Proceedings 20th Geothermal Workshop 1998

NOTES ON THE EARLY HISTORY OF

R.S.

11Fiesta Grove, Raumati Beach,

SUMMARY

These notes outline the major circumstancesand events influencing the decision to investigate the resources of New Zealand, together with problems faced in the early days of the development of They cover the period fiom 1918when the first suggestion for the investigationof the resource appeareduntil early 1953when Wairakei's development began in earnest.

1. INTRODUCTION would be more economical than the further use of water." 1924) 1.1. Early Interest in the Resource Eighty years ago, on 2 February, 1918, the Coincidentally, in 1925, a 250 generator was Masterton Chamber of Commerce requested the operating at the . However, no further Minister of Public Works to enquire into the development was being carried out because of the utilization of thermal energy for industrial and competition hydro and natural gas. other purposes, pointing out that the Italians were 1980). In other words, although now generating electrical energy fiom thermal districts the intensively developed geothermal field and were using it for lighting, and in the world, the 's early development was munitions manufacture with great success. inhibited for much the same reasons as was New 1918). However, another four decades passed Zealand's. before New Zealand could say with some truth that it was using electricity fiom thermal The literature from this period is district "with great success". sparse, but one publication of significance is Geological Survey Bulletin 37. (Grange, 1937). Among a number of similar suggestions which This is the first detailed description of the geology appeared over the next two decades, perhaps the of the Zone and made an most unusual New Zealand's High important contribution to the subsequent Commissioner in London. Following discussions investigation and development of the resource. with Prince Ginoro di Conti after the first World Power Conference in 1924, the High 1.2. The Beginning of SeriousInterest Commissioner suggested to Government that New Zealand should investigate both the generation of Early in 1940, the Council of Scientific and electricity and the recovery of helium fiom the Industrial Research recommended that the thermal regions. The reason was that this would utilization of the thermal resources should be be of national interest should an Imperial Airship investigated. (Hamilton, 1954). Although at the Fleet be formed. time, the most promising prospect appeared to be power generation, hydro resources were still In his reply, the Prime Minister said that water considered to be sufficient for some years ahead. power schemes under construction had sufficient Nevertheless, at the request of the DSIR, Captain capacity to meet power requirements for at least F.E.N. Tuck, a Public Works Department twenty years. Somewhat prophetically, he added engineer with the 2nd NZEF, accompanied by that "At end of that it may possibly be Trooper D.E.Jobley visited Larderello in worth careful investigation to see whether the use 1944. of natural steam for the generation of extra power

13 Although a substantial part of the plant had been else was the frequently expressed emphasis on systematicallydestroyed by the retreating German urgency Government's wish to be Army, Tuck produced a well illustrated report on seen to be doing everything possible to overcome the power and chemical facilities at Larderello. the shortage of power. While reflecting Italian practices prior to the war, there is little doubt that his report had a significant The pressure was evident fiom the first weeks of influence on subsequent decisions to investigate the Committee's operations. the wider the geothermal resources of New Zealand (Tuck, investigation programme already under way was 1944). to be replaced with a concentrated of the 13 mile by 13 mile area surrounding Wairakei. Systematic investigation began with the The drilling programme would then be based on appointment of Jim Healy as Government the information fiom these investigations. Cabinet Volcanologist in 1945, followed early in 1946 by approval for to establish a camp and a DSIR meeting in Rotorua at which a five year procure seismic equipment for the revised covering the whole thexmal region programme was received on 23rd November, was agreed. Receipt of Cabinet approval enabled 1949. the work to begin without delay. However, only a fortnight later, the continued By the mid to late there were strong pressure resulted in a major change. Drilling was doubts as to whether sufficient hydro would, in to commence at Wairakei as soon as possible, the fact, be available to meet the 's needs. initial holes being sited on the basis of the The problem was compounded by serious delays information already available. in obtaining plant, by shortages of labour and materials, by a continuing shortage of A problem arose over control of the work in the hydrocarbons to supply the steam stations and by field. The DSIR had been leading the two dry years. Interest in the resource investigations to that time but, with the focus now quickened and in 1948, as well as accelerating on power development, the expected hydro investigations, the advised geothermal investigations to be in the Parliament that the DSIR were investigating the same way as were hydro investigations. This use of geothermal steam for power meant that although the GAC were in overall 1948). control, the work should be the Ministry of responsibility. For thisreason, Wairakei 13. The Final Commitment was placed under the control of the Project Engineer . By the end of 1948, the power situation had , deteriorated to such an extent that Government In effect, a two part programme resulted. The required little persuasion to initiate a more DSIR continued to investigate the whole of the focussed investigation programme involving regions on an orthodox scientific basis MOW and the as well as the DSIR. For this while the investigations at Wairakei specifically purpose, the Geothermal Advisory Committee for power were continued under the control of the (GAC) was set up in mid-1949. Composed of the MOW. Each organization assisted the other as Commissioner of Works, the Secretary of the required, but was to receive priority. DSIR, the General Manager of the State Hydro- electric Department (SHD) and the Director of the Dissension over the accelerated programme for N.Z. Geological Survey, the Committee reported Wairakei persisted. In correspondence with John to Cabinet through the Minister in Charge of the Banwell later in the year, Sir Ernest Marsden DSIR. By the Committee responsible to suggested that it didn't matter much where the Cabinet, Govemment gave a clear indication of first bores were sited, as long as there were the importance attached to the investigation and surface indications of steam close by. His advice developmentof the resource. was to go ahead drilling a small hole without much more science. He agreed that this was a 'bull at a gate' approach and that the scientific 2 THEINVESTIGATION work should continue in parallel with any drilling, but he considered that, in view of the urgency, the 2.1. Setting Up need to take should be accepted. The Committee was faced with the usual Director of the N.Z. Geological Survey, problems in setting up a new activity, assembling was strongly of the opinion that hole siting should staff, plant and equipment and obtaining finance, be based on more scientific input. He considered all of which were in short supply. There was also the advice "irresponsible and dangerous to the the need to work with and develop a technology uninformed'' but, view of the pressures on the which was very much in its and, in some Committee, had little choice but to accept the areas, nonexistent. Overshadowing situation.

