Iowa State University Capstones, Theses and Retrospective Theses and Dissertations Dissertations

1977 The sa sociation of success training to student achievement, self-image and participation Robert B. Lowe Iowa State University

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University Microfilms International 300 North Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106 USA St. John's Road, Tyler's Green High Wycombe, Bucks, England HP10 8HR 78-5945 LOWE, Robert B., 1936- THE ASSOCIATION OF SUCCESS TRAINING TO STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT, SELF-IMAGE AND PARTICIPATION. Iowa State University, Ph.D., 1977 Education, administration

University Microfilms International, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48io6 The association of success training to student

achievement, self-image and participation

by

Robert B. Lowe

A Dissertation Submitted to the

Graduate Faculty in Partial Fulfillment of

The Requirements for the Degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department: Professional Studies Major: Education (Educational Administration)

Approved:

Signature was redacted for privacy.

In Charge of Ma^r j^ork

Signature was redacted for privacy.

the Major Department

Signature was redacted for privacy.

For tyie «ralTJate College

Iowa State University Ames, Iowa

1977 ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

INTRODUCTION 1

Statement of the Problem 4

Development of Hypotheses 4

Basic Assumptions 5

Delimitations 6

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 7

Introduction 7

Self-Concept and School Achievement 7

Interventions 9

Changing Students' Motivation 12

Improved Instruction for the Low Socio-Economic Status Students (LSESS) 15

Studies Conducted Using Earl Nightingale's "Lead the Field Tapes" 18

Summary 21

METHODOLOGY 24

Selection of the Sample 24

Conceptual Framework for the Study 24

Procedure 26

Collection of the Data 29

Statistical Analysis 30

FINDINGS 31

Hypotheses 32 iii

Page

Cost of the Program 57

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 58

Summary 58

Conclusions « 60

School achievement 60 Self-concept 61 Participation in extracurricular activities 62

Discussion 63

Limitations of the Study 65

Recommendations 66

Recommendations for practice 66 Recommendations for research 67

BIBLIOGRAPHY 69 iv

LIST OF TABLES

Page

Table 1. Grade point means by treatment 32

Table 2. One-way analysis of variance: Grade point means. ... 33

Table 3. Grade point means by treatment and sex 34

Table 4. Analysis of covariance: Grade point average using group 1, group 2 and control group. . 36

Table 5. Analysis of covariance: Grade point average using group 1 and group 2 37

Table 6. Summary of means for extracurricular activities .... 38

Table 7. One-way analysis of variance: Extracurricular participation 39

Table 8. Analysis of covariance: Extracurricular activi­ ties participation using group 1, group 2 and control group 39

Table 9. Summary of means for extracurricular activities for the experimental groups 41

Table 10. Analysis of covariance: Extracurricular partici­ pation using group 1 and group 2 43

Table 11. .-leans of Stanford Achievement Test (mathematics subtest) for all groups 44

Table 12. One-way analysis of variance: Stanford Achieve­ ment Test—math concept subtest 45

Table 13. Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory means for all groups 47

Table 14. One-way analysis of variance: Coopersmith Self- Esteem Inventory 48

Table 15. Analysis of covariance: Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory using group 1, group 2 and control group 48

Table 16. Piers Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale means for all groups 50 V

Page

Table 17. One-way analysis of variance: Piers Harris Chil­ dren's Self-Concept scores 53

Table 18. Analysis of covariance: Piers Harris Children's Self-Concept scores using group 1, group 2 and control group 53

Table 19. Analysis of covariance: Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory using group 1, group 2 and control group . . 55

Table 20. Analysis of covariance: Piers Harris Children's Self-Concept scores using group 1, group 2 and control group 56 1

INTRODUCTION

The dilemma facing the American educational system is how to reach more of its students. Leon M. Lessinger stated the problem very accu­ rately when he wrote:

If one airplane in every four crashed between take­ off and landing, people would refuse to fly. If one automobile in every four went out of control and caused a fatal accident or permanent injury, Detroit would be closed down tomorrow.

Our schools - which produce a more important product than airplanes or automobiles - somehow fail one student in four. (66)

In an attempt to reach more students various compensatory programs have been developed. Brubaker stated: "The main purpose of compensa­ tory education has been to provide additional experiences to help de­ prived students become more successful in school" (16). The federal government has encouraged local schools to provide compensatory programs.

This encouragement has been provided by legislation such as: Economic

Opportunity Act of 1964, Higher Education Act of 1965, Elementary Secon­ dary Education Act of 1965, Educational Professional Development Act of

1967, Vocational Educational Amendments of 1968 and Title IX of Educa­ tional Amendments of 1972.

Many of the early compensatory projects developed focused on devel­ opment of cognitive skills. However in recent years several projects shifted emphasis from the cognitive to affective domain. The reason for the change in research emphasis was explained by Gertrude Webb (102] who indicated that: "Academic success or failure seems to be rooted as 2

deeply in concepts of the self as it is in measured mental ability."

Because feeling good about oneself allows one to act, to adjust, and to

do more than merely respond to a stimulus. It gives one the freedom to

take the next step. Conversely a poor self-image absorbs one's psychic

energy and prevents one from moving into new areas of learning. An

understanding of self, its emergence and effects on one's development

are critical to the learning process.

In a review of research to determine if a linkage exists between

school achievement and self-concept, William Purkey wrote that:

There is a persistent and significant relationship be­ tween the self-concept and academic achievement at each grade level, and that change in one seems to be associated with change in the other. (79)

Another dimension being considered is that scores on self-percep­ tion scales can be used to predict future academic success or failure.

Binder (7), Jones (57), and Jones and Stowig (56) have demonstrated that it is possible to predict scholastic achievement from measures of self- perception.

Researchers have also found that students experiencing difficulties with academic achievement may also have a low self-concept. Kerensky

(59), Campbell (19), Hughes (51), Coopersmith (27), Padelford (74), and

Miller (71) have all supported the premise of a low, positive relation­

ship between self-concept and academic achievement at the fourth-,

fifth-, and sixth-grade levels.

Herbert J. Klausmier (61) indicates that attitude is a key factor in the learning process. He states that: "an attitude is a learned,

emotionally-toned predisposition to react in a consistent way, favorable 3

or unfavorable toward a person, object or idea." Moreover, Klausmier

insists that attitudes can be changed if proper stimulation is brought

to bear.

The linkage between the cognitive learning and the affective domain

appears to be a fruitful area for further research. Krathwohl et al.,

(63) state: "Clearly there is a need for conclusive experimentation

and research on the relations between the cognitive and affective do­

mains." Caplin (20) specifically stresses a need for further investiga­

tion of the relationship between self-concept and achievement, especi­

ally at the elementary and junior high levels.

Cited research notwithstanding, it is possible that the causation works in the opposite direction too. In certain cases good school achievement may raise self-concept. Moreover, extra class activities may influence both self-concept and school achievement.

Generally speaking, the research in the self-image-school achieve­ ment linkage supports the postulate that there may be a connection be­

tween how a person feels about himself and how well he does academically

(88). The subordinate question becomes how can this linkage be used to help boys and girls?

While many educational researchers have been experimenting with

locally-prepared teacher-made materials, the private sector has much

greater experience with commercially-prepared materials used for motiva­

tion of employees. It seemed possible that material developed to build the self-confidence of sales and business executives might be equally effective for junior high boys and girls having academic problems. 4

Statement of the Problem

The major problem of this research was to investigate the relation­ ships (if any) among self-concept, school achievement, and participa­ tion in extracurricular activities.

Development of Hypotheses

To determine if relationships exist between school achievement, self-concept and participation in extracurricular activities the follow­ ing hypotheses were tested.

1. There are no significant grade point average differences among students who receive special academic tutoring and studied attitude change packages and those students who receive only the special academic tutoring.

2. There are no significant increases in extracurricular participation among students who receive special academic tutoring and studied attitude change packages and those students who receive only the special academic tutoring.

3. There are no significant grade point average differences among students who receive special academic tutoring and studied attitude change packages followed by discussion and those students who receive the special academic tutor­ ing and studied attitude change packages without the bene­ fit of discussion.

4. There are no significant increases in extracurricular participation among students who receive special academic tutoring and studied attitude change packages followed by discussion and those students who receive the special academic tutoring and studied attitude change packages without the benefit of discussion.

5. There are no significant changes in standardized achieve­ ment gains among students who receive special academic tutoring and studied attitude change packages and those students who receive only the special academic tutoring as measured by the Stanford Achievement Test. 5

6. There are no significant changes in self-concept among stu­ dents who receive special academic tutoring and studied attitude change packages and those students who receive only the special academic tutoring as measured by the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory and the Piers Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale (The Way I Feel About îtyself).

7. There are no significant changes in standardized achieve­ ment gains among students who receive special academic tutoring and studied attitude change packages followed by discussion and those students who receive the special academic tutoring and studied attitude change packages without the benefit of discussion as measured by the Stanford Achievement Test.

