Elizabeth Blackwell

Breaking Barriers in Medicine

Cassie Chance

Senior Division

Historical Paper

Paper Length: 2125

Chance 2

The medical profession has been primarily male dominated for most of its history. In the early 1800’s women around the world attempted to become doctors but could not enter any universities to take advantage of the developing medical science because they were not accepting women. One exception to this was a woman named . On January 23, 1849,

Blackwell became the first woman to earn a medical degree in the United States from Geneva

College in , and then became the first licensed female physician in the world.

She graduated top in her class and became an inspiration to other women. This achievement and inspiration led to twenty women completing medical training within three years of her graduation. These women were accepted into colleges throughout the United States and Europe.

Blackwell’s accomplishments paved the way for women to take on significant roles by breaking obstacles and barriers within the educational and medical communities in a traditionally male dominated field.

Blackwell was born on February 3, 1821, in Bristol, England. Debra Michals, stated,

“Blackwell was the third of nine children of Hannah Lane and Samuel Blackwell, a sugar refiner,

Quaker, and anti-slavery activist” (National Women’s History Museum). Blackwell also had a famous brother, Henry, an abolitionist and women’s suffrage supporter who married , a women’s rights activist. She also had a sister, Emily Blackwell, who followed in her footsteps and also became a doctor. When she was ten years old, her family moved to New York for financial reasons and also because her father wanted to advocate against and assist with efforts to abolish slavery. Blackwell grew up in a very supportive household. Her parents were Quakers, and they believed in equality in all perspectives. Her father died in 1838, and in remembrance, his children also became advocates by supporting women’s rights and the anti-slavery movement. Blackwell first worked as a teacher to help her mother and siblings, but then she Chance 3 quickly decided to attend medical school after she found the work unpleasant and uninspiring.

As noted in “That Girl There is Doctor in Medicine,” She craved an occupation that satisfied her intellect as well as her idealistic and religious nature” (U.S. National Library of Medicine).

When Blackwell first decided to become a doctor, her parents were encouraging, but she soon realized the rest of the world was not as easily convinced in the likelihood of a woman becoming a doctor. According to “Changing the Face of Medicine,” “Her inspiration came from a close friend that was dying who suggested that she would have been spared her suffering if her physician had been a female” (U.S. National Library of Medicine). Blackwell did not know how to become a physician, so she communicated and inquired with the physicians her family knew.

They told her becoming a doctor was a great idea, but it was impossible; it was too expensive and the education at that time was not available to women. One physician Blackwell sought advice from was Dr. Joseph Warrington from Philadelphia who felt that her plan could not be fulfilled. Dr. Joseph Warrington said in a letter, “Elizabeth, it is of no use trying. Thee cannot gain admission to these schools. Thee must go to and don masculine attire to gain the necessary knowledge” (“Changing the Face of Medicine”). “That Girl There is Doctor in

Medicine” also explained,

“Elizabeth lacked money to support her studies and her preparation in science and

classical languages were inadequate for admission to a well-established medical school.

She also needed to obtain some prior medical experience, which many schools required.

To earn money Blackwell turned again to teaching and arranged to live in a physician’s

household, where she received some medical training, the use of a medical library, and

the opportunity to study Greek and Latin. However, the most formidable obstacle

remained: admission to a medical school” (U.S. National Library of Medicine). Chance 4

She applied to 13 different colleges for a year while studying independently with doctors for the time being, and all rejected her except Geneva Medical College which is currently known as

Hobart College. “Changing the Face of Medicine” explained, “The faculty assumed the all-male student body would never agree to a female joining them, and allowed them to vote. Her acceptance was decided by the student body who voted ‘yes’ as a joke.” (U.S. National Library of Medicine). Blackwell finally broke through one of her biggest obstacles by never giving up.

While in college, Blackwell continued to face obstacles and discrimination. Debra

Michals indicated “professors forced her to sit separately at lectures and often excluded her from labs; local townspeople shunned her as a ‘bad’ woman for defying her gender role” (National

Women’s History Museum). Within two years of her acceptance, Blackwell was the “first women to receive a medical degree in the United States. Eventually she won over her fellow students by her intelligence and commitment, but she was shunned by the citizens of Geneva who believed her career choice was very inappropriate” (“ELIZABETH BLACKWELL (1821-

1910) First Female Doctor”). Soon, many people did experience a change of heart with her success. She planned to stay in Philadelphia to study under other colleagues, but soon after receiving her medical degree, traveled to Paris where she found the only opportunity available in any medical practices was to become a midwife. Debra Michals explained “She continued her training at and Paris hospitals, though doctors there relegated her to midwifery or nursing. She began to emphasize preventative care and personal hygiene, recognizing that male doctors often caused epidemics by failing to wash their hands between patients” (National

Women’s History Museum).

