewererelyingon

morespecifically,whattypesofworkerswerenotwanted.Furthermore,thepromotional

otherstoemploy themasopposedtoholdinganindependentfarm.Thisproblemisreflectedin

literaturewasspecificinthatCanadadidnotsimplywantanyagriculturalist;theyneededtobe

writingsofinhabitantsofEnglandatthetime: hardworkingandadaptable.Prospectiveimmigrantswerewarnedthatonlythose"ableand

willingtowork...neednothesitatetocomehere"60.Itwasalsoreiteratedthatthosewillingto "Theagriculturalpopulationisdiminishing,theacreageundercultivationeveryyear

gettingless,andthefood-supplywithintheislandsgraduallytrendingtowardsthe

workwouldbeabletosecureaplotoflanduponwhichtheycouldflourish.Theidealimmigrant vanishingpoint.Everyyearthepopulationisdriftingmoreandmoreintothe

manufacturingtowns,increasingcompetitionandmakinglifehardertobear"63

toCanada'swestwasespeciallypoorortenantfarmersbecausetheywereseenasbeingmost

Theproblemsofurbanization,overpopulationandpovertyassociatedwiththeIndustrial

susceptibletosuccumbingtotheallureofindependenceofferedbyCanada,andinaneffortto

RevolutionwerereiteratedbytheDepartmentofAgricultureinitsguidebooksmanytimes.The

bettertheirownliveswouldmakenewcontributionstoCanada'seconomy61.Theguidebooks

guidebooksencouragedthosefromtheBritishIslandstoimmigratetoCanadatohelprelieve

alsorevealedthatimmigrantswouldnotnecessarilygarnerahighwageorearnmorepayin

Britainofitsovercrowdingandpoverty,andalsotoavoidtheeverdroppingwagesduetoahigh

Canada,butwouldinsteadhavetheopportunitytoforgealivingwithouttherestraintsof

proportionoflabourers64.

workingforanotherperson,asitwasbelievedthatthetenantfarmerfromEurope,evenifhedid

TheliteratureforprospectiveimmigrantsdrewuponthiseconomicshiftinEnglandand notmakerichesfromimmigratingtothewestofCanada,wouldappreciatetheindependence

madedirectcomparisonsbetweenEnglandandCanada,accentuatingthedifferencesbetweenthe offeredbythismodestlifestyle.Thisnotionofindependenceisindeedanimportantwaythatthe

livesoffarmersintherespectiveplaces.Again,thethemethatrecursisthatofthepotentialfor literatureforprospectiveimmigrantsattemptedtoattracttheworkingclass.Thisnotionis Ill

independenceinCanadaandtherisingrateofrelianceuponothersforsustenanceinEngland: articulatedexplicitlythroughouttheguidebooksunderanalysishere:"Itisratheraquestionof

attainingthiskindofindependencethatshallmoveagriculturallabourerstoemigratethanthatof "TherearenomoreindependentpeopleintheworldthanthefarmersofCanada.There

aremanysmalltenantfarmersinEngland,livingfromhandtomouth,whoarepaying

higherwages;andthesameargumentappliesevenmorestronglytotenantfarmers"62.Theallure moreinrents,rates,andtaxeseachthantheycouldpurchaseagoodimprovedfarmfor,

outandout,intheDominion;thatistosay,theirexpensesinEnglandforoneyearare

ofthisnotionofindependencecomeslargelyfromthepredominanteconomicconcernsofthe greaterthanthecostofagoodfreeholdinCanada"65

59DepartmentofAgriculture,Canada:AHandbookofInformationforIntendingEmigrants.(DominionofCanada,

1886),78. 63GeorgeT.Denison,ThePresentSituationofEnglandaCanadianImpression.TheNineteenthCenturyJournal,

60ManitobathePrairieProvince,thefinestagriculturalcountryintheWorld.(ManitobaGovernmentEmigration Vol.42,December18,1897editedbyCarlBerger,ImperialismandNationalism,1884-1914;aconflictinCanadian

thought.(Toronto:TheCoppClarkPublishingCompany,1969),44. Office,1890),26.

61Owram.PromiseofEden.137. 64DepartmentofAgriculture,Canada;AHandbookofInformationforIntendingEmigrants,72.

62DepartmentofAgriculture,Canada;AHandbookofInformationforIntendingEmigrants,4. 65Ibid,76.

PRGPERTYOF -22- -23- BYERSONUNIVERSITYLIBRARY Thisindependencewasnotguaranteed,andtheliteratureofthetimeattributedsuccessinthe Toattractfarmerstotheagriculturalwestitwasimportanttoenticethemwiththevery

Dominiontoindividualcharacteristicsandworkethic.Itwasmadeclearintheguidebooksthat factorwhichmadetheirlivelihood:theclimateandsoil.Allimmigrantguidebooks beganby

anyonewillingtocometoCanadaandworkhardwouldexperiencegreatsuccess.Those paintingwesternCanadaasoneofthemostwonderfulagriculturalareasoftheworld.Inall

promotingwesternexpansion,likethoseresponsiblefortheDepartmentofAgricultureguide sourcesstudied,theclimateofCanadawasfirstintroducedbycomparingthelatitudeof

books,knewthattheclimateandsoilandlifeingeneralinsettlingCanada'swestwouldbea Canada'sto westthatofFranceandtheSouthofGermany.Itisimportantthatthiscomparison

difficultone.TheywereveryanxioustoavoidseeingimmigrantsfromEuropefail.Inan wasmadesincevirtuallyalltheimmigrantswhocontemplatedcomingtoCanadawerefrom

attempttoensureretentionrates,emphasiswasplacedonattractinghardypeoplewithgood Europeannations,andsuchacomparisonwouldquellanyfearsofCanadahavingadiversely

workethic.Thosewhochosetoimmigrateknewthattherewasagreatdealofpersonal differentclimate.Thecomparisonofclimatebasedonlatitudewasinformedbyclimatologists

motivationneededtosucceed.Particularemphasiswasplacedonthenotionthattheharderone suchasHumboldt,whobasedhisassumptionsontheapplicationofisotherms,whicharelines

works,themorelikelyonewouldbeatachievingindependenceandsuccessinCanada. onmapsjoiningplacesofequaltemperatureusedtomapworldwidetemperature68.The

