COLUMBIA SCIENCE REVIEW Vol. 4, Issue 2: Fall 2007
Inside: Global Warning?
Understanding the Poincaré Conjecture
The Medicinal Properties of Orchids
The Beneffits of Yogic Breathing Credit
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Columbia Science Review Credit COLUMBIA SCIENCE REVIEW
Understanding the Poincaré Conjecture 6
The Remedial Effects of Yogic Breathing Exercises 10
Peeling the Layer: A Look at Single Carbon Planes 12
Egypt Veiled From the Truth: HIV in a Muslim Context 16
Global Warning 20
Invesitgating the Medicinal Properties of Orchids
Faculty Profile: Professor Scott A. Snyder 4
Anti-Angiogenic Drugs: A Replacement for Chemotherapy 6
Volume 4. Issue 2: Fall 2007. Science in the News
Cocktail Science: Columbia and Beyond olumbia has partnered with the Doe insulin, whose increase leads to a decrease oft corals within the ocean are dying Fund to convert dining hall cooking oil in insulin sensitivity, osteocalcin release at a rapidly increasing rate due to wasteC to useful biodiesel fuel. This process, increases both secretion and sensitivity of changesS caused by global warming. Unlike which is part of the Ready, Willing and insulin in addition to boosting the number of conventional hard corals, soft corals do not Able Program, employs people to collect oil insulin producing cells and reducing stores posses calcified outer shells to protect them from over 300 sites in Manhattan, Brooklyn, of fat. Interestingly, an increase of normal from drastic changes in salinity. Since the Bronx and Queens. For Columbia, this osteocalcin levels in mice prevented the soft corals maintain balance and health means that the 1,700+ gallons of cooking oil development of type 2 diabetes and obesity, in reef ecosystems and form symbiotic used annually on the Morningside Campus and people with type 2 diabetes have been relationships with other animals, their will be converted to usable fuel at no extra shown to have low levels of osteocalcin. This disappearance spells trouble for the world’s cost to the University. The cooking oil is discovery may open up new possibilities oceans. converted into a biodiesel that burns 70% for the treatment of diabetes through the ~ cleaner than regular petroleum biodiesel. regulation of osteocalcin activity. Who he recently founded Columbia HSBC BANK, private individuals and knows, it may even lead to a new diet pill. Astrobiology Center, led by Professor the government fund this program. So ~ CalebT Scharf of the Department of far, Columbia has been the only academic n the late 1930s, Columbia’s Pupin Astronomy and Astrophysics, consists of institution to sign up. Hall was home to early experiments to faculty and researchers from departments ~ splitI the atom, ultimately leading to the including astronomy, biology, chemistry, very year, senior biomedical engineers development of the world’s first nuclear geology, microbiology, and others. At across the country form teams and set reactor. In 1955, a statue of a Japanese its most fundamental level, the nascent outE to design novel medical devices. This Buddhist monk that survived the atomic field of astrobiology seeks to study the year, nine “companies”, each with a BME bombing of Hiroshima was brought to basic questions about life in the universe. faculty advisor, have been forming ideas, NYC. A plaque before the statue reads, “a Astrobiology investigates the physical, creating design constraints, designing testimonial to the atomic bomb devastation chemical and biological elements that websites, and drafting business plans, and a symbol of lasting hope for world culminated in the emergence of life on earth with the goal of constructing prototypes peace.” The statue now stands on Riverside and in worlds beyond our own. Thus it is to of these devices and pitching their device Drive between 105th and 106th streets, less astrobiology to which we can ascribe that at the end of the year. This year, projects than 10 blocks from where the A-bomb most ancient of questions: Are we really the include an automatic drug delivery system experiments first began. only biotic world in the universe? for heart attack victims, and a continuous ~ ~ positive airway pressure device for neonates uch of the current rage in medicine is emember how much fun you used to in developing countries. Students must not to move away from large needles that have at science fairs as a kid? Columbia only consider the technical aspects of their hurtM or scare young children. Thankfully, for helpedR bring this experience to children of devices, but also the business, marketing, those who are aichmophobic, MacroChem the community by hosting Siemens Science and regulatory constraints of the medical has begun testing on a new product that Day on October 20, 2007. With fun device industry. Many groups even would allow almost any pharmaceutical activities ranging from cushioning the fall compete in national design and business to be delivered by a patch. SEPA (Soft of an egg to using robot snakes for surgical competitions in the hopes of eternal glory Enhancement of Percutaneous Absorption) procedures, Siemens Science Day spread (and substantial cash prizes). To learn more, is a compound that reversibly opens up the awareness to 1,300-plus students, parents visit: http://bme.columbia.edu/pages/ stratum corneum (the outermost layer of and teachers. academics/undergrad/senior_design.html skin) in order to pass large molecules into ~ ~ the body. So, next time you go to get a his October, four professors were esearchers at Columbia’s Medical tetanus booster, it might not be so bad. inducted into the American Association Center have discovered that our ~ forT the Advancement of Science (AAAS), bonesR may do more than provide body lthough food companies such as a prestigious, international organization support or produce red blood cells: they PepsiCo’s Frito-Lay and Kellogg’s aimed at improving our world through may be an important regulator of sugar EggoA have decreased the amount of trans science and engineering-based discoveries. metabolism and weight, making them an fat in most of their products, they have With the addition of professors Martin important determinant of type 2 diabetes. increased the use of cholesterol-rich Chalfie (Biological Sciences), Ruth L. The research, published in the August 10 ingredients, such as palm and coconut oil, Fischbach (Bioethics), Stephen P. Goff issue of Cell, demonstrates that bone cells which produce saturated fat. Decreasing (Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics), (namely, osteoblasts) release a hormone trans fat and increasing saturated fat has and James E. Rothman (Physiology), 22 of called osteocalcin, which regulates blood maintained the overall fat content of the 467 nationwide AAAS fellows hail from sugar and fat deposition through a newly produced foods. Columbia University Medical Center. discovered synergistic mechanism. Unlike ~
Columbia Science Review Bioethics Newsletter Columbia AMSA Bioethics Newsletter
The Risks of Egg Donation Hippocratic or Hypocritical: abortion. Nevertheless, the Declaration by Jennifer Gillman does make the ambiguous statement that a In recent years, the demand for Medicine Struggles with its physician shall “maintain the utmost respect donated ova used by infertile women as Roots over Abortion for human life” (“Declaration”). It seems, well as stem cell researchers, has increased. by Joseph Villarin then, that the answer to abortion debate Researchers are currently developing a For most lay people today, for both doctors and non-doctors alike will new cloning technique called somatic cell Hippocrates is remembered as the legendary only come when the delicate problem of nuclear transfer, which replaces the nucleus father of medicine who sensibly charged what constitutes human life is resolved. of the unfertilized egg with that of a body physicians with a moral prerogative to “do See Works Cited at columbiasciencereview.org cell. Due to the high demand and the no harm.” What the majority of the public scarce number donors, renewed controversy does not realize, however, is that the old has come up regarding the health risks Greek had much more to say than matter- associated with the drugs used for multiple of-fact aphorisms; he also touched on issues egg extractions (Norsigian, 6). that have become highly controversial In order to have the donor in modern times, including the produce numerous egg follicles, she is first subject of abortion. In fact, the required to take a drug such as Lupron, masterwork among Hippocrates’s which temporarily halts the production of ethical instructions, which we eggs, prior to hyperstimulation. Although know as the Hippocratic Oath, puts the FDA has approved Lupron, it has forward a bold and clear position: a not been approved for the specific use in doctor must “not give to a woman the egg extraction process. There is a long an abortive remedy” (Edelstein). list of possible side effects associated with And, for two millennia, the this drug including headaches, nausea, abjuration of abortion stood firm as depression, and amnesia. Other drugs Hippocratic philosophy taken to stimulate the ovaries could cause remained dominant in Ovarian Hyperstimulation Syndrome, a the Western world. condition that leads to the development of The major shift ovarian cysts and fluid build-up in the body. amongst medical Although this condition may be rare, it can p r o f e s s i o n a l s towards be potentially fatal (Norsigian, 6-8). a pro-choice position only took place in Many women who undergo these the last century. Legal precedents for procedures aren’t adequately informed abortion began in the 1920s and 1930s, about these potential risks. Some studies during which time the Soviet Union and suggest that the fertility drugs may cause Germany decriminalized abortion, and, cancer (Papadimos 56). In order to verify similarly, abortions in the specific case of such results, researchers have to study the rape were permitted in Britain (“History”). long-term effects of this cocktail of drugs. Hippocratic philosophy was falling out of In addition to the issue of many step with modern medical practice. participants not completely understanding The catalyst for decisive change the possible risks, when egg donation in medical ethics came in the form of the programs provide large monetary incentives Second World War. Physicians had played for their donors, they compromise the a significant role in many of the greatest policy of informed consent. As a result of atrocities of the Holocaust, and medicine aggressive egg donor recruitment strategies, itself was clearly at the point of crisis. many advertisements in magazines and So, when the General Assembly of the newspapers are aimed at healthy college World Medical Association met in 1948, students. With women facing financial they issued the Declaration of Geneva as problems, such as high tuition debts, a revision and modernization of the their need for cash could undermine their Hippocratic Oath (“Declaration”). concerns about the health risks involved in Conspicuously absent in this donating their eggs (Papadimos 56). pronouncement is any mention of
Volume 4. Issue 2: Fall 2007. Understanding The Poincaré Conjecture A Problem for the Ages: Understanding the Poincaré Conjecture After The Work Of Perelman and Hamilton, Is It Solved At Last? by Jonathan L. Mo of its expression in the reclusive Russian solved a more generalized theorem of mathematician Grigori Yakovlevich which Poincaré’s conjecture is a special Background Perelman, originally of the Steklov Institute case. This more general theorem is known In the early 1900s, French of Mathematics in St. Petersburg, Russia, as Thurston’s Geometrization Conjecture. mathematician and physicist Henri where he was employed as a researcher until Poincaré (pronounced “pwan-ka-ray”) 2003. For this work, Perelman has been contributed to the developmental awarded the Fields Medal, often cited as the foundations of modern mathematical highest award in the field of mathematics, as topology. Known as a prodigious polymath well as having the respected journal Science by those in his field, Poincaré is perhaps name Perelman’s solution “Breakthrough of most famous for what we today call the the Year,” for 2006, the first time such an Poincaré Conjecture, first stated in 1904, honor has been awarded in mathematics. which is a mathematical hypothesis in the Perelman, to the surprise of the media and field of algebraic topology. academic community, declined the Fields The Poincaré Conjecture is Medal, and the accompanying monetary currently one of the Clay Institute of award. Mathematics’ Seven Millennium Prize While the Clay Institute has yet A Manifold exhibits local Euclidean Problems, which are mathematical to offer the $1,000,000 prize, it has been space, on which Euclidean geometry problems for which a $1,000,000US speculated that the prize might be shared is valid, such as the sum of a triangle’s prize is offered for a correct solution to between Perelman and Richard Hamilton, angles over a manifold still being any of them. They comprise some of the Professor of Mathematics at Columbia roughly equivalent to 180°. mathematical problems that have baffled University, on whose work much of the world for centuries, and just last year, Perelman’s proof is developed. Ricci Flow a proposed solution to one of them, the is the generalized tool that Dr. Hamilton Poincaré Conjecture, was finally completed, developed, and which Dr. Perelman has What is the Poincaré Conjecture? reviewed, and concluded to be a correct apparently used in his proof of the Poincaré Topology is essentially the solution in the positive affirmation of the conjecture. mathematical study of “shape.” Topology conjecture. The proposed solution, though It is widely believed, but as of analyzes the properties of shapes that do a major combination of efforts, found most yet unverified, that Perelman has actually not deform under stress. In other words,
An imaginary loop collapsing to a single point on the surface of a sphere.