8. There are no significant changes in self-concept among students who receive special academic tutoring and studied attitude change packages followed by discussion and those students who receive the special academic tutoring and studied attitude change packages without the benefit of discussion as measured by the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory and the Piers Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale (The Way I Feel About Myself).

Basic Assumptions

This investigation required the following basic assumptions:

1. Achievement and self-concept can be measured by existing

standardized tests.

2. Existing public school compensatory programs have not used

commercially-prepared materials for attitude change.

3. Attitude change experiences can improve academic achieve­

ment and/or self-concept.

4. The low achiever with poor self-image can be identified. 6

Delimitations

This experiment used 102 students who were seventh- and eighth- grade Title I eligible students as subjects. Title I students met the

following criteria.

1. Children aged five through 17 in families with an annual

income below $2,000.00 according to the 1960 census; and

2. Children in the same age group from families with an

annual income above $2,000.00 who receive Aid to Families

with Dependent Children (AFDC) under Title IV of the Social

Security Act.

The treatment was limited to the use of the Nightingale-Conant,

"Lead the Field Attitude Change Packages." Also the treatment was limited to a thirteen-week duration.

Data gathered from the following sources provided dependent vari­ ables:

1) Stanford Achievement Test

2) Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory

3) Piers Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale (The Way I Feel

About Myself)

4) Grade point average for three nine-week quarters

5) Extracurricular participation for three nine-week quarters 7

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Introduction

Essentially this investigation looked at the impact of commercially- prepared motivational materials on extracurricular participation, grade point average, and self-image of Title I eligible junior high students.

Appropriate literature for this experiment includes: 1) Self-Concept and School Achievement, 2) Intervention, 3) Changing Students' Motiva­ tion, 4) Improved Instruction for the Low Socio-Economic Status Student

(LSESS), and 5) Studies Conducted Using Earl Nightingale's "Lead the

Field Tapes".

Self-Concept and School Achievement

Self-concept appears to be associated with school achievement. How­ ever and unfortunately, most of the research has been correlational.

Investigators tend to study existing classes by measuring self-concepts and correlating level of concept with scores on standardized tests. An experimental design whereby students with high and low self-concepts are randomly assigned to instructional learning situations would be more productive in establishing causation.

A number of researchers have attempted to design studies that look at the relationship between school achievement and self-concept. Donald

M. Quick stated that:

Self-concept and achievement appear to be interrelated --that is poor achievement usually promotes a depreciation 8

of one's self-concept, which, in turn, leads to continued poor achievement. (80)

Five other studies by Krause (64), Everett (36), Buck and Brown (17),

Torshen (97), and Cohn and Komelly (24) each found that when the self- image in increased there is a significant increase in school achieve­ ment. However, Purkey dampens the impact of these conclusions by his statement:

Judging by the research conducted thus far there is no question that there is a persistent relationship be­ tween the self-concept and academic achievement. However, a great deal of caution is needed before one assumes that either the self-concept determines scholastic performance or that scholastic performance shapes the self-concept. It may be that the relationship between the two is caused by some factor yet to be determined. The best evidence now available suggests that it is a two-way street, that there is a continuous interaction between the self-concept and academic achievement, and that each directly influences the other. (79)

Alvord (1) indicates: Although a number of studies have indicated positive relationships between achievements and attitude toward school and between achievements and self-concept, relatively little information directly applicable to the school situation has been derived from a knowledge of such a relationship. This, he submits, is primarily be­ cause there are numerous factors which are thought to compose attitude toward school and self-concept. Studies by Boshier (11), Rukley (85),

Wass (100), and Butcher (18) indicated there was no significant change in school achievement as a result of a change in self-concept. The absence of significance in the studies cited indicated the inconsistency in the relationship between students' self-concept and student achieve­ ment. Du Cette and Walk (33), and Gowan (44) state that other variables 9 besides self-concept and school achievement such as sex, grade level, race and academic ability needed to be examined as possible motivators of this relationship.

Studies by Coleman (25), Wattenberg and Clifford (101), Brookover et al. (13), Caplin (21), Soares et al. (90), and Paris (37) found that self-concept may be related to academic achievement. These studies in­ dicated that a good self-concept helps one have academic success; how­ ever, it is not the only significant factor in determining scholastic achievement. A variable touched upon by Purkey (79) in discussing studies of this nature is that "the self-concept of ability is a better predictor of success in school than is over-all self-concept."

In general, the findings indicate that a good self-concept is re­ lated to or associated with high achievement. The question is, what causes what? Also, very few of the studies have examined the relation­ ship over time. However, even though a consistent relationship cannot be found, society appears to demand that time and effort be directed toward raising the self-image of students. States such as Pennsylvania and Iowa have determined that improvement of self-esteem is a number one priority for the public schools (45).

Interventions

The Elementary Secondary Education Act of 1965 has generated funds to provide compensatory programs for students who are cul­ turally or economically deprived. The method used by a number of project developers is intervention. Intervention in education involves providing assistance to a student above and beyond the basic program. Programs using intervention may focus on: 10

remediation, preschool education, tutoring, counseling. However the technique is not the determinant unless the following questions as

stated by Bronfenbrenner (14) are asked:

1. Do children in experimental programs continue to gain in intellectual development so long as intervention continues or at least do they maintain the high level achieved in the initial phase?

2. Do children continue to improve, or hold their own, after termination of the program, or do they regress?

3. Is development enhanced by beginning intervention at earlier ages, including the first year of life?

4. In terms of long range impact, what kinds of programs are most effective?

5. Which children from what circumstances are most likely to benefit in the long run from early intervention?

A number of studies have focused upon improving the educational achievement of disadvantaged children. Starvos (93), Evans (35),

Clements (23), Custer (30), Rud (84), Bayer (6) and Baarstad (2) each found that when intervention is used that school achievement is increased significantly. Lynn (68) in looking at the effectiveness of compensa­ tory education concluded that intervention has not been effective in significantly improving the educational achievement of disadvantaged children.

Brubaker (16) reported that:

The compensatory work-study program (an intervention technique) was not effective in improving attendance, punc­ tuality, grade point average, achievement, or self-concept of the students involved in his investigation.

Studies by Brown (15), Baruffi (5), Barber (3), Crown (29), Darmstadt

(31), and Holland (49) also found that intervention was not effective 11

in significantly bringing about a positive change in school achieve­ ment.

In the last decade researchers have looked at self-image and at

school achievement simultaneously. The rationale was that a number of

researchers hypothesized that self-concept may be related to school

achievement. Custer (30), Baruffi (5), Crown (29), and Mclntyre (69)

found that in their studies that intervention significantly changed the

self-concept of students. However, other studies by Brubaker (16), Ogle

(73), Kvaraceus (65), Carr (22), and Zinrnieman (104) concluded that in­

tervention did not significantly change a student's self-concept.

Grade point average of students has been used as a dependent vari­ able by a few researchers such as: Brubaker (16), Carr (22), and

Jackavay (53). The studies conducted by these researchers found that intervention does not significantly change a student's grade point aver­ age. One of the problems with grade point average is that it is a very difficult variable to monitor. Therefore studies involving grade point averages are far from conclusive.

In summary, a wide variety of intervention programs have been im­ plemented in the last decade. Generally speaking, findings of these studies indicate that:

1. Intervention yields the most significant results when

implemented at an early age.

2. School achievement may or may not be significantly changed

as a result of intervention.

3. Self-image may or may not be significantly changed as a 12

result of intervention.

4. Grade point average has not been researched enough to

determine the effects of intervention.

The problem with intervention is pointed out by Jencks et al.,

(54): "Even if schools are successful in influencing the achievements of children, improvements are lost before they reach adulthood."^ Rela­ tively few of the studies concerned with intervention are longitudinal in design. Instead, they are short-term with a limited number of sub­ jects. The real merit of the present investigation will be whether the intervention produces results of lasting value to the recipient.

Changing Students' Motivation

Motivation has been used by researchers as a way to influence school achievement. Motivation is that part of self that impels a person to learn to work toward a goal. The major premise of such studies is stated by de Charms (32) as:

1. In order to learn a child must be motivated. 2. That motivation is enhanced through feelings of per­ sonal causation and depressed by feelings of external compulsion and pressure.

A major study of motivation as it relates to achievement was con­ ducted by Ko lb (62). The study utilized Achievement Motivation Training

(A.M.T.) as a training device with underachieving high school boys. The experimental groups' improvement over the control group in grade point

^Christopher Jencks directed the landmark Harvard University study of all ESEA projects during the late 1960s. Essentially he concluded that federal projects for improved education of low socio-economic status students had not made any difference. 13 average lends encouraging support to the hypothesis that if underachieving

boys model the characteristics of the person with high achievement moti­ vation, it can lead to better academic performance. A parallel study

by Ryals (86) also significantly established that students trained with

A.M.T. will score higher than nontrained students on standardized tests.

Motivation has been shown to be significantly related to school achievement in studies by Fitzgerald (40), Raybum (81), Wrape (103), and Tang (94).

