148 AUSTRALIAN Field Ornithology 2009, 26, 148–156 Observations on the Biology of the Red Goshawk radiatus in Queensland

G.V. CZECHURA1, R.G. HOBSON2 and D.A. STEWART3 1Queensland Museum, P.O. Box 3300, South Brisbane, Queensland 4101 (Email: [email protected]) 2Department of Environment and Resource Management, P.O. Box 731, Toowoomba, Queensland 4350 3Department of Environment and Resource Management, P.O. Box 64, Bellbowrie, Queensland 4070

Summary During field surveys of the Red Goshawk Erythrotriorchis radiatus in northern Queensland in the 1999 and 2000 breeding seasons, notes were obtained on the Goshawk’s breeding biology, diet and foraging on Cape York Peninsula. Egg-laying occurred from early July to early September, with fledging in November and December. Six nests were high (25–30 m) in emergent mature eucalypts or paperbarks, beside breaks in the forest or woodland canopy, within 1 km of water. Inter-pair distances were 7–11 km between active nests, with males having large foraging ranges (extending at least 3–5 km from the nest). Courtship displays, parental behaviour, sex-roles and nestling growth are described qualitatively. Diet consisted of (mainly parrots and large passerines); three direct flying and tail-chasing attacks on prey are described.

Introduction The endemic Red Goshawk Erythrotriorchis radiatus is vulnerable nationally and in the Northern Territory, rare in Western , endangered in Queensland, and critically endangered in New South Wales, under the relevant Federal and State legislation. The little known about its biology in Queensland was reviewed by Debus & Czechura (1988), Marchant & Higgins (1993) and Debus et al. (1993a,b). There has been no field research on its biology in Queensland, as has been conducted in the Northern Territory and in the Kimberley of Western Australia (cf. Aumann & Baker-Gabb 1991; Marchant & Higgins 1993; Johnstone & Storr 1998). In recent times there have been only anecdotal fragments published on the Goshawk’s behaviour and ecology (Hobson 1992; Czechura & Czechura 1994; Debus 1995, 2008a; Johnstone & Storr 1998; Wilkins & Donato 1998; Augusteyn 2001; Hollands 2003; Hughes & Hughes 2005). Although one recent breeding event in south-eastern Queensland has been reported, that pair was not studied in detail (see Debus 2008b). A companion paper describes the Red Goshawk’s distribution, status and habitat preferences in Queensland (Czechura et al. in press). Here, we collate observations on aspects of the Goshawk’s biology and ecology, obtained in the course of surveys of the Goshawk in northern and south-eastern Queensland, as a partial basis for the species’ conservation and management.

Study areas and methods Field surveys for Red Goshawks were conducted in north-eastern Queensland (Townsville north almost to Coen and west to Burketown and Lawn Hill National Park) in August–December 1999 by GVC and RGH, and on Cape York Peninsula (Georgetown– Mt Surprise north to Pajinka) in September 2000–January 2001 by GVC. Searches were conducted from suitable elevated viewing points, on foot, by driving along road networks, VOL. 26 (4) december 2009 Biology of Red Goshawk in Qld 149 and by a combination of these methods. Observations were made with 10 × 40 or 10 × 42 binoculars, and a 25× or a 20–60× zoom telescope, and repeat visits through the breeding cycle were made to active nests. Details of nest construction were determined by examining the components of a fallen Red Goshawk nest. Field surveys for Red Goshawks in south-eastern Queensland (Border Ranges north to Gladstone and Carnarvon Gorge, inland to the Great Dividing Range) were conducted in 2001 via (i) a search by RGH in February–June, using the above methods, and (ii) a volunteer-based survey co-ordinated by DAS. Volunteers either stayed at vantage points, scanning for Goshawks, or drove along roads and tracks through suitable habitat, for at least one day per month through the year, and the survey effort included nest searches in likely habitat. GVC and RGH kept notes on their Red Goshawk sightings, including notes on display and hunting behaviour, prey items and breeding biology, and volunteers reported one breeding event in south-eastern Queensland. Food items were identified from observed prey deliveries to nests and fledglings, and from remains found beneath nests and associated feeding perches. Searches below nests for prey remains were conducted after the young had fledged. When they were together, members of a pair were readily sexed on the basis of extreme sexual size dimorphism.

