Manhood & Makeup: Hegemonic Masculinity in Competition
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MANHOOD & MAKEUP: HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY IN COMPETITION SHOWS by JAMES GROMELSKI B.A., Metropolitan State University of Denver, 2013 A thesis submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the University of Colorado Colorado Springs in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts Department of Communication 2017 © 2017 JAMES GROMELSKI ALL RIGHTS RESERVED This thesis for the Master of Arts degree by James Gromelski Has been approved for the Department of Communication by Christopher Bell, Chair Carmen Stavrositou Lauren Brengarth Date __5/9/17_____________ ii Gromelski, James (M.A., Communication) Manhood and Makeup: Hegemonic Masculinity in Sport Competition Shows Thesis directed by Assistant Professor Christopher Bell. Ph.D. ABSTRACT Manhood is a complicated concept that has necessitated research and discussion for decades. Accordingly, the recent influx of feminine scholarship has reduced the amount of attention paid to masculinity. Dominant ideologies force men to walk, talk, and act a very specific way, which is then reinforced by popular culture and in turn, affects both men and women. Male gender performance is exceedingly rigid. This is especially true in sport. The sport competition shows American Ninja Warrior, its Japanese predecessor Sasuke, and the all- star special, American Ninja Warrior vs Japan provide sufficient material to dissect contemporary ideals of Japanese and American manhood. Additionally, the parallel between the representations of masculinity by Japanese and American popular culture is examined. An ideological criticism through rhetorical analysis is used to examine the overt and covert messages of masculine ideologies portrayed in these programs. Common traits and features of masculinity, previously developed by scholars of varying fields, as well as new ones are used to code and analyze representations of hegemonic masculinity. Specifically, masculinity is presented in three categories: Nationalistic, militaristic and heteronormative. A comprehensive view of the landscape, that is, hegemonic masculinity in sport competition television, is the beginning of understanding and transforming manhood. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION………………………………………………….1 Purpose of the Study………………………………………..1 Sasuke and American Ninja Warrior…………………….....2 II. LITERATURE REVIEW…………………………………………..13 Hegemonic Masculinity………………………………….....13 Masculinity in Japan………………………………………..15 The Ninja…………..……………………………………….18 The Pride of a Nation…………….…………………………22 Sport and War in America………………………………….30 Heteromasculinty…………………………………………...33 III. METHODOLOGY…………………………………………………37 IV. DISCUSSION……………………………………………………....42 Nationalism…………………………………………………44 The Salaryman……………………………………...44 The Wandering Man………………………………..55 Militarism.………………………………………………….58 The Patriot………………………………………….58 iv The Ninja…………………………………………...64 Heteronormativism….……………………………………...67 The Performer……………………………………....67 The Unifer…………………………………………..75 Conclusion………………………………………………….76 REFERENCES……………………………………………………………..82 v CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Purpose of the Study Media are not supposed to be so powerful. Ever felt like the goose bumps are about to burst out of every pore? Like the meaning attached to the message hit so hard, that skin can’t handle it? American Ninja Warrior (ANW) and Susuke have this power. Being witness to the athleticism, grit and resolve of these athletes is empowering, to say the least. Why, though, are ardent fans of these shows so exhilarated by men and women battling against inanimate objects and a clock? We gather and root for a favorite athlete because the grueling preparation and competition exemplifies what the human body is capable of. The fallacy that everyone can do it absolutely draws a fan base, but there is another decisive aspect of these shows, which must be discussed. Masculinity is reinforced by many media outlets, particularly in sport. This study focuses on the language used by commentators, advertisers, fans and the athletes themselves, as well as other implicit and explicit themes used by previous scholars that perpetuate dominant masculine ideologies. It is not intended to re-define masculinity, but rather highlight the existing traits of manhood in contemporary American and Japanese culture. Further, while women and femininity are undoubtedly a critical aspect of these shows and masculinity in general, the scope of this piece will concentrate on the male athletes to narrow the field of study. For this same purpose, some other aspects of hegemonic masculinity, that have been the focus of studies in the past, will also be left 1 out of the discussion. Issues such as capitalism, consumerism, neo-Marxism, body image, race, socioeconomic status, age, ability are all relevant to this subject, but were purposefully left out as to narrow the frame of the study. By shedding light on common traits ofmasculinity, it might be possible to create change in the psyche of men and women. Masculinity is a phenomenon that has been studied by numerous