Studies conducted by other educators have found that motivation does not significantly change a student's school achievement. Newton

(72), Blosser (9), Kishock (60), Starr (92), and Tarmagini (95) each found that motivation was not a significant factor in resulting school achievement.

The problem with using motivation to effect school achievement is that:

The best of both learning and teaching is an elusive thing that is the result of enhanced motivation resulting from choice and commitment. (32)

Many of the studies in motivation deal with short-term approaches which capitalize on the intrinsic or extrinsic aspects of behavior stimu­ lation. Saleh and Grygiers defined these factors as:

Extrinsic as those related to the environment in which the job is performed and intrinsic as those related to the actual performance of the job. (87)

Another dimension of motivation was examined in a study by Gold­ man (43). This dimension was concerned with the Risky Shift. Risk is a condition or circumstance. (Risk involves approaching new 14 learning experiences in a positive manner.) Students high in the need to achieve were found to take more risks than subjects low in need achievement. Also, high need achievers have a low fear of failure.

Therefore students identified as high need achievers in the Goldman study scored significantly better on achievement tests than those iden­ tified as low need achievers.

For the most part, motivation appears to be a way to affect school achievement. Searching for a way to help students is based on the premise that their contribution to society is related to their school achievement. Havighurst states:

There are many mediocre and poor students, whom we call "non-academic types" who cannot see their school achievement as evidence that they are preparing to meed adult responsi­ bilities. (47)

To change students who are low achievers it is necessary to reach them at their level of understanding. Jones (58) feels that many of these students came from:

1. Poverty and slum areas 2. Broken homes that are female-headed 3. Welfare oriented homes 4. Neighborhoods where the male model of success is frequently a ghetto pimp or hustler

de Charms (32) feels that the disaffected students can be reached by a teacher who is:

More open and nondogmatic and as a result, pupils are able to influence activities and therefore feel personal causation and responsibility, and their academic achieve­ ment scores will be higher.

Studies have shown motivation will significantly affect student achievement. However, the key factor in motivation is to show the 15 nonachiever not only how to play the educational game but that the game is worth playing and will affect one's adult life.

Improved Instruction for the Low Socio-Economic Status Students (LSESS)

One of the highest priorities of the public schools should be to find an effective means of educating urban and rural children who are

Low Socio-Economic Status Students (LSESS). The reason for the concern is that unless attention is focused on them, one out of every three of these children will drop out of school before graduation (26). Every child regardless of his background has potential. Robinson (82) feels that this potential can be nurtured when the following assumptions are considered:

1. Education begins long before school - in fact, at or before birth; and someone must be responsible for direct­ ing (or not obstructing) this education.

2. The linear or sequential mode of thinking is limited and should frequently be supplemented by a metaphoric or in­ tuitive mode.

3. Schools today place far too much emphasis on information gathering, far too little on the process of learning, particularly on affective and motor learning.

4. Schools today pay far too much attention to age/grade norms, far too little to individual maturation.

5. Teaching for right answers promotes fear of ignorance and an unhealthy guilt about ignorance.

6. Most learning disabilities are of the symbolic mode. We should use far more visual instruction.

7. Students are asked to spend too little time thinking, too much time memorizing the results of other persons' thinking.

Looking at LSESS alone would be one-sided; however few formal 16 attempts have been made to improve programs for high socio-economic status children. Charges of "elitism" would surely follow. Nonetheless, parallels may be drawn with programs for the gifted student. Trezise stated:

The strongest premise on which to build a program for the gifted is that every student has a right to an education that is appropriate for her or him. This principle applies to all students, from the most handicapped child to the most gifted. To provide for the gifted, therefore, is not un­ democratic, as it is so often implied; it is in keeping with the best traditions of American schools. (98)

Of course some gifted youngsters are found in the LSESS population of any school.

To analyze whether program intervention works for the LSESS or the gifted, it is necessary first to consider learning style. Dunn and Dunn

(34) set the stage with this statement.

An abundant amount of literature testifies that people leam through difficult perceptual strengths and often under diametrically opposed conditions. Striving to provide alter­ natives for students who learn in different ways is an excel­ lent move toward obtaining increased academic achievement.

Jennings and Nathan (55) in their study of research on experimental programs observed that:

A number of schools work specifically with students who are rejects of traditional schools. Harlem Prep in New York City was established for dropouts of other schools, yet 95% of its graduates go on to college. Most of them complete college. The Career Study Center in St. Paul, Minnesota, created for the unsuccessful truant student, graduates 90% of its students, although the original prognosis was that only 10% would do so.

Other studies that indicated that program intervention will sig­ nificantly affect academic achievement of low socio-economic status students were conducted by Feshbach et al. (38), Hogan and Horsfall 17

(48), Godfrey (42), Feshbach et al. (39) and Boyer and Boyer (12).

However, studies by Rosenberg (83), Friend and Neale (41), Barnard

(4), Harris (46), and Soares and Scares (89) found that program inter­ vention did not affect the academic achievement of LSESS.

A study by Torrance (96) indicated that the gifted are not able to

score significantly higher than the disadvantaged on material without cultural bias.

Other studies conducted by Horwitz (50), Triffinger (99), Meyers et al. (70), and Criscuolo (28) found that program intervention did not significantly affect the academic achievement of gifted children.

In summary, many of the programs developed for LSESS and gifted children place heavy emphasis on standardized aptitude and achievement test results. The problem with this criteria is that the tests can seriously underestimate potential or intellectual ability to process information.

Both types of students learn differently from the quote "normal" student. Possibly the alternative school is the answer for both ends of the spectrum. Staples (91) feels the answer for the different stu­ dent may be:

Recognizing that different students learn better in different types of schools, the alternatives stress variety rather than uniformity. In order to be considered an alter­ native, a program must provide diverse approaches to teach­ ing and learning in core subjects and develop an approach that is significantly different from that of conventional programs. These alternative formats represent a restrict­ ing of a student's learning experience and incorporate components of academic remediation, career education, work study internships, open classrooms, academically-talented programs, and special interest programs. 18

The reason for looking at the gifted and the LSESS together is that each form a kind of minority group. By and large, schools are having problems finding programs that meet the needs of these students. How­ ever, it is possible that certain instructional techniques such as brainstorming, involvement in serious social issues and career educa­ tion may meet the needs of both minority groups.

Studies Conducted Using Earl Nightingale's "Lead the Field Tapes"

Earl Nightingale is billed in his personal appearances as "the dean of personal motivation", and he is possibly the most successful person in that field today. Nightingale's daily radio program "Our Changing

World" is now the "most listened to radio series on earth". Mr. Night­ ingale's engaging observations on life, the world and people are heard by many millions every day throughout the western hemisphere and the free world.

The program is broadcast on nearly 1,000 radio stations, and is tha largest in the history of broadcasting with a huge audience of faithful listeners throughout the United States, Canada, Australia, Mexico,

South Africa, New Zealand, Guam, and the Fiji and Caribbean Islands.

Earl Nightingale makes the study of people his life's work. For years now he has communicated his observations and conclusions on human behavior through both his daily broadcasts and the training and self- development recordings and films his company, Nightingale-Conant Corpora­ tion, produces in Chicago.

In 1956, newspapers all over the country carried a story of the 19 man who "retired at thirty-five". But instead of "retiring", Nightingale simply devoted himself full-time to the pursuit which has challenged him since childhood—studying the motivation of people. It was at this time that he wrote and recorded "The Strangest Secret", a thirty-minute spoken message that outlined his own proven plan for success in life.

This became the most popular "talk" record of all time and won a coveted

Gold Record award for sales exceeding a million copies.

With his business partner, Lloyd Conant, Nightingale has produced and successfully marketed various audio and video taped series for training and self-development: "Lead the Field", intra- and extra-per­ sonal human relations; "Great Ideas", effective, persuasive communica­ tion; "Creative Thinking", innovation and problem solving; "Keys to Suc­ cess", personal inspiration and guidance; and "Keep it Simple, Salesman!", professional sales techniques.

Paul Preising (77), Director, Grants and Research, San Jose City

College, in August of 1974 reprinted the results of eight California community colleges which attempted to improve community college students' motivation through the systematic application of commercially-produced attitude packages. The results of the field tests were:

1. Three colleges. Mount San Antonio, Shasta College, and San Jose City College showed positive results with the attitude change tapes.

2. Each of the colleges at which positive results with the attitude change tapes were recorded had one research feature in ccmmon - they all used small group discussion and follow-up after requiring students to listen to the tapes.

3. One of the most salient unanticipated results with the 20

study is the clear support for tutoring as a technique for improving grade point averages and retention rates of low minority students.

Preising and Frost (78) in another study entitled: "Increasing

Student Retention Through Application of Attitude Change Packages" found that;

1. Unemployed aerospace engineers benefited from the train­ ing of both a specific skill as well as the experience of having to set personal goals and to change attitudes.

