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International Journal of Existential Volume 2, Issue 1, 2008 &

Suffering—an Existential psychological and spiritual/personal) with a fourth “dynamic” one. This dimension emerges when we Challenge: Understanding, consider the dialogical of the person with dealing and coping with the world, what we call the “existential dimension” (Längle, 1999): from an existential-analytic - Physical suffering is : injuries, illnesses, perspective functional disorders, such as problems with sleep or migraines. Just think of how much Alfried Längle suffering can be caused by a simple toothache! - Psychological suffering is experienced by the Abstract loss of something valuable or dear: , The paper begins with a description of an such as , heaviness and strain, the existential-anthropological classification of absence of , and different types of suffering. These or injury. classifications are then deepened through an - Suffering has an underlying : an elaboration of the of suffering. The of self-alienation, of not structure of derived from the oneself. This particular form or type of Existential Analytic model is used to suffering is attributed to a loss of something elucidate this essential understanding of that is essential for a person to experience a suffering. The Existential Analytic model is fulfilled existence. Feelings attributed to these used to describe both the content of include: insecurity, breach of , suffering and the impaired structures of despair, absence of relationship, injustice, existence. From this perspective, a model of or . coping with, and treatment of, suffering is - Existential suffering evokes feelings of developed. The paper closes with some futility, meaninglessness. This form of suffering logotherapeutic remarks on possible emerges from a lack of orientation with a meanings of suffering. larger context, in which we can understand our life and our activities, our success or senseless People suffer in numerous ways. They fate. either suffer silently, or express their pain through All possible forms of suffering from our complaining, crying, hoping, self-sacrifice or perspective can be attributed to one of these four rebellious behaviour. People suffer for countless categories, or a combination of any of them. reasons. Suffering is manifold in both form and The or degree, to which a person content. It may be helpful, therefore, to provide an suffers, depends on personality factors and overview of suffering and to categorize the reasons maturity. Let us look at these qualitative for suffering. We will then look at suffering from differences in the following two examples: an existential point of view and suggest specific Example 1 activities we feel are necessary in order to cope I recently met a young active man of 34 with suffering. years who was at the beginning of a successful FORMS OF SUFFERING—AN EXISTENTIAL- career in his firm. We met at a moment in his life ANTHROPOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION when he was not well. He was anxiously awaiting The various domains in which we may a diagnosis for the cause of his walking suffer can be structured according to the three difficulties: Was it a simple infection or was it anthropological dimensions that Frankl (e.g., 1967, indeed this incurable disease leading gradually to pp. 136ff.) has described. We can complement paralysis—multiple sclerosis (MS)? It soon turned Frankl’s three “classical” dimensions (somatic, out that it was indeed MS. He was so shocked by International Journal of Existential Volume 2, Issue 1, 2008 Psychology & Psychotherapy this diagnosis that he could not work for the next Example 2 two months. This neurological disease and his A few weeks ago I visited with a 70-year- difficulty in walking were very real, but this young old patient. He had been hospitalised for the 15th man suffered most of all from the blow of fate within the past year. Metastases were in his which he experienced as annihilating. The man liver, lungs, bones and back. Because of experienced persistent and painful questions: “How insufferable pain, one metastasis had now been do I continue? What is to become of my situation, surgically removed from his sacral canal. what am I to expect?” This patient was asleep when I arrived. He What would become of this man and his had not closed his eyes all night long because of life? This diagnosis surely meant an earlier death, the pain that persisted in of the operation. years in a wheelchair, dwindling capacities and Some time after he awoke I asked how he felt increasing dependence. Would he be able to about his life. This man had always been an avid withstand that? Could he accept this fate? What tennis-player and was now obliged to stay in bed. was there left to do in a life marked by illness? His answer was sober and in keeping with his What would one live for? Was this a life worth whole attitude towards life, he stated: living? I cannot change it. This is how it is. Of The man’s immediate and personal course, I would to play tennis, and it experience with this diagnosis leads to his is not easy to give that up. But I have questioning the of his disease by others: always been a realist, and now I see this How