CONTENT AREA 3: EARLY EUROPE AND COLONIAL AMERICA

1450-1750 C.E. 69.

Donatello. c. 1440–1460 C.E. Bronze. 69. DAVID

Form: Content: • Classical knowledge of contrapposto • Gruesome Goliath’s head vs beauty and sensuality of • Subtle pride: the facial muscles are relaxed, with a slight young David grin • Right hands holds the sword that he used to cut off • Very expressive, natural movement, some eroticism Goliath’s head, resting on a victory wreath, which • Flowing drapery, highly accurate perspective shows his power and confidence with God’s help. • Stood on top of a pedestal in the center of a courtyard, intended to be looked up at. Function: Context: • Commissioned by the Medici family for the Palazzo Medici • The story of David and Goliath from the Old (an important patron family in the Renaissance) Testament, where Israel is threatened by Goliath but is • Uses the heroic type of nudity from the Classical era, which defeated by shepherd boy, David emphasizes his innocence to suggest that only divine intervention could have made his victory possible; Florence identified with the underdog in the defeat of Duke Milan. 70. PALAZZO RUCELLAI

Florence, Italy. Leon Battista Alberti (architect). c. 1450 C.E. Stone, masonry. 70. PALAZZO RUCELLAI

Form: Content: • Created in an effort to emphasize measure and • Includes the Rucellai family seal harmony • Heavily influenced by Greek and Roman architecture- • Filled with “geometric grace”- intellectual and delicate pilasters, columns (corinthian, ionic, doric), rounded • Focused on horizontality; the higher the floor, the arches, entablature with friezes. • more intricate the designs became (similar to the Post and lintel portals, rectangular windows, large blocks of stone ) • The building has 4 floors which included servant Context: quarters, the family’s apartment, guest rooms and area, • Constructed after the Medici family built their own and the family’s center of business. palace. • Brought Florence much civic pride, because palaces Function: were viewed as beneficial for society. • Created to house the Rucellai family, but also became • The Palazzo was never fully completed a physical representation of the family’s wealth, status, and power within society. 71. MADONNA AND CHILD WITH TWO ANGELS

Fra Filippo Lippi c. 1465 C.E..Tempera on wood

71. MADONNA AND CHILD WITH TWO ANGELS

Form: Content: • Symbolic landscape • Very simple halos (unlike Giotto or Cimabue) • Rock formations indicate the church • Mary • City near the Madonna’s head is the • The angels Heavenly Jerusalem • Frame of the window is partly the frame of the painting • Pearl motif: seen in headdress and pillow as products of the sea

Function: Context: • Medici family paid for this art • Mary seen as a young mother • To show piety and wealth • Model may have been the artist’s lover • Landscape inspired by Flemish painting • Scene depicted as if in a window in a Florentine home 72. BIRTH OF VENUS

Sandro Botticelli. c. 1484–1486 C.E. Tempera on canvas

72. BIRTH OF VENUS

Form: Content: • Crisply drawn figures • Venus • Landscape flat and unrealistic • Standing atop a white shell • Simple V-shaped waves • Golden hair, pale skin, entirely nude (but covering her • Figures float, not anchored to the ground lower body to incite modesty) • Accompanied by an attendant with a cloth to cover her (far right) • Zephyr and Aura, wind sprites, blowing wind from the far left Function: Context: • Made for donor to accompany a poem that • Reflects emerging Neoplatonic thought the donor created to speak of the beauty • Painting based on a popular court poem by the writer of Venus Poliziano 73. LAST SUPPER

Leonardo da Vinci. c. 1494–1498 C.E. Oil and tempera

73. LAST SUPPER

Form: Content: • Linear perspective; orthogonals of ceiling and • The 12 apostles sit at a long table placed parallel to the floor point to Jesus picture plane in a simple, spacious room • Apostles in groupings of three • 4 groupings of figures create a clustered, chaotic sense to • Rounded pediment over Jesus’s head acts as a the scene symbolic halo • Judas to the right of Christ has head down in shame and • Leonardo subtlety suggests Jesus’s divinity holds the bag of silver. He is reaching for the same bowl as Christ