While working in Paris, she contracted “purulent opthalmia” (inflammation and pus within the eye’s membranes and external structures), while treating children. As a result of this Chance 5 disease, Blackwell ended up losing sight in one eye, which forced her to give up her dream of becoming a surgeon. After she lost her sight, she returned to in 1851. Miss

Cellania from “Women in medicine: 5 Firsts in their Nations,” explained,

“Despite her pioneering degree, Dr. Blackwell found it difficult to get a job or network

with male colleagues back in New York. She applied for jobs, and one as a physician in

the women’s department of a large city dispensary, but continued to be refused. After

being continuously refused, in 1853, with the help of friends, she opened up her own

dispensary or private practice. As her practice grew, her sister, Dr. Emily Blackwell,

joined her in 1856 and together along with Dr. Marie Zakrzewska, they opened the New

York Infirmary for Women and Children in 1857. This institution also included a

medical college for women and opened in, and later an infirmary and a medical school

for women.”

While establishing the New York Infirmary in 1854, Blackwell adopted Katherine “Kitty”

Barry, an Irish Orphan, who was only 5 years old. Blackwell provided for Barry’s education but sheltered her and never permitted her to develop her own interests. Barry lived and worked with

Blackwell all of her life. Barry also obtained her education. When Blackwell died in 1910,

Barry continued in their work until her own death in 1930 and requested her ashes be buried with those of her mother.

Blackwell was not only an advocate for women in male-dominated fields but also for equality. Caroline Kee from “8 Women Who Totally Kicked Ass and Made History as Doctors” wrote, “Blackwell was a tireless advocate for improving medical education for women and championed gender equality in medicine. Can we all agree she totally kicked ass?” Chance 6

Even after losing her eye, and facing adversity at every turn, Blackwell still advocated and pursued her dreams for other women by creating her own medical institution for education.

She gave women a chance to gain the experience and training they needed to become physicians.

Through time, women have continued to prove they can excel in the medical field. According to a study conducted in 2017 by R. Satkunasivam regarding the impact of female doctors,

“104,630 patients were treated by 3,314 surgeons, 774 female and 2,540 male. Before

matching, patients treated by female doctors were more likely to be female and younger

but had similar comorbidity, income, rurality, and year of surgery. After matching, the

groups were comparable. Fewer patients treated by female surgeons died, were

readmitted to hospital, or had complications within 30 days than those treated by male

surgeons. Patients treated by female surgeons were less likely to die within 30 days, but

there was no significant difference in readmissions or complications” (“Comparison of

postoperative outcomes”)

The results of the study showed how female doctors impacted the medical field based on the survival rate of patients and their positive progression after treatment. Blackwell’s dedication in establishing women in the medical field, contributed to this impact and shows her legacy continues. Blackwell, the first woman in America to receive a medical degree, inspired the participation of women in the medical profession.

Today there are more women than men entering medical school. A great deal of people argue whether or not women entering medical professions is “Feminisation or equality.” Abi

Rimmer, an author and reporter from JSTOR noted, Chance 7

“Jane Dacre, president of the Royal College of Physicians, says that a drop in the number

women entering medical school isn’t a cause for concern. ‘I think possibly the 60/40

[female to male ratio], and in some medical schools it was up to 80% women…I would

feel quite comfortable if it went back to around 50/50 with maybe women being in a

slight majority.’ Dacre also adds on to explain ‘People were looking for doctors who

have communication skills and passion. I think that was one of the factors that made

people select more women into medical schools and it made more women want to go into

medical school.’”

Having compassion might have an effect on this, but without Dr. Blackwell breaking the barrier of becoming a female doctor, women in the medical field would not be such a controversy in the first place. Not only have the percentages of female doctors in the United States increased but there’s also been an increase in other countries such as the UK.

As stated by Laura Jefferson from the British Medical Bulletin written in 2015, “over the past four decades, the proportion of women entering medical schools in the UK has increased rapidly, and female medical students now outnumber males. When the Universities Central

Council on Admissions (UCCA) first measured the proportion of male and female medical applicants in 1963, women comprised fewer than 34% of applicants and only 29% acceptances.