would he respond to people’s realistically as well. I will never be able to questions? Would he be able to accept their play again. and superficial comments that were meant to I was curious about the clear answer he gave me. console him? Would he want to meet them at all Is he covering up and hiding his suffering? I in his changed state? This man was not looking therefore asked him more directly whether not for the essence of his disease. Life had not become being able to play again was not in fact terribly hopeless for him, for he knew that he could live sad and how he could cope with that? My patient out of his personal depth. But he did not feel replied, “Well, this is the way it is. I am trying to strong enough to accept this disease and how his cope the best I can. But this is the way it is now.” life had changed at this particular point. What does How much pain had this man already suffered and it take to live with such a disease? He had never how much more was in store for him? I did not thought about this question, not even know but now I understood his words. I could feel hypothetically. The very real implications of this that his strength as a person and his capacity to question had now come to him with a vengeance: endure were rooted in this strict -of-fact he could not even walk anymore! He did not feel attitude he had adopted throughout his life. strong enough at present to meet other people. He If we look at the fate of these two people had to come to terms with his reactions, feelings we may ask ourselves: Who is suffering more? and changed relationships. He had to recover from Knowing of course that it is difficult to compare this shock and to clarify his position in the world the subjective expressions and experiences of for himself—before that nothing else was possible. suffering, we may nonetheless ask ourselves: Who He was personally devastated and overcome by his seems to be suffering more? The man who is near suffering. He experienced trembling, crying and death and in terrible pain or the younger patient, insecurity. He retreated and did not want to be with Multiple Sclerosis, who does not have any asked about his disease and his state of being. He physical pain and has many years ahead of him? was afraid of losing face, crying and being For the young man, it seems his fate is much submerged by the pain of this incomprehensible harder to carry. From such observations, which fate. you may have occasionally made yourself, we International Journal of Existential Volume 2, Issue 1, 2008 Psychology & Psychotherapy would ask the following question: What is freely chosen. This is akin to one of Camus’ suffering? statements when he calls Sisyphus a happy man. THE ESSENCE OF SUFFERING Sisyphus must roll a stone to the top of a It might seem almost childlike to ask: Why mountain with enormous effort only to see that his do we actually suffer? But let us expand on this effort is always in vain because the stone will not question. What is it that constitutes suffering? stay at the top. Camus (1955) makes Sisyphus What do we suffer from in suffering? Do we proudly defy the punishment the gods intend for suffer because we do not comprehend a particular him by doing his work voluntarily. Thus the work sensation? Is it a conscious or an unconscious acquires meaning by resisting absurdity and of meaninglessness that turns an experience meaninglessness. Are the of labour, for into one of suffering? Or is suffering merely the example, soon forgotten in the wake of joyous sensation of something negative, disagreeable, feelings for a newborn child? troubling or painful that has either a physical or The feelings of the two patients described psychological origin? Indeed, as a preliminary above are extremely strong but there is an observation we can say that suffering is felt when enormous difference in the degree of their we undergo an emotional experience of this sort. suffering. Whereas one patient is full of anxiety Suffering is not necessarily an encompassing and on the brink of despair, the other copes with experience of meaninglessness. One thing can be his suffering with what seems to be a of said with certainty: Suffering is linked to . calm and equanimity. Even mental suffering goes along with unpleasant A closer examination reveals that suffering feelings. A preliminary explanation of suffering is not completely identical to experiencing painful would be the “sensation of disagreeable feelings” feelings. Suffering can be seen as a spiritual that arise in connection with the above-mentioned perception of a content based on the specific categories of physical pain, troubling loss of feelings of pain. These feelings cause suffering something dear, painful self-alienation or only when they are perceived as destructive. We meaninglessness. can therefore define suffering from an existential But does this preliminary description stand point of view as “the felt destruction of something up to closer examination? Is the disagreeable dear and/or vital”. Or stated briefly, suffering is a feeling really the decisive criterion of suffering, feeling of loss or impairment to one’s existence. the effective agent that turns a specific experience This is the central understanding of