Function: Context: • Painted for the refectory, or dining hall, or an • Great drama of the moment; Jesus says “One of you will abbey of friars betray me” • Relationship between the friars eating and a • Only Da Vinci work remaining in situ biblical meal 74. ADAM AND EVE

Albrecht Dürer.1504 C.E. Engraving

74. ADAM AND EVE

Form: Content: • Italian massing of forms ● Nude • Ideal image of humans before the Fall of Man ● Frontal bodies standing in contrapposto (Genesis 3) ● Shift in hips and shoulders creating a convincing illusion of • Contrapposto of figures a body capable of movement but temporarily at rest ● Head are turned to gaze at one another ● Distinct configuration of head and body is artificial

Function: Context: • The woodcuts and intaglio prints are made in ● Four humors are represented in the animals: cat, rabbit, elk, multiples; allows ideas and designs could be ox; four humors were kept in balance before the Fall of Man known in other regions and countries by ● Mouse represents Satan large numbers of people ● Parrot a symbol of cleverness ● Prominent placement of the artist’s signature indicates the rising status of the occupation 75. CEILING AND ALTAR WALL FRESCOES

Vatican City, Italy. Michelangelo. Ceiling frescoes: c. 1508–1512 C.E. Altar frescoes: c. 1536–1541 C.E. Fresco

75. AND ALTAR WALL FRESCOES Form: Content: • Masculine modeling of forms • Three hundred figures on ceiling • Bold, direct, powerful narrative expression • No two in the same pose • Enormous variety of expression • Painted cornices frame groupings of figures in a highly organized way

Function: Context: • The place where new popes are elected and • Sistine Chapel erected in 1472 where papal services take place • Michelangelo chose a complicated arrangement of figures for the ceiling, which broadly illustrates the first few chapters of Genesis, with accompanying Old Testament figures and antique sibyls 76. SCHOOL OF ATHENS

Raphael.1509–1511 C.E. Fresco

76. SCHOOL OF ATHENS

Form: Content: • Open, clear light uniformly spread • In center are the two greatest figures in ancient Greek throughout the composition thought: Plato and Aristotle • Nobility and monumentality of forms • Raphael is on the extreme with a black hat parallel the greatness of the figures • Michelangelo, resting on the stone block writing a poem, represented represents the philosopher Heraclitus • Figures gesture to indicate their philosophical thought

Function: Context: • One painting in a complex program of • Building behind might reflect Bramante’s plan for Saint works illustrates the vastness of the Peter’s papal library • On the left are those interested in the ideal; on the right, those interested in the practical 77. ISENHEIM ALTARPIECE

Matthias Grünewald. c. 1512–1516 C.E. Oil on wood

77. ISENHEIM ALTARPIECE

Form: • Christ is centered and crucified Content: • Jesus’s dead body is being held by several ● Crucifixion in center with dark background; decomposing people next to some sort of opening, possible flesh (top) a grave ● Lamb holding a cross • Woman looking up at a Gothic architecture ● Marian symbols place to a robed figure ● Christ rises from the dead (bottom)

Function: Context: • Created to serve as the central object of ● Placed in a monastery hospital where people were treated devotion in an Isenheim hospital built by the for Saint Anthony’s fire, or ergotism Brothers of St. Anthony ● Saint Sebastian was saved after being shot by arrows on • Facilitate public prayer the top picture; Saint Anthony survived torments by devils and demons 78. ENTOMBMENT OF CHRIST

Jacopo da Pontormo.1525–1528 C.E. Oil on wood

78. ENTOMBMENT OF CHRIST

Form: Content: • Anti Classical composition • Just figures, not much land, packed with people • Linear bodies twisting around one another • Unnatural body position of the figure in the left foreground • In center of the circular composition is a • Abandons the high Renaissance pyramid balance grouping of hands • Constant movement • Elongation of bodies • Over exaggerated emotions • Some androgynous figures Context: Function: ● The painting is called Entombment of Christ, although • Altar piece there is no tomb, just the carrying of Jesus’s lifeless body • Aestheticizes the well-known scene, the Deposition ● Self-portrait in the extreme right of the painting 79. ALLEGORY OF LAW AND GRACE

