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Copyright by Thomas Mitchell Hunt 2007 The Dissertation Committee for Thomas Mitchell Hunt certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: Drug Games: The International Politics of Doping and the Olympic Movement, 1960-2007 Committee: Jan Todd, Supervisor H.W. Brands Carla Costa John Hoberman Terence Todd Drug Games: The International Politics of Doping and the Olympic Movement, 1960-2007 by Thomas Mitchell Hunt, B.A., J.D. Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of The University of Texas at Austin in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Texas at Austin August 2007 Dedication This dissertation is dedicated to my family. Acknowledgements Every historian is limited by time, financial resources, and access to information. Throughout the course of this project, numerous individuals helped me overcome these limitations. I owe each of them my gratitude. The staff members of the International Olympic Committee Library and Archives in Lausanne, Switzerland, and the United States Olympic Committee Library in Colorado Springs, Colorado, patiently led me through the wealth of documentation at their respective institutions. The former institution also provided access to microfilm copies of the Avery Brundage Collection, the actual documents of which are held at the University of Illinois at Urbana- Champaign. I also benefited from an extraordinarily helpful and supportive dissertation committee at the University of Texas at Austin. My understanding of the complicated structure of Olympic governance benefited greatly from the insights gleaned from Professor Carla Costa’s graduate course on organizational behavior in sport. Professor H.W. Brands took time away from his own work to offer unique insights into the writing process. Professor John Hoberman met with me on numerous occasions to discuss the inner workings of high-performance sport, and generously provided me access to his own extensive research collection on the issue of doping in sport. Words cannot express my gratitude to Professors Jan and Terry Todd. Over the past four years, they have not only v tolerated my diverse interests in history, law, and sport policy, but helped me to fashion them into a workable research program. Far exceeding what could reasonably be expected of a dissertation advisor, Professor Jan Todd deserves special thanks for carefully and consistently leading me through the challenges of this project. I also wish to express appreciation to my family, who provided the emotional sustenance without which this dissertation would have been impossible. My mother and father, Laurie and Thomas L. Hunt, have spent the last twenty-nine years encouraging my intellectual and personal development. A promising scholar in his own right, my brother Jonathan helpfully offered his own views whenever I needed a fresh perspective. Finally, my wife Hilary provided unfailing support throughout my research and writing even though it meant putting many of her dreams temporarily on hold. vi Drug Games: The International Politics of Doping and the Olympic Movement, 1960-2007 Publication No._____________ Thomas Mitchell Hunt, Ph.D. The University of Texas at Austin, 2007 Supervisor: Jan Todd The widespread use of performance-enhancing drugs among elite athletes is the most important policy problem in modern Olympic history. Although several works have addressed the subject (a few of which are admittedly excellent), they have been limited either temporally or by a lack of access to archival sources of information. Based on research in both American and foreign archives, this dissertation complements earlier, path-breaking works by tracing the evolution of Olympic doping policy from 1960 to the present. Olympic policymakers first seriously considered the subject of doping after suspicions arose that the death of Danish cyclist Knud Jensen at the 1960 Rome Olympic Games was triggered by the use of amphetamines. For most of the next decade, these officials attempted to define the doping problem and struggled to formulate a program for its solution. An international politics of doping consequently developed, under which the various bodies of the Olympic governance structure failed, due to their divergent interests and jurisdictions, to implement a coordinated plan. Until recently, administrators working vii at all levels of this organizational system tended to formulate doping policies with the idea of dampening the effects of public controversy. In addition, the influence of the Cold War on the Olympics exacerbated the situation, as national governments on both sides of the Iron Curtain, believing that success in the Olympic medals race was essential to their images abroad, condoned the use of ergogenic aids among elite competitors. It was not until Canadian track star Ben Johnson tested positive for an anabolic steroid after setting a new world record in the one-hundred meter sprint at the 1988 Seoul Games that a different policy direction was initiated. The involvement of national governments after the scandal led eventually to the creation of the World Anti-Doping Agency in November 1999. The consolidation of regulatory authority in this agency has transformed the issue of doping in the Olympics from a combined political and scientific problem to one based more appropriately on the latter. viii Table of Contents Introduction..............................................................................................................1 Chapter 1: Defining the Problem, 1960-1969........................................................14 1964 Tokyo Olympic Games........................................................................20 Altitude Training as Doping .........................................................................24 1968 Grenoble Winter Games ......................................................................37 Gender Testing..............................................................................................40 1968 Mexico City Olympic Games ..............................................................45 Chapter 2: Nationalism Strikes, 1970-1979...........................................................55 1972 Sapporo Winter Olympic Games.........................................................60 1972 Munich Olympic Games......................................................................65 The Inter-Games Period................................................................................72 1976 Montreal Olympic Games....................................................................80 Legacy of the 1976 Montreal Games............................................................86 Chapter 3: The Turning Point, 1980-1989.............................................................90 1980 Winter Games in Lake Placid, New York ...........................................95 1980 Moscow Olympic Games.....................................................................97 Interim.........................................................................................................100 1984 Los Angeles Games ...........................................................................103 Legacy of the Los Angeles Games .............................................................111 Crisis: The 1988 Seoul Olympic Games.....................................................117 The International Politics of Doping at Decade's End................................121 Chapter 4: Towards a Unified Approach, 1990-1999 .........................................127 The IOC Deals with East German Doping .................................................135 Tentative Steps Towards a Global Strategy................................................138 A New "Red" Threat...................................................................................144 1996 Atlanta Games....................................................................................149 The Final Push for Unification ...................................................................152 ix Chapter 5: A New Century, 2000-2007 ..............................................................162 2000 Sydney Olympic Games ....................................................................170 Conflict in the United States.......................................................................173 Post-Sydney Developments ........................................................................178 2002 Salt Lake City Games ........................................................................185 The Process of Political Unification ...........................................................191 A New Governmental Interest in Doping ...................................................197 Conclusion ..........................................................................................................199 Appendix A: Doping Control for 1968 Olympic Games in Grenoble, France....203 Appendix B: World Anti-Doping Agency 2007 Prohibited Substances List ......204 Bibliography ........................................................................................................215 Vita ....................................................................................................................240 x Introduction: On August 26, 1960, twenty-three year old Danish cyclist Knud Jensen, riding in the one-hundred kilometer team time trial in that year’s Rome Olympic Games, suddenly fell from his bike and fractured