"Unsuccessfulfarmingisalmostunknownthere.Menhavefailedthroughidleness,carelessness applicationofthescientificmethodwasespeciallyusefulinconvincingpotentialimmigrants

ordissipationorthroughenteringintooutsidespeculation;butitwouldbedifficulttofind...the consideringthatimmigrationagentsinEuropenotedthatmanyoutsideoftheDominionhadno

honestandindustriousfarmerwhoselabourshavenotbeencrownedwithsuccess"66.Thispoint conceptionwhatsoeverofCanada,letaloneitsclimateandscientificevidencewasoftendeemed

wasemphasizednotonlytoattractthehardworkersnecessaryforwesternexpansion,butalsoto asreputable.Also,manyagentsfearedthattheonlythingspeopleheardwouldbefrom

squarelyputtheblameforfailureupontheindividualwhoimmigrated,andnottheconditions disgruntledsettlerswithintheEuropeanpress69.TheDepartmentofAgriculturetherefore

theyconfronteduponarrivalinCanada.Thisisexplicitlystatedthroughouttheguidebooks:"It encourageditsimmigrationagentsabroadtoreadnewspapersandprovideadvertisementsin

isunfortunatelytruethattherehavebeenmanycasesoffailureandindividualhardships,but themtoensurethatsuchnegativedepictionswouldbe'corrected'70.Theguidebooksalso

thesearetheexception,andinnearlyallcasestheyarisefromtheunfitnessofthepersonswho indicatedthat"Hostileimmigrationagentswilldescribethecountryasafrozenregionof

suffertoemigrateatall"67.Itcouldbeconjecturedthattheguidebookspublishedbythe inhospitability"71.The'hostileimmigrationagents'referredtoagentsfromothercountriesand

DepartmentofAgricultureseemtohavecreatedthetemplatefortheLauriergovernmentin coloniessuchastheUnitedStates,SouthAfricaandAustralia,whichalsohadagentsoverseas

promotingCanadaasaparadiseforEuropeanagriculturalistandthosewishingtomakeabetter

Zeller,LandofPromise,PromisedLand,13.

lifeforthemselves. RonaldRees.NewandNakedLand:makingthePrairiesHome.(Saskatoon:WesternProducerPrairieBooks,

1988),16.

Dunae,"PromotingtheDominion",77.

DepartmentofAgriculture,Canada;A HandbookofInformationforIntendingEmigrants,76. DepartmentofAgriculture.ManitobathePrairieProvince,thefinestagriculturalcountryintheWorld.

(Winnipeg:ManitobaGovernmentEmigrationOffice,1890),6. Ibid,75.

-24- -25- promotingtheirrespectivestateandwhichnodoubthadaninterestindiscouragingimmigration partoftheworldwillendorsethisstatement"76.Winterwasdescribedinthebestpossibleway

totheDominion72.Theguidebooks,however,wereabletodispelsuchnegativeclaimsby withintheguidebooks.Winter,ofcourse,wascold,butwasdescribedasnotextremelycoldas

competitorsbystatingthat: "thisdegreeofcoldinthedryatmosphereoftheNorthWestdoesnotproduceanyunpleasant

sensation"77,and"theweatherisnotfelttobecolderthanthatintheProvinceofQuebec,norso

"Howeveritisinsistedthatonewhohasnotactuallylivedinthisclimateorinone

similartoitisnotcompetenttoformanindependent,intelligentopinion.Allsuchare coldasmilderwinterclimateswherethefrost,orevenadegreelessofcoldthanfrost,is

askedtobanishtheirprejudicesandlistentothosewhohavelivedinthecountryfor

years.ThealmostuniversalverdictisthattheclimateofManitobaismoreagreeablethan accompaniedwithdampness"78.Althoughthetemperaturewasdescribedasgoingaslowas40

thatoranypartofOntario,QuebecortheeasternProvinces"73.

below,apositivespinwasaddedbyindicatingthatalthoughathermometerindicatedacold Byusinglatitudeasthepointofcomparison,theguidebookusedprevailingwisdomatthetime

temperature,itdidnotseemcoldduetothedrynessoftheclimate79.Infact,theguidebooks

todispelanynegativeviewsoftheCanadianclimatebycomparingittoEurope,anareaoflong

evencalledintoquestionathermometer'sabilitytogaugetheclimateinanefforttopositively

timeagriculturaldevelopmentandfamiliarity.Infact,itwaspopularbeliefthatlocationsonthe

spinwintertemperaturesinWesternCanadabystatingthat:"Athermometerdoesnotindicate samelatitudewouldresultinsimilarclimate,andnodoubttheDepartmentofAgricultureused

theagreeablenessorotherwiseoftheclimate,andexperiencehasabundantlyestablishedthefact

such'knowledge'inanattempttorelateCanada'swesternclimatetothatofEurope74.Itmaybe

thatitisnocriterionwhateverfromwhichitmayinferredwhetherornotthetemperatureas indicativeofthenotionsofthetimethatmanyperceivednotjustWesternCanada'sclimate,but

indicatedispleasantorthereverse"80.Whilenotentirelyuntrue,theguidebookwenttogreat

Canadaingeneral,having asaharshclimate.Infact,thisisevenmentionedbytheDepartment

lengthstoensurethatprospectiveimmigrantstookmoreintoconsiderationthansimplythe ofCanadathatifthecountryweretoattractsufficientimmigrantsCanada"mustdomuchto

measurementoftemperature.Winterwasmadetosoundmoreagreeablebystatingthatwestern

removetheabsurdlyfalseimpressionsthatprevailinEuroperespectingherclimateandsoil".

Canadadoesnotreceivemuchsnow,"andbuffaloesandhorsesgrazeoutofdoorsallwinter"81.

Canadaattemptedtocombattheimpressionthatitsclimateandsoilwerenotagreeablethrough f'h

Theamountofsnowfallhadtobeminimizedinanattempttosecureprospectiveimmigrantsand inflatedcommentsonthewonderfulconditionsinCanada'swest.Oneguidebookwenffurther

theguidebooksexplicitlyfocusedonthis82.Infact,governmentpublications,suchasthe bystatingthatany"adversecriticismoftheclimateofManitobamaygenerallybeattributedto

primarydocumentsusedinthisanalysis,wereforbiddenbyofficialstomakemanyreferencesto ignorance,prejudiceorfalsehood/Thetestimonyofthousandswhohavecomehitherfromevery

DepartmentofAgriculture,ManitobathePrairieProvince,thefinestagriculturalcountryintheWorld,7-8.

77 DepartmentofAgriculture,Canada:AHandbookofInformationforIntendingEmigrants,45.

78Ibid,45-46. 72Dunae,"PromotingtheDominion",77.