Columbia Science Review Understanding The Poincaré Conjecture shapes that are malleable and alterable, Euclidean space. A 3-sphere but which change their morphological is also called a hypersphere. A appearance while remaining continuous hypersphere entities; they do not tear. (3-sphere) could be There are some terms and concepts thought of as the boundary of which are helpful to elucidate before a ball in 4D space. Thus the one attempts to understand Poincaré’s actual sphere is a 3D object, Conjecture: hence the notation “3-sphere,” A manifold is a space (in existing in 4D geometric space. mathematical abstract) in which at It should be remembered that every point there exists a locality which what we might commonly resembles Euclidean space. On these local consider a “sphere,” such as Euclidean spaces, Euclid’s postulates, such a baseball for example, is as that of parallel lines never intersecting, actually a 2-manifold, being are true. (See Figure 1). A manifold has a 2 dimensional sphere in 3 a dimension. A 1 dimensional manifold is dimensional space. (See Figure a line, or circle, or other common polygon. 2.) On a 2 dimensional manifold (said “two- A simply connected manifold”) every locality resembles a disk. space is one in which every Examples are any plane or the surface of a path between two points is sphere. one that can be continuously Two dimensional surfaces (in transformed into every other. topology) which have no boundary This means, generally, that an (meaning they are closed upon themselves; object is “solid” and has no wrap around themselves) have one unique “holes” which permeate it. So property, and that is the number of holes a solid or hollow ball is simply- to the torus (a doughnut), fails, because of present in them. This becomes a central connected. A doughnut (the shape called the hole in the center. This would require visual concept in understanding some a torus) is not simply connected because of the imaginary line to leave the surface of the of the difficulty in solving the Poincaré the hole in the center. One can imagine shape in order to collapse to a single point. Conjecture. the concept as such. If an imaginary line The torus then, is not simply connected. A 3-sphere is a bound (compact), was wrapped around a globe, its diameter Finally, homeomorphisms are “closed” (without boundary) 3 dimensional could be decreased, while remaining on the the aforementioned bending, twisting manifold that is simply connected. It is surface of said globe, until it closed around and morphing activities of an object. The analogous to the usual 3D sphere, but one itself, reducing to a single point. In other term homeomorphic then, means that two dimension higher. Formally a 3-sphere words, a loop around the sphere can reduce objects are topologically equivalent. is defined as a locus of points equidistant to a single point without leaving the surface. The Poincaré Conjecture is then from a fixed central point in 4-dimensional (See Figure 3). This same method, applied stated formally:
Volume 4. Issue 2: Fall 2007. Understanding The Poincaré Conjecture
Every simply-connected compact Ricci Flow is a mathematical 3-manifold (without boundary) is method that was formulated by Dr. homeomorphic to a 3-sphere. Richard Hamilton in 1981 for the purposes What this conjecture suggests of examining Thurston’s Geometrization then, is that the 3-sphere is the only type Conjecture. Ricci Flow operates similarly of bounded 3D space that can exist without to a diffusion equation (partial differential any “holes,” which are termed singularities equation) such as that for heat flow, hence in math and physics. Another way of the name (the “Ricci” part is named in stating this often confusing concept is honor of Italian mathematician Gregorio that any simply connected, compact 3- Ricci-Curbastro). This heat flow equation dimensional manifold can be “morphed” describes scalar entities such as temperature, into a 3 dimensional sphere. So yet again, and ensures that concentrations of high more colloquially, any 3D object can be thermal energy (high temperature) morphed into the 3D sphere, which has no eventually spread throughout a system and “holes.” that a uniform temperature is achieved. This term of “morphing” is more In an analogous manner, Ricci accurately called “diffeomorphism” which Flow follows a tensor quantity called is the condition which exists between two the Ricci Curvature Tensor (a tensor, in manifolds if they can be “smoothly” warped mathematics, is a linear/geometric quantity into one another. The metrics (the ratios of that can be expressed as a multi-dimensional The formation of filaments in the lengths) often change during such a process. array; it can be thought of just as a variable). manifold “during” Ricci Flow leads Imagine a sphere (which is diffeomorphic It was thought that curvature would be the formation of singularities, which with an ellipse) morphing into an ellipse. analogous to temperature, and that areas eventually pinch off the manifold into The motion is described as “smooth” since of high curvature would become evenly separate regions with differing uniform the object doesn’t “tear” but the metric distributed in an object until a constant curvatures. This indicates an inability changes, for the sphere has constant metric appeared over the entire shape. This of the model to either prove or disprove curvature everywhere, whereas the ellipse’s object of course, would be Poincaré’s 3- the Poincaré Conjecture. local curvature differs across the shape. To manifold, or hypersphere. restate in yet another way, Poincaré says that A geometric evolution equation is space into regions of different uniform 3D shapes with certain properties similar required to define Ricci Flow, with gij being curvatures, which destroys the proof (See to spheres are in fact, spheres themselves, the metric tensor and Rij the Ricci Tensor: Figure 5). Dr. Perelman, however, would in a different morphological state. It’s (The sign indicates flow direction). use this same method, though with an essentially a reduction hypothesis, whereby added modification. 3D shapes can be devolved into spheres. ∂tgij = – 2 Rij This then, is what Henri Poincaré Paging Dr. Perelman; Needed in Surgery conjectured to be true in 1904. For almost This leads to the normalized Ricci Dr. Perelman succeeded in using a century, it remained without a proof, Flow equation, where Ravg is the mean the previous knowledge of Ricci Flow, which formal or informal and has frustrated some scalar curvature (obtained from the Ricci constituted much of Professor Hamilton’s of history’s most eminent mathematicians. Tensor) and n is simply the dimension work, to prove Poincaré’s conjecture by Dr. Richard Hamilton became well known of the manifold over which this flow is conducting what topologists call “surgery” in his attempts to solve this and the allowed to execute. (It is important to note on the manifold. more general Thurston Conjecture, and that this normalized equation will preserve This article will not discuss the developed what he named Ricci Flow in the volume of the manifold, whatever shape mathematical details and/or debate and an attempt to find a solution. While the it may take, simply altering the curvature disagreements that eventually led to the method seemed promising to much of metrics). current Perelman proof. An outline, the mathematical community, it did not however, seems to grasp why this discovery immediately result in a proof. In 2002 Dr. ∂tgij = (2/n) Ravggij is so fundamental to mathematics. Gregori Perelman posted a sketch on the Dr. Perelman’s proof is basically online pre-print journal database arXive While this seemed to this. Use Ricci Flow as before on a 3- (pronounced “archive,” it is commonly used work, the problem was that, formally, no manifold and warp it accordingly. It by physicists and mathematicians) which proof showed that this method would not will eventually distribute its curvature was subsequently refined and constituted be interrupted with singularities; holes. approximately evenly. One can think of a by many different scholars into a more If holes were to form in the manifold, ball of dough that is in a very amorphous formalized proof of (at least) the Poincaré the method would be useless, as it would shape. As it is “rolled” in one’s hands by Conjecture if not the Thurston Conjecture, neither confirm nor disprove the Poincaré the Ricci Flow method of directional which utilized Ricci Flow as its key Conjecture. And indeed, singularities distribution, it slowly approximates constant argument for resolution of the problem. do seem to be inherent in this system, as curvature. What happens now is that the sometimes filaments which form in the manifold can stretch disproportionately, Dr. Hamilton’s Ricci Flow manifold pinch off, which separates the forming a singularity – think of pulling
Columbia Science Review Understanding The Poincaré Conjecture the dough apart with your hands during of the structure of the universe and the questions about the natural world are indeed the kneading – forming a long filament of macroscopic behavior of its topology have solvable. It is doubtful that anything will dough between your hands. direct ramifications from this solution of ever quite capture the essence of the human Dr. Perelman then executes his the Poincaré Conjecture. It suggests, for scientific endeavor better than discovery, surgery. His proof advances the idea that one thing, that the shape of our 3D universe and in this case, the work of these many such a filament/singularity can be cut, and is the surface of a 4D sphere. This is a result mathematicians. the cross section of that piece will form a that physicist Albert Einstein had predicted, 2D manifold (like a circle if this dough and which was later supported by evidence Works Cited filament was cylindrical in cross section). that our universe is expanding (from the Science. “Breakthrough of the Year: 2006.” Dr. Perelman’s extraordinary work of astronomer Edwin Hubble) and, http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/ contribution is his, seemingly simple, full/314/5807/1848 idea to cut and paste. He posits that any singularity which forms as a result of the The Poincare Conjecture: Its Past, Present, Ricci Flow method of curvature distribution and Future.