suffering from into suffering instead of or delight? an existential analytical point of view. The Disagreeable feelings are not always equal in their perception and feeling of destruction is commonly meaning and effect on our lives since they are experienced with suffering. What is decisive for subjectively understood and integrated in a variety the experience of suffering is the subjective feeling of ways. An effort, trouble or an exertion may cost of destruction of something vitally important, the a lot of energy or cause unpleasant feelings, but if sensation of something being torn apart or we know that these feelings serve a purpose or annihilated, a sensation that one’s existential have meaning, then what constitutes suffering is foundations are being split. What is decisive are blurred. Even if writing an article means painful the subsequent emotions elicited by this perception. renunciation of more pleasant activities and many THE ENDANGERED ELEMENTS OF LIFE hours of work at night, this activity will not What is destroyed in the experience of necessarily be conceived of as suffering. This is suffering? What is this destruction related to? precluded by the simple fact that the activity was What are the elements that we may regard as life- undertaken voluntarily (cf. Frankl’s concept of the preserving or life-supporting? Existential Analysis “will to meaning”, 1967, pp. 5-13; 1976). In has developed a comprehensive theory of general, we might suggest that the sting of existential fundamental motivations to address suffering is broken if the unpleasant situation is these questions (cf. Längle, 1992, 2003). From an International Journal of Existential Volume 2, Issue 1, 2008 Psychology & Psychotherapy

Existential Analytic perspective, an experience is personality disorders. A loss of self in this experienced as suffering if it threatens fundamental dimension involves a feeling that one lacks structures of existence. These fundamental authenticity, self-esteem, and appreciation or structures relate to the four fundamental of produces feelings of alienation and . existence: (a) the world and its conditions, If the fourth fundamental condition for a (b) one’s life and its force, (c) one’s and fulfilling existence is impaired, a person is unable relationship to others, and (d) the demands of the to respond to the world, to be engaged, to situation and the horizon of our lives. participate in a larger context. The future is not What effect does the impairment of these worth envisioning; there is no possible meaning foundations have when they are subjectively felt that could provide an orientation to a person’s life and lead to the experience of suffering? The and render it worth living. The predominant impairment of the first fundamental condition leads feeling is one of futility, that nothing positive will to the feeling of not being able to be here at all, come in the future and that one’s achievements are and to a feeling of being unable to overcome new in fact worthless. These feelings block any conditions. This feeling undermines any integrating possibility of integration and identification with the activity. The ability to integrate new conditions actual situation (commitment). The result is a leads to an of the present reality. pervasive feeling of emptiness and Without this ability, increased insecurity and meaninglessness, an experience of “existential anxiety are the results. Suffering in this dimension vacuum” (Frankl, 1963, pp. 167–171; 1973, pp. consists of an inability to accept what is here. 51ff.) and finally, despair. There can be tendencies An impairment of the second fundamental toward suicide or actual suicide attempts. Suffering condition engenders subjective feelings of dislike, in this dimension consists of a feeling of loss as a preference for not relating anymore, of not far as a future or a larger context is concerned, a wishing to act, not wanting or being able to enjoy, context that might otherwise provide orientation not being moved or internally turned in the and point to a positive development. direction of experiencing or acting and not The question of meaning arises when one’s experiencing anything as worthwhile. This hinders orientation towards the future is in . the integrating activity of turning to whatever is Although a worthwhile and meaningful future is dear or precious in one’s life. This leads to a loss much harder to discern when one experiences of vitality and will increase feelings of being suffering, it is not completely impossible. Meaning troubled, torn, guilty, worried or sorrowful, all of can still be found. Meaning, for example, can be which may eventually lead to . Suffering derived when a person is physically suffering or in this dimension means a loss of vitality, of endures a night full of pain, as in the case of the enjoyment, a loss of something dear and the 70-year-old patient. Meaning can be found in the feeling of not being able to live under these and for a reunion with one’s daughter conditions. before dying or in a final reunion with a loved one The subjectively felt impairment of the as in the case of the man who lost his daughter in third fundamental condition is tied to the feeling of a car accident (see below). In this