Results

Displays The following courtship displays were observed in northern Queensland between mid September and mid October. They occurred mostly in mid to late morning, but also in the early and late afternoon. 1. Territorial marking or unilateral agility display, by a presumed male, which performed an erratic flight display between a prominent knoll and the edge of a nearby ridge. This performed a series of sharp, zigzag and jerky flight actions resembling those described by Czechura & Czechura (1994). 2. Pair in aerial display, consisting of mutual soaring, followed by the male attempting to close with the female; a low-level tail-chase ensued. 3. Pair in aerial display, which included erratic chasing, sideslipping and slow, parallel contour-hugging flight; the male was the more active. 4. Pair in aerial display, which included mutual soaring, flying close together and erratic flight with the wings swept forward. 5. Pair in aerial display, soaring together; occasionally the birds flew towards each other as if to touch feet, only to veer away at the last moment. A similar display was observed in south-eastern Queensland in mid October. 6. Pair in aerial display, soaring and occasionally performing erratic flight and the foregoing approach manoeuvre. During an additional observation of a pair, in south-eastern Queensland in late February 2001, the male flew closely behind the female; the male called in a series of paired disyllabic notes, with a pause between each couplet.

Breeding biology In north-eastern Queensland, one pair of Red Goshawks was observed collecting sticks and greenery in early September 1999, and incubation at another site was first observed in early October, with the juvenile fledged in early December (J. Augusteyn, G. Holmes, R. Stannard pers. comm.). In 2000, one active nest had failed by early September; in mid September incubation was in progress at another AUSTRALIAN 150 CZECHURA, HOBSON & STEWART Field Ornithology nest and a third held an advanced nestling; and young from both successful nests had fledged by early November (or earlier, in the third case). In south-eastern Queensland, volunteers reported a new fledgling (just out of the nest and a poor flier) in early November. From known incubation and nestling periods of ~6 weeks and ~2 months (Marchant & Higgins 1993), egg-laying dates for these six nests would have occurred between early July and early September. All six confirmed Red Goshawk nests in north-eastern Queensland were located 20–35 m above the ground, on the edge of the outer canopy of tall eucalypts (Darwin Stringybark Eucalyptus tetrodonta ×3, Melville Island Bloodwood Corymbia nesophila ×1, Hyland’s Bloodwood C. hylandii var. peninsularis ×1) or Weeping Paperbark Melaleuca leucadendra (×1), in open forest or woodland. Nest-trees were located on the edge of a main watercourse (the paperbark site), or along roadways (<15 m from the verge) within 1 km of watercourses, permanent lagoons or swamps (the eucalypt sites). The nests in eucalypts were also within 1–2 km of paperbark woodland and riparian vegetation. Neighbouring active nests were ~11.1 km and ~7.3 km apart, and one active nest was ~3.4 km from a partial nest that may have been an alternative or old nest of one of the pairs. The trees selected for nesting were mature emergents, with an open-forest or woodland growth form (after Brooker & Kleinig 1996), with little or no substantial branching under 10–15 m. The canopies of these trees were shallow or spread in an umbrella shape. The nests were constructed on a substantial horizontal or near-horizontal forked limb, free of obstructing limbs below and to the sides of the nest, and braced against an oblique vertical fork. Typically, nests were large (diameter ~1 m), flat and rather untidy with numerous projecting sticks, especially around the lower sides and near the base. The five nests in the eucalypts appeared to be composed of three distinct layers: a basal layer of stout sticks (length 65–150 cm; diameter 1.5–3.0 cm); a secondary layer of thinner, but longer, sticks and branchlets (length 100–200 cm; diameter 1.0–1.5 cm) comprising the bulk of the structure; and a final layer of fine, mostly fresh (i.e. supple) branchlets and twigs (length 37–71 cm; diameter <1 cm), largely added to the interior bowl of the nest. Combining results for the two years 1999 and 2000 in north-eastern Queensland, breeding productivity was four young from four monitored attempts (two broods of one, one brood of two, and one failure = 1.0 young/pair/year over 4 pair-years). The 1999 juvenile remained in the area until mid 2000 (J. Young pers. comm.), or ~6 months after fledging.