79DepartmentofAgriculture,ManitobathePrairieProvince,thefinestagriculturalcountryintheWorld6 73DepartmentofAgriculture,ManitobathePrairieProvince,thefinestagriculturalcountryintheWorld,6.

8Olbid. 74Rees.NewandNakedLand:MakingofthePrairiesHome,15.

81DepartmentofAgriculture,Canada:AHandbookofInformationforIntendingEmigrants,48. 75DepartmentofAgriculture,Canada:AHandbookofInformationforIntendingEmigrants,71.

82Rees.NewNakedLand:MakingthePrairiesHome,14-15.

-27- -26- theamountofsnowfallinCanada'sandthey westwerenottoincludeanypictures,beit "affordsconditionsexactlyadaptedtopromotevegetationandmaturethecrops"86.Theautumn

photographordrawing,depictingsnowyscenes.SoalthoughtheDepartmentofAgriculturedid isalsoagreatseasoninCanada'swestfortheagriculturalistinthat:

notdistorttheclimateexplicitly,itoftenfocusedonthemostappealingaspectspossible,and

"Assummergraduallywanesandindicationsofautumnapproachnewfeaturesand

sometimesrefrainedfromactuallydelvingintospecificsregardingtheclimateunlessitwas delightspresentthemselves.Theheavensdonotappearasifdrapedinmourning.There

arenoindicationsthatthe fountainsofthegreatdeeparebrokenup.Theroadsdonot

becomeimpassable;onthecontrary,natureforbidsthesuggestionofanythingsador positive.

gloomy.Itisdoubtfulthatanyportionofouryearismoreagreeablethanautumn.Thisis

greatlytotheadvantageofthehusbandmanwhoisaffordedthemostfavourable

Intheguidebookstheclimateisalsodescribedalongsidethetopicofleisurein opportunityforharvestingandthreshingandpreparingthegroundforanotherseason"87

attemptstoshowthatonenotonlycansurvivetheCanadianwinters,butinfactenjoythem.In Theguidebooksdescribedalltheseasonsandtheiraccompanyingclimatesintermsoftheir

discussingleisureactivitiesitissaidthatCanadians"enjoythemmostheartily,especiallyinthe usefulnessincontributingtotheindustryofagricultureandthisisespeciallyimportantsincethe

winter,whenthebracingandexhilaratingatmospheretendstoelevatethespiritsandtosharpen ideaofwesternexpansionwastobeaccomplishedthroughthecreationofanagriculturalcenter

ofinnocentfunand...amusement"83.TheideaofpromotingCanadanotonly ofCanadaaccordingtoexpansionists88.Thisfactseemstoindicatehowtheseguidebookswere ones appreciation

asatolerableclimate,butalsoapleasant as one,wasastrongaimoftheguidebooksinan tryingveryhardtoenticeagriculturalistsbydescribingtheseasonsintermsoftheirrelationship SI

ii

attempttodiscouragetheprevailingrumoursregardingtheinhospitablenatureoftheclimate tothelandandcropgrowing.Theclimateisalsodescribedintermsofitsrelationshiptogood

c;

S! fromdeterringsettlement.Notonlyiswintermadetobeattractive,springisdescribedasa health.ThewestofCanadaisdescribedasbeingsunnyallthetime,resultinginhappygood

■ii s

■O1 naturedpeople.Inparticular,"ManitobaandtheNorth-westterritoryofCanadaareamongst season: i: theabsolutelyhealthiestcountriesontheglobe,andpleasanttolivein.Thereisnomalaria,and

"ofcompleteenjoyment.Allnatureissuddenlyrelaxedandseemstobepossessedwith

thepurposeofaffordpleasure,delightandhappiness.Motherearthbeneathaclearsky, therearenodiseasesarisingoutof,orpeculiar,eithertheProvinceortheclimate"90.Statements

andwarmedwiththegenialandalmostconstantraysofthesun,quicklydivestsherselfof

hersnowymantleandbecomesclothedwitha richnessofverdurethatisanuninterrupted suchastheabovearefoundinallimmigrationguidebooksandseemtosuggestthatahealthy

delight"84.

climatewasindeedaconcernforintendingimmigrants.Thismighthavesomethingtodowith

AlthoughmanyofusinCanadaknowthatspringisusuallyatimeofrain,itisonlymentioned

thedangersoftransatlantictravelandtheadjustmenttoanewclimateandlandwhichmayhave asoccurringinJune,andisdescribedas"gentleshowers"whichcreatemoistureto"accelerate

mademanysettlersilloncetheyfirstarrivedtoCanada. anddevelopgrowth"ofcropsandplantlife85.Thespringisclaimedtoaidagriculturalistsby

providingmoisturetothesoilandthesummerinturnprovides"continuoussunshine"which 86Ibid/8.

87Ibid,7-8.

Rees,NewandNakedLand:MakingthePrairiesHome,5-7.

DepartmentofAgriculture,Canada;AHandbookofInformationforIntendingEmigrants,88. 83 89DepartmentofAgriculture,ManitobathePrairieProvince,thefinestagriculturalcountryintheWorld,8.

84DepartmentofAgriculture,ManitobathePrairieProvince,thefinestagriculturalcountryintheWorld,7. 90DepartmentofAgriculture,ManitobaandtheNorthwest:InformationforSettlers.(Ottawa:Departmentof

Agriculture,1887),1. 85Ibid.

-28- -29- InCatherineTraill'sbook,TheCanadianSettler'sGuide,publishedin1855,theauthor blackloamisverydeep,itispracticallyinexhaustible".Thesoilwasnotonly extremelyrichin

makesreferencetoague,rheumatismanddysenteryascommondiseasesandillnesstobefall mineralsandonlyinneedofinitialbreaking,butitwasalsothebestsoilintheworldforthe

newcomerstoCanada91.TrailldiscussesthefactthatmanyinEuropefearedagueinparticular growthofwheat.Allsourcesgooninlengthaboutthenaturalabilityofthesoiltogrowlarge

whenemigratingtoCanadaasitwasafairlycommonillnessamongnewcomers,butsheargued amountsofwheat.IndescribingManitobaasadvantageousforwheatgrowingonesourcegoes

thatiftheproperprecautionsweretaken,onemightbeabletoavoidit,andthatmanywho asfarastosaythat:"Itisafactestablishedbeyondcontroversythattheaverageyieldperacreof

complainedoftheseillnesswerecomplainersbynature,andshouldnothaveimmigratedto wheathasbeenlargerManitoba in thaninanyotherpartoftheworldforequalareas.Itis

Canada.AlthoughTraill'sbook waspublishedapproximatelythirtyyearsbeforetheguidebooks beyondadoubtthatthiscountryhasarecordforwheatgrowingthathasnotbeenequaled"93.

werepublished,andwasnotwrittenindirectreferencetowesternCanada,Traill'swork

Canada'swestwasnotonlywell-suitedforwheatcrops,italsohadthemostnutritious

indicatedthatprospectiveimmigrantshadasensethatcomingtoCanadacouldresultinillness. grassesofthebestqualityforgrazing.