Lucas Cranach the Elder. c. 1530 C.E. Woodcut and letterpress

79. ALLEGORY OF LAW AND GRACE

Form: • Media is oil on wood Content: • Northern Renaissance • Left: Last Judgement • 72 cm by 88.5 cm • Moses holds the Ten Commandments • Skeleton chases a man into hell • Right: Figure bathed in Christ’s blood • Faith in Christ alone is needed for salvation Function: Context: • Woodcut design; available to the • Done in consultation with Martin Luther, a leader in the masses for the purpose of explaining Protestant movement the benefits of Protestantism versus • Destruction of thousands of works of religious art the perceived disadvantages of • Iconoclasts stormed through churches Catholicism 80. VENUS OF URBINO

Titian c. 1538 C.E. Oil on canvas

80. VENUS OF URBINO

Form: • Sensuous delight in the skin stones; layers of Content: glazes produces rich effect ● A majority of the painting is taken up by a nude female • Venus looks at viewer directly who is known as a Venus • Complex spatial environment ● Background is equal in color with a darker backdrop on the left and a woman and a child lighter background on the right ● The body of the Venus is very different than a real body as Function: the torso of Venus is very large while her feet are very ● The Duke Urbino Guidobaldo II Della small and unreal Rovere wanted a gift for his new wife and Context: therefore commissioned Titian to paint this ● May not be Venus; may be a courtesan ● The painting also reflected how a wife should ● Roses contribute to the floral motif carried throughout be to the husband in a household as a sexual, the work respectful individual ● Dog may symbolize faithfulness

81. FRONTISPIECE OF THE CODEX MENDOZA

VICEROYALTY OF NEW SPAIN. C. 1541-1542 C.E. INK AND COLOR ON PAPER.

81. FRONTISPIECE OF THE CODEX MENDOZA Content: Form • Picture shows the founding of Tenochtitlan and the • Symmetrical conquest of Colhucan and Tenayucan on the bottom • Templo Mayor can be seen above the eagle • Repeated anthropomorphic figures within the • Eagle lands on a cactus in between the waterways which is painting symbolic of the division of Tenochititlan into 4 sections • Geometric design • The Mexican flag shows an eagle perched on a cactus which is derived from this work. • Context:

Function: • The piece was created twenty years after Spain conquered • The Codex was created to serve as a historical the Aztecs background of the Aztec Empire for Charles V of • The codex displays several different Aztec leaders and daily the Holy Roman Empire life in Mexico • The Codex was named after the Viceroy of new • Since the indigenous people in Mexico who made the piece Spain, Antonio de Mendoza only knew how to write in glyphs, the codex is annotated in • Shows off the power of the Spanish empire Spanish so it could be read by Charles V 82. II GESU

Rome, Italy. Giacomo da Vignola, plan (architect); Giacomo della Porta, façade (architect). Church: 16th century C.E.; façade: 1568- 1584 C.E. Brick, marble, stucco, fresco

82. II GESU

Form: Content: • Column groupings, tympana, and pediment • Cruciform floor plan emphasizes central doorway • Mixture of rational and styles • Crescendo of forms toward center • Sun illuminates the interior • Interior has no aisles which tells us it was meant to house lots of people • Framing niche acts as a unifying device Context: • The endeavor/building was funded by Cardinal Alessandro Function: Farnese, grandson of Pope Paul III, the pope who had • Was used as the principle church of the authorized the founding of the Society of Jesus. The church Jesuits, a branch of Christianity represented the Jesuit’s ideals which were very counter • Jesuits are defenders of Counter reformation reformation ideals • Church was placed in the center of 83. HUNTERS IN THE SNOW