case, spiritual or not knowing oneself anymore, to the feelings of religious faith is of particular value because it may self-alienation and, as a consequence, of not being provide meaning beyond all situational demands. able to engage with others or encounter others. Faith may open horizons in the most difficult The ability to integrate both one’s own inner situations of life and allow for a deeper dialogue and a dialogue with others is blocked. understanding of what is happening. On the other This leads to an inner emptiness, to self-alienation hand, and this must be considered, faith may be with its specific absence of emotion. A person misplaced and used to camouflage the situation, may feel inconsolable, accompanied by a loss of the , avoid the disagreeable facts or self that can further escalate into histrionic and avoid suffering altogether. To avoid the process of International Journal of Existential Volume 2, Issue 1, 2008 Psychology & Psychotherapy authentic suffering, when it occurs, is in fact a daughter to be the future of this firm. She was loss. To suffer authentically is necessary. It helps gentle and always ready to help, courteous, adroit to integrate and overcome psychological and and popular with everyone. The parents were spiritual loss. looking forward to having her close by and had These fundamental dimensions form four prepared for this. They had anticipated a family layers, each an integration of the other. At the with grandchildren who would be living in the same time, each layer has its own distinct element, neighbourhood. This terrible loss had annihilated but requires the integration of each preceding the parents’ and devastated their lives. dimension. For example, “to be oneself” in the While the mother slowly overcame her paralysing third dimension is not contained in the first and after nine months, the father remained in a second dimensions. For its full realization, state of passive resignation. For the father, all however, it is necessary to comfortably be in the meaning was lost. Why should he go on working world (first layer) and to have a satisfying or living since there was no future worth striving emotional life (second layer). This includes a good for? His faith, his family, his wife, his relatively relation with oneself, one’s own feelings and young age (he had just entered his fifties), his others. Therefore, in each case of suffering where work, the clients, his favourite pastimes and his there is a corresponding problem with meaning, we inner life meant little to him. The loss of his must ask whether the feelings of meaninglessness daughter simply hurt too much. are due to a blockage in: (a) not being able to In conditions such as these, where we see a (loss of capacities), (b) not wanting to, a dislike person with a rich life who is nonetheless both (loss of vitality and inner strength), or (c) a lack disinterested and disengaged, it points to one of of connection, relation, and dialogue with one’s the first three fundamental conditions not being self. fulfilled. In this case, the father could not accept If a person cannot endure her suffering the loss of this dear and central value in his life. because she does not have enough strength, she Without that personal acceptance, he could not get will be unable to recognize any meaning in a over the loss. As a consequence, the father had situation since she is unable to envisage any future become depressed and did not allow for the for herself. The inability to recognize or discover grieving process. Although his level of activity meaning may be the case even when a person has was still sufficient to enable him to continue faith and hope or imbues a situation with religious working, his defensive attitude made him unwilling meaning. The problem of meaninglessness in to take or seek help in order to work suffering must be diagnosed more precisely. through his loss. He held onto his depression Meaninglessness is connected foremost with a because he felt that this was his only means to blockage in one of the preceding fundamental keep in touch with his daughter. His depression conditions for a fulfilled existence. Therapy must allowed him to maintain an illusory hope of not focus on this blockage, otherwise the problem of having to let go of his daughter completely. In this meaninglessness may obscure the underlying case, all the other fundamental conditions had been problem. An example of this kind of blockage will impaired as well. be illustrated in the next case study. The man experienced a feeling of not being ANALYSIS OF A FEELING OF able to bear these conditions. This had led to a MEANINGLESSNESS of being annihilated and as a consequence, an A mother and father lose their daughter in attitude of massive defence. His relationship to life a car accident on an icy road on the day of her was disturbed and this was the central of 21st birthday. They have a son who is two years his suffering, the loss of this love and the younger. The daughter worked in the family’s incalculable value of the relationship. The father’s firm. Her father had hoped, if not considered, his subsequent loss of vitality had led to depression. International Journal of Existential Volume 2, Issue 1, 2008 Psychology & Psychotherapy