Breeding behaviour In the nest-building phase, the male appeared to be responsible for adding large sticks, i.e. the first two layers, to the nest and the female finished the nest with fine twigs and branchlets (J. Young & D. Hollands pers. comm.). Most material appeared to be collected from neighbouring vegetation. The need for a tall tree with unimpeded airspace around the nest-limb was apparent from the size of the bird, its wingspan and the size of sticks in the first two construction layers. In a dense canopy it would be difficult for the male to manoeuvre and place sticks. Incubation appeared to last at least 35 days (although exact laying dates were not obtained), with the female responsible for incubation. Remaining low in the nest throughout, often only her tail-tip could be seen. Chicks were downy white with bluish-grey cere and legs. VOL. 26 (4) december 2009 Biology of Red Goshawk in Qld 151

Once the eggs hatched, the female remained in attendance, except for short absences of <10 minutes. In contrast, for most of the incubation and nestling periods the male was often absent for 2–3 h or perched 30–100 m from the nest (often revealed by his calls). Later in the nestling period, the female’s absences were longer, and in one case an absence of >15 minutes was noted. When returning, the female invariably flew onto a limb above the nest before proceeding to it. On some occasions, she perched in an adjacent favoured tree. During the nestling period, when the male returned with prey he transferred food to the female several trees distant from the nest, and the female returned to the nest with the prey or ate it near the nest. These transfers took place on a branch 20–50 m from the nest and below the tree-canopy. Late in the nestling period and post-fledging, the male brought prey directly to the young. In the early nestling period, when the female took prey to the nest, she plucked and dismembered the food before distributing small pieces to the young. In the later nestling period, prey was simply deposited in the nest and the female either remained or immediately left for an adjacent perch in the same or a nearby tree. When returning without prey, the male tended to perch outside the immediate area of the nest, or progressively approached by flying and perching in successive trees. Typically, the male approached the nest at about mid-level height in the surrounding vegetation. At no time was a male observed approaching a nest from above. Both parents, when returning to the nest after an extended absence, tended to approach it from below before flying up to it or an adjacent perch. Both adults favoured particular trees for perching, and at all stages of the nesting cycle they could (if present) be located in those trees. They were most vocal during the incubation to early nestling period, during food transfers, and when the adults appeared to be encouraging juveniles to fly. After long absences (>1 h) from the nest area, the male often appeared to be flying in from some distant point. On several occasions, the male of one pair was observed perched, foraging or flying over paperbark flats 3–5 km from the nest, these minimum distances indicating a large foraging range. The nestlings were active and exercising a week after hatching. In the lead-up to fledging, they often stood for long periods (~1 h) and climbed to the outer edges of the nest. They appeared to be most active in the early morning and late afternoon. During the heat of the day, they were difficult to observe as they crouched low in the nest. Fledglings remained close to the nest, and were usually in trees 10–20 m from the nest-tree. Both parents were often present, perching quietly for long periods at regular perches, and frequently they appeared reluctant to fly. Food transfers between adults and juveniles sometimes involved an adult flying to the branch on which the juvenile was perched and passing the food, or having it taken by the juvenile. On other occasions, the juvenile flew to meet the adult. The adult female frequently landed 1–3 m from the juvenile, on the same or an adjacent branch, apparently to encourage it to leave its perch. On two occasions, a juvenile female took prey aggressively from the returning adult male. On one of these a