Volume 4. Issue 2: Fall 2007. Yoga
The Remedial Effects of Yogic Breathing Exercises on Mental, Physiological, and Breathing Illnesses by Shaurya Taran the performance of all internal systems Yogic Breathing: A Possible Remedy ( Joshi 28). Clearly, breathing plays a chief Since breathing itself falls under Breathing, one of the most role in the preservation of mental and the control of the ANS, it rarely requires important physiological processes, is a hot physiological welfare. Interestingly, just as conscious attention. It is, however, the only topic in healthcare today. Recent research mental afflictions can trigger unhealthy autonomic function that can be consciously focuses on the relationship between breathing, chronic breathing disorders can regulated. Yogic breathing works on the breathing and physical and mental vigor, also trigger mental illnesses. The two-way principle that, with enough conscious longevity and overall quality of life. Studies nature of this relationship has been shown practicing, unconscious breathing can suggest that 90% of adults subconsciously by a smattering of studies. One study become slow, healthy, and physiologically employ a shallow mode of breathing which published in the Journal of the American nourishing. Healthy adults take anywhere increases susceptibility to mental and College of Chest Physicians reported that from 11 to 17 breaths per minute. This rate physiological afflictions. Particularly, stress, 7 to 42% people with chronic breathing varies with physical and mental activity, poor health, and chronic mental illness disorders suffer from depression. This rate stress, and gender. About 500 mL of air is promote the development of unhealthy is four times higher than that of depression moved with each normal breath, a volume breathing habits. that represents roughly 10 to 20 A unique remedy for this percent of full lung capacity ( Joshi growing quasi-epidemic may reside in “Breathing is fundamental link 11; Optimal Breathing). Continued an age-old practice known as pranayama, practice of yogic breathing, however, or yogic breathing. Although yogic in the mind-body relationship. may reduce the breating rate to breathing is a comparatively new term Nuances in the mental plane, are four to eight breaths per minute by in the lexicon of therapeutic medicine, maximizing lung capacity used and recent studies have revealed its benefits transmitted, through breathing, increasing the volume of air moved as well as its ability to alleviate the (Mandlik). symptoms of a spectrum of ails. to the body, where they manifest Stress, a primary cause for physiological variations. Poor the adoption of unhealthy breathing, Breath, Body, and Mind: The Intimate may be alleviated with yogic Triangle breathing habits can adversely breathing exercises. Yogic breathing Breathing is fundamental affect a branch of the nervous activates a branch of the ANS called link in the mind-body relationship. the parasympathetic nervous system Nuances in the mental plane, are system called the autonomic (PNS), which is a biological stress- transmitted, through breathing, to the damper. The PNS is active during body, where they manifest physiological nervous system (ANS), which times of relaxation and works to slow variations. Poor breathing habits regulates involuntary activities the heartbeat, correct unhealthy blood can adversely affect a branch of the pressure, and restore physical vitality. nervous system called the autonomic such as heart rate and digestion.” Another indirect effect of yogic nervous system (ANS), which regulates breathing on the PNS is that it slows involuntary activities such as heart the release of cortisol, a hormone rate and digestion. Over-stimulation released copiously by the adrenal of the ANS leads to stress, consequently in people without breathing disorders glands during stressful situations (Yoga elevating blood pressure and heart rate, and (Kunik et al. 1205). To be sure, proper and Stress Reduction). Thus, the common triggering problems in digestion (Brulé). breathing is by no means a panacea for phrase “take a deep breath” in times of Furher, prolonged agitation of the (ANS) all health ailments and does not replace stressful or anxiety-riddled situations is may diminish immune response, thereby conventional medical methods of treating based on a scientifically sound premise: increasing vulnerability to sickness. On the disease. Michael Rudd of Open Space Yoga deep, healthy breathing – even if practiced other hand, deep, healthy breathing enhances says, “of course, shallow breathing does for minutes – creates a biological response heart efficiency, improves digestion, not always cause unclear thinking or low to combat stress. Even a few minutes of purifies blood, improves symptoms of spirits, but has been medically linked with deep breathing can transfer the body from high blood pressure and asthma, assuages attacks of depression, mood swings, and the sympathetic branch of the ANS, which mental illness, and, arguably augments other various disorders”. is active during shallow breathing, to the
10 Columbia Science Review Yoga
http://www.nshouseofyoga.com
PNS. to healthy patients as a means to maintain Yoga Vidya Dham. 19 August 2007. Depression too can be alleviated mental and physical well-being. < http://www.yogapoint.com/pranayama/ through yogic breathing. Clinically, medical deep_fast_breathing.htm> stimulation of the vagus nerve is used to Works Cited treat severe depression. However, consistent Brulé, Dan. “Uses and Applications of Optimal Breathing. 16 August 2007. < practice of certain yogic breathing exercises Breathwork.” Better Breathing.18 August http://breathing.com/> that directly stimulate the vagus combats 2007
Volume 4. Issue 2: Fall 2007. 11 Carbon Planes Peeling the Layers: A Look at Single
http://physicsweb.org The structural scheme of a single graphene layer with hexagonal cells Carbon Planes card analogy. Professor Geim’s group cells that strongly bond carbon atoms in by Mason Jiang first published a copy of its innovative each layer of the material eventually force techniques in isolating graphene through a graphite to, rather than connect its individual If you pick up a full deck of supplement to one of its papers. layers with strong covalent bonds, actually playing cards, you hold 52 individual layers Geim’s group began with widely hold each layer together with significantly of cards in your hand. If you then deal out available pieces of highly-oriented pyrolytic weaker Van der Waals forces. In effect, this 51 of those cards, one layer at a time, from graphite (HOPG), a pure form of graphite makes graphite fragile between layers and top to bottom, you will unsurprisingly end without other substances mixed in, as is causes the slippery feeling induced when up with an individual playing card. The the case with pencil lead.5 Taking HOPG, rubbing pencil lead between your fingers as simplicity in this scenario fools no one, but the group subsequently etched a pattern of carbon atomic planes easily slide past each amazingly, researchers recently found that uniform square bumps, called “mesas,” and other. this elementary principle can produce a then covered the sample with a photoresist With this principle in mind, single layer of carbon atoms called graphene. layer meant to aid in the chemical portion of Geim’s group then applied it to shrink Described by Professor Andre Giem’s the patterning process. Ensuing baking of the HOPG mesas previously formed. group, which first prepared it in2 004 at the the entire HOPG sample forced the mesas Interestingly enough, the group used University of Manchester (UK), “Graphene to stick to the photoresist layer and allowed ordinary scotch tape and repeatedly peeled is a monolayer of carbon atoms packed into the group to mechanically “cleave” the off layers of graphite from the mesas until a dense honeycomb crystal structure that mesas off for the following step, definitely little HOPG was left on the photoresist. can be viewed as an individual atomic plane a most exhilarating one and encapsulating As the group then wanted to examine extracted from graphite.”6 At this atomic some of the most interesting characteristics the thin and nearly visible graphite flakes thickness, measurements lie in the range of graphite. but without the photoresist, they placed of 3 to 4 Angstroms, about 250,000 times For some background, graphite the entire sample in a strong solution of smaller than the thickness of this page! is very stimulating in structural terms. acetone, which pulled the flakes off and left Isolating a material so unimaginably thin, Quite distinctive of graphite, the hexagonal them floating in the acetone. To capture strong, (due to the stable hexagonal cells of carbon atoms patterning the graphene), Geim, A, K., K. S. Novoselov, S. V. Morozov, D. Jiang, Y. Zhang, S. V. Dubonos, I. V. Grigorieva, and A, A. Firsov. and electrically conducive, becomes very “Electric Field Effect in Atomically Thin Carbon Films.” Science, 306, 22 Oct. 2004 fascinating to scientists, especially those hoping to apply these properties to high- speed electronics and sturdy materials. As Geim optimistically puts it, graphene “is full of surprises and shows far greater promise than one could reasonably hope for in a new experimental system.”3
The Simpler, The Better The unique structural aspects of graphene endow researchers with much excitement about future practical applications. At the same time, much of the interest generated by this extraordinary material evolves from its “bench-top” methods of preparation. In fact, the initial A scanning electron microscope capture of an experimental device made of preparation of graphene does not stray graphene strips by Manchester University too far from the aforementioned playing
12 Columbia Science Review Carbon Planes the tiny flakes and place them on a surface researchers interested in exploring graphene. that with graphene, not only do electrons capable of closer inspection, it was apparent As more experimentalists recreated Geim’s move quickly through the material, which to the group to dip silicon wafers with thick method with their own trials, more efficient is the case with many other conductors, but silicon oxide layers on top into the solution techniques soon sprouted. For instance, they actually “mimic relativistic particles and pick up the thin graphite. After using one interesting process introduced by a with zero rest mass and have an effective ultrasound cleaning to remove the larger pioneering group from Georgia Institute ‘speed of light’ c [effective] = 106 m/s,” just flakes on the graphite-populated silicon of Technology led by Professor Walt de 300 times slower than the speed of light in wafers, the group was ready to narrow down Heer exhibits the heating of silicon carbide a vacuum.6 This means that these electrons, the samples. wafers to “drive silicon atoms from the given the technical term “massless Dirac For the purpose of viewing very surface, leaving a thin continuous layer of fermions” by Geim to indicate their distinct tiny samples, it is natural to rely on the graphene.”1,9 Another, more recent method, relativistic properties, tend to move through aid of microscopes. To start, the group devised by a group from Northwestern graphene with behavior comparable to used optical microscopes to purely identify University led by Professor Rodney Ruoff, waves, rather than the behavior of typical “graphitic films thinner than 50 nm.” features a more chemical approach in which particles. Through this comparison, it is Typically films this size are not visible in “converting graphite into graphite oxide highlighted that electrons in graphene direct lighting, but on top of violet-blue in an aqueous solution” leads the “bulk do not lose energy, but rather they move silicon oxide surfaces, the films tend to graphite [to be] completely separated into undisturbed, as if with no mass, allowing shift the color of the surfaces to longer single sheets” through repelling forces.4,8 for far greater speeds than the standard in wavelengths, thus creating a reference color While it is apparent that future other materials. In addition, Geim’s group for the graphite flakes. This means that methods will become even more systematic, found that “graphene’s conductivity never thicker pieces of graphite on the surface efficient, and prolific, Geim’s group’s falls below a minimum value…even when shift the color of the silicon oxide to bluer original process still stands out for its sheer concentrations of charge carriers tend to shades. So under an optical microscope, simplicity. Whereas other techniques rely zero.” A testament to graphene’s exclusive one can see where flakes of different sizes on a thorough understanding of chemical electrical properties, Geim stated, “this is lie. For Geim’s group, graphite flakes of interactions and behavior and often involve completely counterintuitive because in all interest were very thin and extremely close longer processing, this pioneering process other systems, the conductivity disappears to the original color of the silicon oxide requires minimal technical knowledge in its if no charge carriers are present.”3 The idea surface. The faintest graphite flakes found practice. To be able to isolate a material, so of having a constantly conductive material could then potentially be characterized promising in its uses and characteristics, with becomes understandably amazing in by monolayer thickness and identified such relative ease reinforces the interest on applications. as graphene. As Geim observed, these graphene and prompts more independent Although Geim’s Manchester “graphene films [were] no longer visible research. It is this first method that opened group provided the first clues into the even via the interference shift as it becomes the doors to more detailed and technical mystery of graphene, much research was too small.” Upon pinpointing and marking studies on the features of graphene. still needed. Following Geim’s initial potential pieces of graphene on the sample, efforts, a group led by Professor Philip the group proceeded to take advantage of An Electric Highway Kim and Professor Horst Stormer of the highly versatile atomic force microscope As astonishing as the structure Columbia University soon conducted (AFM). Arguably the most remarkable of graphene has proven to be, it would not similar experiments to explain why feature of the AFM is its ability to detect mean much without its equally exciting electrons in graphene exhibit such distinct very weak deflection forces between its own characteristics. Since the isolation of conduct.10 Initially running experiments, probe and a sample under investigation in graphene, Professor Geim’s group, a group which confirmed the results reached by order to map out the surface of the sample from Columbia University led by Professor Geim’s group, the Kim/Stormer group later and create a topographic image. For Geim’s Philip Kim and Professor Horst Stormer, discovered further information regarding group, the AFM was key for not only and Professor de Heer’s group have all had the peculiar behavior of electrons traveling identifying pieces of graphene through the major contributions to current experimental in graphene. First, the group found that AFM’s capacity to measure vertical features knowledge about the material. electrons in graphene obey the rules of the in a sample, but also for creating vivid To begin, when Professor Geim’s quantum Hall effect, meaning that when images of graphene. Eventually, the group group at the University of Manchester electrons are exposed to high magnetic fields, used the AFM to discover actual graphene established graphene, it did so with the hopes they move only in designated quantum flakes and confirmed that they were indeed of having “the ability to control electronic routes. Instead of moving in continuous monolayers of graphite by measuring that properties of a material by externally motion, electrons actually “jump” from one the thickness of those flakes were around applied voltage” in mind.5 Consequently, location to another, resulting in very quick 3 to 4 Angstroms, in agreement with Geim’s team ran many experiments in movement. Building on this point, the “the interlayer distance in bulk graphite order to determine exactly how graphene, Kim/Stormer group then determined that [at] 3.35 Angstroms” and ideal for both an inherently good electrical conductor, electrons in graphene follow a phenomenon experimentation and proof-of-principle behaved with an applied voltage. Geim’s called “Berry’s phase,” explaining that with tests. group’s experiments provided amazing the condition of an electron moves in a The method discussed here observations describing how electrons travel complete route in a high magnetic field, its served merely as a starting point for other through graphene. First, the group found wavefunction will rotate a full 180 degrees.