As the third fundamental condition became what has happened. impaired, a piece of his identity had come apart: THE LOST EXISTENTIAL ABILITIES IN Who was he now, having lost his daughter? Was SUFFERING—THE STRUCTURE OF he still the same person after the loss of this dear SUFFERING treasure with whom he had identified? With a In the above example, I elaborated on how blockage as severe as this, it is not surprising that the Existential-Analytic model describes what we he could not envisage a future anymore and suffer from when we suffer. We can link the perceived everything as meaningless. With the loss characteristics of suffering and its elements with of his child, his connection to the future had been distinct approaches necessary for gradually coping cut off. with suffering. For each of the fundamental Holding onto the question of meaning structures of existence there is a specific activity provided this father with a certain degree of that is blocked by the suffering: protection. It protected him against having to - The suffering may have its root in the fact accept the situation AND it provided him with a that one’s being in the world is threatened. The reason to hold onto his despair. His logic consequence of this is an inability to accept the concluded that it was reasonable NOT to accept facts. Such suffering can be accompanied by something that would render one’s own life fear. Emphasis must be placed on re- senseless. At the same time, however—and this establishing the ability to cope under the new seems particularly important to me—by refusing to conditions that a person is facing, such as with accept a situation we make it possible to keep the paralysis or cancer. destructive event at a distance, to push it away in - Suffering may have its root in the fact that fact. that is focused solely on the one’s enjoyment of life, or vitality, is impaired. meaninglessness of one’s suffering and the The consequence of this impairment is a lack meaninglessness of one’s future is a consequence of motivation to turn to what makes life dear of being unable to come to terms with the reality and precious, an unwillingness to feel emotions of the situation. If a person focuses on the meaninglessness of life generally, a person because they are too painful. This extricates himself or herself from fault or unwillingness easily gives rise to depression. responsibility if life does not go on. This is akin to Coping involves a re-establishment of life heaping a sulky reproach upon life: If life is an under the new conditions, such as after the insoluble dilemma then it is impossible to engage death of a loved one. oneself in life. The conditions of life are - Furthermore, suffering may be caused by a considered too difficult and therefore unacceptable. loss of self-esteem or . The consequence Rather than dealing with the suffering and is an unwillingness to be seen, a tendency to trying to come to terms with it, a passive attitude hide and to feel that one is unable to be the is being reinforced and one waits for an answer to person he or she is. Suffering at this level the ontological meaning of the suffering. The produces hysterical developments. Coping question would be: What is the meaning of this strategies aim at recapturing an authentic sense suffering, what good can come of this suffering? of being, to restructure and/or build up one’s Such questions, in fact, cannot be answered. The personality, e.g., after experiencing rape, shame question itself belongs to the realm of faith or or guilt. philosophy and not to the realm of pure reason. A - Finally, suffering can be caused by a loss of person who holds onto the question of ontological context that would give meaning to one’s meaning may in fact reinforce a defensive attitude actions and one’s life. Generally, development and create a distance to the problem because they or change is seen as worthless because it is are not striving, or finding the ability to accept perceived as leading nowhere. The consequence International Journal of Existential Volume 2, Issue 1, 2008 Psychology & Psychotherapy

is a renunciation of adjustment to the actual can ask ourselves practical questions such as: situation, a renunciation of adjustment to what - Am I able to stand this problem at all? How is waiting, or a renunciation of what is calling long? A day? An hour? Indefinitely? for a commitment. Suicide and addiction can - Am I willing to try? Or does everything in easily result. Coping strategies are linked to re- me cry out against that? establishing a relationship with the future and - Does this suffering leave me with the space to bringing about a focus or orientation that is to be? directed towards a larger, more encompassing If the suffering is caused by impairment in and even metaphysical sphere. one’s joy of life, the approach is to restore HOW CAN WE SUFFER?