Delhi Air Pollution: an Overview

MEMBERS REFERENCE SERVICE LARRDIS

LOK SABHA SECRETARIAT

REFERENCE NOTE

For the use of Members of Parliament NOT FOR PUBLICATION

No.6/RN/Ref/March/2018

Prepared by Dr. Jayadev Sahu, Additional Director (23035025) and Shri Sai Ram C.V. , Junior Library Assitant of Lok Sabha Secretariat under the supervision of Smt. Kalpana Sharma, Joint Secretary and Smt. Anita Khanna, Director.

The Reference Note is for personal use of the Members in the discharge of their Parliamentary duties, and is not for publication. This Service is not to be quoted as the source of information as it is based on the sources indicated at the end/in the context. DELHI AIR POLLUTION: AN OVERVIEW Introduction Pure air is a mixture of various gases such as nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide, and small amount of other gases in a fixed proportion. If the composition of air alters by any means; it is known as air pollution, which can lead to effects on human health, environment, and other living creatures. According to The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981, “air pollution is the presence of any solid, liquid, or gaseous substance in the atmosphere in such concentration as may be or tend to be injurious to human beings or other living creatures or plants or property or environment”.

Delhi, with an area of 1483 km2, is geographically located in North India within the latitude 28°24’17” and 28°53’00’’N, and longitude 77°45’30’’ and 77°21’30’’E 1 . Delhi is jointly administered by the Central and State Governments. As of 2011, Delhi inhabitates approximately 16.3 million people; thus becoming the second most populous city in India. However, due to rapid development, Delhi is also facing serious challenges in terms of air pollution. There are a number of factors responsible for the altered composition of the ambient air which can be mainly categorised as natural causes and anthropogenic (man-made) causes.

Air Pollutants The substances which are responsible for causing air pollution are called as air pollutants. Classification of Air Pollutants Air pollutants can be categorized by various means:

On the basis of source of origin

1 Delhi Statistical Handbook, 2017, p.1. 2

1. Natural air pollutants: Natural air pollutants are emitted from natural sources such as volcanic activity, dust, sea-salt, forest fires, lightening, soil, etc. 2. Anthropogenic air pollutants: These pollutants include the emissions from stationary point sources (e.g. emission from industries), mobile sources (e.g. vehicular emission, marine vessels, airplanes etc.), waste disposal landfills, controlled burning, etc.

On the basis of method of origin 1. Primary air pollutants: Those pollutants which are emitted directly from any emission source in the atmosphere are termed as primary air pollutants, e.g. sulphur dioxide (SO2),carbon monoxide (CO), lead (Pb), ammonia (NH3),etc. 2. Secondary air pollutants: Secondary pollutants are formed by the reactions between primary air pollutants and normal atmospheric constituents. In some of the cases, these pollutants are formed by utilizing the solar energy, e.g. ozone, peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN), smog, etc

On the basis of chemical composition 1. Organic air pollutants: Examples are hydrocarbons, aldehydes, ketones, amines, and alcohols, etc. 2. Inorganic air pollutants: Examples are carbon compounds (CO and carbonates), nitrogen compounds (NOX and NH3), sulphur compounds (H2S,

SO2, SO3, H2SO4), halogen compounds (HF, HCl etc.), flyash, silica, etc.

On the basis of state of matter 1. Gaseous air pollutants: Pollutants which are in the form of gas are termed as gaseous air pollutants, e.g. Sulphur Dioxide (SO2), Nitrogen Dioxide(NOX),

Ozone(O3), Carbon Monoxide(CO),etc. 3

2. Particulate air pollutants: Particulate air pollutants or particulate matter (PM) can be defined as the microscopic solid or liquid matter suspended in the earth’s atmosphere. There are various subtypes of particulate matter: a. Total suspended particulate matter (TSPM): The concentration of particulate matter which is obtained when a high volume bulk sampling is done on a filter substrate. It includes particles of all sizes.

b. PM10: These are the particles less than 10 μm in diameter.

c. PM2.5: These are the particles less than 2.5 μm in diameter.

d. PM1.0: These are the particles less than 1 μm in diameter. Particles which lie between 10μm to 2.5μm are termed as ‘coarse particles’ whereas particles with diameter less than 2.5μm are called as ‘fine particles’.

Fine particles also include ultra-fine particles of size less than 0.1 μm (PM0.1).