Volume 4. Issue 2: Fall 2007. 13 Carbon Planes
This translates to the idea that electrons in graphene will scatter backwards less and spend more time moving forward to their desired destinations. In effect, this finding paid tribute to the aforementioned quantum nature of the electrons in graphene, and helped to explain why those electrons could move as if they were massless without losing energy. The quantum tendencies of electrons in graphene now clarify much about the substance’s unique properties. While many of the fundamental characteristics of graphene can be attributed to the Courtesy Michigan University, www.sciencemag.org work of the groups from Manchester and An optical photo of graphite over a wafer with a silicon oxide layer. One can assume the relative Columbia, much of thickness of each graphite flake by judging its color the current movement towards applications in many researchers have already devised operate at substantially higher speeds, is graphene has stemmed from the labor of potentially impacting technological ideas. the “ballistic transistor,” a considerable Professor Walt de Heer’s group at Georgia For one, graphene’s very robust upgrade from the current transistor, 7 Tech. A long-time researcher of carbon structure has generated speculation that allowing extremely quick electrical flow. nanotubes, de Heer took the discovery the material can be used as the basis for A transistor is a small electronic device of graphene as a serious step towards the “incredibly strong, flexible, and stable typically made of semiconductor material 7 applications often dreamt of - using more materials” in the future. Because graphene that functions to change, amplify, or efficient and less restrictive nanotubes.1,9 planes are the results of many carbon atoms oscillate the flow of current in electronics Through their studies, de Heer’s group bonded together in established honeycomb and computers. Usually in semiconductor especially found interest in that, abiding by structures, but only in one atomically transistors, electron movement is functional, “quantum confinement…graphene ribbons thin dimension, they enjoy the privilege but not completely efficient. For instance, act as electron waveguides.” Explaining, “The of being strong yet elastic at the same through the various semiconductor width of the ribbon controls the material’s time. This quality is quite comparable to materials, usually silicon and germanium, band-gap,” de Heer’s team highlighted the the behavior of a single sheet of paper in currently used for transistors, electrons ease with which electron mobility could which trying to rip it in half by pulling on often experience frequent collisions, which be manipulated in graphene. Along with its ends in opposing directions will prove cumulatively impede their movements. the previously mentioned properties of to be very difficult, but allowing it to flop In addition, due to the structural natures graphene, de Heer’s group’s findings paved around vertically is without effort. The of most semiconductors, transistors can the way for many promising technologies. aforementioned group from Northwestern only be made to a certain size before University led by Professor Ruoff “believes utility is completely lost. Professor Geim Striving for Quickness and Strength [graphene], which is light but stiff and prophetically stated, “As the semiconductor The advantages that graphene tough, could be used to make fuselages industry is nearing the limits of performance can bring to the world of technology are for aircraft…and potentially in paint and improvements for the current technologies 4 endless to say the least. From applications coatings” based on these properties. dominated by silicon, there is a constant 5 in microelectronics to tough polymeric Beyond its use in materials, search for new, nontraditional materials.” materials, graphene will indubitably become graphene has even bigger promise in the field The versatility of graphene comes at this a larger focus in the research of scientists of microelectronics. One specific example, crucial point of transition. First, both in the near future. Building directly off of which has excited many researchers with graphene’s innate structure and excellent graphene’s unique characteristics, though, the prospect of having electrical devices conductivity, allow it to be molded into
14 Columbia Science Review Carbon Planes smaller than conventional transistors Effect in Atomically Thin Carbon Films.” Sonbinh T. Nguyen, and Rodney S. Ruoff. capable of performing all of the functions of Science, 306, 22 Oct. 2004: 666-669. “Graphene-Based Composite Materials.” traditional transistors. Already, this makes Nature, 442, 20 July 2006: 282-286. graphene-based transistors more efficient Novoselov, K. S., A. K. Geim, S. V. purely due to size since “smaller transistors Morozov, D. Jiang, M. I. Katsnelson, I. Toon, John. “Carbon-Based Electronics: mean the distances electrons have to travel V. Grigorieva, S. V. Dubonos, and A. A. Researchers Develop Foundation for become shorter, meaning faster speeds.”7 To Firsov. “Two-Dimensional Gas of Massless Circuitry and Devices Based on Graphite.” add to this size adjustment, the realization Dirac Fermions in Graphene.” Nature, 438, Georgia Tech Research News 14 Mar. that electrons move through graphene 10 Nov. 2005: 197-200. 2006. 12 Feb. 2007
Works Cited Berger, Claire, Zhimin Song, Xuebin Li, Xiaosong Wu, Nate Brown, Cecile Naud, Didier Mayou, Tianbo Li, Joanna Hass, Alexei Marchenkov, Edward H. Conrad, Phillip N. First, and Walt A. De Heer. “Electronic Confinement and Coherence in Patterned Epitaxial Graphene.” Science, 312, 26 May 2006: 1191-1196.
Biello, David. “Graphite Found T Exhibit Quantum Effects.” Scietific American 10 Nov. 2005. 12 Feb. 2007
Dume, Belle. „Electrons Lose Their Mass in Carbon Sheets.“ Physics Web 9 Nov. 2005. 12 Feb. 2007
Dume, Belle. “New Look for Graphene.” Physics Web 20 July 2006. 12 Feb. 2007
Geim, A, K., K. S. Novoselov, S. V. Morozov, D. Jiang, Y. Zhang, S. V. Dubonos, I. V. Grigorieva, and A, A. Firsov. “Electric Field
Volume 4. Issue 2: Fall 2007. 15 HIV in Egypt Egypt Veiled From the Truth: HIVin a Muslim Context by Marina Zeltser HIV in the 1980s was that the epidemic a ‘100% condom program’ was instituted would not significantly spread in Thailand to enforce consistent condom use in all A 39-year old man, unmarried, because "Thai-to-Thai transmission is not commercial sex establishments, housing was hospitalized because of fever and in evidence." In keeping with this view, the Thailand’s highest-risk group. cough for more that six months. Then, he government spent only $180,000 on HIV Unlike Thailand, the state of was moved to another hospital and was prevention in 1988, primarily for the testing Egypt has a government deeply rooted diagnosed with pulmonary tuberculosis and in Islamic Law. Therefore, risk behaviors bronchopneumonia. He was treated with associated with HIV transmission such as ethambutol, rifampicin and antibiotics, but homosexuality, premarital sex, adultery and
the medicine did not reduce his fever andAfrica North and East Middle the in HIV/AIDS injecting drug use are shunned from public ORIENT AT IONS IN DEVELOPMENT SERIES cough. A hematologist suspected AIDS, discourse as Islam prohibits them. While and the result of a blood test was positive. the current HIV prevalence rate is lower HIV/AIDS in the Anti-retroviral and anti-fungal drugs were than 1% in Egypt’s general population Middle East and added to the treatment. After 21 days of (UNAIDS), reporting is considered North Africa hospitalization, the patient was able to unreliable because many Egyptians are go home. His family did not come to the The Costs of Inaction afraid to get tested or are unaware that they hospital to pick him up for a week because Carol Jenkins and David A. Robalino could be at risk for HIV. As of December they were afraid that they could get AIDS 2003, 1,838 cases of HIV/AIDS had been from him. In another case, the patient’s reported to the Ministry of Health and family built a wall inside of their house as Population. However, at the end of 2001, a barrier, believing that to be the best way Robalino and Jenkins experts (UNAIDS and the World Health to prevent them from AIDS transmission. Organization) estimated that Egypt has In a third case, the patient’s wife rented a about 8,000 HIV-positive individuals. The separate house for herself, also to prevent stark difference between this estimate and getting AIDS. the number of actual reported cases suggests (Djoerban, Zubairi. Nenden) the considerable obstacles to testing and The above example was taken proper documentation. from a report on the stigmatization of HIV National attitudes towards HIV/ infected people, presented at the Jakarta AIDS prevention may stem, in part, from HIV/AIDS Regional Workshop of Islamic The cover of a World Bank study about the history of the HIV onset. In most Religious Leaders in 1998. The stories the spread of HIV in the muslim world Muslim countries throughout the Middle epitomize the widespread ignorance that East and North Africa (MENA), the first exists about both HIV transmission and of all foreigners before being admitted to cases of AIDS discovered in the mid-1980s diagnosis. Despite common misconception, the country. were detected in hospitals among patients AIDS cannot be transmitted by casual In 1991, the new Prime Minister receiving blood transfusions. Screening of contact associated with sharing a home. Anand Panyarachun made AIDS blood supplies since the early 1990s nearly Infection is spread only through sexual prevention and control a national priority eliminated this form of transmission in intercourse, blood, or prenatal transmission. and policy makers began to take a deep Egypt. However, the fact that the HIV The evident ignorance of people towards the interest in battling HIV head on rather than virus may have been introduced to Egypt thriving HIV epidemic is a major challenge casting it off as a foreign phenomenon. The by imported, contaminated blood has to its eradication. budget for AIDS prevention was increased facilitated the Egyptian mentality that The global evolution of the public almost 20-fold to $44 million in 1993. A AIDS is a foreign disease. A 1989 WHO approach to HIV/AIDS over the past 20 massive public information campaign was Middle East Report states, “Islam often sets years has proven that the spread of HIV launched to air anti-AIDS messages every the boundaries of debate about AIDS and can be slowed and that the debilitating hour on the country's 488 state-owned the sexual practices that spread it, especially effects of the disease can be minimized. radio and television stations. Repressive in the conservative Gulf. Religious leaders The world’s model of epidemic overturn is polices like the mandatory reporting of and some governments portray AIDS as Thailand’s battle against HIV/AIDS, where the names and addresses of AIDS patients divine retribution for Western decadence, aggressive anti-HIV policies reduced the were repealed to protect these people. In and urge strict adherence to Islam as the number of new infections from 140,000 in addition, every school was required to teach only means of prevention.” 1991 to 21,000 in 2003. Initial response to AIDS education classes. Most importantly, The early 1990s saw a steady