—A STEP BY motivation and a relation to life through various STEP MODEL OF COPING WITH small steps and personal decision making. This SUFFERING requires turning toward the source of suffering, toward whatever has been lost. By entering into a Coping with suffering is a process. The relationship with it, by approaching it honestly and Existential-Analytic Model provides practical steps by giving oneself time or space, grieving can arise that can be applied to this process. These steps naturally. Through grieving we are touched by life deal with all different forms of suffering as itself. By turning toward our loss, we feel our pain suffering is often composed of several dimensions. intensely. This moves us inwardly, makes us cry If the inability to be under the changed and invites us to draw empathically towards conditions is the cause of suffering, the structures ourselves. In order to do this we need relationship of one’s existence should be worked on in order to and closeness. These are contingent upon our re-establish an ability to be. It is helpful to begin experiences of relationship and closeness in the by focusing on the ability to endure and to accept past and/or through the attention and closeness of suffering in order to integrate it into one’s life. A other people during the painful situation. We can fulfilled existence is constructed on the basis of ask ourselves concrete questions such as: engagement with reality. Feeling “ to be” and being able to confront reality is fundamental - Which feelings are caused by this suffering? for existence. Does it hurt very much? Enduring pain, hurt and problems is the - Can I sustain these feelings? Do I want to most basic human ability. To endure suffering is deal with them? Can I allow these feelings, can important even if the cause of suffering, I live with them, because they belong to me? fortunately, may often be altered or even Can I endure the link these feelings have with eliminated. When suffering imposes itself, it has to the loss I have gone through? be taken into account. The present “moment” of - Can I recognize and appreciate how these suffering has to be accepted. In order to do so, we feelings bring me in touch with myself and have to ask ourselves whether we have the strengthen my relation to myself? strength and sufficient support to bear it. To bear If the suffering is due to a loss of identity one’s suffering means accepting it as part of one’s and of being oneself and self-alienation, the focus existence. To bear the “moment” means must be on what we regard as right and suitable withstanding the emotion through its duration, “en- for ourselves, on what is authentic and ethically during” it. This demands considerable responsible. This theme is the foundation of psychological energy and the willingness to face personhood, which has been impaired either this disagreeable emotion. One has to be sure that through events or our own behaviour. This one can survive this suffering, that there is enough foundation of personhood requires encounter with space and support to endure the suffering. Only other persons. Through encounter a person finds then can suffering be accepted as a “given” of himself or herself. Through encounter a person human existence, a given that can be endured. We sees, feels and grasps his/her essence. This leads to International Journal of Existential Volume 2, Issue 1, 2008 Psychology & Psychotherapy processes of repentance, of pardon and situation can be seen, felt or understood within a reconciliation. Through repentance a person larger context and a possible meaning for the encounters himself or herself. There is a suffering emerges, a person will be better able to reconnection with one’s true essence through an accept the suffering and face it without losing a analysis, often with pain and shame, of what one sense of self. has done wrong and what has led to the losing of ABOUT THE MEANING OF SUFFERING oneself. In the process of mourning, the presence Frankl (1963)pointed out that suffering and of others are helpful. In these cases, cannot be directly experienced as meaning. If we respectful face-to-face encounter and the understand meaning as something worthwhile and establishment of appropriate distance are asked for. precious, then suffering clearly runs contrary to Practical questions can be asked, such as: this definition of meaning. To suffer suggests an - What is my opinion about what has happened experience or experiences of loss, destruction to me or about what I have done? and/or pain. Suffering is therefore experienced as - Can I stand by this opinion, can I stand to meaningless (this does not exclude that suffering my behaviour, to my decisions? Do I respect may be considered ontologically necessary or myself or do I feel shame? meaningful in the larger context of faith or a - Am I really myself, am I authentic? Can I particular ideology). appreciate myself? By activating the potential of the inner If suffering is caused by the loss of an person, Frankl described a “turn” in the experience orientation towards the future, an orientation that of suffering. Even if suffering itself is meaningless, has context and meaning into which one can there may be a possible meaning in the way we integrate one’s actions and life in a constructive suffer. The meaning of suffering can therefore lie way, then the focus must be on an openness to the in the way we deal with it. But it can also be demands and opportunities of the given situation, found in the attempt to integrate it into a larger and the larger contexts in which the client finds context. A wider perspective