National Ambient Air Quality Standards(NAAQS) To build-up a programme for the effective management of ambient air quality and to reduce the damaging effects of air pollution, development of national ambient air quality standards (NAAQS) is a pre-requisite. Central Pollution Control Board had adopted first ambient air quality standards on November, 1982. These standards have been revised by CPCB in 1994, and later in 2009, which is shown in Annexure-I. Government of India has laid down National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for twelve pollutants namely, Particulate Matter 10 (PM10), PM2.5, Carbon Monoxide (CO), Sulphur

Dioxide (SO2), Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2), Ammonia (NH3), ground level Ozone (O3), Lead, Arsenic, Nickel, Benzene and Benzo(a)pyrene to control air pollution under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.

National Air Quality Index The National Air Quality Index (AQI) has been launched during 2015 which is a web-based system designed to provide simplified form of air quality 4 data on real time basis. Air Quality Index (AQI) is a tool for effective communication of air quality status to people in terms, which are easy to understand. It transforms complex air quality data of various pollutants into a single number (index value), nomenclature and colour. There are six AQI categories, namely good, satisfactory, moderately polluted, poor, very poor, and severe. Each of these categories is decided based on ambient concentration values of air pollutants and their likely health impacts (known as health breakpoints).

AQI Associated health impacts

Good (0 – 50) Minimal impact Satisfactory (51 – 100) Minor breathing discomfort to sensitive people Moderately polluted Breathing discomfort to people with lungs, asthma, and heart (101 – 200) diseases Poor (201 – 300) Breathing discomfort to most people on prolonged exposure Very poor (301 – 400) Respiratory illness on prolonged exposure Severe (401 – 500) Affects healthy people, and seriously impacts those with existing diseases

Air Quality Monitoring in Delhi Air quality monitoring in Delhi is carried out through a number of air quality monitoring stations situated across the territory. The monitoring is undertaken by various organizations viz. Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), Delhi Pollution Control Committee (DPCC), and System of Air Quality and Weather Forecasting and Research (SAFAR) of Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM), Pune. Monthly Air Quality Index value of Delhi for last three year is given in Annexure-II. It hardly needs to be emphasized that Delhi is an air-shed and action is within Delhi impact pollution outside the capital as well as action in adjoining cities such as Gurugram, Ghaziabad, NOIDA, Faridabad impact air quality in Delhi.

Reason for Delhi Air Pollution According to a study conducted by Central Pollution Control Board in 20162 on Delhi Air Pollution, there are several factors which contributes the higher level of air pollution in Delhi. The study finds that the vehicular pollution, domestic pollution, industrial emission, road dust, and garbage burning contributes a large share in Delhi’s total pollution load. Furthermore, construction of infrastructure including large residential complexes potentially contributes to the Delhi’s air pollution load. While there are a number of source apportionment studies that try to identify the sources of pollutants, it must be taken into account that the contributions of different sources vary during different seasons. Tables No. 1,2 and 3 at Annexure - III indicate the year average, winter and summer source

respectively. It is noticed that of the six main pollutants PM10, PM2.5, NOx are consistently over safe limits. As per the Economic Survey of Delhi 2016-17, the total number of motor vehicles on road in NCT of Delhi was 97.05 lakh, showing an increase of 9.94 per cent over previous year. The excessive usage of cars and motor cycles are the pertinent causes for rising vehicular pollution load. This leads to rising NO2

as well as particulate matter concentration. Particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5) emanates especially from the vehicular exhausts; particularly diesel vehicles, road dust, and industrial activities such as combustion processes, construction activities, etc. Tremendous growth of industrial sector is also responsible for pollution. As per the report of Economic Survey of Delhi 2016-17, there are 8.75 lakhs total industrial establishments operating in Delhi according to 6th Economic Census 2013. The census registered an increase of 1,17,565 establishments over 5th Economic Census conducted during 2005. In many of the industries, installed air pollution control devices are found in idle conditions which lead to

2 Air Pollution in Delhi An Analysis, CPCB 2016. 6 the emission of pollutants directly into the atmosphere without any filtration. Further, construction of short chimneys also restricts the polluting gases to escape into the upper layers of the atmosphere.