16 Columbia Science Review HIV in Egypt increase in government response in Egypt, may condone and even encourage practices sex tourism: “Every year Gulf men revitalize but this period was, of course, not free of that the country holds sinful. Inevitably, the prostitution business in town…men social and religious hurdles. In 1992, the this kind of hesitation leads to widespread straight from Riyadh, Jeddah or Kuwait Egyptian AIDS Society was founded, the ignorance. According to BBC Arab Affairs City in their white dishdasha robes are first nongovernmental organization in Analyst Magdi Abdelhadi, “the concept of sometimes solicited directly at the airport Egypt concerned with the prevention of safe sex is alien to this [Egyptian] culture, with offers of ‘special furnished flats.’” These HIV and support for AIDS patients. Since where sex per definition is safe, because it flats, usually rented out on a per-night basis, then, the government formed the Ministry is between a husband and wife.” Nasr Al- come complete with a prostitute referred to of Health and Population, and within that Sayyed, founder of the Cairo AIDS Hotline, as a “housemaid,” who can come at any time ruling body, the National AIDS Program confirms the lack of an understanding of of the day or night. The enterprise relies on (NAP) to handle HIV/AIDS prevention. In safe sex: “If we go to universities and tell a series of private arrangements including 1996, UNAIDS, the Joint United Nations them that condoms can protect against a hush-money payment to the doorman Programme on HIV/AIDS, was formed infection, most students ask, What is a and a commission for the flat-broker. El- to support HIV prevention and treatment condom?” Gawhary claims that “news of flats rented in low- and middle-income countries, and While it is true that widespread by the day or week spreads among the since their inceptions, UNAIDS has played adherence to Islamic tradition could mean pimps, and the prostitutes stream in—like a major role in Egypt’s response to the that the disease will rarely pervade the ants.” epidemic. general population, this false notion of HIV transmission is rarely a Despite the institution of new Egypt being completely “immune” to HIV/ consideration for prostitutes and their governmental infrastructures devoted to AIDS leaves vulnerable populations in the clients in these encounters: “Asked if most AIDS prevention, religious leaders and shadows and without proper public support. Gulf men use condoms, Aisha [a 20-year the media were still perpetuating major The truth is that not all citizens of Egypt old prostitute in Cairo] burst out laughing. misconceptions throughout the population abide by Islamic Law. Theologian Farid She herself gives no thought to the possible by the year 1998. That year, the first HIV/ Esack says, “I think the religious factor is risk.” Although these encounters clearly AIDS ASEAN regional workshop of overplayed in the low prevalence rate in pose a great threat to the spread of disease, Islamic Religious Leaders took place in Arab countries. Real Muslims are…having Egyptian authorities rarely intervene. El- Jakarta. During the workshop, leaders sex outside of marriage regardless of what Gawhary claims,“Egyptian authorities expressed their views and presented research the Q’uran says. And somebody has to habitually close their eyes to it because of on the HIV/AIDS problem. In his paper deal with the real consequences.” Similarly, diplomatic embroilments…not to mention entitled Islamic Approach in combating Dr. Emanuel Kamel, medical director of the lucrative prospects for hard currency.” HIV/AIDS, Zakiah Darajat writes, “The Refuge Egypt, says, “Good Muslims, good A representative of Egypt’s vice squad way of transmitting the virus mostly is Christians. Yes, our religion says no and declined El-Gawhary’s request for any through non healthy [bold added] sexual no and no. But are we sure everyone is off-the-record commentary about Egypt’s relationship, such as zina [fornication], committed? ... HIV doesn’t come to us. We sex tourism industry. Some officials simply liwath [homosexuality], and rape…Allah go to HIV.” don’t give credence to the existence of a warned mankind not to go near by to Underscoring this notion of denial sex industry in Egypt. Sausan al-Shaikh, zina…if any body can conduct himself and to the spread of HIV in Egypt is the low the spokeswoman of the Egyptian AIDS does not try to cross the forbidden borders HIV prevalence rate, which blinds officials Society, claimed that “illegal sexual made by Allah, it is a guarantee that the to the need for intervention. In Egypt, encounters are not common, thanks to one will not be transmitted by the HIV/ this statistic is particularly misleading Islamic teachings.” If policy makers cannot AIDS.” Such a false statement, disproved because HIV rates are highly concentrated acknowledge the presence of a commercial by the scientific community and purported in vulnerable populations. Such groups sex industry, they cannot effectively protect by a religious leader, has huge ramifications include commercial sex workers, men who clients and workers from infection. both as a reflection of popular belief and have sex with men, injecting drug users, as an influential message that further and people who have sex outside their Drug-Injecting Users spreads misconception. A similar message marriages. These populations play a major Interviews and statistics reveal was conveyed in Al-Liwa-Al-Islami, the role in Egypt; Cairo is known for its vibrant that drug-injecting users in Egypt are Egyptian weekly newspaper. Under the sex industry and high drug use, and Egypt similarly at risk. Egypt has about a half headline, “To Follow the Path of Islam has one of the largest sexually active gay million “hardcore” drug addicts, of which is the Best Way Not to Get Infected,” a communities in the Middle East. However, about 300,000 are drug-injecting users. Dr. reporter writes, “AIDS is God’s punishment these activities are kept very private, and Ehab Kharrat, who works with drug addicts for all those who pollute the country with there is limited public knowledge of where in Cairo, found that even though syringes their sins.” they are and how they operate. Thus, high- and needles are inexpensive and readily Echoing the temptation to risk groups are often difficult to target. available in Egyptian pharmacies, many discount HIV as a foreign problem is the IDUs choose to share needles because of a temptation to ignore the necessity for Commercial Sex Industry superstition that “getting new needles jinxes education. Some Muslim officials worry In describing the commercial the chance of scoring drugs.” A UNAIDS about education that promotes the use of sex industry in Cairo, Karim el-Gawhary survey indicated that more than half of condoms or that offering clean needles describes a summer season of established IDUs had shared a needle within the past
Volume 4. Issue 2: Fall 2007. 17 HIV in Egypt month, typically more than once. generated shows evidence of a more Refugees progressive discourse on HIV/AIDS than in Men Who Have Sex With Men Another concern about possible the past. The Cairo Declaration emphasizes Another group with concentrated increase in HIV infection in Egypt is the basic human rights and freedoms of HIV infection rates is homosexual men. In prevalence of HIV in the neighboring marginalized populations, “notwithstanding a small sampling of men who have sex with country of Sudan. Sudan accounts for more their situation, background, or medical other men conducted by NAP in 1994, 67% than 80% of all infections in North Africa condition.” The documented recognition of the men admitted to having more than and the Middle East. Although the country of illicit behaviors like commercial five male partners concurrently, though only is presently war-ravaged and cross-border sex and homosexuality in Egypt is a 21% ever used condoms, with fewer than travel is limited, once the political situation revolutionary step in HIV prevention, and 2% using them consistently. This group is is stabilized, cross-border travel may spread a written contract of commitment towards at a very high risk for HIV infection, but the virus – which afflicts 2.3% of Sudan’s supporting such rights proves even more more than any other group, homosexuals population – to neighboring Egypt and momentous. “Everyone started by trying are extremely fearful of being tested for Libya. to prove he is the most stern defender of HIV. They are concerned not only with At present, Cairo has an estimated virtue,” El Kharrat continues, “but together, stigma associated with a potential positive 300 Sudanese sex workers. In addition, eyes were opened to new meanings of diagnosis, but also that getting tested may thousands of refugees from Sudan and virtue, compassion…of action rather than publicly identify them as gay. In the above other troubled African nations with high silence.” NAP survey, 30% of the men were married, HIV rates flood the Egyptian borders Nevertheless, there is a sustained perhaps to conceal their sexual orientation, seeking asylum. There are an estimated doctrinal tone, which implicates infections and 44% were bisexually active, posing a 50,000 African asylum-seekers in Egypt, of as occurring "according to God's sovereign threat of infection to their wives or female who about 64% have not been recognized choice." This point seems to mirror the partners as well. with refugee status by the UN Refugee idea of disease as a punishment from This fear of “coming out” in Egypt Office. Recognized refugees in Egypt God, and aligned with this concept is an is a grave one, particularly since the “Queen who test HIV-positive stand an excellent inherent discrimination: "Although we do Boat” incident in May 2001, when 52 gay chance of being resettled in a western not approve of such behaviors [homosexual men were arrested on charges related to country, where they are offered treatment sex, injecting drug use, etc.], we call on homosexual sex at the Queen Boat, a floating for their infections. However, HIV-positive them [members of vulnerable groups] discotheque along the Nile often frequented people who have not gained refugee status to repent and ask that treatment and by homosexual men. While under arrest, are not so lucky. “If you have a closed file rehabilitation programs be developed." The the men were beaten and tortured using and are diagnosed with HIV, then you are Cairo Declaration indicates that leaders electric shocks until they confessed guilt a real tragedy,” said Refuge Egypt’s medical are accepting more responsibility to take to the police. Within a week of the arrest, director Dr. Eman Kamel. Because these action, but they are inherently limited by several Egyptian newspapers published the people are illegally residing in Egypt, they their conservative beliefs in regard to how men’s photos and places of employment, an are not offered any medication or other much support they can offer. Reluctance to act of public embarrassment, which would assistance. Unrecognized refugees who live broach taboo topics is still present in the make it difficult for them to ever return to a without treatment may contribute to the vague language of some statements: "We normal existence within their communities further spread of HIV, but this population reiterate that abstinence and faithfulness and workplaces. While homosexuality is not goes unnoticed in national records of are the two cornerstones of our preventative explicitly outlawed in Egypt, the men in this infection rates. strategies but we understand the medical case were accused of “practice of habitual ~ call for the use of different preventive debauchery,” “contempt for religion,” Recognizing the urgency of a means to reduce the harm to oneself and and “exploitation of Islam to promote possible epidemic, the United Nations others." In effect, this conference espouses deviant ideas.” The trial mandated medical Development Programme organized a the true nature of the situation: progressive examination of the defendants to determine conference of religious leaders from both but contradictory in stance, and lacking in whether they had engaged in anal sex. Muslim and Christian faiths to reach a concrete initiatives. “Egypt has not and will not be a den for the consensus on the prevention and treatment In recent years, such conventions corruption of manhood, and homosexuals of HIV/AIDS. The Cairo Declaration, a have become a common drive for HIV will not establish themselves here,” said product of three days of heated discussion, prevention initiatives, but effectiveness and prosecutor Ashraf Helal, addressing the was signed by 80 major Arab religious outcomes of these meetings are not yet clear. courtroom and a cage of defendants in leaders from 19 nations, including Egypt. In May of 2005, representatives of 12 Arab September of 2001. At the conclusion of “The walls came down with a crack. It was nations, including Egypt, met in Tunisia the trial, 29 of the men were acquitted, but amazing, in many ways a breakthrough… for a four-day conference on prevention of the rest received jail sentences of up to five Shiites sat down with Sunnis, with the spread of sexually transmitted diseases, years. “If the government wants this trial Protestants and Catholics, which is not including HIV/AIDS. The conference to be a deterrent, they will succeed,” said usual in our area of the world,” said Ehab El was arranged by the Federation of Family a European diplomat monitoring the case. Kharrat of the Kaasrel Dobara Presbyterian Planning and the United Nations to support “This trial is sure to drive gay foreigners Church in Egypt. heightened awareness of the prevention away and gay Egyptians underground.” The document these leaders and treatment of STDs, and to break down