collision resulted and the adult male perched with a slightly drooped wing for a brief period. In 1999, the female appeared to encourage the fledgling to leave the nest area by stealing its food, and by refusing to bring prey close to the nest-site. Both adults and young were confiding and appeared tolerant of human presence, although observation points were >50 m from the nests. The Goshawks perched among foliage and remained still, except for head movements and slight AUSTRALIAN 152 CZECHURA, HOBSON & STEWART Field Ornithology adjustments of posture. Although the adults were aware of the observers, no distress or flushing behaviours were elicited; they maintained an erect stance and followed the observer with head movements. The only ‘distress’ behaviour observed occurred on one occasion when the incubating female mantled over the nest and called. Her gaze was directed skywards towards a Black-breasted Buzzard Hamirostra melanosternon and two Whistling Kites Haliastur sphenurus soaring in the vicinity. Neither the presence of observers near the nest nor that of other raptors, such as Pacific Bazas Aviceda subcristata, Whistling Kites, Wedge-tailed Eagles Aquila audax, Brown Goshawks Accipiter fasciatus or Brown Falcons Falco berigora, elicited a similar response. Other observers have also noted that a distress response occurred when Black-breasted Buzzards approached a Red Goshawk nest (J. Young & D. Hollands pers comm.). Conflict between these two species has also been observed (J. Young pers. comm.), and on one occasion a Red Goshawk was seen attacking a passing Black-breasted Buzzard in the same area (G. Holmes pers. comm.). However, in the Northern Territory, Red Goshawks strongly defend the nest against Wedge-tailed Eagles (D. Baker-Gabb pers. comm.). There was no evidence of partially eaten items being discarded at or near the nest. Prey remains located under the nest consisted of discarded feathers and scattered bones and skulls with little or no adhering tissue (although ants quickly remove any flesh: D. Baker-Gabb pers. comm.). Indeed, if the nestlings or fledglings did not fully consume prey, the female took it from them and ate it. In 1999, the male delivered a Rainbow Lorikeet Trichoglossus haematodus to the fledgling, which ate part of the lorikeet and appeared to lose interest in it, although it kept hold of the remains. After 10–15 minutes, the female gradually approached the fledgling and snatched the remains from it, then consumed them at her original perch. Similar behaviour was observed during 2000, when the two females were observed removing uneaten prey from either the nest or from fledglings, and subsequently consuming it. If prey was dropped, the female was observed to recover it and eat it on the ground after ‘parachuting’ down from her perch. Foraging behaviour Three observations of attacks on prey were observed in northern Queensland: 1. Apparent co-operative hunting by a pair of Goshawks above the tree-canopy. The male drove a parrot (Pale-headed Rosella Platycercus adscitus?) towards the female; he made repeated short stoops to prevent the parrot from diving into cover, then the female joined in and both made short stoops which became a twisting and turning chase. Eventually, the parrot dived towards the canopy with both following in a tail-chase (outcome unseen). 2. A single Goshawk made a fast direct flying attack at an aggregation of parrots, honeyeaters and pigeons feeding in the canopy of an emergent riverine fig Ficus sp. The attack was conducted from low over the tree-canopy, and appeared to have been launched from a nearby perch (outcome unseen). 3. A male Goshawk flew rapidly across a paperbark plain towards emergent trees in a strip of riverine forest, where lorikeets and other parrots were feeding (outcome unseen). Other probable foraging behaviour included skulking through the tree-canopy (seen in riverine forest twice, and once in trees near a roadway), fast active flight low over or below the tree-canopy and along the edge of riparian vegetation (observed on three occasions), and flying and gliding along riverine forest (seen once). Prey items Observed prey items in northern Queensland were entirely birds, including VOL. 26 (4) december 2009 Biology of Red Goshawk in Qld 153