Meteorological Issue Apart from the vehicular and industrial emissions, local climatic and seasonal factors also affect the air quality of Delhi. Delhi, being a land-locked territory, is unable to dilute its emission using the moderating effects of sea; the opportunity availed by other metropolitan cities, such as Mumbai, Kolkata, and Chennai. Surrounded by the regions of varied climate, Delhi also represents a great variability in the seasonal patterns. In its west, there is Great Indian desert (Thar desert) of Rajasthan while in the north and east direction there are cool hilly regions. At its south, there are central hot plains. Thus, Delhi is located in the subtropical belt with extremely scorching summers, moderate rainfall, and chilling winters. The winters are extremely important in Delhi as it is dominated by cold, dry air, and ground based inversion with low wind conditions, which are responsible for increasing concentration of pollutants. High concentration of pollutants is trapped close to earth’s surface because a layer of warm air acts as a lid on top of this layer. Moreover, dense smog formation during winter months has also been witnessed in Delhi, the reason of which is vehicular pollution as well as the prevailing meteorological conditions in the months of December and January. Similarly, wind pattern also affects the weather conditions. According to Economic Survey 2017-18, some 35 million tons of rice-paddy stubble in 10 million ha, in three adjoining States (Punjab, Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh), burnt in late October, results in combination of pollution and fog, leading to heavy smog formation in Delhi, especially during winters. In summers, although there is no inversion phenomenon, still the air quality deteriorates because of the increased concentration of PM10, which is 7 due to dust. However, it becomes toxic due to the coating of polluted emissions from various sources. Nevertheless, during rainy season pollution level goes down due to dust suspension. Thus, air pollution in Delhi is a trans-boundary and climate induced phenomenon.

Initiatives to improve the air quality of Delhi  In the Union Budget 2018 Finance Minister Arun Jaitley announced "Air pollution in the Delhi-NCR region has been a cause of concern. A special Scheme will be implemented to support the efforts of the governments of Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and the NCT of Delhi to address air pollution and to subsidize machinery required for in-situ management of crop residue."  A draft action agenda has been formulated by a High Level Task Force that has been set up under the Chairmanship of Principal Secretary to Prime Minister for management of air pollution in Delhi NCR. The Task Force will finalise ‘Air Action Plan – Abatement of Air Pollution in the Delhi National Capital Region. The Task Force will monitor the listed key action. The draft Air Action Plan is available on: http://www.moef.nic.in/sites/default/files/press- releases/Air%20Action%20Plan%20for%20public%20consultation.pdf  The Central Government had notified a Graded Response Action Plan on 12th January 2017 for Delhi and NCR, which comprises measures such as prohibition on entry of trucks into Delhi; ban on construction activities, introduction of odd and even scheme for private vehicles, shutting of schools, closure of brick kilns, hot mix plants and stone crushers; shutting down of Badarpur power plant, ban on diesel generator sets, garbage burning in landfills and plying of visibly polluting vehicles etc. The nature, scope and rigor of measures to be taken is linked to levels of pollution viz. severe + or emergency, severe, very poor, moderate to poor 8

and moderate, after due consideration by authorities concerned. The actions are to be implemented in the entire NCR. Besides, action related to stubble burning is to be implemented by Government of Punjab. The details of Graded Response Action Plan are available on: http://envfor.nic.in/content/so-118e-12-01-2017-graded-response-action-plan- control-air-pollution-delhi-and-national-capi

Other Initiatives by the Government of India: The Government of India has taken several steps to address air pollution which inter alia, include notification of National Ambient Air Quality Standards; setting up of monitoring network for assessment of ambient air quality; introduction of cleaner / alternate fuels like gaseous fuel (CNG, LPG, etc.), ethanol blending; launching of National Air Quality Index; universalization of BS-IV from 2017; leapfrogging from BS-IV to BS-VI fuel standards from 1st April, 2018; notification of Construction and Demolition Waste Management Rules; banning of burning of biomass; promotion of public transport network; streamlining the issuance of Pollution Under Control Certificate; installation of on-line continuous (24x7) monitoring devices by major industries; collection of Environmental Protection Charge on more than 2000 CC diesel vehicles etc.3

Conclusion The Central and State Governments has been taking several steps to reduce the level of air pollution in Delhi. As per data on AQI in Delhi in NCR, there has been an improvement in the overall air quality in year 2017as compared to year 2016. The number of severe, poor and very poor AQI days were less compared to last year(214 vs. 181). Similarly, the number of good,

3Rajya Sabha Unstarred Question No. 219, dated 05 Feb 2018 9

satisfactory and moderate days were greater than last year (151 against 109).4 However, more still needs to be done to further reduce the levels of air pollution. The already existing measures need to be strengthened and magnified to a larger scale. The governmental efforts alone are not enough. Participation of the community is crucial in order to make Delhi NCR an air pollution free place.

Sources Consulted 1. Air Pollution in Delhi An Analysis, Envis Centre CPCB,MoEFCC 2016. 2. Economic Survey, 2017-18. 3. Economic Survey of Delhi, 2016-17. 4. Delhi Statistical Hand Book, 2017. 5. Answers to Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha Questions. 6. Press Clippings.