Female medical students rose to ~40% in 1980 and increased by around 10% in each subsequent decade.”

Even though Blackwell overcame the astonishing barrier of being the first woman accepted into medical school, and then being the first woman to graduate from medical school, there were some concerns as to whether or not women should have been allowed to apply for medical school because of being emotionally attached and how other responsibilities such as Chance 8 children and housewife duties should keep them from applying. article

‘Shall We Have Female Doctors?’

“my opinions may be old-fashioned, as well as quaint, concerning the rights of women.

Years have obtused my mind and darkened my perceptions, yet I have a distant view of a

bleeding country, of wounded soldiers, of wearied, homesick fathers and sons, all

demanding, not female doctoring, by heartfelt sympathy and earnest works of love.

Cannot the talents of those female medical students find a wider field of usefulness? In

this enlightened age, ‘this nineteenth century,’ there is no women who will suffer from

want of a female medical attendance. I shall watch with eagerness the disposition of the

momentous question: Shall We Have Female Doctors?”

This article showed that a female doctor can provide outstanding medical care and compassion to all patients just as a male doctor could.

Blackwell became an outstanding and compassionate doctor who strived for equality for all women who wanted to pursue a medical degree, and for all of the patients she served. After earning her medical degree, she developed her practice and continued to provide education and educational opportunities for women who may not have otherwise had these opportunities. Dr.

Blackwell died on May 31, 1910, but her legacy continues. Through her accomplishments, and advocacy for women’s rights in the medical field, she continues to serve as an inspiration to women pursuing medical degrees. Females earning their medical degrees continue to increase, only proving that they themselves are just as devoted, inspired and compassionate as Elizabeth

Blackwell was.

Chance 9

Annotated Bibliography

Primary Sources:

Blackwell's letter of admission. Blackwell Family Papers Library of Congress. That Girl There is

Doctor in Medicine, U.S National Library of Medicine, 20 Mar. 2000, Accessed 21 Apr.

2020. This image was really awesome to find in her time period.

Letter, Elizabeth Blackwell to Baroness Anne Isabella Milbanke Byron concerning women's

rights and the education of women physicians, 4 March 1851. (Blackwell Family

Papers). Accessed 29 Oct. 2019. Letter from Blackwell to Baroness Anne Isabella

Milbanke Byron about women's rights and how female doctors should already assume

secondary positions. Byron made a "fatal error" by ranking humans by sex rather than

character and credibility.

New York Tribune, Sept. 12, 1851Courtesy Library of Congress Awesome picture of a letter that

was made out to Blackwell.

The Woman's Medical College of the New York Infirmary. [Announcement, 1868-69] New

York, 1868 National Library of Medicine Document of The Women's Medical College

Secondary Sources:

Campbell, Alastair V. "The Formative Years: Medical Ethics Comes of Age." The Formative

Years: Medical Ethics Comes of Age, vol. 41, no. 1, Jan. 2015, pp. 5-7, Accessed 29 Oct.

2019. Explained that there were problems arising in the medical field. I did not use this in

my paper, but it was helpful.

Cellania, Miss. "Women in Medicine: 5 Firsts in Their Nations." MentalFloss.com, 23 Apr. 2015,

Accessed 29 Oct. 2019. It shows the backstory of how Blackwell accomplished her Chance 10

medical degree despite the many obstacles. This is a good source for the barriers she

broke.

"THE ECONOMICAL POLICY OF GREAT BRITAIN AND THE UNITED STATES.; The

'Commercial Advertiser,' its Position Immigration Population Policy of the Democratic

Party on the Tariff Its Failures, its Character Statements of Mr.Gladstone Their Mistakes

British Policy is Anti-American. Shall We Have Female Doctors? The Exchange of our

Prisoners. The New German Republican Daily. A Valuable Suggestion About Raising

Troops." nytimes.com, 1 Jan. 1865, Accessed 8 Oct. 2019. Article explaining how

compassion is what patients want, specifically soldiers in this case. The people are not

going to care whether or not they have a male or female doctor.

"Elizabeth Blackwell." Biography.com, 2 Apr. 2014, Accessed 8 Oct. 2019. This article was

important to my paper because it showed how prejudice people were toward her earning

her degree and after she accomplished it people took a different approach, earning the

respect she deserved.