ThefactthatconcernshadbeenpresentinEuropefordecadesoverthedangersassociatedwith

"forgrazingandcattleraisingthefacilitiesareunbounded.Theprairiesgrassesare trans-Atlanticmigration,itislikelythatthoseresponsibleforthepublishingoftheguidebooks nutritiousandinillimitableabundance.Hayischeaplyandeasilymadefromthenative

grasses;andtothepresentdaythefarmershave,forthemostpart,burnttheirstrawtoget wouldhavewantedtoputemphasisonthehealthbenefitsthatwouldbeexpecteduponarrivalin ridofit".94

Canadaandoverlookthejourney,andtherisksassociatedwithit.Inthehopesofquellingthe GoodgrazinglandmeantthatcattleranchescouldalsobestartedinCanada'swest.Bothwheat

fearsandperceptionstowhichTraillrefers,theguidebooksexplicitlymakeanefforttowrite andcattlewereimportanttoEuropeansettlers,asbothweremainstaples.Whatbetterwayto

positivereferencestoCanada'shealthyclimate. enticesettlersthanbycreatinganimageofthewesternlandsasbeingfavorablefortwomajor

staplesthatconjureimagesofEuropeanlife.

Althoughtheclimateisanimportantaspectofalandscapeandmaymotivateornegate

immigrationdecisions,totheagriculturaliststhemostimportantaspectofallwasthecondition Apartfromhavingthegreatestsoilandthegreatestclimate,Canada'salso westhadan

ofthesoil.Mostcertainlythesoilwasanimportantaspecttodescribepositivelyifoneisto "amplesupplyofgoodwater,herinexhaustiblestoresoffuel"95.Theimmigrantguidebooks

constructthewestasanagriculturalempire.Throughouttheimmigrationguidebooksthesoilof neededtoassurethesettlerthatalthoughCanada'swestwasaprairieregion,itstillwouldhave

Canada'swestwasemphasizedasbeingamongthe bestintheworld.Themostnotablerecurring sufficientrainfallthroughitswonderfulclimate,andsufficientriversandlakes.Anotheraspect

aspectofCanada'swesternregionisthefactthat:"thesoilissorichthatitdoesnotrequirethe

92DepartmentofAgriculture,Manitoba[ana[theNorthwest:InformationforSettlers.(Ottawa:Departmentof additionofmanureforyearsafterfirstbreakingoftheprairie,andinparticularplaceswherethe Agriculture,1887),1.

93DepartmentofAgriculture.ManitobathePrairieProvince,thefinestagriculturalcountryintheWorld,12.

94DepartmentofAgriculture.ManitobaandtheNorthwest:informationforsettlers,2. 91CatherineTraill,TheCanadianSettler'sGuide.(Toronto:ReprintedbyMcClellandStewart1969,originally1855),

95DepartmentofAgriculture,ManitobathePrairieProvince,thefinestagriculturalcountryintheWorld,1. 204-208.

-30- -31- ofthelandscapewasthefactthatprairiesdonothavemanytrees,buttheguidebooks Inattractingimmigrantstosettlethewestitwascrucialthatthepositivedifferences

embellishedbystatingthatwoodwasnotanissue:"treesarefoundalongtheriversandstreams, betweenEuropeandCanadawerediscussed,butitwasjustimportant as toconvinceprospective

andtheywillgrowanywhereveryrapidly,ifprotectedfromprairiefires.Woodforfuelhasnot immigrantsthattherewouldbesimilaritiesbetweentheirhomelandsandtheirnewhomes,

beenveryexpensive"96.TheimageoftheclimateandlandscapeofCanada'swesternregionwas particularlyinthepoliticalandsocialrealms.Itwaspresumedthatacertaindegreeofchange,as

constructedinawaytoenticeprospectiveimmigrants,andinparticular,agriculturalists.This longasitwasforthebetter,wouldbeacceptedbythoseconsideringimmigration,butitwasalso

emphasisisreflectiveofthepriorityplaceduponconvertingthewildsofCanadaintoprofitable assumedthatmanywouldmisssomeaspectsofEuropeansociety,andthus,theliteraturemade

agriculturalregions.Indeed,theclimateandlandscapereceivethemostattentionintheguide availableforprospectiveimmigrantsthesimilaritiesbetweenCanadaandEuropeandmore

booksastheyweredeemedtobethemostimportantaspectsofthewestinensuringeconomic importantly,Britain.Itshouldalsobenotedthataparticularlystrongconnectionwaspurported

andpoliticalsuccessaccordingtoexpansionists. betweenCanadaandtheUnitedKingdomfortheaforementionedreasonthatthemostdesirable

immigrantswerethoughttobethosefromtheUnitedKingdomatthebeginningoftheexpansion

Animportantthingtonoteregardingthediscussionofclimateinliteraturefor

movement.Lateronintheearlytwentiethcenturyagriculturalistsfrommorediversecountries

prospectiveimmigrantsisthatnotonlydotheauthorstaketimetodescribetheclimate

I weresought.Forexample,itismadecleartopotentialimmigrantsthatCanadiangovernancewas favourablyinabsoluteterms,theyalsodescribeitfavourablyinrelativeterms.Inthe

conductedinafashionresemblingthatpracticedinEngland:"Asnearlyasthealtered i guidebooks,directcomparisonsaremadebetweenCanada'sclimateandthatofvariouspartsof

circumstanceswillpermit,thepowersprivilegesandimmunitiesoftheCanadianParliamentare

Europe.Thismannerofdescribingtheclimatewasintendedtoprovideprospectiveimmigrants

similartothoseoftheMotherCountry"97.