Table 1 Dietary items of breeding Red Goshawks, from observed deliveries to fledglings and from remains under nests and feeding perches, Cape York Peninsula, Qld, in 1999 and 2000. Prey species 1999 2000

Tawny Frogmouth Podargus strigoides X Galah Eolophus roseicapillus X Sulphur-crested Cockatoo Cacatua galerita X Rainbow Lorikeet Trichoglossus haematodus X X Red-winged Parrot Aprosmictus erythropterus X Pale-headed Rosella Platycercus adscitus X Eastern Koel Eudynamys orientalis X Laughing Kookaburra Dacelo novaeguineae X Blue-winged Kookaburra Dacelo leachii X X Blue-faced Honeyeater Entomyzon cyanotis X Silver-crowned Friarbird Philemon argenticeps X Large honeyeater (friarbird Philemon sp.?) X White-bellied Cuckoo-shrike Coracina papuensis X Black-backed Butcherbird Cracticus mentalis X parrots, cockatoos, kookaburras and large passerines (Table 1). Dominant prey items appeared to be Rainbow Lorikeets and large honeyeaters, as confirmed also by J. Augusteyn, J. Young and D. Hollands (pers. comm.) at the same nests. The only non-avian prey item brought to one of these nests was a rat-sized mammal (J. Young & D. Hollands pers. comm.). Most prey in the breeding diet appeared to be taken from within the Darwin Stringybark woodlands, adjacent paperbark communities, riparian fringes or ecotones. Discussion The information obtained during this study adds to the knowledge base for the Red Goshawk in Queensland, with respect to its breeding biology and behaviour, diet and foraging behaviour. It confirms and enlarges on existing information for the Northern Territory, Kimberley and Queensland, and is in general agreement with relevant data from those regions (cf. Aumann & Baker-Gabb 1991; Debus et al. 1993b; Marchant & Higgins 1993; Johnstone & Storr 1998; Hollands 2003; Carlson in Debus 2008a). Aerial displays were much as previously described (cf. Marchant & Higgins 1993; Czechura & Czechura 1994), with this study adding examples and variants of male agility displays and interactions between male and female. Breeding chronology was also much as previously documented, with the breeding cycle in northern Queensland taking place before the wet season. Some egg-laying in early July, if not earlier, supports previous cases of occasional laying even earlier in the dry season in the Tropics (cf. Debus et al. 1993a; Marchant & Higgins 1993; Johnstone & Storr 1998). Nest-site characteristics and nest construction were as previously described (cf. Aumann & Baker-Gabb 1991; Marchant & Higgins 1993; Johnstone & Storr 1998; Hollands 2003). Eucalypts, bloodwoods and Weeping Paperbarks appear to be favoured for nesting. These tree species attain heights of >30 m (Brock AUSTRALIAN 154 CZECHURA, HOBSON & STEWART Field Ornithology

Adult male Red Goshawk in flight, Mataranka, NT, spring 2006 Plate 27 Photo: Bill (W.S.) Clark

Adult female Red Goshawk and fledglings at nest, Mataranka, NT, spring 2007 Plate 28 Photo: Ashley Carlson VOL. 26 (4) december 2009 Biology of Red Goshawk in Qld 155