14 any particular bore was dependent on the results 2.2. The Selection of Wairakei for of the first stage drilling. Development Although not based on a detailed examination of 2.4. Rigs and Drilling Personnel the resource as a whole, the decision to go to At their meetings, the only rigs the Wairakei was not made lightly. Committee were aware of were two DSIR Sullivan 37 rigs already working at Wairakei, a The area at Wairakei was extensive with 1500foot capacity rig owned by the MOW and a one of the largest estimated natural heat outflows large oil exploration rig which had been moth in the thermal regions. The steam field and balled for 10 years. On inspection, neither of the potential power station sites were on Crown land latter proved to be suitable for the work and the and the topography of the area, together with the Committee was in something of a quandary. This availability of ample cooling water indicated a was resolved by denuding the hydro relatively straightforward power development. project of their investigation rigs, namely, three The proximity of the MOW hydro project at Sullivan 37s. Geothermal energy was given top Mangakino suggested a reduction priority! should be possible in the time required to set up and begin work. Finally, the supply for the The problem of how to handle the expected high Wairakei Hotel was an encouraging sign pressures and temperatures with a lack of regarding fromthe field. appropriate equipment and trained personnel also had to be resolved urgently. Mines Department Given the urgency with which answers were drillers frequently encountered high pressures required, these were compelling reasons for the when drilling investigation holes for coal. With selection of Wairakei for the investigations. their experience in the Under-Secretary of Mines was approached for assistance. As a result, 23. The Agreed Programme for Wairakei Bob McMillan, the Drilling Superintendent fi-om Greymouth, together with a Failing 1500 rig and On the 9th March 1950, a meeting at the Wairakei crew, were released initially on secondment, but Hotel of both DSIR and MOW personnel and later by transfer. chaired by the Engineer-in-Chief agreed on the general programme for the Wairakei 2.5. Drilling Techniques investigations. This comprised three separate but concurrent activities, geophysical surveying, One of first tasks was to report on the prospecting and development drilling, all procedures and techniques he intended following. to begin as soon as practicable. both the drill crews and the bores was his primary concern with particular reference to the provision of equipmentto control The geophysical surveying was essentially an the bores when drilling and discharging under intensification of the DSIR work already under pressure. way and, for the first few months, dominated the DSIR effort within the 13 m x 13 m area. The Blow out preventers (BOP)were required for the "prospecting" drilling comprised a series of holes Sullivans. McMillan prepared a set of sketches sited at approximately quarter mile intervals on a fiom which working drawings were prepared and line fiom the river below the Wairakei Hotel, up the were built in the project workshops at to the road and across to the Wairakei Mangakino. This BOP equipment was used with Valley above the geysers. This became known as only minor modifications on all the early line and was the focus of the initial investigationholes. investigations. The rigs, both Sullivan and Failing, were set up on With as little delay as possible, "development" heavy timber beams spanning timber lined cellars. holes would then be drilled around good A relatively primitive mud circulating and cooling prospecting bores. Up to six were considered system was provided but there was no necessary at each location to ensure that it was consolidation grouting. Two strings of casing thoroughly explored. While the "development" were programmed, a surface or anchor string bore concept had a significant influence on the and a production string. On a few occasions, drilling programme, only one such group, the "4 an additional short string was required in the Group", was drilled and this only partly. Both upper levels when caving occurred. Open hole prospecting and development holes were completions were standard. The casing was Class programmed to be drilled in two stages, the first steam pipe. to 500-600 feet, with target depth for the second stage in the range 1000 to 1500 feet. Deepening The holes were cored length using double tube core barrels, casing depth being based on