withanotionoffamiliaritywithrespecttowhattoexpectfromtheclimate,andalsotoprovidea

comparativebase.Notsurprisingly,inamajorityofcomparisons,Canadawasconstruedasbeing AlthoughitwasdesirabletoportrayCanadaasavastlandthatwaslargelyuninhabited,

farmoreattractiveforagriculturalpurposesaswellasgeneralagreeableness.IfEuropeanscould duetothepopulationproblemsinBritain,itwasalsoimportantthatthecountrywasnotentirely

beconvincedthattheclimateofCanadawassimilar,orevensuperior,totheprevailingclimates perceivedasbarrenandisolated.Thiswasreinforcedbyinformingimmigrantsthatonceone

intheirhomeland,thanchanceswerebetterthattheywouldbewillingtoimmigratetoCanada. arrivedinCanada,"Improvementandprogressgoonaroundhim.Roadsaremade,villagesgrow

Theprevailingclimatedictatesmuchofhowoneworksandplays,andtheguidebooksmade up,postofficesareopened,schoolsandchurchesareestablished"98.Prospectiveimmigrants

effortstoassurethatnotonlywouldone'sfarmingliferemainmuchthesame,butthewayin wereassuredthatprocuringthesufficienthouseholditemsandthelikecouldbeeasilydoneas

whichtheysocializeandenjoytheoutdoorswouldremainconstantaswell. well:"Bearinmindthatthereisnodifficultyinbuyinganyordinarytoolsthe inprincipaltowns

DepartmentofAgriculture,Canada;AHandbookofInformationforIntendingEmigrants,6.

96DepartmentofAgriculture.ManitobaandtheNorthwest:informationforsettlers,2. Ibid,86.

-32- -33- atreasonableprices"99.Itislikelythatthistypeofstatementwouldhavebeenincludedinthe A commonthemefoundthroughouttheguidebookspublishedbytheDepartmentof

guidebookstoassurepotentialsettlersthatmanyoftheamenitiestowhichtheywere AgricultureistheconstantcomparisonbetweenCanada'swestandthewestthe ofUnitedStates

accustomedinEurope,andespeciallyinGreatBritain,wouldbereadilyavailable.Apriorityof ofAmerica.Inattractinganimmigrantlabourforce,theguidebooksoftencomparedCanadato

theDepartmentofAgricultureandImmigrationseemedtobeemphasizingthatalthoughCanada theUnitedStates,whosewestalreadyhadareputationofgreatsuccessintermsofsettlement

wasbountifulitwasalsopopulatedenoughthatonecouldstillenjoysomeofthemore andthesheernumberofimmigrantswhochooseitoverCanada104.Itwasthereforeimportantfor

sophisticatedthingsinlife"inthewayofmoreintellectualrecreations",suchas"lectures, theDepartmentofAgriculturetoemphasizeCanada'sgreatpotentialforgrowthincomparison

readingsandconcerts"100.Settlerswereassuredthat,"thosewhofancythattheCanadianswork totheUnitedStates.Infact,itwasexplicitlystatedintheguidebooksthat:"Americanwheat

sohardthattheyforgettoplayareverymuchmistaken"101,andthat"thedomesticamusements fieldsarefastbecomingexhausted.Foryearspasttheyhavebeenencroachingupontheir

aresimilartothoseofEngland"102.Theprevailingviewwasthatifprospectiveimmigrantsdid uncultivatedterritories,andtosuchanextentthattheynowfindthattheyhavereachedthelimits

notbelievethattheywouldhavetosacrificemanyofthethingstheyhadbeenaccustomedtoin oftheirpossessions"105.ItwasadvantageousfortheDepartmentAgriculture oftocontrastthe

Europe,thenmorepeoplemighttaketheirchancesintheDominionandpopulatewestern degreetowhicheachofthenationshadalreadydevelopedsoastogivetheimpressionofthe

Canada.Thegovernmentaimedtomakeprospectiveimmigrantsbelievethatemigrationto UnitedStatesasalreadyhavingfulfilledwhateverpotentialitmayhavehad,whereasCanada

Canadawouldsimplymeaneconomicupwardmobility"withinafamiliarsocialframework"due hadyettotapitsvastpotential106.Canadauseditsadvantageinhavinganewfrontiertosettle

tothecloseresemblanceandtieswithBritain103.Emigrationwouldnotresultina'cultureshock' andusedtheearlierbeginningtheUnitedStateshadtoarguethattheAmericanfrontierwas

orshift a tofrontierliving,butratherCanada'swestwasconstructedasacivilizedBritish over,andthatprospectiveimmigrantswouldfarebetterinthenewlyobtainedwestofCanada.

Colonywhereaprospectiveimmigrantcouldimprovetheireconomicstandingwhilstremaining SincetheUnitedStateswasbetterknownthanCanada,thoseseekingtogarnerthelabourforce

cultured.ThoseconcernedwithattractingEuropeanimmigrantstoCanadafacedtheconstant necessaryforexpansioninCanadaneededtocompetetoattracttheseimmigrants.Inthe

challengeofmakingCanadaseemdifferentenoughtooffernewopportunity,butsimilarenough literatureforprospectiveimmigrants,theDepartmentofAgricultureusedmanydirect

toensureacomfortableandeasytransition. comparisonsbetweenCanadaandtheUnitedStatessoastoportraytheCanadianwestasafar

morefavorablealternativethanitsmorecrowdedsoutherlycounterpart.

99 Ibid,82.

100 Ibid,87. 104 101 Kelley& Trebilcock,TheMakingoftheMosaic,100-101. Ibid,88. 105 TheDepartmentofAgriculture,ManitobathePrairieProvince,,thefinestagriculturalcountryintheWorld,12. 102Ibid,87. 106 Owram,PromiseofEden,116. 103Owram,PromiseofEden,143.