1988; Brooker & Kleinig 1994; Townsend 1997) and have an open growth form (sensu Brooker & Kleinig 1996). Trees with these characteristics are most likely to provide these long-winged hawks with easy access to the nest and space for the male to manoeuvre long sticks into position during nest construction (Aumann & Baker-Gabb 1991). Red Goshawk nest-trees were located at breaks in uniform tree cover, such as along rivers and roadways. Breeding productivity in the small north-eastern Queensland sample was similar to elsewhere in the Tropics (0.9 young/pair/year: Aumann & Baker-Gabb 1991; Marchant & Higgins 1993). Hollands (2003) reported, for breeding events in our Cape York study area involving some of the same nests, that only one young fledged from five observed attempts (combining both samples, four young from seven attempts or only 0.6 young/attempt over 7 pair-years). The fate of the fledgling with a broken wing, taken into care (Hollands 2003), is unrecorded. Black-breasted Buzzards may have become a resident breeding species in the Cape York study area only recently. Buzzards were rarely recorded during visits to this area in the 1970s (GVC unpubl. data), and other observers agree (E. Zillmann, J. Young and S. Garnett pers. comm.). As Buzzards are predators of the nestlings and young of other birds, including other raptors (Marchant & Higgins 1993), their presence may have consequences for local Red Goshawks (such as increased incidence of nest failure, and egg, nestling and fledgling mortality). An arid-zone and savanna woodland species, the Buzzard may be favoured in the Tropics by partial habitat clearance, hot fires late in the dry season, and perhaps increasing aridity associated with climate change. Inter-nest distances, apparently large home-ranges, and long commuting distances by males between the nest and hunting grounds were similar to those previously reported for Red Goshawks (cf. Aumann & Baker-Gabb 1991; Marchant & Higgins 1993). Sex-roles and parental behaviour of breeding Red Goshawks were also as previously described (cf. Aumann & Baker-Gabb 1991; Marchant & Higgins 1993; Carlson in Debus 2008a). However, there is no quantification of parental time-budgets through the breeding cycle, although the basis for such calculations probably exists in the files (authors’ and volunteers’ field notes) of the study by Aumann & Baker-Gabb (S. Debus pers. comm.). The Goshawk’s incubation period in Queensland was probably more than 35 days, more like ~40 days (cf. Aumann & Baker-Gabb 1991; Marchant & Higgins 1993; Johnstone & Storr 1998). A long post-fledging period and juvenile persistence in the natal territory for ~6 months is consistent with previous limited information (cf. Marchant & Higgins 1993). The observations of foraging and attack behaviour are similar to those previously reported, and are consistent with a fast aerial predator that takes flocking birds from the forest or woodland canopy, often by surprise along ecotones with open habitats (cf. Aumann & Baker-Gabb 1991; Marchant & Higgins 1993). The Red Goshawk’s diet was similar to that reported previously for Queensland (Debus & Czechura 1988) and elsewhere, and emphasises its dependence on parrots, cockatoos, kookaburras and large passerines (cf. Aumann & Baker-Gabb 1991; Marchant & Higgins 1993; Johnstone & Storr 1998). The results of this study, along with that on its habitat requirements (Czechura et al. in press), make a significant step towards the more comprehensive database required for the Red Goshawk’s conservation and management in eastern Australia. For example, there is an obvious need for more detailed studies of its ecology and movements (including telemetric studies of home-range) in Queensland, by experienced raptor ecologists. AUSTRALIAN 156 CZECHURA, HOBSON & STEWART Field Ornithology

Acknowledgements The surveys in north-eastern Queensland and Cape York Peninsula were funded, respectively, by the Qld Parks & Wildlife Service and by a Cape York Natural Heritage Trust grant to Birds Australia (North Qld Group), with assistance and support from QPWS staff and rangers in the Atherton, Cairns, Chillagoe and Ingham offices, and in Princess Hills, Yarramulla, Lakefield and Lawn Hill National Parks. Information and support were also provided by Qld Department of Primary Industries staff (Atherton and Mareeba), NatureSearch (Cairns/Atherton), staff of Lotus Bird Lodge, BANQ members, and others: J. Augusteyn, J. Clarkson, R. Czechura, L. Einoder, M. Evans, K. Fisher, A. & A. Freeman, S. Garnett, N. Godfrey, G. Harrington, D. Hollands, G. Holmes, J. & P. Nott, F. Mikula, J. Monroe, J. Morris, S. Murphy, L. Nielsen, P. Olsen, T. & S. Shepherd, R. & S. Stannard, D. Storch, C. & V. Thomas, M. Todd, E. Vanderduys, B. Venables, S. Wason, J. Weinecke, N. Weston, J. Winter, J. Young and E. Zillmann. The south-eastern Qld survey was funded by a Natural Heritage Trust Endangered Species Program grant to the Australasian Raptor Association and QPWS; we thank the volunteers and informants who assisted the south- eastern Qld survey, including M. Burnham (QPWS Maryborough), G. Chapman, M. Davies, R. From, P. Grimshaw (QPWS, Moggill), P. & B. Hughes, P. McConnell, T. Thornton, I. Thrash (QPWS, Fraser Island), P. Tremul, A. Young and the Maryborough/Gympie NatureSearch team. Drs Tom Aumann, David Baker-Gabb and Penny Olsen commented helpfully on a draft.

