2018 Anthropologist 31(1-3): 69-79 (2018) DOI: 10.1080/09720073.2018.1430108

Interpretation of Ethno-economic on Work Participation of Mbojo Ethnic Married Women in ()

St. Maryam1,2*, M. Pudjihardjo2, Susilo2 and Asfi Manzilati2

1Universitas , Indonesia 2Doctoral Degree Program in Economics, Faculty of Economics and Business, Universitas Brawijaya, Indonesia

KEYWORDS Double Role. Mbojo Ethnic. Married Woman

ABSTRACT This research aims to interpret ethno-economic factors on work activity conducted by Mbojo ethnic married women in West Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia. The research was conducted by utilizing the ethnomethodology qualitative method in which the researchers described the ethno-economic reality influencing Mbojo ethnic married women’s work participation. The data were collected from married women as key informants. On the other hand, household members and other informants acted as supporting informants (utilized in validation test as well). This research managed to describe the following ethno-economic factors: education, local culture, household type, salary, husband income, and household asset. The research results exhibit that these women work for economic security and independence, and/or to increase their social economic status in the community. However, they work not for the sake of rights equality, but for improving household social and economic security. They consider work as a form of worship; thus, there is no role-exchange occurring. The research finds that the reason married women work is due to economic factors. The high needs of families and increasing prices do not always go in the same direction. The increase in prices causes the wife to work and help the husband in earning a living. In addition to economic problems, there are also women who work for non-economic reasons and want to devote the knowledge that they have gained. The findings of this study conclude that there are two major things that become main reasons women marry Mbojo ethnic. First is that they do double roles because it is must, and the second is that they work because of choice. Work is a source of income, and work is self-actualization. Although they work in the public sector, domestic work remains a priority.