15 strength as assessed fiom the cores. obtained, temperatures ranged fiom Deepening was carried with both the Sullivan and to and all wells discharged some the Failing rigs. The were taken beyond steam The best flowed over 100,000 their nominal capacity of 750 feet by a casing for short and at over 50,000 combination of progressive reaming and the use on a more sustained discharge. of smaller diameter drillpipe. 2.7. Deep DrillingEquipment Particular problems encountered and overcome arose the precision required in setting At a relatively early stage, the need for deeper casing, fkom the initial restricted core barrel drilling than was possible with the existing length, the effect of temperature on cement equipment became apparent if the resource was to setting times, mud flocculation and high be investigated properly. The GAC therefore temperature gelation and fiom sand packing. recommended the purchase of two portable Single shift, five day weeks were worked for drilling rigs capable of 6" hole to 2,500 almost the whole of the investigationperiod. feet, the initial target depth for prospecting.

Modem drilling is not without its moments of Included in the recommendation was the purchase tension, but drilling those early holes tended to be of four rigs for use elsewhere in the Department to even more of an adventure. replace those which had been commandeered for Wairakei together with the "mothballed rig" to 2.6. Drilling Progress provide a supply of spare parts and equipment. Cabinet approved the purchase of this equipment Following the Wairakei Hotel meeting, being on in April 195 1 at a total cost of 17,500.With this the spot, the DSIR rigs were able to spud in with a approval, Government had accepted a relatively minimum of delay. However, the MOW Sullivans long term commitment to the investigation and could not be released until completion of the possible development of the resource. Waipa hydro investigations and the Mines Department rig had to be shipped up fiom The contract for the larger rigs went to the the South Island. Nevertheless, by the end of the National Supply Company for two of their 1950, drill crews had been trained and eight National Ideal T12 rigs, the first of which spudded line holes had been completed, or were being in during November 1952, some time after drilled. Wairakei had been committed for power development. In the interim, a two Failing Further rigs were obtained and at the peak, seven 1500 rigs had also been purchased, enabling the were working on the job. However, there were a of the Mines Department rig and the DSIR number of factors which slowed the drilling. The Sullivans. open hole completions resulted in many blockages requiring a regular maintenance programme to 2.8. Downhole and Output Measurements ensure that the essential discharge and downhole infoxmation was obtained. A second factor was A maximum thermometer run in a weighted the amount of coring required. Initially, pocket on a line was the instrument used continuous coring over the fill depth was, for to measure temperatures. The obvious reasons, the natural choice. However, as instrumentwas useful in providing spot foxmation the work progressed, the value of the temperatures and in casing setting information tended to lessen, leading to a clash depths. However, multiple were required to with the need for urgency. obtain temperature profiles making this a time consuming operation, with results of One other difficulty arose when the need for reliability. Resistance thermometers gave little seismic information became an imperative. On better results due to repeated failure of the cables occasions,to meet this need, the DSIR rigs would then available. be moved fkom the investigation drilling, sometimes without notification. This problem was resolved by the Ministry of Works hiring private The most satisfactory instrument was the contractorsfor the seismic work on an as required geothemograph designed and built by the DSIR. basis while the DSIR rigs concentrated on the "D" The temperature range was 200C to with line drilling. If this were not possible, then, by an accuracy of plus or minus 20C and enabled a agreement, the DSIR rigs were transferred profile revealing details in the temperature temporarily to seismic drilling. gradient to be obtained on one run.