-34- -35- InattemptstomakeCanadaappearmorefavourableasadestinationthantheUnited necessitatinganalmostentirechangeofagriculture"109.Theliteraturemadeavailabletopotential

immigrantsbytheDepartmentofAgriculturetriedtoaccentuatethattheUnitedStatesclimate States,comparisonsbetweentheclimatesofthesecountriesandEuropeweremade.Asalready

wasunsuitableandlargelyunfamiliarforoneaccustomedtofarminginEurope.Itwasassumed discussed,Canada'swestwascomparedtobeingatthesamelatitudeasthesouthofGermanand

thatprospectiveimmigrantswouldrathermovetoa placewithwhichtheywouldnothaveto France,andtohaveatemperateclimatesimilartothoseEuropeanregions.Incontrast,the

westernregionoftheUnitedStateswasdescribedasbeingcomparabletosomeMiddleEastern changetheirwayoflifeormanneroffarming.

regionsoftheworld:"ThecentralpartsofIllinois,Indiana,andthenorthernpartofMissouriare Theguidebooksmadealinkbetweenthedescribedunfavorableclimateandaridsoilof

inlatitude40,thesameasPalestineandthegreatdesertsofTartary"107.TheUnitedStates theUnitedStatesandthepotentialforprofitablefarming.TheDepartmentofAgriculturestates

westernregionwasdescribedasadryandariddesertandprospectiveimmigrantstoCanadaare that"theproportionofcultivatablelandsuitedtotheproductionofthetemperatezonesinview

warnedthat"thehightemperaturesandaburningsunarenottheonlyenemieswithwhichthe oftheverylargecultivatableareasoftheNorthWestTerritory,maybestatedtobelargerthan

Englishmangoingsofarsouthhastocontend.Thewantofrainisanotherevenmoregrievous thatoftheUnitedStates"110,inferringthatfarminginCanadawasmoreprofitablethaninthe

defectinclimateofthosepartsoftheUnitedStates...thosepartsoftheStates...verymuch UnitedStates.Theareaofthewesternstatesarerepetitivelydescribedastoohotandaridtobe

resemblePalestine,Arabia,Persia,SyriaandIndependentTartary"108.Thiscomparisonwasno profitablefarmland,andfurthermoreiftherewasanygoodfarmland,itsclimatedoesnot

doubtincludedtorepelprospectiveimmigrantsfromtheUnitedStateswestandtothemore produceasmuchgreatfarmlandasthetemperateclimateofCanada.Indescribingthepotential

"familiar"westernlandsofCanada.Theguidebooksattemptedtodeterpeoplefromchoosing intheUnitedStatesforgrowingthetypeofcropsthatEuropeanimmigrantswouldhavebeen

theUnitedStatesbywarningthattheclimatewastoohotandunpleasantandthatitwouldbetoo

accustomedto,theguidebooksrepeatedlyexplicitlystatethatitisnearimpossible:

muchofachangefromthemoretemperateEuropeanclimateforthemostdesirableof

"Southofthefertileregions...andwestofthe100*meridian,theseplantseitherfail immigrantstowithstand.ThedesertclimateofthewesternpartsoftheUnitedStateswasalso entirelyorsucceedbutimperfectly,fromclimateeffects,chieflyfromadeficiencyor

entireabsenceofrainduringtheagriculturalmonths,accompaniedwithhighsummer saidtobetoodifferentforsuccessfulfarmingsinceEuropeanfarmers"mustgofromaclimateof temperatures;andovertheStateslyingimmediatelytotheeastofthesedesertareas,the

summerheatisstilltogreatfortheprofitablegrowthoftheseproducts,andtherainstill comparativelycoolsummerswithahumidatmospheretooneofintenseheatandsevere deficient,orrenderedinsufficientthroughtemperatures high andrapidevaporation"111

droughts.ThosewhomigratedfromthenorthofEngland,fromScotland,Germany,Sweden,to

ThiscomparisoninclimatewasusedtomakeCanada'sappear westtobethebetter Kansas,CentralMissouri,Illinois, ormuststillundergoastillgreaterchangeofclimate,

choiceforcropsandmorespecifically,"IncomparingEuropewithNorthAmericawefindthat

109 DepartmentofAgriculture,Canada;AHandbookofInformationforIntendingEmigrants,9.

110 107 Ibid,5. DepartmentofAgriculture,Canada;AHandbookofInformationforIntendingEmigrants,9. 111 108 Ibid,10-11. Ibid.

-37- -36- thoseregionsofthenewworldwhichcorrespondwiththebestgrainandgrasszonesoftheold Britain.ItisimportanttodiscussitinrelationtothestrikingcontrastbetweenCanadaasBritish,

worldareinCanada.Theyareinsimilarpositionsandsimilarclimates"112.Iftheclimateand andtheUnitedStatesassomethingcompletelyforeigntotheprospectiveimmigrantfrom

cropswerethesameinCanada'swest,thenthatmeantthatthefarmerdidnotneedtochange Europe.Itisstatedintheguidebooksthat"IfCanadaissuitablefortheFrench,theGermanand

muchabouttheirfarmingpractices.TheguidebookspositthatintheUnitedStatestheclimates, theSwede,howmuchgreateraretheattractionsitofferstothe nativeoftheBritishIslands...the

andthus,thegrowingofcrops,aresodifferentthatfarmingpracticeshadtobegreatlyaltered, emigrantfromtheUnitedKingdomwillfindhislaws,language,mannersandcustoms"115.Apart

whereasinCanadatheclimatewassimilarto thatofEuropeanddidnotrequireashiftin fromthecustomsandsocietyingeneralhavingbeenmorelikethatofEuropeandthusbetter

agriculturalpracticesfortheEuropeanfarmer.Theguidebooksdidnotpositthatfarmingwas suitedtoimmigrantsfromtheoldworldthantheUnitedStates,theDominion'scloselinktothe

impossibleintheUnitedStates,butthatitwasvastlydifferentthantowhatEuropeanswere Empireintermsofcommercewasalsonotedasbeingfavourabletotheprospectiveimmigrant

accustomed.AgriculturalistsseekingtoimmigratetoNorthAmericawerewarnedthatifone farmer.Anexampleofthiscanbeseeninthefollowingpassage:

choosesamoresoutherlyclimateonewouldneedtochangecropsandherds:"Thealmostentire "Canada'snearnesstotheEnglishmarket,andherdirectconnectiontherewith,constitute

importantelementsinthesuccessoftheCanadianfarmer.InthefarwestoftheUnited changeinthefarmingoperationsinclimatessodifferentthefarmeringoingfromNorthand

States,wherethechiefcropisIndiancorn,thecosttransportationtotheseacoastisso

greatthatmanyfarmershaveahardstruggletolive,andfrequentlyfinditcheapertouse EuropetothosepartsoftheStatesnamedmustgiveup,asstaples,hisgrains, I North-west theircornasfuelthantocarryittomarket"116

as grasses,herdsandflocks"113.Theguidebooksseemtorelyonthehopethatimmigrantswould ThenationbuildinggoalsCanadawerebothinformedbyadesiretobecometheinheritor § i choosethenationthatofferedthemosteaseoftransitionintheirlivelihoodwhilecreatingan oftheBritishEmpireandasanationalisticdriveframedbythis.Canada'sgoalstoexpandits

imageofthewestbasedoncomparisontosoilandclimatetodiscourageprospectiveimmigrants frontierandsettlethewestforeconomicprosperitywerealsoaccompaniedbyadesiretoensure

frommovingtotheUnitedStates114. thatBritain,"themightycolonizeroftheworld"117,wouldcontinuetoreproduceandflourishin

theNewWorldanditwasthenewlyarrivedimmigrants'dutytoensurethatthewestofCanada TheguidebooksalsoseemedtodrawadistinctionbetweenAmericanandBritishsociety.