INTRODUCTION belief. Marafu belief is considered to have a large influence on community life. Around the Mbojo is one of the ethnic groups residing 15th century, immigrants spread not only culture in Bima , West Nusa Tenggara Prov- and religion, but also occupation or job oppor- ince, Indonesia. This particular ethnic group has tunities. The immigrants originally hailed from lived in Isles since July 5th 1640 AD other regions such as Makassar and Bugis. (during the Majapahit Kingdom’s era). There are These newcomers are called Dou Mbojo (Bima two existing names for Bima community; Dou people). Despite residing in the same region, Donggo (Dongo people) is a nickname for orig- these people possess different language and inal Mbojo community members and have been customs. long residing in Bima region, especially in the Mbojo community’s occupation is majorly in mountainous region. This is caused by immi- the agriculture sector in a broad sense, trading grants spreading new culture and religion, which sector, service, and household industry. Mbojo completely differs from the current Mbojo com- community’s main occupation is agriculture ac- munity lifestyle. On the other hand, Mbojo com- tivity in fields and shifting cultivation (ngoho). munity embraces belief in Marafu (animism). Another part of community works in foraging Despite immigrants constantly flowing in and (ngupalade’de) and fishing sector. Agriculture spreading their respective culture and religion, is considered an ancestral heritage for Mbojo Bima community finds it hard to abandon their community members. In order to make ends meet and avoid poverty, they conduct shifting culti- *Address for correspondence: vation from one mountain to the other. Before E-mail: [email protected] starting to work in a field they usually conduct 70 ST. MARYAM, M. PUDJIHARDJO, SUSILO ET AL. group discussions to divide work. The men are Career women regard work not only to make ends tasked with preparing equipment. On the other meet, but also to obtain self-improvement, inde- hand, the women are tasked to prepare food and pendence, broaden insight, and confidence. drinks as well as cultivate the field the men have Qasim Amin is an Arabian reformist as quot- worked on prior. ed by Husein Muhammad, “a nation would not Aside from agriculture, Mbojo community develop without aid from half of its population.” weaves handicrafts. Mbojo woven cloth is Bima A paradigm where women are not allowed to specialty woven by Mbojo women. These wom- work is a loss. In Islamic perspective, a woman en weave cloths while waiting for their husbands who works in an economy or social sectors equal to return from their respective work. Bima spe- to men is not an issue. This fact is generally cialty woven fabric is Indonesian trading prime understood by Mbojo women. commodity. Sarong (tembe), destar or headbands Men and women take role as caliph on earth (sambolo), and belts (weri) are some most pop- and both possess similar function. They would ular commodities. take responsibility for their actions as caliph on Along with era development, there are shifts earth, as they would take responsibility as Al- in Mbojo Bima perspective regarding women’s lah’s worshippers. Nevertheless, the current is- position in work. Women do not merely work in sue for married women is they collide with house- their respective household, but also take an ac- hold problems and other interests. In this case, tive part in work market for various reasons and who is realistically responsible for providing motivation. With their husband permission, livelihood? Mbojo ethnic married women are capable/allowed Contemporary Ulama (theologian) admits to conduct economic activity outside their that a wife’s role is to manage the household. household for both formal and non-formal sec- Nevertheless, outside household matters, a wife tors (BPS 2015). could perform another work. It could be con- The aforementioned activities are not eco- ducted inside or outside the domestic sector, in nomic. Law defined work division between men order to increase household revenue for their and women in a household, as stated in Article family, themselves. A wife could conduct activi- 34 paragraph 2 of the Marriage Law stated that a ty relating to farm, trade, home industry, teach- wife is obligated to manage their household to ing, and other types of professions. It is com- the best of their ability. Women’s career shifts monly known that there are a variety of profes- from domestic sector to public sector embed- sions that could be performed by women, even ding double role for the women themselves. The those performed by men prior. As majority Dou issue faced by married career women is that they Mbojo embraces Islam belief, they obey Islamic are obligated to keep their role as housewives. law. Islam never prohibits certain occupation to The consequence followed double role (double anyone. Nevertheless, women security and pro- burden) imposed on the women. tection assurance became the current center of Research on ‘career woman’ has been dis- attention. cussed and debated many times in various cir- Socio-cultural background containing differ- cles. Nevertheless, this issue has never been ing experiences between men and woman in re- resolved and is still a prime discussion topic. ality caused gender to be seen as a universal Women are identified with beauty, gentleness, issue. Nevertheless, each community possess and weakness. These characteristics are im- different manner in describing gender relation- posed on women due to their biological charac- ship according to their respective cultures. Re- teristic which tends to be weaker compared to gardless of perspective difference, there’s an men. Women body, muscles, and bones are not understanding of gender issue which involved as strong as men. Nevertheless, should this is- social standing inequality between men and sue should be an excuse for women’s inappro- women, especially in work market. priateness to work in public sector? Woman economic rights have been de- Mbojo ethnic women consider working in scribed in Article 11 of Law no. 7, 1984. This Law public sector as part of women role. Industrial was ratified by the Indonesian government in era exhibits that women’s demand to work out- order to provide security to women labor. Wom- side domestic sector increase over time. Both en participating in work market are disturbed by unmarried and married women race to find work. social, economic, and cultural factors in ethno- INTERPRETATION OF ETHNO-ECONOMIC ON WORK PARTICIPATION 71 economy dialectic. Therefore, this research ex- only rooted in economy factor, but also com- amined ethno-economy factor which influenced bine other cultural and traditional institutions, Mbojo women to work in public sector. Ethno- government policy, religion, and other sources economic factors interpretations are as follows: of gender attitude which seeped into the labor education level, local culture, household type, market. Feminist paradigm endeavours to explain