Pieter Bruegel the Elder. 1565 C.E. Oil on wood. 83. HUNTERS IN THE SNOW

Form: Content: • The figures in the picture are very dynamic • The figures are faceless and represent peasants in • The figures with their backs turned draws the Europe viewer • Hunters return from an unsuccessful hunt • Extremely detailed • The hunters clothing contrasts the white landscape • Typical alpine landscape

Function: Context: • One of a series of six paintings representing • Commisioned by Nicaels Jonghelinck, a rich the different labors involved with each season aristocrat in Holland • Placed in a wealthy antwerp’s home • The painting was made by the famous landscape artist Peter Bruegal who was renowned for extremely realistic and detailed works 84. MOSQUE OF SELIM II

Edirne, Turkey. Sinan (architect). 1568–1575 C.E. Brick and stone.

84. MOSQUE OF SALIM II

Form: Content: • The mosque is located within a courtyard • Transition from square ground plant to round dome which is • Thin soaring minarets achieved by inserting smaller domes into corners • Octagonal interior with eight pillars resting • Square prayer hall with two symmetrical square madrasas on square set of piers • Ethereal dome looks like it is floating above the prater hall • Abundant amount of windows • Muqarnas act as a point of transition so the base of the dome can connect to the eight columns • Function: Buttresses hold up the dome and they are hidden in between walls • An example of Ottoman Empire’s wealth and greatness, along with its power and vastness Context: (along a popular tourist passing through place, • Was built in Edirne where Salim was stationed as a prince showed tourists of its dominance) when his father was king • Mosque— displays differences between Islam • Edirne was the capital of the Ottoman empire before Istanbul and Christianity • The Mosque was supposed to show off the wealth and • The mosque represents Islam's triumph. power of the Ottoman empire 85. CALLING OF SAINT MATTHEW

Caravaggio. c. 1597–1601 C.E. Oil on canvas. 85. CALLING OF SAINT MATTHEW

Form: Content: • Diagonal shaft of light points at Saint • Christ pose in the inverse of Adam’s pose in the Matthew Sistine chapel ceiling • Light coming in from two points creating a • Scene takes place in a tavern or pub tenebroso effect • Shows the biblical story of Saint Matthew • Christ has a transparent halo on his head • Figures placed on shallow stage Context: • The figures wear contemporary Baroque • Story was taken from Matthew 9:9 clothing which was popular at the time • Matthew was a tax collector and he was seated with other Function: collectors at his local tavern when Jesus comes in and • One of three paintings illustrating the life of commands Matthew to follow him and Matthew complies • Saint Matthew in a chapel dedicated to him by The two collectors on the left are so distracted by greed the wealthy Contarelli family and their money that they don’t even notice Jesus • Shows the Jesuit influence on Counter-reformation Baroque Art 86. HENRI IV RECEIVES THE PORTRAIT OF MARIE DE’ MEDICI

Peter Paul Rubens. 1621-1625 C.E. Oil on canvas. 86. HENRI IV RECEIVES THE PORTRAIT OF MARIE DE’ MEDICI Form: Content: • Heroic gestures, demonstrative spiraling figures • Cupid, the god of love shows Henry the portrait • Mellow intensity of color, similar to Caravaggio • Jupiter and Juno look from above in approval • Very extravagant costumes • Personification of France stands behind Henry encouraging • Combination of Baroque and neo classical styles him to marry her • Henry looks in awe at picture enamored by her beauty

Function: Context: • Was commissioned by Marie d Medici who was • It was the 6th painting in the series the wife of Henry IV who is depicted in the piece • Divisions in the French court led to Marie’s exile in 1617 • One in a series of 21 huge historical paintings • The art was used as propaganda and was highly regulated my retelling the life of Marie Marie herself • Place in Marie’s palace in Paris • Was supposed to show off her beauty and the power of the French monarchs showing them as people who were approved in the eyes of gods 87. SELF PORTRAIT OF SASKIA