2. There was no significant difference in the number of drop­ outs between the experimental and control groups.

Fred M. Lindsey (67), Superintendent of Louisiana Training Insti­ tute, Monroe, Louisiana, in a paper entitled: "Guides for Better Living" indicated:

1. There has been a general positive improvement in beha­ vior among the students involved in listening to Earl Nightingale's "Lead the Field Tapes".

2. Destructive damage done by students has decreased sig­ nificantly since listening to the attitude change tapes.

3. There has been a 63 percent decrease in runaways since the implementation of the program.

4. There has been a 33 percent decrease in serious offenses committed at the training institute.

5. There has been a 25 percent increase in participation in intramural activities.

Raymond C. Jablonski (52) in a report to Memphis State University

entitled: "An Experimental Attitude Change Program for High School

Students" reported that:

1. The attitude of high school students will change signifi­ cantly when exposed to the Nightingale-Conant Human Re­ source Development package.

2. Since prior research indicates that changes in attitude are 21

beneficial to academic achievement, it is reasonable to conclude that the students of the experimental group will demonstrate increased academic success.

The four studies cited indicate that further study should be con­ ducted with Nightingale's "Lead the Field Tapes". Preising (76) asserted that: "... attitude change packages such as Nightingale's

'Lead the Field Tapes' should be purchased for use by students in com­ munity colleges". He also suggests the need to experiment with popula­ tions not only of college age, but secondary school as well.

The application of commercially-prepared attitude change packages may open a new door in the secondary schools. The correlation (if any) between attitude and school achievement needs to be examined to see if commercially-prepared materials can affect attitude and in turn bring about changes in school achievement.

Summary

Since the enactment of the Elementary Secondary Education Act of

1965, vast amounts of money and time have been spent on ways to improve achievement of disadvantaged children. Many of the early compensatory programs focused on development of cognitive skills. In recent years projects have shifted emphasis to the affective domain.

The affective domain is a difficult area to measure and to change.

Self-concept is usually measured by self-esteem inventories with built- in "lie detectors".

When looking at self-concept and school achievement, intervention, changing students' motivation, improved instruction for the low 22 socio-economic status student and studies conducted using Earl Night­ ingale's "Lead the Field Tapes", we find contradictions. Positive re­ sults are often negated by other studies.

Self-concept and school achievement appear to be related. However, the problem is determining, what causes what? Intervention has proven to be successful in influencing school achievement over short periods of time. However, the real test of intervention will be shown only by longitudinal studies.

Changing students' motivation is another attempt to influence school achievement. The key factor in motivation is showing the stu­ dent that the offerings in school have long-term residual benefits.

Improved instruction for the low socio-economic status student is usually an attempt to keep these students in a school setting. The answer appears to be in developing programs that focus on learning styles and are diverse in nature.

Studies conducted using Earl Nightingale's "Lead the Field Tapes" are an example of using commercially-prepared attitude change mate­ rials. Preliminary results using these materials indicate that aca­ demic performance, self-image, behavior, and participation in extra­ curricular activities may be improved as a result of listening to these tapes.

A few studies have indicated that work on students' self-image combined with tutoring can bring about a positive change in school achievement and attitude toward school-related activities.

Until much additional research is completed there will continue 23 to be doubt regarding the long-term effects of attitude upon school achievement. The effectiveness of various compensatory and interven­ tion programs on school achievement will be answered only through longi­ tudinal study. 24

METHODOLOGY

The major purpose of this investigation was to determine the asso­ ciation of success training to student achievement, self-image and par­ ticipation for a group of Title I seventh- and eighth-grade students of Boone, Iowa.

Selection of the Sample

Participants in this study were selected under the Title I guide­ lines of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 (ESEA).

Due to the fact that these students were in junior high school, the poverty guidelines were supplemented by the following criteria:

1. Students who are failing in two or more academic subjects.

2. Students whose scores on the Stanford Achievement Test

were one year below grade level.

The exception in the rules was possible because all junior high students were housed in one facility thus eliminating the target school concept. Target school (under ESEA rules) means a school in an area with a high concentration of students from low income families.

Conceptual Framework for the Study

The top priority for the schools is to help students prepare for entrance into the adult world. This preparation, although mostly aca­ demic, takes place through social interaction. Therefore, the self- image of the student is critical to the process of education. Indeed, 25

Conant argued;

Under present employment circumstances, it does seem that a high school diploma is an asset for virtually all students. However, realistically one must face the fact that not all will remain in school long enough to graduate. For the many slow learners, it may actually be worse to stay in school and endure constant academic frustration than to leave school and to find a satisfying job, if such a job can be found. Boys in this group have much more difficulty find­ ing a job than girls. I am not impressed by the holding power of a school as a criterion of its quality, but neither am I impressed by the argument that a boy who fails to get along in school ought to drop out. It all depends. The situation in which a boy drops out of school only to walk the streets is quite different from the situation in which a boy drops out and finds satisfactory employment. Full­ time schooling for certain youths through grade 12 may be good or bad, depending upon the employment picture. (26)

This study was based on the premise that students regardless of economic or cultural deprivation could achieve in school. To compensate for this deprivation, intervention was used to overcome educational handicaps of the students.

The major goals of the program were to:

1. Through academic tutoring enable each student to keep up

with daily assignments.

2. Through practice test taking, enable each student to react

positively to test situations.

3. Through how to study units, enable each student to prepare

for daily classroom work.

4. Through attitude change materials, enable members of the

experimental group to focus on their self-image.

Variables used to determine the effectiveness of the compensatory program were grade point average, self-concept, participation in school- 26

related activities, and standardized achievement test scores. These

measures were selected because:

1. Grade point average is indicative of one's capability,

eagerness and willingness to leam.

2. The self-concept of an individual is thought to have an in­

fluence on what a person will do in school,

3. Participation in school-related activities is a rough indi­

cator of the involvement of the student with the school.

4. Standardized test scores are a measure of how well the

student is able to use knowledge and tools gained in the

school to solve problems.

Procedure

The 102 seventh- and eighth-grade Title I students were assigned random numbers and then were randomly placed into three groups. Group I

(34 students) received special academic tutoring as well as the Night- ingale-Conant "Lead the Field" attitude change packages (audio tapes)

followed by a teacher-led discussion period. Group II (34 students) re­ ceived special academic tutoring as well as the Nightingale-Conant

"Lead the Field" attitude change packages without the benefit of a dis­

cussion period. Group III (34 students) received special academic tutor­

ing but did not receive the benefit of the Nightingale-Conant "Lead the

Field" attitude change packages.

The procedure followed was that the large groups (I, II, III) were

broken into groups of five or six students and received either (Group I) 27

Nightingale-Conant "Lead the Field" attitude change packages followed

by a teacher-led discussion or (Group II) Nightingale-Conant "Lead the

Field" attitude change packages without the benefit of a teacher-led discussion. Group III did not receive the Nightingale-Conant "Lead the

Field" attitude change packages.

The academic tutoring consisted of the following elements:

1. Students' homework assignments were gone over individually

as well as in small groups.

2. Students were given help on individual homework problems;

however substitute problems were used rather than the

problems assigned.

3. Students were given practice tests to help prepare them for

test to be given in the classroom.

4. Students were given remedial instruction in reading and

arithmetic as well as social studies and science.

5. Students were taught how to take notes and outline.

6. Students were shown films and filmstrips on "how to study".

The teacher participants were selected in the fall of 1974. At

that time the use of attitude change packages were not being considered

as a part of the program. Therefore the teachers were chosen on the

following criteria: 1) academic training in the area of mathematics

or reading, 2) ability to relate to children with learning problems.

Seventh- and eighth-grade students were allowed to participate on

a volunteer basis in all extracurricular activities. The athletic and music departments agreed not to eliminate any student because of lack 28a of ability. Activities selected for participation in by the students in the Title I program were: 1) football, 2) wrestling, 3) band, 4)

Softball, 5) orchestra, 6) track, 7) cross-country, 8) vocal music.

However in the area of dramatics Title I participants were chosen on their ability and in student government the participants had to be

elected by peer vote.

The Nightingale-Conant "Lead the Field" attitude change packages consisted of the following tapes:

- The Mind of Man and Choosing Your Environment - An introduc­ tion to the power of the subconscious and a "guaranteed system for self-fulfillment."

- The Magic Word (Attitude Opens New Doors For You) - Knowledge and understanding of this principle is the first step in your journey to greater success.

- Greener Pastures (Opportunities Are Here and Now) - How to recognize, and capitalize on, the opportunities you meet each and every day.

- A Worthy Destination (Set Your Goals - and Reach Them on Schedule) - Leam how to tell your own fortune and go through life from one success to another.

- Miracle of Your Mind (An Hour a Day Assures Your Position in the Top 5%) - 57o of your time, wisely used, can assure you the knowledge, prestige and income of the top 5% of the population.

- Destiny in the Balance (How to Be the Master of Your Fate) - One immutable law is the basis for all economic and personal achievement. Put it to work for you today.

- Seed for Achievement (The Treasures You Have to Invest) - Why and how some seemingly "average" people quickly outdistance apparent geniuses.