developedinacivilizedandBritishmanner,makingsurenewlyarrivedimmigrantsfeltnotonly Asalreadymentioned,variouscomparisonsweremadebetweenGreatBritainandtheDominion

connectedtoBritain,butalso"servejd]tostrengthenedtheBritishEmpire"118.Thereforeitwas ofCanadainwhichitwasarguedthatCanadaasasocietywasexactlylikethatofBritain.

notsurprisingtheBritishEmpirewasusedasatemplateforwesternsociety,andtheUnited Throughtheuseoftheimmigrationguidebooks,theDominionofCanadaensuredthatthe

prospectiveimmigrantgottheimpressionthatlifeinCanadawouldbetheexactsameaslifein

115 DepartmentofAgriculture,Canada;AHandbookofInformationforIntendingEmigrants,74.

116 112 Ibid,62. Ibid,12-13. 113 117Ibid,73. Ibid,10-11.

114 118Owram,PromiseofEden,129. Owram,PromiseofEden,118.

-39- -38- Stateswasusedasatemplateforsocietytobeavoided119.ThewesternregionoftheUnited portraywesternCanada.Carefullyselected testimonialsgaveprospectiveimmigrantsa

Stateswasseenaslackingincivilizedmanners,andhadsuchabrashthingsas"lynching-bees, reinforcedsensethatindeedimmigrationtoCanada'swestwaspossiblewithminimalcapitalor

horse-thiefremovals,revolveraccidentsandlandsettlingdifficulties"120.Canadawasnodoubta evennocapitalatallandthatCanadawasthereforeideaforthesmallscaleEuropeanfarmeror

morecivilizedandfamiliarplacetosettlethanthatoftheUnitedStates,wheresuchaculture tenantfarmer.Thiswasespeciallyimportanttodemonstrateconsideringthetargetedaudience

shockwastobeexpected.Theopinionsandsentimentsofthosethathadalreadytraversedthe wasthatoftheEuropeanpeasantfarmer.Theguidebooksgavetheillusionthatitwouldonly

AtlantictoCanadaandfounditagreeableweredeemedvaluableinconvincingnewimmigrants takeminimalfinancestosecurepassage,obtainfarmlandandbeginningreapingtheeconomic

benefitsofhavingcometoCanada.Thiscanbedemonstratedinthesectionoftheguidebook tocome.

titled"PracticalInformationforIntendingSettlers",inwhichitwasstatedthatmanyfarmers

Anintegralpartoftheguidebookswerethesettlertestimonials.Theyweregenerally

withlittletonocapital"butwithstrongarmsandresolutewill,maysafelyremovetoaland

includedattheendoftheguidebooksasawaytoshowthatthefactsmentionedintheguides

wheremuscleismoreindemandthanmoney,andwhereindustryisrespected,nomatterhow

wereindeedtrue.Settlertestimonialsbegantoappearinpromotionalmaterialenmassein1884

humblemaybethelabourer"123.TheDepartmentofAgricultureseemedtousethetestimoniesof

whenAlexanderBegg,whowasinchargeoftheCPRemigrationofficeinLondon,decidedto a: •mi Europeansettlerstoprovidearelatablestorythathadpersonalmeaning.Allsettlertestimonies

I sendquestionnairestosettlersinManitoba,Assiniboia,andAlbertaaskingthemtodescribetheir

'Si werefoundwithinthebackportionoftheguidebooks,positionedinawaytoallowreflection C"!

experienceinimmigratingtothewesternCanada121.Theanswerswerethenusedbyboththe

uponpriorclaimsintheguidebooksinhopestodispelanyskepticism.Testimoniesof

CPRandtheDepartmentofAgricultureforpublicationwithinpromotionalguidebooks.The

immigrantsuccessstoriesseemedtohavebeenincludedinallguidebooks,beitpublicor

testimonialswereofgreatsuccessandprovidedprospectiveimmigrantswithimportant

private,andgivetheimpressiontotheintendingimmigrantthatitwasindeedpossibleto

informationregardingthewesternCanadianimmigrantexperience.Thequestionnaireshadaset

immigratetoCanadawithlittletonocapitalfromtheoldcountryandestablishanindependent

format.Settlerswereaskedtheirname,nationalities,theyearoftheirarrivalinwesternCanada,

farmwhich,settler'sweretold,maydoubleinlandvalueinashortamountoftime124.

theamountofmoneytheyhadbroughtwiththem,theircostofliving,theircropyields,their

Testimoniesincludedsuchstatementsas"Havingonly10poundstobeginwith,Ihomesteaded,

agriculturaltechniquesandthecurrentworthoftheirfarm.Althoughithasbeenshownthat

anditisnowworth,thelandalone,200pounds",toindicatethatonecouldeasilyincreasetheir

questionshadnotbealteredinanymannerotherthanshortenedorcorrectedgrammatically,itis

apparentthatBeggcarefullyselectedthemostpositive testimonialswhichwouldfavorably

MoylesandOwram,ImperialDreamsandColonialRealities(Toronto:UniversityofTorontoPress,1988),123-

124. 119Ibid,134-135.

123DepartmentofAgriculture,Canada;AHandbookofInformationforIntendingEmigrants,73. 120DepartmentofAgriculture,ManitobathePrairieProvince,thefinestagriculturalcountryintheWorld,11.

124MoylesandOwram,ImperialDreamsColonial andRealities,122-123. 121Dunae,"PromotingtheDominion",85-86.