References Augusteyn, J. (2001), ‘Dry season in Cape York’, Bird Observer 811, 12. Aumann, T. & Baker-Gabb, D.J. (1991), The Ecology and Status of the Red Goshawk in Northern Australia, RAOU Report 75, RAOU, Melbourne. Brock, J. (1988), Top End Plants, Author, Darwin. Brooker, M.I.H. & Kleinig, D.A. (1994), Field Guide to the Eucalypts, vol. 3, Inkata Press, Melbourne. Brooker, M.I.H. & Kleinig, D.A. (1996), Eucalypts, An Illustrated Guide to Identification, Reed, Sydney. Czechura, G.V. & Czechura, R.E (1994), ‘Observations of an aerial display by Red Goshawks’, Australian Bird Watcher 15, 325–327. Czechura, G.V., Hobson, R.G. & Stewart, D.A. (in press), ‘Distribution, status and habitat of the Red Goshawk Erythrotriorchis radiatus in Queensland’, Corella. Debus, S. (1995), ‘Red Goshawk’, Nature Australia 25(3), 30–37. Debus, S. (2008a), ‘Red Goshawk’, Bird Observer 856, 10–11. Debus, S. (2008b), ‘Diurnal raptors under threat’, Bird Observer 856, 5–8. Debus, S.J.S. & Czechura, G.V. (1988), ‘The Red Goshawk Erythrotriorchis radiatus: A review’, Australian Bird Watcher 12, 175–199. Debus, S.J.S., McAllan, I.A.W. & Mead, D.A. (1993a), ‘Museum specimens of the Red Goshawk Erythrotriorchis radiatus. I. Annotated list of specimens’, Sunbird 23, 5–28. Debus, S.J.S., McAllan, I.A.W. & Mead, D.A. (1993b), ‘Museum specimens of the Red Goshawk Erythrotriorchis radiatus. II. Morphology, biology and in eastern Australia’, Sunbird 23, 75–89. Hobson, R.G. (1992), ‘The Red Goshawk Erythrotriorchis radiatus, in the Lockyer Valley, se Qld’, Australasian Raptor Association News 13, 12–13. Hollands, D. (2003), Eagles, Hawks and Falcons of Australia, 2nd edn, Bloomings Books, Melbourne. Hughes, P. & Hughes, B. (2005), ‘Red Goshawk near Gympie’, Boobook 23, 11. Johnstone, R.E. & Storr, G.M. (1998), Handbook of Western Australian Birds, vol. 1, WA Museum, Perth. Marchant, S. & Higgins, P.J. (Eds) (1993), Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds, vol. 2, Oxford University Press, Melbourne. Townsend, K. (1997), Field Guide to the Plants of the Dry Tropics, Society for Growing Australian Plants, Townsville, Qld. Wilkins, P.J. & Donato, D.B. (1998), ‘Observations of Red Goshawk Erythrotriorchis radiatus taking prey and being robbed’, Australian Bird Watcher 17, 263–264.

Received 7 May 2009 