- It's Easier to Win (Success Can Be Easier than Failure) - When you cut through the confusion about human behavior, you realize that by following a few basic rules, each of us can guarantee his success. 28b

- How Much Are You Worth? (As President of Your Own Company?) - Like any successful corporation, you, as a person, will want to exploit these four, vital profit factors.

- Let's Talk About Money (Understanding Wealth) - This session helps you decide how much money is enough for you; then shows you how to get it.

- One Thing You Can't Hide (How to Raise Your "Success Ceiling") - This one factor tends to control everyone's "success ceiling". It may, over the years, be worth $100,000 to you.

- Today's Greatest Adventure (Succeeding One Day at a Time) - How to control your own circumstances - stay successful, regardless of whether times are good or bad.

- Man on the White Horse (The Secret of Security) - What every industry, every profession is looking for . . . and how you can furnish it.

Parental approval was obtained as the final step before initiation of the program. Each parent was informed of the overall purpose of the program and was told it was an experimental approach to meet the needs of their children. They had the prerogative of withdrawing their son or daughter during any phase of the program. Of the 102 students ini­ tially selected for the program, all chose to participate initially.

The Title I office of the Iowa Department of Public Instruction was contacted concerning the use of Nightingale-Conant material with

Title I eligible students. Oliver Himley, Title I Director for the State of Iowa, approved the project. Dr. Himley stated: "That to his knowl­ edge attitude change materials have not been used with Title I students in a controlled experiment." 29

Collection of the Data

In the spring of 1975, all students in the seventh- and eighth

grade identified as Title I eligible were administered the following

tests: Piers Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale (The Way I Feel About

Myself), Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory, and the Stanford Achievement

Test (Intermediate Level II). Also grade point averages were tabulated

for each student as well as participation in school-related activities.

The students then were assigned to Group I, II, or III on a random

basis and either received the benefit of the attitude change packages

or were part of the control group. The exposure to the attitude change

packages lasted a period of thirteen weeks. Students assigned to the ex­

perimental groups were exposed to the tapes two class periods a week.

At the end of the treatment students were again administered the follow­

ing tests: Piers Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale (The Way I Feel

About Myself), Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory, and the Stanford

Achievement Test (Intermediate Level II).

At the end of the first nine weeks in the fall, the students were

again tested on the Piers Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale (The Way

I Feel About Myself), Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory, and the Stan­

ford Achievement Test (Intermediate Level II). Grade point averages

were also tabulated along with participation in school-related activi­

ties. This same procedure was followed at the end of the eighteen weeks

(semester). 30

Statistical Analysis

Initially the mean gains of the experimental and control groups were examined. This information was then tested by a one-way analysis of variance to note any differences among groups.

To compensate for any initial differences between the experimental and control groups on pretests, an analysis of covariance was utilized.

The decision to use this technique was to see if any relationship could be seen beyond the group. Therefore sex was added as main effect plus the interaction between the group and sex. Analysis of covariance be­ cause of its format added this extra dimension to the study. The co- variate used was the pretest on the following: Stanford Achievement

Test (Intermediate Level II), and the Piers Harris Children's Self-

Concept Scale (The Way I Feel About Myself). Also grade point averages as well as participation in school-related activities were tabulated as pretest information.

An F-test was utilized to compare differences in mean gains of the experimental and control groups (10). Statistical comparisons utilizing analysis of covariance and F-tests were secured as the result of classi­ fying gain scores by groups and by sex. Analysis of covariance is de­ pendent upon having two or more variables therefore sex was chosen as the independent variable. Interaction of factors were also examined.

A .05 significance level was used. 31

FINDINGS

Data reported in this chapter were compiled from report cards, self- esteem inventories, standardized tests and list of participants involved in extracurricular activities. The purpose of collecting the data was to determine if exposure to commercially-prepared, attitude change pack­ ages would significantly affect a student's: 1) grade point average;

2) extracurricular participation; 3) achievement; 4) self-concept.

To determine if a significant difference existed three statistical techniques were used: mean differences, single classification analysis of variance, and analysis of covariance. Mean differences were first computed to note the central tendency of the scores. Analysis of vari­ ance was then used to test for significant differences among means.

Analysis of covariance was used to test for relationships between the dependent variable and possible interactions of the independent variables.

Sex was chosen to be the independent variable in this study. The pre­ test scores were used as covariate to eliminate any initial difference between the groups. The reason for use of the covariate was that all students in the program were Title I "identified" and could not be ran­ domly placed in the program. Placement in the control or experimental group was by random selection.

The results will be presented using a format which include:

1) statement of the null hypothesis; 2) discussion of the table; 3) tables representing data collected relative to the hypothesis; 4) cost of the program. To aid the reader the hypotheses have been grouped 32

according to grade point average (Hypothesis 1 and 3), extracurricular

participation (Hypothesis 2 and 4), standardized achievement test scores

(Hypothesis 5 and 7), and self-esteem (Hypothesis 6 and 8).

Hypotheses

Hypothesis 1. There are no significant grade point average dif­ ferences among students who receive special aca­ demic tutoring and studied attitude change packages and those students who receive only the special academic tutoring.

Table 1 contains the mean grade point averages for the treatment

and control groups. The difference in grade point average was less

than 0.2 between the experimental and control groups, at the conclusion

of the experiment. The grade point average is based on a four-point

scale where A = 4, B = 3, C = 2, D = 1, and F = ).

Table 1. Grade point means by treatment

Testing times 1 2 3 4 Group N X N X N X N X

Treatment 1^ 33 1.404 33 1.394 29 1.549 29 1.621 Treatment 2^ 32 1.476 32 1.367 31 1.560 29 1.528 Control 32 1.561 33 1.553 30 1.659 28 1.652

^Treatment 1 was Nightingale-Conant "Lead the Field Tapes" followed by discussion.

^Treatment 2 was Nightingale-Conant "Lead the Field Tapes" without the benefit of discussion. Table 2. One-way analysis of variance: Grade point means®

Pretest 1 Test 2 Test 3 Test 4 df SS MS F df SS MS F df SS MS F df SS MS F

Between groups 2 .4011 .2006 <1 2 .6598 .3299 <1 2 .2168 .1084 <1 2 .2396 .1198 <1

Within groups 94 32.6872 .3477 95 39.4519 .4153 87 32.2780 .3710 83 22.5682 .2719

Total 96 33.0883 97 40.1116 89 32.4954 85 22.8078

^This table refers to data collected relevant to treatment 1, 2, and control groups. 34

An examination of data outlined in Table 2 indicates that no signif icant difference existed between the experimental and control groups regarding grade point average on the pretest or on subsequent posttests

(2, 3, or 4). The F-value in each case, as determined by one-way analysis of variance was nonsignificant (P < .05).

Data contained in Table 3 reveal that the girls in each of the groups initially had a higher grade point average than the boys. Also this table shows that at the end of the experiment girls had maintained this higher overall grade point average.

Table 3. Grade point means by treatment and sex

Testing times Group 1 2 3 4 NX NX NX NX

Treatment 1

Boys 18 1.02 18 1.07 18 1.20 18 1.40

Girls 15 1.79 15 1.73 15 1.90 15 2.00

Treatment 2

Boys 20 1.03 20 1.03 20 1.07 20 1.00

Girls 12 1.94 12 1.70 12 2.05 12 2.15

Control

Boys 20 1.12 20 1.26 20 1.35 20 1.37

Girls 12 2.01 12 1.83 12 2.01 12 1.91 35

The grade point average of the experimental and control was fur­ ther examined in Table 4 by analysis of covariance. This technique examines the relationship between one dependent variable and two or more independent variables. Also the relationship between the de­ pendent variable and various interactions of the independent variable was analyzed (75). On test four, the final posttest, the interaction between the dependent variable (group) and the independent variable

(sex) produced a significant F-value of 3.135 at the .05 with df of

2 and 77. Therefore the null hypothesis that there are no signifi­ cant grade point average differences among students who receive spe­ cial academic tutoring and studied attitude change packages, and those students who receive only the special academic tutoring was rejected.

Girls in each of the groups achieved a higher overall grade point aver­ age than the boys. This analysis indicates a sex advantage for girls in the area of grade point average.

Hypotheses 3. There are no significant grade point average differences among students who receive spe­ cial academic tutoring and studied attitude change packages followed by discussion and those students who receive the special aca­ demic tutoring and studied attitude change packages without the benefit of discussion.