4Ibid. Annexure - I National Ambient Air Quality Standards(NAAQS) - (2009)

Pollutants Time Concentration in Ambient Air Methods of Measurement Weighted Industrial, Ecologically Average Residential, Sensitive Area Rural and (Notified by other Areas Central Government) Sulphur Dioxide Annual * 50 20 -Improved West and Gaeke Method 3 (SO2), µg/m 24 Hours ** 80 80 -Ultraviolet Fluorescence Nitrogen Dioxide Annual * 40 30 -Jacob &Hochheiser modified 3 (NO2), µg/m 24 Hours ** 80 80 (NaOH-NaAsO2) Method -Gas Phase Chemiluminescence Particulate Matter Annual * 60 60 -Gravimetric (Size less than 10µm) 24 Hours ** 100 100 -TEOM 3 or PM10, µg/m -Beta attenuation Particulate Matter Annual * 40 40 -Gravimetric (Size less than 2.5µm) 24 Hours ** 60 60 -TEOM 3 or PM2.5 , µg/m -Beta attenuation Ozone (O3) 8 Hours * 100 100 -UV Photometric 3 µg/m 1 Hour ** 180 180 -Chemiluminescence -Chemical Method Lead (Pb) Annual * 0.50 0.50 -AAS/ICP Method after sampling on 3 µg/m 24 Hours ** 1.0 1.0 EPM 2000 or equivalent filter paper -ED-XRF using Teflon filter Carbon Monoxide(CO), 8 Hours ** 02 02 -Non dispersive Infrared (NDIR) 3 mg/m 1 Hour ** 04 04 Spectroscopy Ammonia (NH3), Annual * 100 100 -Chemiluminescence 3 µg/m 24 Hours ** 400 400 -Indophenol method Benzene (C 6 H6), Annual * 05 05 -Gas Chromatography (GC) based 3 µg/m continuous analyzer -Adsorption and desorption followed by GC analysis Benzo(a)Pyrene (BaP) Annual * 01 01 -Solvent extraction followed by Particulate phase only, HPLC/GC analysis 3 ng/m Arsenic (As), Annual * 06 06 -AAS/ICP Method after sampling on 3 ng/m EPM 2000 or equivalent filter paper Nickel (Ni), Annual * 20 20 -AAS/ICP Method after sampling on 3 ng/m EPM 2000 or equivalent filter paper

* Annual Arithmetic mean of minimum 104 measurements in a year at a particular site taken twice a week 24 hourly at uniform intervals. ** 24 hourly or 8 hourly or 1 hourly monitored values, as applicable, shall be complied with 98% of the time in a year. 2% of the time, they may exceed the limits but not on two consecutive days of monitoring.

NOTE: Whenever and wherever monitoring results on two consecutive days of monitoring exceed the limits specified abovefor the respective category, it shall be considered adequate reason to institute regular or continuous monitoring and further investigations

Annexure - II

Source:Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), Air Laboratory, December, 2017. Annexure - III Table 1 - Source Apportionment Study Year Average Parameters Industrial Stack Vehicles Road Dust Others PM10 10% 9% 56% 25% PM2.5 11% 20% 38% 31% NOx 52% 36% 0% 12% SO2 91% 1% 1% 7% CO 3% 83% 0% 14%

Table 2 - Source Apportionment Winter Pollutants Secondary particles Vehicles Biomass MSW Soil Coal Construction (Power Burning burning and and Material Plants+Industries Road Fly + Dust Ash Gen Sets) PM10 25% 20% 17% 9% 14% 12% 3% PM2.5 30% 25% 26% 8% 4% 5% 2%  Secondary Particles – NOx (greater load) and SOx from Thermal Power Plants+Industries in Delhi+DGSets+Vehicles contribute to over 25%  Control over Vehicular Pollution is of prime importance.  Stubble burning causes one fourth of the load.  Pollution due to road dust in absolute terms does not decline much.

Table 3 - Source Apportionment Summer Pollutants Coal and Road Biomass Secondary MSW Vehicles Construction Fly Ash Dust Burnin particles burnin Material g g

PM10 38% 27% 7% 10% 8% 6% 4% PM2.5 26% 27% 12% 15% 7% 9% 3%  Due to arid conditions and greater wind velocity – Fly Ash and Road Dust biggest contributor.  Secondary particles high -Vehicular Pollution and Thermal Power Plants are main source.  Contribution of biomass burning is still high.