"Elizabeth Blackwell, M.D. Hobart and William Smith Colleges." Accessed 29 Oct. 2019. The

article shows how influential Blackwell became to others. Now there is a Blackwell

award which is given to women by Hobart and William colleges to not only show what

she accomplished, but how her legacy still lives today.

"ELIZABETH BLACKWELL (1821 – 1910) First Female Doctor." Forgotten Newsmakers, 13

Oct. 2010, Accessed 22 Dec. 2019. Shows a biography of her life and what happened

after she earned her medical degree and opened up her own practice for training other

women. Chance 11

Garner, Amy, and Virginia Browbrick. "Suturing the Surgical Gender Gap." Suturing the

Surgical Gender Gap, vol. 350, Feb.-Mar. 2015, Accessed 29 Oct. 2019. Although I did

not use this in my paper, it helped me realize that there are other opinions on male and

females in the medical field. It argued that women "don't want to be surgeons." It also

explained that men make decisions faster than women, able to commit to surgery, and

women who make their career choice later are not able to show a similar level of

commitment.

Henryk-Gutt, Rita, and Rosalie Silverstone. "Career Problems of Women Doctors." Career

Problems of Women Doctors, vol. 2, no. 6035, 4 Sept. 1976, pp. 574-77, Accessed 29

Oct. 2019. Shows the problems of what women can encounter while trying to pursue their

degree. Even after becoming a doctor, women still face problems about what they should

be allowed to wear and how they should stay as housewives.

Jefferson, Laura. "Women in medicine: historical perspectives and recent trends."

Academic.oup.com, 8 Mar. 2015, Accessed 27 Sept. 2019. Shows how women were

taking over more male-dominated fields in the UK, not just America.

"Katherine 'Kitty' Barry." Geni.com, 28 Apr. 2018, Accessed 15 Jan. 2020. Katherine "Kitty"

Barry was an orphan who was adopted by Blackwell. This helped in my research because

it showed that even Blackwell needed help sometimes. Barry worked with Blackwell all

her life until Blackwell died in 1910 and then continued until her own death in 1930.

Kee, Caroline. "8 Women Who Kicked Ass and Made History as Doctors." Buzzfeed.news, 8

Mar. 2018, Accessed 18 Sept. 2019. Portrays how Blackwell was a relentless advocate

for the way she made history. Chance 12

"List of First Female Physicians by Country." en.wikipedia.org, 3 Oct. 2019, Accessed 29 Oct.

2019. List of the first women surgeons in the country. This is helpful to know because in

other countries other females earned their degrees before Blackwell.

Michals, Debra. "Elizabeth Blackwell." National Women's History Museum, 2015, Accessed 21

Apr. 2020. Helped me understand Blackwell's background more and who all supported

her through this journey.

Rimmer, Abi. "Feminisation or equality? The issues now facing women in medicine."

Feminisation or equality? The issues now facing women in medicine, vol. 349, 1 Sept.

2014, Accessed 29 Oct. 2019. Uses results and other doctors' opinions to prove that there

are more women dominating the field and how they should try to cut that back for

equality.

Rogers, Kevin. Weblog post. World History Project, Accessed 25 Sept. 2019. While in

Pennsylvania, Blackwell lost her eye from a condition a patient gave her. She was unable

to continue her practice so she opened up her own for future women in the medical field.

Satkunasivam, R. "Comparison of postoperative outcomes among patients treated by male and

female surgeons: a population based matched cohort study." bmj.com, 10 Oct. 2017,

Accessed 29 Oct. 2019. Shows the results of the outcomes of patients and the ratios of

how successful female surgeons were to male surgeons.

"That Girl There Is Doctor in Medicine." U.S. National Library of Medicine, 20 Mar. 2000,

Accessed 21 Apr. 2020. This source gave me a lot more useful information on Elizabeth

Blackwell. Chance 13

"That Girl There Is Doctor of Medicine." U.S. National Library of Medicine, 20 Mar. 2000,

Accessed 21 Apr. 2020. This helped me understand more on her career and what that was

like.

U.S National Library of Medicine. "Changing the Face of Medicine l ElizabethBlackwell."

Changing the Face of Medicine, 14 Oct. 2003, Accessed 19 Sept. 2019. This source was

very helpful because it showed how she got the inspiration and what happened to her

practice after she passed away.