Rembrandt van Rijn. 1636 C.E. Etching. 87. SELF PORTRAIT OF SASKIA

Form: Content: • Rembrandt is drawing in the picture • Marriage portrait • Saskia is seated deeper into the work • Rembrandt depicted as a young man • Only portrait of the two together • The audience is involved with the etching, we interrupted a moment between them

Function: Context: • For private purposes • Rembrandt one of the most prolific artists at the time • Very experimental with the sketch looking style to his etchings • Well known for his portraits • His works changed over time from Renaissance art to etchings like this one 88. CARLO ALLE

Rome, Italy. Francesco Borromini (architect). 1638- 1646 C.E. Stone and stucco. 88. CARLO ALLE QUATTRO FONTANE

Form: Content: • On a square in Rome with 4 fountains • Has oculus window which illuminates the inside • Unusually small site Assymetircal • Undulating volumes in ground plan and • Dome is mixture of concave and convex patterns alternating concave and convex patterns representing emotion vs intellect • Interior side chapels merge into central • Light unifies the space space • Interior dome oval shaped Function: Context: • Built as a part of a complex of monastic • Borromimi’s first independent commission buildings for Spanish trinitarians an order • First Baroque building with the combination of shapes and dedicating to freeing Christian slaves patterns along with undulating movements • of trinitarian saints on the façade • Based off his studies of geometry which stated that light and shapes go hand in hand

89. ECSTASY OF SAINT TERESA

Cornaro Chapel, Church of Santa Maria della Vittoria. Rome, Italy. c. 1647- 1652 C.E. Marble (); stucco and gilt bronze (chapel) 89. ECSTASY OF SAINT TERESA

Function: Content: • Was commissioned by the Cornaro family • Golden arrow pointing at Teresa’s heart • Represents the Counter-reformation movement by • Expressive figures with Teresa’s body contorted Catholics to increase piety and devotion among and in an almost orgasmic state their members

Form: Context: • Marble handled in a tactile way to reveal different • The sculpture depicts a scene from Teresa’s diary, textures like skin, feathers, and drapery when an angel from heaven plunged her heart • Figures seem to float with the rays of light with an arrow illuminating the sculpture representing God’s • Teresa was a recently canonized saint making this presence sculpture even more different • Work captures a moment in time which is a • Depicts her in a sexually exhaustive state as characteristic of Baroque art stated in her diary 90. ANGEL WITH ARQUEBUS

Master of Calamarca (La Paz School) c. 17th century C.E. Oil on canvas. 90. ANGEL WITH ARQUEBUS

Function: Content: • One in a series of paintings depicting angels in • Mannerist influence with the stiffness of the different occupations figure • Angel appears in androgynous stance • Latin inscription: Asriel, fear of God

Form: Context: • Angel depicted with a rifle instead of a • Relationship between these images and the wing traditional sword warriors of pre-Columbian art • Military poses derived from European • May have originated around Lake Titicaca in engravings of military exercises Peru • Elongated hat with feathers • Was created by the Master of Calamarca who is suspected to be Jose Lopez de los Rios, a Bolivian artist 91. LAS MENINAS

DIEGO VELÁZQUEZ. C. 1656 C.E. OIL ON CANVAS. 91. LAS MENINAS

Form: Content: • Uses very loose brushstrokes, but still comes • He was inducted into the Catholic organization the Order together compositionally to create a clear, detailed, of Santiago posthumously by the king, so in the painting, after realistic image that also has a sense of life he died the insignia of the group was painted onto his figure, • Utilizes scientific, but also aerial perspective it is even rumored that the king painted it on himself • Multiplication of the light sources • Surface of his canvas is hidden to us, could be a portrait of Function: the little princess, could be a portrait of the King and • Made for the King and Queen to privately view Queen, who are seen reflected in the mirror • A self portrait that shows status, he is seen in the Context: same room with the royals, holds a paintbrush • Used to be housed in the royal palace (Royal Alcazar of because his ability to render these figures gives him Madrid), the king’s study his on power, this interp. fits with his obsession at the • Combines genre scene with royal portrait end of his life to become a gentleman, wanted to be a • To fight the unattractive qualities from the royal family’s knight a the order of Santiago. inbreeding he compensated by painting them in elaborate clothes, demonstrating wealth and distracting from flaws 92. WOMAN HOLDING A BALANCE