A total of 17 bores were drilled during the initial For many years, downhole pressures were investigation phase, 15 on "D" line and 2 on estimated fiom water level measurements and the (Karapiti) line. This includes two replacement wellhead pressure gauge reading, with an bores on line. Indicative of the results adjustment for the density of the hot water.

16 The GAC accepted this programme at its meeting Initially, well outputs were measured using a on 16 June 1952, following which, it voted itself swinging arm calorimeter. The main drawback out of existence. was the very short flow period possible. Nevertheless, the method gave a reasonable 3.2. Wairakei Established as a Project indication of output, particularly for the smaller bores. The most accurate method of measurement A change of status for the operations at then as now, was to separate the steam and water Wairakei had been discussed for some time prior and measure each phase separately. Despite to the meeting. A substantial increase requiring a cumbersome amount of equipment, the in the work load was expected following the technique was used extensively until the arrival of arrival of the new rigs when, potentially, up to the sampling calorimeter. ten, some on three operation, could be operating at the same time. Additionally, all The' sampling calorimeter, designed by John routine downhole and surface measurements were Banwell and the Dominion Physical Laboratory, being transferred the DSIR to enable them to came into use in early 1953. The system gave concentrate on the increasing requirements for results in good agreement with other methods and research. Also, the hydro site for many years was the standard method of investigation parties working from Taupo to measuring outputs. Aratiatia, were attachedto Wairakei. This required a substantial increase in support 3. COMMITTAL FOR POWER facilities and staff together with a more direct contact with Head Office for accountingpurposes. 3.1. The Initial Installation of 20 The change in focus to a 20 power As early as September 1950, the results of the installation then became the catalyst in investigations were clearly influencing energy establishing Wairakei as a project. No doubt, the policy. The Minister of Works, in a statement on advent of the heavy water and the pulp and paper electricity supply, was quoted as saying that until proposals also influenced thinking in this it was known whether steam could be direction. used for power generation, he could not recommend that Government consider a large The establishment of Wairakei as a project was scale coal or oil-fired power station programme. effective from 30 July 1952. Lindsay Fooks was (Board Council, 1950.) appointedproject engineer, but was unable to take up the position until September. Mangakino was However, it was not until 1952 that the Minister having staffing difficulties and so, for a brief in Charge of the announced that the work at Jack Smith provided the on site Wairakei was being extended with the objective stationed part time at Wairakei of the installation of a 20,000 plant. and part time in Head Office. In this situation, he Also, the General Manager advised that a 20 was often in the happy (?) position of having to plant in the area would be valuable but that he answer his own letters. needed to know within twelve months whether this would be available from geothermal energy. At Head Office insistence, supported by Fooks but against the advice of the Project Engineer, With a power requirement and a specific Mangakino, who Wairakei, the camp time limit in mind, the investigations now and were located in Taupo. The reasons required a completely different approach. The were that there was already the nucleus of an main features of the new programme were: organization there, the availability of services, and a belief on the Engineer-in-Chief's part, that once Sixteen holes were to be drilled adjacent to in a vehicle, it didn't whether the distance line at its hottest part. This number was travelled was one or four. The camp, office based on a steam consumption of 20 and store were set up in what is now the Taupo an output of 100,000 total flow camping ground. and a dryness fraction of 25%; The Wairakei office took full control of the project from the beginning of November although The establishment of Wairakei as a normal Mangakino continued to provide assistance until Ministry of Works project already being all facilitieswere established. discussed was to be implemented immediately; and

The drilling should be carried out on a three shift per day, six days a week basis.