may even imbue the himself or herself. This requires adjustment, suffering with some value. How can suffering be harmonisation and a dialogical way of dealing with understood (and thereby integrated) in a greater the circumstances. By adjusting to the context? (Frankl, 1963; 1967, pp. 15- circumstances on the basis of one’s ability, 16; 1973, pp. 105-116) is a psychological approach motivation and inner consent, it will be possible that offers valuable guidance on how to integrate for a person to become committed to the situation. and cope with suffering and how to discover The act of committing or responding to the existential meaning in suffering. The emergence of situation itself enables a person to find an activity the “existential turn” enables us to be open to the that opens the door to creative and meaningful possible meaning of suffering in two ways in possibilities and actions. These in turn open the which the person still maintains his or her door to the future. To realistically see, take in, freedom: in "how" we suffer; and "for whom" we assess and adjust to the demands of the situation suffer (cf. Längle, 1987; 1994c). leads to existential meaning. The ability to see, The first existential approach to suffering feel or believe in a wider context provides a concerns “how” we suffer and the myriad of window to the ontological meaning (Längle, possible expressions. We might deal with suffering 1994a) and in turn, the threshold of faith. openly and publicly or silently, in an introverted From this perspective, the question of manner, by seeking others out, through sacrifice or meaning is placed in a dialogical relation with the by condemning what we are suffering from. The ability to accept, to relate and to be oneself. If second existential approach to suffering concerns these “personal conditions” are in place, a person our relationships: Do we relate to others in our will be more open to the meaning of the situation suffering and therefore behave in a certain way so and better able to respond, cope and act. If the as to spare them further strain or burden, for International Journal of Existential Volume 2, Issue 1, 2008 Psychology & Psychotherapy example? Can we relate to ourselves? Can we, for despair, he or she may even grow. A person may example, look into our eyes and relate to how we progress or develop in the spiritual dimension and deal with suffering? Or do we relate to God for possibly gain new abilities, for example. whom we are prepared to shoulder the suffering? Furthermore, it is possible to grow in maturity. A Frankl called these two forms of coping with person’s mental and spiritual faculties can unfold, suffering a "main avenue to meaning." Both relate be enlarged and reinforced. Finally, Frankl to a highly personal category of "attitudinal suggested that human are capable of values" (Frankl, 1973, pp. 44) because the value or surpassing themselves (i.e., transcending meaning of suffering lies in the attitude an themselves). Human beings have the potential for individual adopts or expresses towards the actions and attitudes they would not have believed suffering. Attitudinal values are, in the final themselves capable of before. It is precisely the analysis, an expression of a person's deepest feelings of distress experienced in suffering that relationship with life. They describe how a person motivate people to greater human achievements. sees life fundamentally and whether life is Frankl was forced to bear witness to conceptualised positively or negatively (cf. Längle, indescribable suffering during his two and a half 1994c, p. 504). years in concentration camps. At the end of Man’s Beyond the existential approach in both Search for Meaning (1963), Frankl summarized coping and integration, there is a different category his experience of suffering with the following of meaning to suffering. There is a metaphysical statement, “The crowning experience of all, for the meaning, a meaning which does not depend on an homecoming man, is the wonderful feeling that, individual and his or her attitude. We call it after all he has suffered, there is nothing he needs "ontological meaning" (Längle, 1994a). It derives fear any more—except his God” (p. 148). I want from the totality of all that exists and represents to conclude with another quote of Frankl’s (1959, the meaning that underlies all beings. Such p. 709) from one of his early works: “Suffering meaning surpasses human knowledge and makes man clear-sighted and the world understanding. Ontological meaning is a matter of transparent.” Suffering may open our eyes to a faith and faith can provide us with hope and the depth and scope that surpasses everyday life. prospect of salvation. Suffering may put the events of the world into In one of his early works, Frankl (1975 perspective thereby reducing their felt and [1946], pp. 310-333) wrote that suffering has a perceived significance to a degree that makes the specific effect on the person undergoing it. If a physical transparent for the metaphysical. person succeeds in enduring it and does not

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Editors’ Note Translation by Godela von Kirchbach, Geneva. English assistance by Britt-Mari Sykes, University of Ottawa.