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Ecoregions in Context: a Critique with Special Reference to Indonesia

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Ecoregions in Context: a Critique with Special Reference to Indonesia Ecoregions in Context: a Critique with Special Reference to Indonesia PAUL JEPSON* AND ROBERT J. WHITTAKER School of Geography and the Environment, University of Oxford, Mansfield Road, Oxford OX1 3TB, United Kingdom Abstract: World Wildlife Fund–United States ( WWF ) is promoting an ecoregional framework internation- ally as a new hierarchical approach to organizing and prioritizing conservation efforts. We assessed WWF ecoregions against existing frameworks: (1) the Dasmann-Udvardy ( World Conservation Union [IUCN]) Bio- geographical Representation Framework, (2) the Bailey Ecoregional Framework (U.S. Forest Service), and (3) the hotspot approach, as exemplified by the BirdLife Endemic Bird Area Approach and the WWF–IUCN Centres of Plant Diversity Program. We examined the genealogy of the schemes from three perspectives: meth- odological explicitness, transparency and repeatability, and whether the WWF–ecoregions system improves on existing schemes. We considered Indonesia as a case study and assessed the efficacy of each system in the Indonesian context. The existing planning frameworks achieved their objective; in general had explicit, trans- parent, and repeatable methods; and, in the case of the Dasmann-Udvardy system, attained an institutional reality in Indonesia. The central purpose of the WWF–ecoregions framework is the same as the 25-year-old Dasmann-Udvardy system, and at the coarsest spatial scales it relies on similar spatial delineators ( biomes and faunal regions). The WWF methodology, however, employs a gestalt approach to defining ecoregion boundaries. In the Indonesian context the resulting map appears problematic both in terms of the underlying rationale of the ecoregion approach and in terms of apparent conflict with preexisting protected-area design. We suggest, insofar as refined planning frameworks are needed, that an alternative route that builds on rather than competes with existing approaches would be to combine at the mesoscale the landform delinea- tors that characterize the Bailey ecoregion system with the existing macroscale ecoclimatic and biogeographic delineators of the Dasmann-Udvardy system. We question the investment in developing and promoting the WWF–ecoregion scheme in Indonesia when the existing Dasmann-Udvardy system, used in conjunction with hotspot studies, provides a seemingly adequate system and when the reserve system itself is under consider- able pressure. Ecoregiones en Contexto: una Critica con Especial Referencia a Indonesia Resumen: El Fondo Mundial para la Vida Silvestre ( WWF) de los Estados Unidos está promoviendo interna- cionalmente un marco de trabajo ecoregional como una nueva aproximación jerárquica a la organización y priorización de los esfuerzos de conservación. Evaluamos las ecoregiones de WWF contra marcos de tra- bajo existentes: 1) el marco de trabajo de representación Biogeográfica de la Dasmann-Udvardy (Unión Mundial para la Conservación (IUCN), el marco de trabajo ecoregional Bailey (Servicio Forestal de USA) y 3) la aproximación de la regiones problemáticas ejemplificado por la estrategia de Áreas para Aves Endémi- cas y el programa de centros para la diversidad de plantas de WWF/IUCN. Examinamos la genealogía de los esquemas desde tres perspectivas: nivel de claridad en la metodología, transparencia y repetibilidad y si el sistema de ecoregiones de la WWF mejora los esquemas existentes. Consideramos a Indonesia como un caso de estudio y evaluamos la eficacia de cada sistema en el contexto de Indonesia. Los planes de trabajo exis- tentes alcanzaron su objetivo; en general tuvieron métodos explícitos, transparentes y repetibles; y en el caso del sistema Dasmann-Udvardy alcanzó una realidad institucional en Indonesia. El propósito central de los marcos de trabajo de las ecoregiones de WWF es el mismo que el sistema de hace 25 años de Dasmann- Udvardy y a nivel de escalas espaciales amplias está basado en delineadores espaciales similares ( biomasa y *email [email protected] Paper submitted September 17, 1999; revised manuscript accepted May 9, 2001. 