fields. This includes but is not limited to: marketing (Baglia, 2005; Messner, Dunbar and Hunt, 2000) sociology (Connell 1985 [1987]; Messner, 1990; Oliffe, 2006), psychology (Keen, 1992; Kimmel 1987; Speer, 2001), and communication (; Hanke, 1998; Spitzack 1998; Burchardt, 2005). The growing feminist paradigm has presented broad concepts that have shifted the perception of masculinity in America (Messner, 1990; Messner & Sabo, 1990). The present study adds a different lens to the subject. It is important to incorporate a modern perspective and examine the issues involved in sport competition shows. While it is certainly true that competition obstacle courses are designed for men, women can compete alongside the men. Unlike most organized sports like basketball, track and field, golf and soccer where, men compete against other men and vice versa, ANW and Sasuke allows both sexes to battle the course as well as each other. This is a new way of viewing sport. It provides an opportunity for whole families to sit together and experience a piece of popular culture together. Sasuke & American Ninja Warrior Sasuke began as a spinoff to another Japanese program called Kinniku Banzuke (muscle ranking). It was broadcasted as a special part of, Kinniku Banzuke, which ran from 1994 to 2002 when it was discontinued. As a result, Sasuke became its own entity 2 and is in its 33rd production and airs on the Tokyo Broadcasting System (TBS). The competitions are held and filmed twice a year. They take place at Midoriyama (Mount Midori) where 100 contestants battle against a clock and the rigorous challenges of each obstacle in any given stage. There are four stages where the obstacles vary by season, however a basic format does exist: Stage 1-overall athleticism. Stage 2- speed. Stage 3- upper body strength. Stage 4- endurance. All contestants participate during a 24-hour period to balance the odds of victory. What this means is, if an athlete happens to be one of the elite to reach stage four (there have only been 22 contestants to ever reach the final stage), he or she will be attempting to climb a 77-foot-long rope around two or three in the morning. To this day, there have only been four people to complete all four stages. Ninja Warrior featured the original Sasuke footage broadcasted on the G4 network with English commentating in 2009 (it is important to point out that for this study, the G4 version is analyzed but is referred to as Sasuke to avoid confusion). The popularity of this show in America enabled NBC to buy the rights and create their own spinoff. American Ninja Warrior then, in 2012, varied its format in many ways. Hosts Matt Iseman M.D., (and stand up comedian) and Akbar Gbaja-Biamila (former NFL linebacker) added a new sense of humor and credibility. The introduction clips were extensive and gave a much more in-depth look at the athletes. Instead of the commentators briefly introducing each athlete by giving their name and occupation, an entire clip (usually around 30 seconds to a minute) was spliced into the production to give a comprehensive outlook of the athlete. This in-depth look into the athlete’s lives creates a bond between them and the fans. Burkes’s (1969) identification theory attempts to explain the relationship that is formed between the audience member and the athlete: 3 A is not identical with his colleague B. But insofar as their interests are joined, A is identified with B. Or he may identify himself with B even when their interests are not joined, if he assumes that they are, or is persuaded to believe so. (Burke, 1969, p. 20) When A is an audience member and B is an ANW or Susuke athlete, the interests are not aligned. The audience member does not share the excitement of glory or the humility of defeat however, the audience member does connect or identify in some way with the athlete. Whether it is personal characteristics, geographical location, demographics, psychographics or any other comparable trait, a link exists and therefore creates identification between A and B. This process, in regards to ANW and Sauke, describes the tendency for audience members to believe (or be persuaded to believe) they could complete the obstacle or the entire course—no matter how unlikely that may be. It is no surprise that the production unit (A. Smith & Company) and minds behind the TV show Pros vs Joes also produces ANW. This program featured professional athletes competing in their particular sport (Jerry Rice [NFL], Jennie Finch [Softball] and Randy Couture [Mixed Martial Arts]) against— above average ‘every day’ people. The identification process is relatively the same between audience and athlete with the ‘Joe’ because these people are supposed to represent the common man or woman. Smack talk and hubris aside, the Joe’s were embarrassed the majority of the time. It served as a self- check-point to the person who watches football on Sunday’s and never ceases to scream at the TV “I could’ve caught that”! The distinction is made between pro and Joe but, with ANW and Sasuke, there really is no clear line when, before the athlete attempts the stage, the audience finds out that he or she is a college student, boy scout leader, or 4 cosmetologist.