18 Columbia Science Review HIV in Egypt taboos surrounding such discussion in Arab who wanted to track down an infected Oct 1995): 26-27 nations. In February of 2005, UNAIDS acquaintance to offer help. He couldn’t Shannon and Pyle. “On The Origin and the Jordanian government sponsored find the man, and the man’s family had no and Diffusion of AIDS.” Annals of the a three-day conference on the increasing information as to his whereabouts. “Either Association of American Geographers, Vol. incidence of HIV/AIDS among women. they disappear or they stop having sex with 80, No. 2 ( June 1990): 300-304 UNAIDS Associate Director, Dr. Suman people because they are too scared or the Ingram, Simon. “New HIV/AIDS Mehta, said that HIV/AIDS continues to leave the country to get treated,” he said. counseling and testing centers open in be a problem among women because they Besides, “it’s becoming very, very difficult Egypt.” UNICEF Egypt, October 18, have a lower social status than men, and for any AIDS patient or HIV-positive 2005. they often experience rape or are unable to person to go and seek medication [in Smucker, Philip. “A clash of cultures in negotiate safe sex with their partners. As a Egypt]. There have been too many horror Egypt.” The Christian Science Monitor, result of these conventions, governments stories lurking around.” Well-warranted, September 18, 2001. have been urged by health officials of the these fears of being publicly identified as Lenton, Cliff. “Will Egypt escape the AIDS conferences to institute comprehensive sex HIV-positive can only be eliminated by epidemic?” The Lancet, April 5, 1997. Cairo education programs in schools. However, it a massive cultural revolution of attitudes Declaration will likely take years before an appropriate towards HIV. “Arab Religious leaders convene to break program is fully integrated into these the silence on HIV/AIDS and to define countries to target regional problems and Works Cited their role in an AIDS-free future” Cairo, misconceptions. Jenkins, Carol & Robalino, David. HIV/ December 11, 2004 Some of the most effective AIDS in the Middle East and North “Arab Religious leaders agree unanimously initiatives toward HIV prevention are Africa. Washington D.C.:The World Bank, to respond to HIV/AIDS by signing the those which offer affected individuals 2003. progressive Cairo Declaration” access to specific information and private, Roesin, H. Runizar. Islamic Approach on Howard, Susanna. “UN Seeks to ‘Break the non-judgmental consultation. In 1996, the HIV/AIDS: Report on the first HIV/AIDS Silence’ On AIDS in Africa and Mideast.” Ministry of Health established the AIDS ASEAN regional workshop of Islamic The Wall Street Journal February 2, 2005 Hotline in Cairo to answer any questions Religious Leaders. Jakarta: Indonesian “The Lazarus Foundation: Egypt Country about HIV/AIDS and to direct at-risk Council of Ulama, Nov. 3 –Dec. 3, 1998. Profile.
Volume 4. Issue 2: Fall 2007. 19 photo illustration by Stephanie Sun
Global Warning Photo illustration by Daniel Brujis
by Stanimir Rachev truth, but how did we arrive at this truth? probably rightly so. But let’s look at it from The human-made greenhouse gas emissions the other side as an apparent consequence Recently, global warming has are probably the only fact beyond any instead of a cause. In the minds of many become a topic of increased media doubt. Many Columbia College students policy-conscious city-dwellers, the warmer attention and, even seeming personal that didn’t sleep through the Frontiers of winters might present strong evidence to experience. The release of the Working Science class might remember the graph of their agenda. Indeed, New York’s mean
Group I Fourth Assessment Report of CO2 concentration from Hawaii. temperature has risen about 5 degrees The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Yet, when it comes to temperature, Fahrenheit in the last 120 years. Albany Change followed a winter break in which and especially global averages, there is a lot has a more moderate increase of about 2 those of us that stayed in New York of room for argument. The way raw data is degrees. While the current direction of experienced record-breaking temperatures. handled can grossly influence the final result. climatic trends is clear, there is significant One could easily make the connection local variability and even areas that and conclude that this suspiciously became colder. There is also an idea warm weather was indeed a consequence well entrenched in the imagination of of global climate trends. I would not be Without questioning the the public by poorly made Hollywood so quick to draw a link and will take a movies that somehow global warming more skeptical view. integrity of the scientists is also the cause for cold weather where As a start, let’s take apart the involved, I simply can’t believe it happens. The confusion arises from term “anthropogenic global climate the scientifically sound concept of an change” that is what most people that they can avoid bias abrupt switch in the climatic mode of probably mean today by “global knowing the source of their the planet, one that is speculated to warming”. First of all, climate is not arise as the melting of freshwater ice weather, but is statistical description funds. Instituting the equivalent caps disrupts the ocean thermohaline over a long enough period of time, circulation. a standard defined by the World of double blind clinical trials This particular example seems Meteorological Organization being seems quite necessary. to be one of many scenarios that thirty years. It is a bit surprising then environmentalists and policy-makers that predictions about climate get use to scare the general population. updated so often to be relevant to the Even the same result can convey a different While I do support their agenda, which is current state of the climate system. A key impression upon visual presentation. And mostly to cut dependence on fossil fuels, I conclusion of the above-mentioned report here a well-established phenomenon may be believe the science behind it is very dubious is that “most of the observed increase in hidden from the unacquainted observer. The at best. Numerous computer models are globally averaged temperatures since the so-called “urban heat island effect” accounts trying to predict the temperature increase mid-20th century is very likely due to for elevated temperatures in metropolitan in the next centuries and the rise in ocean the observed increase in anthropogenic areas as compared to countryside. It is levels associated with it, but those models greenhouse gas concentrations”. This might however, dismissed as a negligible factor suffer from inherent limitations. For a sound like a reiteration of an already-known towards global warming by experts and moment just consider a different problem of
20 Columbia Science Review Global Warning
predicting the folding of a protein molecule However, the natural driving force of the source of their funds. Instituting the from its structure. That is at the forefront solar radiation is just as relevant. But let’s equivalent of double blind clinical trials of research and the current computer leave the distant future; even if the most seems quite necessary. Secondly, as much as simulations are still orders of magnitude pessimistic predictions are true, it is still a I trust science to lead humanity to progress, away from success. Now scale up to an gradual process. Much closer to us are all the I always stand humble in front of nature incredibly complex system such as climate, news reports of destructive hurricanes and and its dynamic forces. The idea of global and think if these models are reliable. tsunamis. Yet, despite media speculations, warming is one that actually brings comfort In addition, all that they give as a result IPCC admits reluctantly that there is to our minds, since it suggests that, despite assumes certain parameters representing the no significant correlation between those the negative effect so far, we humans are in different driving forces. The only control is disastrous events and global warming control and could, with good will, build our that they fit within some very wide margin In summary, there are a couple of future in a predictable way. I really wish it with data from the last century. There are points I want to make even if my arguments was true, but I am not arrogant enough to simple high school physics experiments won’t dissuade the ardent environmentalist. accept it. that would give misleading results under Firstly, I am appalled at the abuses to such wild means of extrapolation, let alone the scientific method that constitute the Works Cited the whole climate system on Earth. One expert panels drawing conclusions with Intergovernmental Panel on Climate concept that often comes across in the such far-reaching implications into public Change, Climate Change 2007: The frightening scenarios that we keep hearing policy. Without questioning the integrity Physical Science Basis - Summary for is “feedback”, the idea that small changes of the scientists involved, I simply can’t PolicymakersUnited States Historical Photo illustration by Daniel Brujis in some factor can be greatly enhanced. believe that they can avoid bias knowing Climatology Network
Effect of Glutaminase-Deficiency on Object Recognition Memory Using the Novel Object Spatial Recognition Task Shelly Zhu, Mentor: Inna Gaisler-Salomon, PhD and Stephen Rayport, PhD Abstract behavioral assays to test the phenotypic behavioral outcome of Glutamatergic synapse plays an important role in object glutaminase-deficiency. The Novel Object Recognition Task is one recognition memory, and its disruption has been linked to various such test, in which the mice’s ability to distinguish a novel object disorders, including schizophrenia. The precise role of glutamate from a familiar one serves as an indicator of relative hippocampal in schizophrenia (SZ) is, however, unclear. In order to assess the and frontal-cortical function. Our results indicate that, contrary to effect of glutamate on various regions of the brain, we engineered previous data, neither genotype nor drug condition has any effect mice that are heterozygous for a mutation in the glutaminase type on novel object recognition activity. Moreover, the data may even 1 (Gls1) gene, which is a major source of glutamate. Other data suggest an opposite effect of ketamine than formerly predicted- (mostly fMRI data) has shown biological and chemical changes that of increasing reactivity in Gls1-Hets than in WT. Thus no that suggest Gls1-Het mice are less prone to ketamine than their meaningful conclusions can be made until further experiments are WT littermates. In order to confirm these results, we performed conducted, using a larger sample size than previously examined.