Results of the statistical treatment on data gathered to test the hypothesis concerning grade point average differences between the two experimental groups are outlined in Table 5. Inspection of data pre­ sented in Table 5 reveals there was no significant difference by group Table 4. Analysis of covariance: Grade point average using group 1, group 2 and control group

Test 2 residuals Test 3 residuals Test 4 residuals Source df SS MS F df SS MS F df SS MS F

GRP 2 .236 .118 <1 2 .005 .002 <1 2 .122 .061 <1

Sex 1 .004 <1 1 .241 1.010 1 .005 <1

Interaction ^ (GRP and sex) 2 .760 2.104 2 1.141 2.391 2 1.329 3.135

Error 90 16.250 81 19.327 77 16.315

* Significant at .05. Table 5. Analysis of covariance: Grade point average using group 1 and group 2

Test 2 residuals Test 3 residuals Test 4 residuals Source df SS MS df SS MS df SS MS

GRP 1 .144 .144 1.015 1 .000 .000 <1 1 .057 .057 <1

Sex 1 .006 <1 1 .014 <1 1 .137 <1

Interaction (GRP and sex) 1 .017 <1 .167 <1 .014 <1

Error 60 8.506 54 14.507 52 11.460 38 or sex. Also there was no significant interaction between the depend­ ent variable group and the independent variable sex. Therefore, the null hypothesis was not rejected.

Hypothesis 2. There are no significant increases in extracurricu­ lar participation among students who receive special academic tutoring and studied attitude change pack­ ages and those students who receive only the special academic tutoring.

Table 6 presents the means for extracurricular activities for the treatment and control groups. The range in means between the experi­ mental and control groups is .121 to .300 at the conclusion of the ex­ periment (Test 4). Essentially the data reveal that a small increase in participation occurred.

Table 6. Summary of means for extracurricular activities

Testing times 1 2 3 4 Group N X N X N X N X Treatment 1 33 .485 33 .485 29 .586 29 .621 Treatment 2 33 .303 34 .294 31 .774 30 .800 Control 34 .471 34 .471 30 .533 28 .500

An analysis of the data presented in Table 7 indicates no signifi­ cant difference in participation between the experimental and control subjects, at sampling times one, two and three (the F-value is <1). By the end of the experiment participation data produced an F-value of

1.104 with df of 2 and 86 which was not significant at the .05 level. Table 7. One-way analysis of variance: Extracurricular participation^

Pretest 1 Test 2 df SS MS F df SS MS

Between groups 2 .6773 .3387 <1 2 .7628 .3814 <1

Within groups 97 45.6827 .4710 98 45.7718 .4671

Total 99 46.3600 100 46.537

^This table refers to data collected relevant to treatment 1, 2 and control groups.

Table 8. Analysis of covariance: Extracurricular activities participation using group 1, group 2 and control group

Test 2 residual Test 3 residuals Source df SS MS F df SS îi F

GRP 2 0,.000 0..000 <1 2 2.453 2.453 2.914

Sex 1 0,.000 0,.000 <1 1 .082 <1

Interaction 2 0..000 0,.000 <1 1 .399 <1

Error 93 0,.000 82 34.518

* Significant at ,05. 40

Test 3 Test 4 ûf SS MS F df SS MS

2 .9795 .4898 <1 2 1.3264 .6632 1.104

87 51.9205 .5668 84 50.6276

89 52.900 86 51.9540

Test 4 residuals df SS MS F

2 2.991 1.496 3.839

1 .034 <1

2 .556 <1

79 30.783 41

Using covariance as the treatment (presented in Table 8) a signif­

icant difference between the groups on Test 4 (final posttest) was noted.

A significant F-value of 3.839 at the .05 with df of 2 and 79 was found

for the dependent variable (group). Therefore the null hypothesis that no significant difference would exist between groups in extracurricular

participation was rejected. After the experiment, Treatment 2 subjects

averaged .497 more activities. Students receiving Treatment 2 listened

to Nightingale-Conant "Lead the Field Tapes" without the benefit of dis­

cussion. In contrast the students receiving Treatment 1 listened to

the tapes followed by discussion.

Hypothesis 4. There are no significant increases in extracurricu­ lar participation among students who receive special academic tutoring and studied attitude change pack­ ages followed by discussion and those students who receive the special academic tutoring and studied attitude change packages without the benefit of dis­ cussion.

Table 9. Summary of means for extracurricular activities for the experimental groups

Testing times 1 2 3 4 Group N X N X N X N X

Treatment 1^ 33 .485 33 .485 29 .586 29 .621

Treatment 2^ 33 .303 34 .294 31 .774 30 .800

^Treatment 1 was Nightingale-Conant "Lead the Field Tapes" followed by discussion.

^Treatment 2 was Nightingale-Conant "Lead the Field Tapes" without the benefit of discussion. 42

Table 9 examines the means for extracurricular activities for the two experimental groups. The data in Table 9 indicate that the difference in means ranges from .136 growth for Treatment 1, while

Treatment 2 means growth was .407.

A further analysis of data relative to extracurricular participa­ tion is presented in Table 10. An examination of Table 10 revealed an

F-value of 5.469 on the third posttest. An F-value of this size is sig­ nificant at the .05 level with df of 1 and 54. On posttest 4 an F-value of 5.981 is revealed. This F-value is significant at the .05 level with df of 1 and 53. The null hypothesis was rejected because there was a significant difference between the two experimental groups. The stu­ dents in the treatment 2 group participated in significantly more activ­ ities by the end of the experiment.

Hypothesis 5. There are no significant changes in standardized achievement gains among students who receive special academic tutoring and studied attitude change packages and those students who receive only the special academic tutoring as measured by the Stanford Achievement Test.

The mean scores for the mathematics concepts subtest of the Stan­ ford Achievement Test are presented in Table 11. The difference in mean scores between the two experimental groups and the control group was .004 and .310 at the conclusion of the study (reported under test

4, final posttest).

An inspection of the data presented in Table 12 indicates that no significant difference existed between the groups throughout the experi­ ment. Therefore the null hypothesis that no significant difference Table 10. Analysis of covariance: Extracurricular participation using group 1 and group 2

Test 2 residuals Test 3 residuals Test 4 residuals Source df SB MS F df SS MS F df SS MS F

* * GRP 1 0.000 0.000 <1 1 2.015 2.015 5.469 1 1.963 1.963 5.981

Sex 1 0.000 0.000 <1 1 0.212 0.212 <1 1 0.345 0.345 1.051

Interaction 1 0.000 0.000 <1 1 0.276 0.276 <1 1 0.103 0.103 <1

Error 61 0.000 54 19.892 53 17.394

Significant at .05. 44

Table 11. Means of Stanford Achievement Test (mathematics subtest) for all groups

Testing times Group 1 2 3 4 N X N X N X N X Treatment 1 32 5.866 32 6.316 29 6.593 29 6.510 Treatment 2 33 6.203 32 6.509 31 6.416 28 6.204 Control 30 6.300 32 6.387 28 6.429 29 6.514

would exist was retained. Further analysis of the Stanford Achievement

Test was not deemed worthwhile considering the nonsignificant gains in the most appropriate and sensitive subtest.

Hypothesis 7. There are no significant changes in standardized achievement gains among students who receive special academic tutoring and studied attitude change packages followed by discussion and those students who receive the special academic tutor­ ing and studied attitude change packages without the benefit of discussion as measured by the Stanford Achievement Test.

This null hypothesis remains tenable as a result of analyzing the data collected relevant to hypothesis 5. A great deal of emphasis in the project was on mathematic achievement; therefore, the decision was made to use the mathematics subtest of the Stanford Achievement Test as the dependent variable.

Hypothesis 6. There are no significant changes in self-concept among students who receive special academic tutor­ ing and studied attitude change packages and those students who receive only the special academic tutoring as measured by the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory and the Piers Harris Children's Self-Con­ cept Scale (The Way I Feel About Myself). Table 12. One-way analysis of variance: Stanford Achievement Test—math concept subtest

Pretest 1 Test 2 df SS MS F df SS MS

Between groups 2 3.2742 1.6371 1.4812 2 .6157 .3079 1

Within groups 92 101.6819 1.1052 93 162,2241 1.7443

Total 94 104.9561 95 162.8398

^This table refers to data collected relevant to treatment 1, 2, and control groups. 46

Test 3 Test 4 df SS MS F df SS MS

2 .5796 .2898 1 2 1.8013 .9006 1

85 122.9573 1.4397 83 116.6125 1.4074

87 122.9573 85 118.6125 47

Mean scores on the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory are reported in Table 13. An analysis of the information presented shows a gain from test 1 (pretest) to test 4 (final posttest) of 13.087 and 16.634 for the experimental groups and a growth of 9.850 for the control group.

Table 13. Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory means for all groups

Testing times 1 2 3 4 Group N X N X N X N X Treatment 1 33 57.897 30 55.967 29 68.552 29 70.966 Treatment 2 35 54.500 31 59.290 31 69.806 29 71.034 Control 33 58.364 28 55.857 30 63.267 28 68.214

A review of Table 14 shows that nonsignificant F-values were re­ ported for tests 1, 2, 3, and 4. These findings were based on a one-way analysis of variance with df of 2 and 98 for test 1, 2 and 86 for test

2, 2 and 87 for test 3, and 2 and 83 for test 4. With the exception of test 3 where an F-value of 1.23 was reported, the F-values were <1. All four F-values were not significant at the .05 level.