-40- -41- landvalue125.Apartfromattemptingtodemonstratetherealitiesofsuccessfromimmigrationto suchmaterial130.TheDepartmentofAgriculturesetthetoneforhowpromotionoftheDominion

Canada,thesettlertestimonieshadafurthereffectinquellingskepticisminthatthenationality wouldbedoneinfutureliteraturegearedtowardsattractingimmigrants.Thefavourable

ofthesettlerwasincludedinthetestimonysothatthereadmightidentifywithhispeers,beita descriptionofthesoilandclimateandtheemphasisonattractingagriculturalistscontinuedon

Scotsman,oraDutchman.Alltestimoniesbeginwith"IamaMennonite"126or"Beinga intothenextcenturyatan evenmorepressingrate.Manyhistorianshaveexaminedthe

Scotsman"127,andasmentioned,wasintentionalmadeinsuchawaytofosterasenseof promotionofCanada'swesttoimmigrantsabroadbyexaminingmaterialandpolicyduringSir

commonalitybetweenthesettlerandthereader.Theclimatewasalsomentionedfavourablyin WilfridLaurier'sgovernmentandunderthedirectionofMinisterSifton,oftheDepartmentof

settlertestimoniesbywayofcarefulselection.Forexamplesuchreferencesas:"Ihavesuffered Interior.ThismightbeattributedtothesuccessofMinisterSifton'spromotionalcampaign.

nolossfromtheclimate,eitherwinterorsummer;theclimateishealthy"128,wereincludedto AlthoughtheMacdonaldgovernmentproducedpromotionalmaterialforimmigrants'abroadand

furtherreinforcethenotionthatCanada'swesternclimatewasindeedfavourble.Itinterestingto includedimmigrationinnationalpolicy,thefactremainsthatsuchcampaigningwasnot

notethatBeggdidreceiveverynegativedescriptionsofwesternCanadianweather,many successful131.Forexample,by1891therewereonly31,000farmsinCanada'swest132.In

indicatingthatwinterwasnotatallbriskandpleasurable,butofcoursetheywerepurposelynot contrast,theperiodof1896and1914"experiencedsixofthetenlargestannualimmigration

included129.Alltestimonieswerecarefullyselectedsoastoensurethatapositiveviewofboth levelseverregistered"133.ThedismayinfluxofimmigrantsduringMacdonald'stimecanbe

landandclimateandabilitytosettlesuccessfullyinwesternCanadawereconjured.Althoughit attributedtoaneconomicdepression,whichCanadaandthemajorityoftheWorldfellintoin

iP

I isimportantalsotonotethatBeggdidnotaltertheresponsesofthesettlerssoastoprovide 1873134.Theirunsuccessfulattemptshadtheeffectofthehistoricalrecordlargelyignoringthe

positivefeedback.Eventhoughmanysettlersmayhavehadanegativeexperienceinsettlingin factthattheMacdonaldgovernmentandtheDepartmentofAgriculturesetthetonefortheway

thewest,agoodportiondidindeedfindtheguidebooksdescriptionstobeaccurateandmany inwhichCanadawaspromotedwithinimmigrationguidebooks.Whenoneexploresthecontent

didfindsettlinginCanada'swesttobeapositiveexperience. oftheguidebooksonenoticescertainthemeswhichhaveremainedconstantinpromotional

immigrationliterature.Themostimportantaspectoftheguidebookswastheirappealtotenant

Manyoftheabovedescribedthemesandcontentincludedthe withinguidebooksbythe

orpeasantfarmers,andalsoagriculturalistsingeneral.Canada'swestwasthoughttobesettled

DepartmentofAgriculturecanbeseenreplicatedevenaftertheDepartmentceasedproducing

byagriculturalistthroughoutCanada'searlyimmigrationpromotions.Naturallyifagriculturalists

130 Kelley& Trebilcock,TheMakingoftheMosaic,64.

Henderson,"MostofourCountryisWildandUnspoiled",10-11.

132 125 DepartmentofAgriculture,ManitobathePrairieProvince,thefinestagriculturalcountryintheWorld,36. JeffreyS.Murray.LibraryandArchivesCanada,"Sell,Sell,Sell",

126 http://wwwxollectionscanada.gc.ca/tmmigrants/021017-2310-e.ritml(AccessedOctober31st,2008). Ibid. 127

Ibid. 133 128 Ketley& Trebilcock,TheMakingoftheMosaic,111. Ibid. 134 129 JohnF.Conway,TheWest22. Dunae,"PromotingtheDominion",86.

-42- -43- weretosettlethewestthenofcoursetheclimateandsoilwouldbeofmajorimportance. indicatesimmigrationwascrucialtothedevelopmentofCanadaandthatsellingthewestwasan

ThroughouttheguidebooksweseethepositiveattributesofCanada'swesternclimateandsoil integralfacetofsettlingthewest.

beingdiscussed.Theindependenceoffarmingwaspropagatedthroughouttheguidebooksand

butitwasalsomadeclearthatCanadawascivilizedandBritishinnature.AlthoughCanadawas

describedasBritishinnaturethroughouttheguidebooks,itdidseektoattractothernon-British

farmers,andthiswasevidentbythereferencestoCanadabeingsuitableforSwedes,French,

Dutch,andvariousotherEuropeannationalities.Immigrationagentswerealsosenttoother

EuropeancountriesotherthanBritain,andtheguidebookswerepublishedinarangeof

languages,makingitfurtherclearthatnon-Britishfarmerswerealsotargeted135.Althoughit

wouldseemasthoughMacdonald'sgovernmentdid notsucceedinattractingalargeinfluxof

immigrants,largegroupmigrationstowesternCanadadidoccur136.Forexample,western

Slli

CanadaexperiencedgroupsettlementfromRussianMennonites,Germans,Icelanders,andScots. ill

aril; TheallureofattractingimmigrantshadmuchtodowiththepoliticalclimateofMacdonald's

siii' i«!| si time.TherewasanotionamongelitesofUpperandLowerCanadathatiftheDominionwasto ■en.

establishitselfasanewnationitneededtoshowitspowerandabilitybyexpanding

economically,andwesternexpansionwasseenasthemechanismforachievingsuchendeavors.

TherewerealsonotionsamongexpansionistincentralCanadathatthroughtheDominion's

successtheBritishEmpirewouldflourishandCanadawouldrisewithintheEmpire,andperhaps

evenreplaceitoneday.Apartfromthis,SirJohnA.Macdonaldfeltcompelledtosettlethewest

infearthattheUnitedStateswouldannexthelandifnotsettled.Thesegeneralthemesinthe

CanadianconsciousnessmayhaveinformedMacdonald'sNationalPolicy,whichseemedto

addresstheissuesofnationbuildingthroughsettlementofthewest.Thehistoricalrecord

135 GeraldFriesen,TheCanadianPrairies,185-186.

136 Ibid.

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-48- -49- mWMn UNIVERSITYIIBRAR* o

v j^.