42 Conservation Biology, Pages 42–57 Volume 16, No. 1, February 2002 Jepson & Whittaker Ecoregions in Context 43 regiones faunísticas). Sin embargo, la metodología de WWF emplea una metodología de configuración de el- ementos separados (gestalt) para definir los límites de las ecoregiones. En el contexto de Indonesia, los mapas resultantes parecen ser problemáticos tanto en términos de la racionalidad subyacente de la metodología de ecoregión y en términos de un aparente conflicto con los diseños de las áreas protegidas existentes. Sugerimos que hasta el momento se necesitan planes refinados de marco de trabajo. Una ruta alternativa que con- struya, y no que compita con las metodologías existentes sería la combinación a nivel de mesoescala de los delineadores de contornos que caracterizan el sistema de ecoregión Bailey con la macroescala ecoclimática existente y los delineadores biogeográficos del sistema Dasmann-Udvardy, usados en conjunción con los estu- dios de regiones problemáticas. Esto provee un sistema aparentemente adecuado cuando el sistema de reser- vas se encuentra bajo una considerable presión. Introduction nesia captures a wide range of biotic variation (it spans two zoogeographical regions, dry and ever-wet tropics, Over the last 30 years, a variety of spatial frameworks and its ecosystem variation ranges from tropical glacier has been developed for the purpose of guiding conser- to mangrove). vation action internationally. The most recent is the To meet the aims outlined above, we describe (in ecoregional approach developed by World Wildlife chronological order) the three most prominent catego- Fund–United States ( WWF) (Dinerstein et al. 1995; Ol- ries of spatial planning frameworks developed at the glo- son & Dinerstein 1998). It is being adopted and pro- bal scale: biogeographical provinces, hotspots, and moted widely by the WWF family of agencies (WWF In- ecoregions. We summarize each framework with re- ternational, WWF national organizations, and WWF spect to their aims, rationale, and context of development country representative offices) and by international pro- and then assess their efficacy with reference to Indonesia’s grams of the U.S.–based, nongovernmental organization terrestrial ecosystems. Our assessment is concerned prin- The Nature Conservancy (TNC). The combination of ad- cipally with generic issues rather than specific boundary vocacy power, human and financial resources, and inter- questions in Indonesia. As far as we have been able to national project portfolios possessed by these two inter- establish, no comparative overview of these different national organizations make it likely that the ecoregional schemes has been published, and we therefore hope framework will be adopted and used by other agencies, this contribution will stimulate debate among conserva- including the Global Environment Facility (GEF) and tionists in general, not merely those directly involved in government conservation agencies in developing coun- planning within the Indo-Malayan realm. tries. In other areas of natural resource management, misunderstanding of alternative spatial planning frame- works has resulted in inconsistency in their use and ulti- Biogeographical Representation mate effectiveness (Omernik & Bailey 1997). Those in- volved in conservation planning on the ground therefore The Dasmann-Udvardy Framework need to know what this scheme brings with it that pre- existing schemes do not. A central concern of the IUCN since its creation has been Our review has three aims: (1) to compare the WWF the need to establish a worldwide network of natural re- ecoregions with existing spatial frameworks for terres- serves encompassing representative areas of the world’s trial conservation planning with a global perspective; (2) ecosystems. In the 1960s there was widespread support to assess scientific explicitness, transparency, and re- for this “representation principle.” In response, Dasmann peatability of methods; and (3) to ask whether the WWF (1972, 1973) prepared for IUCN a hierarchical system that ecoregions framework improves upon existing frame- defines and classifies natural regions for the purpose of works. To address these points we reviewed and at- conservation. His aim was to provide a system that gave tempted to define the purpose for which the various equal emphasis to the IUCN’s interests in conserving schemes were devised. natural ecosystems and vegetation types and the conser- We considered Indonesia as a case-study country with vation of species. His solution was to establish a system which to explore these questions. Indonesia is a suitable of classification of communities based on ecoclimatic fea- choice because (1) it is one of the most biodiverse areas tures but emphasizing taxonomic differences (Table 1). on Earth; (2) the government has consistently been at At the top level in the hierarchy, Dasmann (1972) chose the forefront in adopting new spatial conservation plan- the biome system (e.g., tundra, taiga, deciduous broad- ning frameworks; and (3) as an archipelago comprising leaved forest) of Clements and Shelford (1939) because large continental-shelf islands and oceanic islands, Indo- it is readily applicable globally, takes into account both Conservation Biology Volume 16, No. 1, February 2002 Volume 16, No.1,February2002 Conservation Biology 44 Ecoregions inContext Table 1. Comparative analysis of four spatial conservation planning frameworks. Biogeographic
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