17 4. HEAVY WATER PROPOSAL At this stage, with a better understanding of the heavy water process and a better knowledge of 4.1. The Formal Request Wairakei's capability, the idea of a combined The formal request from the United Kingdom plant was revived. Wairakei was producing 20 Atomic Energy Authority (UKAEA) for a joint equivalent and there was every confidence investigation into the use of geothermal energy in that the field could produce the 50 the production of heavy water was received in required for a combined plant. There was also March 1952. The proposal originated some years more than a little over committing the previously when Sir Ernest Marsden, New substantial expenditure involved in a pilot heavy Zealand's Scientific Liaison in London water project without a more exhaustive suggested the possibility to the Director of the examination of the field's potential. Energy Research Establishment (AERE) at Harwell, Sir John Cockcroft. Hence, the wheel turned full circle when, in May 1953, Cabinet approved in principle the During a visit to New Zealand to present the construction of a combined power and heavy Rutherford Memorial Lectures, Cockcroft briefed water plant at Wairakei. officials on the heavy water proposals. The Commonwealth's demand was expected to The search for the site for the heavy water plant increase,but there was uncertainty of that demand coincided with the establishment of the project, being met. From initial estimates, production with the preparatory work for the drilling for the costs per ton from a geothermally based plant 20 and with the demands fiom the Kawerau would be significantly lower than the cost from investigations. Political pressure for this had both the existing supplier and required a diversion of effort from altemative sources. There was also a preference Wairakei. Although Waiotapu was finally selected for the supply to come from the Commonwealth. as the location for the plant and preliminary work had begun, there was little capability for a third Cockcroft is also reported as having told the urgent concurrent investigation programme. Government that the real object of the UKAEA Hence, while the decision to locate the heavy programme was the production of plutonium water plant at Wairakei had some far reaching rather than electricity (Martin,1991). effects, one of the lesser known but very welcome outcomes was the easing of the very considerable 4.2. The Search for a Location pressure on the at Wairakei.

When first discussed, the heavy water was to be 43. The Proposal produced at Wairakei in conjunction with power production. However, the DSIR, who were proposal comprised a 6 capacity responsible for the heavy water project, concluded heavy water plant with an associated that, on the basis of the information available, 35 installed capacity power plant. Revised there would be energy available for estimates for the heavy water had risen to both purposes concurrently. being per ton, still lower than the committed for power production, the location of a for the alternative source. This was important separate site for the heavy water became urgent. because, although nominally a pilot plant, the The search was hampered by a shortage of heavy water operation had to be economically resources to out the necessary viable. investigations, by land ownership difficulties and by requirements imposed by the Geothermal In late 1953,the United Kingdom re-examined the Steam Act (1952). place of heavy water in their atomic programme. This resulted in a prolonged hiatus during which Te Teko (Kawerau) was suggested as a possible little reached New Zealand. Both the location but had already been committed to the sale of the second T12 rig and a reduction in the pulp and paper project. Ohaaki was considered size of the Wairakei establishment were being next. The agreed to its release, but, with seriously considered when word that the more than 200 owners, obtaining access by lease combined project was to go ahead came, at the or purchase was seen as a major problem and the end of June 1954.The decision was made public search continued. In some desperation, Te Kopia by the Prime Minister in his budget speech in July was considered but for obvious reasons, was and for many of the participants both in New discarded. Finally, an area of unalienated Crown Zealand and the United Kingdom, this was the land located behind the Waiotapu Hotel adjacent they knew that the project was to commence. I to the Waikite Valley Road was selected. The It is not unreasonable to assume that imminent agreed to this location provided that not elections had much to do with the Government's more than 10,000 equivalent was used for timing of the release of the news. heavy water.

18 Although the story of the heavy water project by The Hotel was, for many years, the headquarters no means finishes here, the remainder is beyond for visitors fiomHead Office and there were more the time for these notes. There is, however, than a few important decisions taken over the one further aspect worth mentioning. dinner table and Also, itprobably goes without saying that the Hotel was the venue for Security was an important factor fiom the outset. many of the Project's social occasions, not the All technical details of the processes involved in least of which was the celebration of the the production of heavy water, particularly plant opening of the Station on November 13, 1958. outputs, were to be kept secret although there was The old Hotel with its elegant dining room and no objection to making the general nature lounge and its ambience fkom a previous era is of the project. long gone, but its memory lingers.