The Effects of Legionella pneumophila icm/dot Mutations on Global Gene Expression, Intracellular Multiplication, and Translocation of Effector Proteins Karen M. Levy, Shuman Lab, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Department of Microbiology Abstract function(s) of most effector proteins are unknown. Although Legionella pneumophila, the causative agent of mutants of the Icm/Dot system are expected to be defective for Legionnaire’s Disease, is a Gram-negative bacterium and a intracellular multiplication and effector translocation, modern facultative intracellular pathogen of human alveolar macrophages techniques have determined the specific phenotypes for all the and a wide range of protozoa. The bacterium is taken up by the host icm/dot genes in much greater detail, proving otherwise. This study cell through a self-induced coiling phagocytosis in which it creates focuses on gaining a deeper understanding of the role that individual a specialized compartment. One of the hallmarks of this infection icm/dot genes play in intracellular multiplication and translocation is the evasion of phagosome-lysosome fusion, which allows the of effector proteins. A number of icm/dot mutants were identified bacterium to multiply inside of the specialized compartment. that displayed the ability to translocate effector molecules without This process requires a type IV secretion system, termed icm/dot having the ability to perform intracellular multiplication; however, locus (intracellular multiplication/ defect in organelle trafficking), translocation of effectors was required for any mutant to produce which is composed of 25 genes in 3 regions on the L. pneumophila a viable infection. chromosome. The Icm/Dot system is able to translocate effector For the full articles visit: columbiasciencereview.org proteins from the bacterium into the host cell, and the specific
Volume 4. Issue 2: Fall 2007. 21 Orchids Investigating the Medicinal Properties of Orchids
photos by Daniel Brujis
by Umara Saleem pair of testicles (Bulpitt, 2005). Recently, such as those from East and South Asia it was discovered via DNA analysis that the that emphasize naturopathic medicine, Lush, vibrant, and beautiful, your orchid family is part of the asparagus group, which relies on the body’s natural capacity newly purchased orchid sits happily in closer in kin to these vegetables than other to heal. Native Americans in North and your window. What you may not know is flowering plants with which they had been South America have also used orchids in that orchids might one day be able to cure placed before (Yoon, 2003). A particular medicine, for example in the relief of mouth cancer, help in heart relaxation, or even be detail about orchid pollen is that it is very and gum sores, and curing eye infections taken as an aphrodisiac, among many other delicate and leaves no fossil record. Thus, (Kong, 2003). Cross culturally, the petals uses. orchids have been mis-categorized several and the roots of orchids have been used Orchids, or as they are scientifically times before in history. Orchids have most frequently. Interesting uses of these known, the Orchidaceae, compromise one mostly been investigated by the Chinese, parts include the bulbs of the species of the largest families of flowers in the who were the first to describe the medicinal Diuris maculata for emergency food, their Plant Kingdom, with over 30,000 different uses of orchids, as well as write books on dry tuber roots as an anti-aphrodisiac, and species (Kong, 2003). Orchids were first them (Bulpitt, 2005). In one of the earliest their petals as skin allergy soothers (Bulpitt, noticed for their unusual reproductive records, Shen-nung, the “father of Chinese 2005). In another species, Cyrtorchis organs (Bulpitt, 2005). The Greeks refer to agriculture,” described species of orchids in arcuata, the whole orchid is dried and testicles as orchis, and Theophrastus (372- his 28th Century BC text Materia Medica powdered to treat diabetes; while leaves 286 BC), Aristotle’s successor, named the (Bulpitt, 2005). of the species Bulbophyllum maximum and orchid after that part of the male anatomy Orchid species are notable for Tridactyle tricuspis are used by the Malawi because the underground tubers of many their numerous medicinal uses and are used peoples in Southeast Africa to treat against European terrestrial orchids resemble a all over the world, especially in cultures sorcery and madness (Bulpitt, 2005).
22 Columbia Science Review Orchids
Traditionally, orchids were used commonly used in traditional Chinese Scientists can now localize a particular as a whole or part-wise in herbal medicine. medicine as a tonic to maintain a healthy chemical and investigate that. Another With the advent of advanced biotechnology stomach, to increase body fluid, to reduce point of interest is that almost all studies today, scientists can now isolate chemical fever, and as a natural anti-platelet agent of orchids are being performed in East and components from an orchid’s internal (Ho & Chen, 2003). It has also been South Asia and South America. Scientists structures and specifically determine the demonstrated as a remarkable anticancer are taking the medicinal history of these functions of these organically synthesized agent that has mutation-causing properties widely used plants in their abundant local molecules. Recent advances such as these in cancer cell lines derived from different environments and performing chemical are highly significant for medicine, because tissue organs (Kong, 2003). Moscatilin has assays on them. The United States, also, is orchid molecules are found to have a role in been previously known to be a natural anti- slowly incorporating plant chemicals into reducing fevers, serving as anti-impotence platelet agent extracted from the stems of its medical pharmacology. One prominent aids, increasing the white blood cell the flower (figure3 ). Its anti-cancer effects example is Taxol ®, a chemical derived from count, curing eye diseases, treating fatigue were demonstrated in a Taiwanese study a Pacific Northwest yew, that is currently and headaches, and most importantly, where 16 cell lines from different tissue being used in the treatment of breast and functioning as anti-cancer agents (Bulpitt, origins, such as from the placenta, liver, ovarian cancer (Foster). In contrast to the 2005). lungs, stomach, and other organs, were used US’s slow incorporation of plant chemicals In one study conducted in a and cultured with moscatilin (Ho & Chen, into its pharmacology, China leads in the botanical research institute in India, use of medicinal plants as an important part scientists evaluated the species Vanda of public heath care, where approximately Tessellata (figure 2) and discovered its role 500 species are source plants for official as a potent aphrodisiac and fertility booster. drugs in the Chinese pharmacopoeia The species is grown in abundance locally, (Foster). Additionally, there are over 5,000 and also has a long history of use by the species used as traditional medicine or folk native population for its anti-inflammatory and local medicines in various parts of the properties (Kumar, et al, 2000). country (Foster). In the study, it was found that, Herbal remedies are the most compared to mice that had not been given popular health supplements today. In 1994, an orchid extract, male mice that received 2003). Mutagenic activity was displayed in The US Food and Drug Administration’s it showed more mounting (sexually active) the study, but not uniformly across cell lines; Dietary Supplement Health and Education behavior, and the females paired with these it was found that 100% of the lung, 75% of Act provided regulatory parameters for mice gave birth to larger litters and more the stomach, and 0% of the liver carcinoma herb products in dietary supplements male offspring. As scientists increased cell lines were responsive to the cytotoxic (Foster). Interestingly, in Germany, plant the concentration of the serum, a direct effect of moscatilin (Ho & Chen,2 003). It materials are labeled as drugs with detailed relationship between these outcomes was can be concluded from the study that the uses, side effects, dosage information, and observed. Perhaps these results can be role of moscatilin from the Indian orchid a reasonable safety and efficacy based on extrapolated to humans and preliminary does indeed expresses antiproliferative historic use of the plant along with scientific tests can be done to see if researchers can effects against various types of cancers, facts (Foster). In the US, about 25% of develop another drug like Viagra ®. including those from choriocarcinoma prescription drugs sold contain at least one A study last year performed in (cancer of germ cells), lung cancers, and ingredient derived from a flowering plant, Mexico on mice evaluated two complex stomach cancers, but is ineffective against but this figure hasn’t changed significantly organic chemicals from the orchid species hepatocellular carcinomas (liver cancers) since 1959 despite the fact that a few new Scaphyglottis livida as a potential relaxer of (Ho & Chen, 2003). This present study drugs have come from plants since then heart contractions caused by the excitatory was especially crucial to Taiwan for many (Foster). hormone noradrenaline (Soto, E. S. et al. predominantly suffer from the evaluated Wouldn’t it be revolutionary to find 2006). Results showed that both of the cancers (Ho & Chen, 2003). the cure for cancer in a dandelion growing organic compounds, called Stilbenoids, The different species of orchids in Central Park? Perhaps the US will one inhibited aortic contractions provoked by also have been used in treatments of day expand its research field and open- noradrenaline, and caused vasodialation, the epilepsy, as sedatives and flavor enhancers, mindedness towards plant pharmacology. relaxation and widening of blood vessels in against flatulence, rheumatism, spasms, Due to the incredible diversity of orchids, the body (Soto, E. S. et al. 2006). Again, the and everything from cramps to increased research on them is full of potential. implications of these chemicals for usage virility. (Kong, 2003). In Africa, an amulet Perhaps these medicinal orchids hold the in human models may be promising in made from the leaves of the species Ansiella key in the form of organic chemicals under cardiology, pending further examination. Africana infused with a paste made from investigation in international labs right Many studies have been conducted the bulbs of the same plant is even said now. So as you observe your pretty window investigating the role of the promising to function as a short term contraceptive orchid bloom through the seasons, keep chemical moscatilin, which is derived (Bulpitt, 2005). in mind that the cure to a life-threatening from the stems of the orchid species In the past, orchids were used disease may be right under your nose. Dendrobrium; these species have been in crude form and as whole plant parts. See Works Cited at columbiasciencereview.org
Volume 4. Issue 2: Fall 2007. 23 Scott A. Snyder The Work of Professor Scott A. Snyder by Shelly Zhu into the teaching of the sciences, Professor Snyder Today, aside from teaching as an also prefers to tie in real- assistant professor at Columbia University, life situations. “Eyes always Professor Snyder is working on research light up when I bring in that is based on “ill-defined biology,” current-day issues, such synthesizing unique molecules obtained as the toxicity of Vioxx, from different natural sources and trying into classroom discussion. to understand their biological mechanisms. This element is important Stated simply, Snyder’s research seeks to because even if students elucidate what these natural chemicals are only interested in do at the molecular level, to improve fulfilling their science upon or change their behavior, and then, requirements, they need to to find real-world applications for these make informed decisions chemicals, particularly as medicines. For when voting as members example, Snyder is beginning a series of of a democratic society, collaborations with labs in California and and a strong background in Boston to determine more specifically what chemistry and the scientific chemical in red wine causes people to live issues of today will help longer. Another of his notable discoveries them do that.” Snyder’s is his identification of the mode of action of passion for chemistry can toxins created by sea sponges, which might easily be traced back to actually help to cure cancer in humans. his family. The elder of Although there is nothing two sons, Scott Snyder remotely pompous about Snyder in person- was born to a pair of well- he is modest and low-key- he is clearly a educated intellectuals, a scientific genius with acuity of mind that biochemistry researcher can be easily discerned from the first few and a math teacher. As a seconds of conversation with him. Sparsely child, his father always let decorated, his desk contains only a few him play with the equipment in his lab, Helping to augment his incipient textbooks and scattered papers, forcing one fostering in him an appreciation for the interest in science was an inspirational high to look carefully in order to discover any world around him. school chemistry teacher, who showed him insight into his inner self. “He let me touch beads of the fun in science. “I love to cook,” he smiled, mercury,” Snyder laughed. “At that time “It was the class during the day and leaning back in his arm chair in people didn’t know of its dangers.” that I most enjoyed going to,” Snyder contemplation, he added, “and history. I His mother, on the other hand, recalls. definitely love history.” When asked why instilled in him the importance of precision Snyder’s ambition and intelligence history intrigues him so much, he stated and the idea “that if you’re going to spend set him apart from his peers early on. Not simply, “History helps you understand the time doing it, do it right.” Together, they only did he excel in his classes but also origin of an idea and what amount of travail showed him the importance of perseverance, at the age of eighteen, he became one of led to the powerful tools that we have in a value that made key contributions to the select few to compete for the honor science today.” Snyder’s later successes. of representing the United States in If you ever take Professor Snyder’s Having always been interested in the International Chemistry Olympiad, class, you will find him integrating history the sciences, particularly chemistry, Scott perhaps the most prestigious high school into all that he teaches, because it is Snyder knew what he wanted to do with his competition in the field of chemistry. Every important to him not only to know that life at an early age. “Chemistry just made summer, the adolescent Scott could be found theories exist, but also why they exist. sense to me,” he said, taking a sip from his on the campus of SUNY Buffalo, where he Besides the integration of history cleverly designed beaker-shaped mug. worked as a volunteer research intern in a