Findings relative to hypothesis 6 are reported in Table 15. A study of Table 15 reveals that the treatment provided short-term gains on the

Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory. An F-value of 3.707 with df of 2 and 81 which is significant at the .05 level is indicated for the de­ pendent variable (group). The interaction between the dependent vari­ able and the independent variable (sex) produced an F-value of 5.586 Table 14. One-way analysis of variance: Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory

Pretest 1 Test 2 df SS MS F~ df SS MS F

Between groups 2 320.50 160.25 <1 2 230.44 115.22 <1

Within groups 98 24097.69 245.89 86 26188.94 304.52

Total 100 24418.19 88 26419.38

^This table refers to data collected relevant to treatment 1, 2, and control groups.

Table 15. Analysis of covariance: Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory using group 1, group 2 and control group

Test 2 residuals Test 3 residuals Source df SS MS F df SS MS

GRP 2 1007.432 503.716 3.707* 2 1246.205 623.102 2.730

Sex 1 96.608 <1 1 173.826 <1

Interaction ** (GRP + sex) 2 1518.083 5.586" 2 106.248 <1

Error 81 11006.051 81 18488.488

Significant at the .05 level,

** Significant at the .01 level. 49

Test 3 Test 4 df SS MS F~ df SS MS F

2 727.63 363.81 1.23 2 146.56 73.29 1

87 2568.00 295.24 83 22468.75 270.71

89 26413.63 85 22615.31

Test 4 residuals df SS MS F~

2 667.870 33.935 1.620

1 30.777 <1

2 42.125 <1

78 16072.492 50 with df of 2 and 81 at the .01 level. This result may be explained by the fact that treatment 2 (tapes without discussion) subjects experi­ enced a gain of 4 items on the inventory (80 possible) while the sub­ jects in treatment 1 (tapes without benefit of discussion) scores de­ creased by 2 to 3 items. The fact that girls scored significantly higher on test 2 may be explained by their initial high scores prior to the treatment. However, these significant differences did not appear on tests 3 or 4.

Table 16 contains the mean scores for the Piers Harris Children's

Self-Concept Scale (The Way I Feel About Myself). The range in growth for the expermental groups for test 1 to test 4 was between 2.141 and

8.579 while the growth for the control group was 5.467.

Table 15. Piers Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale means for all groups

Testing times 1 2 3 4 Group N X N X N X N X

Treatment 1 33 50.273 32 47.844 29 54.483 29 52.414

Treatment 2 33 48.121 32 51.344 31 55.387 30 56.700

Control 33 49.636 28 48.250 29 53.517 29 55.103 51-52

In Table 17 a one-way analysis of variance is used to analyze the means of the Piers Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale. On the four tests given all F-values are <1.

The Piers Harris test data information was treated by an analysis of covariance and the results are reported in Table 18. An examina­

tion of the data revealed that no significant difference existed be­ tween the groups and that sex was not a factor on test 2, 3, or 4.

Hypothesis 8. There are no significant changes in self-concept among students who receive special academic tutoring and studied attitude change packages followed by discussion and those students who receive the special academic tutoring and studied attitude change packages without the benefit of discussion as measured by the Coopersmith Self- Esteem Inventory and the Piers Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale (The Way I Feel About Myself).

Data analyzed from the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory is re­ ported on Table 19. The dependent variable group indicated an F-value of 5.738 in test 2 with df of 1 and 56 at the .01 level. Interaction between the group and sex in test 2 produced an F-value of 8.999 with df of 1 and 56 at the .01 level.

Table 20 reports the analysis of data from the Piers Harris Chil­ dren's Self-Concept Scale. An F-value of 4.167 with df of 1 and 59 for the dependent variable group on test 2. On test 4 the dependent vari­ able group showed an F-value of 5.189 with df of 1 and 52 at the .01 level. Therefore the null hypothesis that no difference would exist between the groups was rejected. Students exposed to treatment 2 scored significantly higher (four points) by the end of the experiment. Table 17. One-way analysis of variance: Piers Harris Children's Self-Concept scores

Pretest 1 Test 2 df SS MS F df SS MS F

Between groups 2 80,56 40.28 <1 2 231.19 115.60 <1

Within groups 96 197.81 205.54 89 20986.75 235.81

Total 98 19812.38 91 21217.94

^This table refers to data collected relevant to treatment 1, 2, and control groups.

Table 18. Analysis of covariance: Piers Harris Children's Self- Concept scores using group 1, group 2 and control group

Test 2 residuals Test 3 residuals Source df SS MS F df SS MS

GRP 2 452.835 226.418 2.492 2 181.037 90.519 1.046

Sex 1 35.201 <1 1 51.425 <1

Interaction (GRP + sex) 2 235.775 1.297 2 57.142 <1

Error 85 7723.348 81 7008.562 54

Test 3 Test 4 df SS MS F df SS MS F

2 52,31 26.16 <1 2 275.94 137.97 <1

86 16746.00 194.72 85 13688.13 161.04

88 16798 87 13964.06

Test 4 residuals df SS MS f

2 434.352 217.176 2.827

1 197.204 2.567

2 164.116 1,068

80 6144,918 Table 19. Analysis of covariance: Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory using group 1, group 2 and control group

Test 2 residuals Test 3 residuals Test 4 residuals Source df SB MS df SS MS df SS MS

** GRP 1 762.145 762.145 5.738 1 292.111 282.111 1.373 1 142.675 142.675 <1

Sex 1 301.229 201.229 2.268 1 275.827 275.827 1.342 1 16.351 16.351 <1

Interaction 1 1195.353 1195.353 8.999 1 37.252 37.252 <1 1 28.398 28.398 <1

Error 56 7438.426 54 11097.594 52 11172.781 ** Significant at .01 level. Table 20. Analysis of covariance: Piers Harris Children's Self-Concept scores using group 1, group 2 and control group

Test 2 residuals Test 3 residuals Test 4 residuals source df SS MS F df SS MS F df SS MS F

* GRP 1 404.825 404.825 4.167 1 109.074 109.074 1.185 1 439.765 439.765 5.189

Sex 1 101.264 101.264 1.042 1 25.480 25.480 <1 1 51.983 51.983 <1

Interaction 1 174.437 174.437 1.796 1 51.650 51.650 <1 1 108.769 108.769 1.284

Error 59 5731.355 54 4969.973 53 4491.766

Significant at .05 level. 57

Cost of the Program

The program described in this study was organized and implemented through the use of Title I funds. The allocation for this project was

$50,000 for the duration of the experiment (one school year). Commerci- ally-prepared material used with the experimental group was obtained at a reduced cost of $140. This price included the total cost of the

"Lead the Field Tapes" and printed material for students in treatment 2

(tapes followed by discussion). The cost of obtaining this material on the "open market" would be approximately $800 for an individual.

The majority of the funds was spent on salaries for three certified staff members and one clerical aide. Costs for instructional materials, and testing were also paid from this fund. Advantages of a program of this nature are seldom measured scientifically. Usually the claim is made that students and faculty alike responded favorably to the pro­ gram!

Teachers outside of the program expressed support for the program by working closely with staff involved in the project. Several staff members stated that students involved in the program were now "coming to class prepared."

If a cost analysis were run for this program the costs would be very high indeed for the gains achieved. The additional cost per pupil for each of the 102 students involved was $490. However the cost of commercially-prepared material per pupil for the experimental groups was only $2.06. 58

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary

A contemporary problem facing the American public school system is how to motivate more of its students. Too many fail to see why school is worth the effort. Various compensatory programs have been developed to provide experiences that will help students become more successful in school. Initially these programs focused on cognitive learning but more recently emphasis has shifted to the affective domain.

A review of literature indicated that changes in the affective domain are difficult to obtain. Nonetheless, it appears that self-con­ cept and school achievement may be related. Various intervention tech­ niques have been attempted but few have used commercially-prepared atti­ tude change materials. After considering several sources of materials, a decision was reached to use Earl Nightingale's "Lead the Field Tapes" with Title I eligible seventh- and eighth-grade students in Boone, Iowa.

The program developed combined a special tutorial program with the use of attitude change materials for the experimental group and the control group participating only in the tutorial aspect of the project. The pro­

gram was implemented in the spring of 1975. The purpose of the program was to determine the association (if any) of success training to student achievement, self-image and extracurricular participation.

One hundred and two Title I (ESEA) seventh- and eighth-grade stu­

dents were the project participants. By the use of a table of random numbers the students were placed into three groups. Group one received 59

the tapes and discussion. Group two received the tapes without the bene­ fit of discussion. Students placed in group three were control subjects and were not exposed to the tapes.

Achievement gains of the students was measured by grade point aver­ age and standardized test scores. Grade point average was determined by using a four-point scale where A = 4. Scores on the Stanford Achieve­ ment Test were tabulated for each student using national norms for per­ centile ranks.

Self-esteem was measured using two standardized tests: The Cooper- smith Self-Esteem Inventory, and the Piers Harris Children's Self-Con­ cept Scale (The Way I Feel About îfyself). Extracurricular participation was measured by giving one point each quarter for each activity engaged in by a student.