To meet secrecy requirements, the DSIR adopted 5.2. Contacts With the title "Heat Exchange Research" for the project. Also, the Parliamentary Servicesand Press The First World Power Conference in 1924 was, Committee issued a Defence Notice which limited in effect, our earliest contact with Larderello. As public discussion on heavy water production in already mentioned, the High Commissioner in New Zealand to generalities. The security London met the Prince di Conti following the classifications, including the Defence Notice, conference. Also, several engineers prominent in were maintained until November 1954 when, on the fledgling electrical industry in New Zealand the advice of the authorities, the security were present at the conference and contributed to classification was dropped, the project continuing the discussion on paper on Larderello. on a ''commercially confidential"basis only. (Conti, 1924) In his paper, Conti had referred to the possibilities 5. CONCLUSION inherent in thermal regions in other parts of the world including Rotorua. An unnamed delegate from New Zealand agreed that this energy source In a brief history such as this,many aspects have in New Zealand was very considerable, saying, to be omitted. Some, such as our overseas among other things, that "The most noticeable involvement and, closer to home, the preparation steamoutlet in New Zealand occurred, as far as he of legislation originated fiom this period, but remembered, near the shores of Lake Talbot, at a eventually developed into major activities of their place called It is to be hoped that, own. However, in concluding these notes, there in referring to the Karapiti Blowhole, he was are two aspects of which mention should be made, misreported. our relationship with the Wairakei Hotel and our contacts with Larderello. During an extensive overseas trip in 1926, the Engineer-in-Chief of the Public 5.1. Wairakei Hotel Works Department visited Larderello where he A well established tourist centre in the the and party were received and entertained by the Wairakei Hotel subsequently went through a Prince di Conti. The party was impressed by the speed with which they were driven number of traumatic episodes in its history, includmg and a brief period as a mental to Larderello (adversely) and the lunch they were hospital (Stokes, 1991). However, at the time the given (very favourably). Furkert was also Project began, the Hotel had been restored to pre- impressed by the fact that electric power had been war standards as the leading tourist hotel in the fed fiom Larderello to many years before country. Its proximity to the project resulted in a there was any hydro power available in that part close, although informal relationship between the of Italy (Furkert, 1924). Overseas travel in the early days of Wairakei's This relationshipvaried fiom day to day, but was, development was both financially and physically on the whole, cordial even though the file on the difficult. Consequently, the only visits subsequent Wairakei Hotel was the most active in the office. to that by Tuck and Jobley in 1944 were by Among other things, the early development of Ongley and McKillop on separate occasions in silencers was certainly influenced by the 1948, McKillop again in 1951 and Fisher and comfort of the guests. Also, wind McMillan at the end of 1951. They all looked at direction was an important factor when Larderello fiom different perspectives, but the one discharging the adjacent bores if a major cleanup common theme was an enthusiasm that New of guests cars and of the swimmingpool was to be Zealand could emulate the Larderello Company's avoided. And, of course, the Project was closely example, an enthusiasm they were able to transmit involved with the maintenance of the Hotel's to their politicalmasters. steam supply. There was, of course, no direct involvement. At 1948- Statement, Minister Charge, that time, the Larderello Company was still SectionD-4, p.2 recovering from the war and, concurrently, expanding their own plant. By the time they were Board Council 1950 - "Power Sources in a position to be of assistance, the Wairakei Reviewed" September 6, 1950, organization was established and was well on the way to obtaining the steam for the initial Conti, G. "The Larderello Natural Steam installation. Nevertheless, on his 1948 visit, Plant" In : Trans. of the First World Power did discuss with Dr. the then Conference, London, Percy head of the Larderello Company the possibility of CO. 345-365. a visit by some experts the Company. The Minister considered that it was a little premature DiPippo, Ronald Geothermal Energy as a and the visit never eventuated. Source of Electricity. US Dept of Energy, Washington. While the Larderello Company may not have had any direct input to our activities, their example Furkert, F.W. (1924) From personal papers. (Miss and the gained from them had a very pers. marked influence on New Zealand's decision to investigate and develop our geothermal Grange, The Geology of the Rotorua- resources. Without the Inspiration which began Taupo Subdivision, Rotorua and with the efforts of Prince Ginoro di Conti and his Divisions, NZGS Bull. no. 37 (New Series), colleagues, it is difficult to imagine where the GovernmentPrinter, Wellington. development of our resource would now be or, indeed, whether it would ever have got off the Hamilton, W.M. (1954) "Geothermal Energy" ground. Lecture Series Institute, Nelson, 1954.

6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Martin, J. "Geothermal in Power, People and Politics. Bridget Books, Much of the source material for these notes came Wellington, 1991. fiom the files of the Power Division of the Ministry of Works and Development. My thanks Stokes, E. "Wairakei Geothermal Area - Some are due to Works Services, now Historical Perspectives." University of Waikato, Opus International Ltd. who, as temporary Hamilton 1991. custodians, gave me every assistance in gaining , access to the relevant files. F.E.N. (1944) The Utilisation of Geothermal Steam at Larderello - Italy. Public Works Department Report, Wellington. 7. REFERENCES PWD 1918 - N.A. ED 2673, Ptl, Correspondence,February, 1918. N.A. - National Archives of New Zealand. AJHR - Appendix to the Journal of the House of PWD 1924 N.A. ED 2673, Ptl, Representatives. - - November-

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