Johannes Vermeer. c. 1664 C.E. Oil on canvas. 92. WOMAN HOLDING A BALANCE

Form: Content: • Figure seems unaware of our presence. • Viewer looks in a private world in which seemingly small • Light enters from the left and warmly highlights gestures take on a significance greater than what first textures and surfaces the woman’s garments, wood appears. table, marble checkerboard floor. Jewelry, and • Behind is a painting of the last judgement: a time of painting. weighing souls. • Geometric lines focus on a central point at the • The balance does not contain anything inside. pivot of the balance. Function: Context: • Functions as an allegory • A provincial painting that suggests that the woman • Vanitas: Gold should not be false allure. referencing an unborn child using the balance. • Perhaps a Vermeer family member posed for the • Vermeer usually portrayed different Dutch homes in a still, painting. quiet silence. • Theories suggest that his wife, Caterina posed for that picture. 93. THE PALACE AT VERSAILLES

Versailles, France. Louis Le Vau and Jules Hardouin- Mansart (architects). Begun 1669 C.E. Masonry, stone, wood, iron, and gold leaf (architecture); marble and bronze (sculpture); gardens. 93. THE PALACE AT VERSAILLES.

Form: Content: • Building was centered in a vast garden and • Reorganization and remodeling of a hunting lodge into an town complex radiating from it. elaborate palace. • Subdued exterior decoration on façade, • Center of palace as Louis XIV bedroom or audience undulation of projecting members is chambers (rays). understated. • Only the fountains near the palace played all the time. • Classically and harmoniously arranged with Others turn on for progression of the king. hints of Baroque style. Context: • Hall of Mirrors: 240 feet long barrel-vaulted painted ceiling Function: • Light comes from one side and ricochets off the largest • To house the current ruling monarchy of panes of glass that could be made at the time France. • Flickering use of light in a architectural setting • Ceiling painting illustrate civil and military achievements of Louis. 94. SCREEN WITH THE SIEGE OF BELGRADE AND HUNTING SCENE

Circle of the González Family. c. 1697–1701 C.E. Tempera and resin on wood, shell inlay. 94. SCREEN WITH THE SIEGE OF BELGRADE AND HUNTING SCENE Form: Content: • War scene depicts the contemporary events • Two faces of the screen: one has hunting and the other has a of the Great Turkish War 1683-1699; a Dutch war scene print used for inspiration • The hunting scheme suited to an intimate space for small • Illustrates a scene of Hapsburg power receptions • War scene more suited for a grander room with political importance

Function: Context: • Intended for two different audience views • Screen commissioned by Jose Sarmiento de • To be displayed in viceroy’s palace Valledares, viceroy of New Spain • Displayed in Viceregal Palace in Mexico City.

95. THE VIRGIN OF GUADALUPE (VIRGEN DE GUADALUPE)

Miguel González. c. 1698 C.E. Based on original Virgin of Guadalupe. Basilica of Guadalupe, Mexico City. 16th century C.E. Oil on canvas on wood, inlaid with mother-of-pearl. 95. THE VIRGIN OF GUADALUPE (VIRGEN DE GUADALUPE) Form: Context: • Brocade on Virgin’s robes made of enconchados: • Devotion to the Virgin of Guadalupe increased dramatically Influence of Asian decorative arts. in Mexico during the seventeenth century with the • Image in demand, many made for export around New publication of books printed in her honor and greater Spain support from the creole population (Spaniards born in the Function: Americas). • She revealed herself as the Virgin Mary, and asked Juan Content: Diego to go to the local bishop, Juan de Zumárraga, and • Mary made the hill top flower and Juan Diego brought the ask for a church to be built on the hill in her honor. flowers to the archbishop; Juan Diego’s cloth revealed the Bishop Zumárraga did not believe Juan Diego’s story. The Virgin’s image. Virgin Mary revealed herself to Juan Diego two more • Virgin of Guadalupe the most revered symbol in Mexico; times with the same request, but still no shrine was patronnes of New Spain constructed. During her fourth request on December • Symbol of Mexico; Eagle perched on a cactus 12th, she told Juan Diego to gather roses from the hill into • In Guadalupe images, Mary always stands on a crescent his cloak (or tilma). moon.