Measures for each student (achievement, extracurricular participa­ tion, self-image) were obtained prior to and at the conclusion of the experiment. Two additional measures were taken during the fall and winter quarters following the treatment to override any initial "halo" effects.

The mean gains of the experimental and control groups were examined initially. Then this information was treated by a one-way analysis of variance. To compensate for any initial differences between the groups an analysis of covariance was utilized (8). The covariate used was the pretest data in each area under consideration: achievement, extracurricular participation, and self-esteem. Subgroups by sex were established and compared as a main effect and in addition the interaction 60 between the group and sex was analyzed.

An analysis of the data collected indicated the following:

1. No significant difference in achievement test scores was

found for either the experimental or control groups.

2. Significant differences in grade point averages were shown for

the girls participating in the program.

3. Significant differences in extracurricular participation be­

tween the two treatment groups was revealed. Subjects exposed

to tapes without discussion participated in more activities.

4. No significant differences were noted in the area of self-

esteem between the experimental and control groups. However,

sex differences were apparent with girls initially scoring

higher. In addition, experimental subjects receiving discus­

sion following exposure to the tapes scored lower than experi­

mental subjects without follow-up discussion.

Conclusions

This study was conducted on the premise that Title I "identified" students could be motivated to the degree that positive changes in school achievement, self-concept and participation in extracurricular activities would result.

The more pertinent conclusions follow;

School achievement

The overall achievement of students participating in the program

can be summarized by the following statements:

1. The program was not effective in improving achievement of 61

students as measured on the Stanford Achievement Test.

2. There was no evidence that this compensatory program was effec­

tive in significantly increasing the grade point average of

students.

The differences in achievement by sex are explained by the follow­ ing:

1. The girls participating in the program scored significantly

higher than boys on grade point average prior to the treatment.

2. The boys in the program were shown to have significantly lower

grade point averages than the girls at the completion of the

study.

3. Significant gains were not indicated for either sex on the

Stanford Achievement Test.

When comparing the two treatment groups in the area of achievement it was found that no matter which treatment was used there was no signif­ icant change in Stanford Achievement Test scores or grade point average.

Therefore it must be concluded that the Nightingale "Lead the Field

Tapes" had little effect on the achievement of students.

Self-concept

The overall self-concept results in this program is best de­ scribed by:

1. Nonsignficant gains were shown when students' scores were

measured on the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory and the Piers

Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale (The Way I Feel About

Myself). 62

When self-esteem is analyzed according to the sex of the student, the following difference was noted:

2. Girls involved in the program in both experimental and control

groups showed significant short-term gains in self-esteem as

measured by the Coopersmith.

The difference in self-esteem between the two treatments can best be described with these statements:

1. The girls receiving no post tape discussion scored significantly

higher on test 2 as measured by the Coopersmith.

2. Significant gains were also noted for students receiving tapes

without discussion on the Piers Harris Self-Concept Scale.

Participation in extracurricular activities

Examination of the overall involvement of students in extracurricu­ lar activities showed that:

1. A significant difference was found between the groups in the

area of extracurricular activities participation. Therefore

it was determined involvement in the motivational program pro­

moted increased participation in school activities.

2. When participation of students by sex was examined it was found

that sex was not a significant factor in determining how many

activities were engaged in by a student.

Considering the unit cost of $409 per student for this program it is hard to justify its overall value considering the results:

1. Overall grade point average increase was less than 0.2. 63

2. Increase in extracurricular activities amounted to less than

0.5 an activity per student.

3. Change in Stanford Achievement Test scores was nonsignificant.

4. Self-Esteem Inventory score increases were in the range of

only four to seven items above those of the control group.

Discussion

Many compensatory efforts are directed toward changing pupils* achievement or self-images as was this program. Essentially, the focus of compensatory programs is on the technique known as intervention.

Intervention provides skills or experiences that will hopefully enable a student to overcome his weaknesses.

It is impossible to generalize the results of this study to a larger population because of the sample being restricted to Title I

"identified" students from one small Iowa community. However, the re­ sults certainly do not point to a definite linkage between success in school and self-image. Success in school is usually reported in terms of achievement and the students in this study did not show significant gains in achievement.

This study provided no evidence that the treatment resulted in significantly higher achievement once initial differences were controlled.

Nonetheless the literature would indicate that intervention can signif­ icantly improve the educational activities of disadvantaged children.

As had happened in so many other studies (most notably the Jencks' study), intervention was not effective. Most programs involving school 64 achievement were never replicated and there was little treatment con­ sistency on success from program to program.

The tendency of girls to achieve higher academic growth than boys was noted in this study. Initially the girls are much better students by such a margin that boys are unable to bridge the gap. Even when the initial score differences were controlled the boys were unable to rise to the girls' level of achievement. One explanation may be that school achievement is simply not a high priority for males from disadvantaged families.

Extracurricular activities participation was significantly higher for students in the experimental groups. This was possibly caused by the treatment or it may be that one of the treatment instructors was

"activities" oriented. However, the difference, although significant, only amounted to about one-half unit more of an activity per student.

Treatment 2 (which used the tapes without the discussion) exceeded the effects of treatment 1 which had the benefit of discussion. The reason for the difference might be the instructor. The (treatment 2) instructor was enthusiastic about the tapes and listened to them with the students, while the (treatment 1) instructor had reservations about the program. Students in treatment 1 may have sensed the instructor was not positive toward the program and thus did not participate as

seriously as the students in treatment 2.

The cost of the treatment was a concern, $2.06 per student. How­

ever the cost of the audio tapes per student is less than lunch at a

fast food restaurant and the results hopefully will provide greater 65 substance. The amount of money spent on audio tapes was minimal, how­ ever, when teacher salaries are considered.

Limitations of the Study

The conclusions drawn from results of this research are constrained by the following limitations:

1. The sample was limited to Title I "eligible" students from only

one district.

2. The sample was drawn from Boone, Iowa, school district seventh-

and eighth-grade students, and therefore, conclusions drawn

may not be used to generalize to pupils from other school dis­

tricts or grade levels.

3. An attrition rate of 17.4 percent was experienced due to stu­

dents moving out of the district, taking advantage of other

programs within the school or declining to participate after

once being assigned to the experimental or control group.

4. The program consisted of many components making it difficult

to determine exactly what was responsible for the treatment

effects.

5. The effectiveness of the program was measured by mean gain

differences obtained from the experimental and control groups

only by standardized tests, teacher assigned grades and a

rather crude measure of participation.

6. The instructor working with treatment 1 students displayed

negative feelings toward the attitude change packages. 66

7. The vocabulary presented in the audio tapes was too difficult

for Title I students.

Recommendations

Recommendations for practice

It is recommended that the following be considered by practitioners interested in using the findings of this study:

1. If participation in extracurricular activities is sought, assign­

ment of "problem" students to teachers who will promote those

activities seems beneficial.

2. Teacher support is critical to the success of a program of

this nature, thus only those who endorse motivational materials

should be selected as staff members.

3. Teachers involved in the program should understand and be able

to teach how schooling helps . i'3 life success, i.e., be able

to convey this to students.

4. Staff support is important not only within the program but with

the total staff. The key is effective communication with all

teachers so that they understand the purposes of the program

and how it will benefit the students in their classrooms.

5. Exploration of affective measures other than self-esteem tests

used in this study should be conducted. At the present time

new measures in the affective domain are being developed and

should be researched to determine their value in evaluating a

similar compensatory program. 67

Recommendations for research

To aid other researchers conducting a study in this area the follow­ ing suggestions are given for consideration:

1. A longitudinal study, beginning in primary grade levels should

be conducted to further explore the relationship of success

training to student achievement, self-image and participation.

2. A sample should be drawn that represents students from several

school districts of different size so that comparisons can be

made by ability, socioeconomic background, and size.

3. It is recommended that the recorded messages may be combined

with other media such as motion pictures, video tapes and/or

colored slides to enhance the effectiveness of the motivational

program.

4. Since self-esteem and achievement did not appear to be related

in this study, it is suggested that further research be con­

ducted with the question being, what effect does socioeconomic

background of students have on their self-esteem and achieve­

ment?

5. To overcome the high attrition rate a more stable population

than Title I "eligible" students might be used as the sample.

6. To accurately measure participation in school activities a more

sophisticated index of participation needs to be developed.

7. Research might also be undertaken to replicate the present

study using non-Title I "eligible" students.

8. The Nightingale materials seem sexist or at least sex role 68

stereotypic in nature. More emphasis must be placed on moti­

vation for females if such commercial materials are to be

used effectively in coeducational institutions.

In conclusion, the literature indicates that compensatory programs are not yet overcoming educational inequities. Therefore it seems that other intervention alternatives need to be explored which might include tutoring, changing peer groups and adding alternative programs from which both parents and students might select. At best compensatory pro­ grams must start early in a student's life and be continued over long periods of time if they are to be successful. 69

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