24 Columbia Science Review Scott A. Snyder
biochemistry lab. On those lazy summer He also envisions advances in in your own thoughts. Be willing to listen. days, Snyder toiled away indoors, working nanotechnology and medicine, which will And, most importantly, let the data give the tediously to perfect his lab techniques. help scientists move way from the current answer, not you.” After high school, Snyder one-size-fits-all medical paradigm in favor Though not all future chemists continued to chase his dreams of success, of a more personalized form of medical will be as successful as Professor Snyder pursuing a chemistry major at Williams care in which each patient is treated based has been, one hopes that they will share his College in Williamstown, MA. Here, he on his unique genetic makeup. boundless enthusiasm for the field. This once again was blessed with an amazing This future that Professor Snyder enthusiasm is made abundantly clear when faculty that supported him, challenged him hopes for rests on the shoulders of the Snyder describes what it is that makes him and encouraged him to solve problems. current generation of aspiring chemists for love his job so much. Once again he immersed himself in the whom Professor Snyder has no shortage of “It’s the mystery [of it], combined chemistry labs, this time exploring different advice. with the unraveling of this mystery by aspects of the field, including its physical, “Try not to judge something from figuring out what these chemicals in nature organic, heterocyclic, and medicinal sub just one experience,” he answered finally. do. Couple that with the opportunity to disciplines. During the summertime, “And enjoy the problem of having a difficult teach the next generation of synthetic Snyder continued to work as a research problem. Always be curious- never think chemists and there is no better job on intern, this time for the Bristol-Myers any question is stupid. Always have belief earth.” Squibb Pharmaceutical Company (formerly known as Dupont-Merck). Recognition for his genius was quick to follow, as his work garnered him several publications and numerous awards, such as a Pfizer Summer Undergraduate Research Fellowship, the Barry M. Goldwater Fellowship in Science and Engineering, and a National Science Foundation pre-doctoral fellowship. He went on to earn his Ph.D. at The Scripps Research Institute in La Jolla, California, and did postdoctoral research as a National Institutes of Health fellow in the laboratory of a Harvard University Nobel Laureate. What key traits contributed to his astounding success in chemistry? In addition to being well read and persistent, Professor Snyder believes that there are two primary qualities that all good chemists must possess. “First, a chemist must have what are called ‘good hands,’ or the ability to execute an experiment properly.” “More importantly thought,” he continued, “is how you handle the first major problem you encounter in a research program, i.e. when your initial idea does not succeed. This moment is what makes or breaks a chemist. Some people become frustrated and simply give up. However, it is those who see this moment as an exciting challenge and fight to solve that problem who succeed.” Looking ahead, Professor Snyder is excited by what he envisions as the future of chemistry. He sees the future of synthetic chemistry as a “Star Trek” mission, one whose ultimate goal is efficiency, via an emphasis on one-step processing, 100% yield, and the elimination of waste. In this quest, he maintains, “We are, at best, Christopher Columbus.”
Volume 4. Issue 2: Fall 2007. 25 Anti-Angiogenic Drugs
Anti-Angiogenic Drugs: A Replacement for Chemotherapy? by Srinivas Chivukula example, think pepper tastes sweet because chemotherapy can cause, it is no wonder that of impaired taste receptors on the tongue several other modes of “cell assassination” Although the ultimate goal of all after being treated with chemotherapy. One have come into play. One such mode cancer therapy is to rid the body of malignant of the more complicated and devastating of treatment is anti-angiogenetic drug tumors, the side effects can be devastating. side effects of chemotherapy is impaired therapy. Angiogenesis is a physiological This is easily seen in chemotherapy. Since its memory and/or cognitive ability. This is process by which new blood vessels develop inception, chemotherapy has been the norm, often referred to as chemo brain. from preexisting vessels. This is similar to the most reliable cancer fighter. It works by Tim Ahles, a researcher at the neovascularization, or the formation of killing rapidly dividing cells. The problem Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical School, functional microvascular networks with red 2 with it, however, also lies in this simplistic studied 57 people who underwent surgical blood cell perfusion, and to intussusception, mode of action: rapidly dividing cells are treatment for cancer and 71 who underwent or the splitting of blood vessels to form new 1 not only found in tumors but also in parts chemotherapy. Through a standardized ones. Angiogenesis is a vital physiological of the body that are functioning normally, test conducted 5 years later, he showed function, mostly because it allows body like bone marrow, hair follicles in the that those who underwent chemotherapy growth, whether in the cervix after regular gastrointestinal tract, and the reproductive exhibited greater brain damage when menstrual cycles, in the embryonic stage system organs. Rapid cell proliferation is compared to those who were treated with where it gives rise to stem cells, or in adults seen in the mammary and prostate glands surgery. This finding clearly demonstrates where it helps heal wounds. In certain cases as well. In addition, rapid cell division the negative effects of chemotherapy on such as fetal development, it is the sole is important in many healing processes the brain. Ahles confirmed that this brain source of growth. Because it feeds rapidly throughout the body. Since chemotherapy damage was not related to depression dividing and growing cells, cancerous cells targets all rapidly dividing cells and has but rather, has an important biological use angiogenesis in their own growth and no way of distinguishing healthy cells component. His recent research suggests replication processes. from cancerous cells, it can seriously harm that people with a particular gene are more Cancerous cells divide in an the body. This article is a review of recent likely to suffer cognitive defects in response uncontrolled fashion and group together research on a mode of cancer treatment to chemotherapy. According to Christina to form tumors. There is a high rate of that evades the risks of chemotherapy: Meyers, a professor of neuropsychology mutation in tumors, and particular DNA anti-angiogenic drug therapy. at the M.D. Anderson Cancer Center in mutations in cancerous cells modify cell In most cases, chemotherapy Houston, TX, brain chemotherapy causes nature in a manner similar to that shown by drugs are administered along with proper the cancerous cells to release cytokines, Lederberg et al. in the famous Lederberg 3 medication to ensure that the affected which enter the brain and impair cognitive Replicating Experiment., giving these normal tissue’s ordinary functioning functioning. Interestingly, in treatment, cells resistance to drugs and therapies. is regained. However, sometimes the chemotherapeutic drugs also release these Once these tumors transgress the primary medications still fail to save the life of the cytokines. It is the cytokines that need to immune system’s defense mechanisms, they patient. Even those who survive cancer be eliminated. Sedatives and steroids given begin to develop into larger tumors. This often suffer from the negative effects of along with the drugs only exacerbate the growth is allowed because of the formation chemotherapy. People suffer symptoms situation, making cognitive impairment of their own new blood vessels. This is how 1 such as mouth dryness, loss of hair, loss even worse. angiogenesis allows the spread of cancer. of appetite, and problems with sense Through continued blood vessel formation, perception, something that can be affected Angiogenesis and Tumor Growth the small cluster of cells grows into a by malfunctioning cells. Some people, for Given the potential damage that much larger tumor. This is made possible
26 Columbia Science Review Anti-Angiogenic Drugs by nutrients such as growth factors like therapy, whether chemo or radiation or the great potential for future cancer treatment. the Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor latest drugs like Herceptin (Trastuzumab), Anti-angiogenesis boasts fewer side effects (VEGF) which is secreted by the tumor which is anti-angiogenic in nature, targeted and a less risky mode of treatment. Anti- itself. The newly-formed blood vessels serve at endothelial cells rather than the tumor angiogenetic drugs pose no risk of chemo a double purpose: they both feed the tumor cells. Angiogenesis is carried out by these brain and subsequent brain damage or of nutrients and secrete waste materials to the endothelial cells. There are several stages in the Alzheimer’s that almost always follows outside of the tumor. the development of endothelial cells that, such brain damage. As research goes on, Once the tumor grows in size, when impeded by antiangiogenesis, can maybe the best thing we can do is to urge individual cells also begin branching out prevent proliferation of the tumor. all cancer patients not to give up hope. of the tumor. They travel through the According to the American Perhaps the savior is on its way! blood stream, and the lymph, and dock Cancer Society, this new technique of at different sites in the body. Here, they anti-angiogenesis is a safer technique than Works Cited anchor and again begin to divide and form chemotherapy. The society explains simply, http://dartmed.dartmouth.edu/ new tumors called secondary tumors. This “Anti-angiogenesis is a form of targeted summer05/html/disc_chemobrain.php process of breaking off and spreading to therapy that uses drugs or other substances other parts of the body is called metastasis. to stop tumors from making new blood “Neovascularization.” Wikipedia, The Free The original tumor is now called a primary vessels. Without a blood supply, tumors Encyclopedia. 17 Nov 2006, 23:03 UTC. tumor. Recently, tumors are considered as can’t grow.”4 But currently, Herceptin is the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 10 Jan 2007 mosaic vessels, being comprised both of only drug on the market which has FDA
Based on preclinical research, HERCEPTIN is proposed to have up to 3 different types of activity.
HERCEPTIN
HER2+ Cancer Cell
1. May block tumor cell growth 2. May target the cell for 3. May work with chemotherapy HERCEPTIN binds to HER2+ destruction by the Along with chemotherapy immune system cancer cells and may block (paclitaxel), HERCEPTIN may them from dividing and HERCEPTIN attaches to the work to destroy HER2+ cancer growing. HER2+ cancer cells and cells. may signal the body’s own immune system to destroy the cell. Diagram courtesy GeneTech, inc. HOW DO YOU TAKE HERCEPTIN? Volume 4. Issue 2: Fall 2007. 27 HERCEPTIN is given through an intravenous (IV) infusion at your doctor’s office or clinic. The first infusion usually takes about 90 minutes but may be slowed or stopped if you have discomfort from side effects. Infusions after that will only last about 30 minutes, as long as the prior infusion was well tolerated.
When you receive the first dose of HERCEPTIN, you may have chills and fever as well as nausea, vomiting, pain, headache, dizziness, shortness of breath, low blood pressure, rash, and weakness. These side effects were usually mild to moderate in severity. Serious and fatal infusion reactions have occurred infrequently. The rate of HERCEPTIN administration may be slowed or stopped due to side effects during infusions. Your doctor may need to stop HERCEPTIN if you are experiencing serious infusion reactions.
Please see accompanying Safety Information on the reverse side. COLUMBIA SCIENCE REVIEW www.columbiasciencereview.com