96. FRUIT AND INSECTS

Rachel Ruysch. 1711 C.E. Oil on wood 96. FRUIT AND INSECTS

Form: Content: • Asymmetrical arrangement • Not a depiction of actual flowers, but a construct of perfect • Artful arrangement specimens in bloom at the same time • In a phase where the artist produced still life in a woodland setting Function: • Probably used illustrations in botany textbooks as a basis for • Painted for her Cosimo III = sign of painting friendship and common wealthy status • Her father was a professor of anatomy and botany as well as an • Sold for double that Rembrandt's amateur painter. paintings sold for • Painting for a widening merchant class Context: • Intricate and formulaic approach that • Renaissance art was at its peak. Artists began to challenge the dominated the late Renaissance societal norms (accepted artistic styles and elements of the time) • Less complex but more realistic • 1648 = Netherlands became independent from Spain (economic prosperity) • Flourishing international trade = newly affluent middle class 97. SPANIARD AND INDIAN PRODUCE A MESTIZO

Attributed to Juan Rodríguez Juárez. c. 1715 C.E. Oil on canvas. 97. SPANIARD AND INDIAN PRODUCE A MESTIZO

Form: Content: • Many Africans and Indians are rendered with south • simple composition European features: • Spanish father and Indigenous mother with their son • Slim noses • mother and father surrounding two children: a young boy • Curly hair is carrying the couples baby • Almond-shaped eyes. • Modeled off the Holy Family: Virgin Mary, Saint Joseph, and • Not considered art objects but illustrations of ethnic Christ as a child (interpretation) groups. Function: Context: • This painting (the first of the series as many like this were • influences that if mixed with European blood one is indigenous mother and Spaniard father)belongs to a larger superior, the family will live in harmony, and “perfection” as series of works that document the intermix racing of the seen in the work Spaniards, indigenous, Africans, and mixed population • it is possible that elites (pure blood) found the dilution of • Casta paintings: focus on bad living conditions for families pure-bloodedness alarming that become more and more racially mixed, 2nd half of 18th • mestizo: (a person of a European and indigenous parent) a century. Spanish man and an elite Indigenous woman

98. THE TÊTE À TÊTE, FROM MARRIAGE À LA MODE

William Hogarth. c. 1743 C.E. Oil on canvas. 98. THE TÊTE À TÊTE, FROM MARRIAGE À LA MODE

Form: Content: • Narrative painting; later turned into a series of prints • The husband, Viscount Squanderfield is seen slouching in a chair on • Turned over chair indicates that the violin plater the right. made a hasty retreat when the husband came home. • The wife, Viscountess Squanderfield, sits on the left looking quite Function: ruffled. • To provide a satirical commentary on the wealth- • The account stands perplexed on the middle ground of the left based marriage practices of the aristocrats at the side of the painting. time Context: • To appeal to the middle class (so that Hogarth could • Set in the mid-18th century (at the beginning of the Industrial make $$$) (this is done by making fun of the Revolution) as shown in the clothing throughout the work. wealthy) • Thus, the aristocracy lost some power to the merchant class. • To draw distinctions between the inherited ideals of • William Hogarth capitalized upon this truth and the aristocrats of the 18th century and the actual created Marriage à la Mode directly for the enjoyment and actions/lifestyles they lived by consumption of the new middle class. • To criticize conspicuous consumption