husband salary, and household asset. neoclassical theories failure in considering pre- This research aims to interpret ethno-eco- market gender discrimination. In short, Figart nomic factors on work activity conducted by (1999) defined feminist perspective regarding Mbojo ethnic married women in West Nusa Teng- workforce market discrimination as “multi-di- gara, Indonesia. mensional economy, social, politic, and culture strength interaction in workplace or household, Literature Review which caused differences in salary, occupation, and status.” Working is economic activity conducted by The gender-based obstacle for women to a person in order to gain or assist in obtaining participate in the workforce and salary inequali- income or profit, at least for one hour (uninter- ty has been analysed, especially from economy rupted) in a week. This activity is included in and culture perspective. In psychological per- unpaid worker activity pattern who aids in a spective, however, understanding on group re- business/economic activity (BPS 2015). lationship and individual behavior in a group Neoclassical economy theory approach de- could provide substantial insight on existing scribes individual decision from a rational choice gender-based obstacles in workforce market. perspective and provides a paradigm which en- Social identity theory is one of psychological ables a person to analyse gender distinction in a perspective which examines threats related to workforce. Neoclassical theory assumed that women in workforce market dominated by men. “workforce market is regulated by standard mi- Social identity theory is a basis used to un- cro economy principals regarding limited opti- derstand in-group and out-group dynamics (in mization by worker individuals and business- this case, Indonesian men acting as business- men with autonomous preference” (Jennings men, employee, and patriarchal community mem- 1999). On a basic level, neoclassical economy ber), which possibly include Indonesian women stated that a person acts rationally according to who work in the patriarchal community. Turner their interest. Becker (1976) developed much (1987) explained that a person’s social identity human capital frame theory and their applica- is an identity a person assumed as a bigger com- tion to workforce market segregation and dis- munity member. Social identity base premise is a crimination. Becker (1976) hypothesized that personal endeavour to understand themselves women possess a comparative advantage in non- at the social level instead of individual level. market household affairs. On the other hand, They recognize that a certain group member- men possess a comparative advantage in tradi- ship provide them a positive identity which dif- tional workforce market. fers from outsider group. This work design is rooted in the agrarian Women involvement in workforce market and patriarchal community where men possess could be observed from several dimensions, comparative advantage based strength in labor- which are described as follows: economy, so- intensive agriculture. On the other hand, wom- cial, demography which involved salary, age, en are specialized in household work (Iversen residence (village-city), marital status, education and Rosenbluth 2010). Therefore, upon analyz- level, religion, and culture (Papayungan 1995). ing workforce market from a patriarchal tradition based human capital perspective, men possess METHODOLOGY relevant capital for household production. On the contrary of neoclassical theory re- This research employs the qualitative meth- garding workforce participation, the feminist the- od. It is a research method which produces de- ory describes the difference between men and scriptive data in the form of written, non-writ- women workforce participation. It is more fo- ten, and behavior observed from the subjects. cused on an institution and social process which Previous researchers and problems in this re- influence gender dynamics. This paradigm is not search are the basis for selecting qualitative 72 ST. MARYAM, M. PUDJIHARDJO, SUSILO ET AL. method. This is in accordance with Ulin et al. was merely being pregnant, giving birth, breast- (2002). The qualitative method provides a man- feeding, childcare, and managing household. ner to conduct an in-depth examination of cause Women are better positioned to responsibility and effect in the social process (Yustika 2006). related to domestic tasks. Those are generally The research method of ethnomethodology not related to economic activity. On the other focuses study on reality with practical interpre- hand, men’s role is to provide a livelihood. Wom- tation. This method approaches humanity char- en’s role and contribution to national develop- acteristic which includes meaning on real be- ment were limited compared to men’s. Women havior. Each community member in this concept advancement in gaining education provides possess the following situations: local, orga- new opportunities for them to participate in the nized, possess stereotype and particular ideolo- labor market. Education is equally important to gy involving race, social class, and gender. This both men and women. Therefore, women are approach will favour lower class community burdened with the double role (double burden), members with populist ideology. Appropriate both in household and labor market. This bur- method to be utilized is dialogue. Ethnomethod- den may cast doubts on women to step into job ology is a research methodology which studies market which influences their professional ca- social behavior to be described as it is. reer negatively. The research focused on the individual in West Nusa Tenggara Mbojo married woman workforce market interaction. The individual in work in various economic sectors/work field. this context is Mbojo ethnic married woman. In- Majority of them work in agriculture, service, teraction is the process they enter work market, trading, government, and other sectors. These their attitude and behavior regarding “work” it- self in work market. women work as a permanent employee or gov- The research was conducted in a region ernment/private company officer. Some of them where the majority of Mbojo women takes resi- work as professional labor (possess certain dence, which is Bima Regency, Bima City, and skills/ specialization, such as shaman, commer- Mataram City as the capital city of West Nusa cial singer, etc.). Tenggara Province. The unit of analysis was Economic activity which becomes these Bimanese married women participating in the women’s special characteristic is weaving fab- work market. Informants involved in this research ric. It is a cultural diversity which exhibits Bima is Mbojo married women. The supporting infor- identity as a unique entity and their local wis- mants are husband, children, and family member dom. It is famous since the 15th century. Sarong in household (also possess a role in a validity weaving has been passed down since the 15th test). century. This handicraft is known as Muna Ro Data collection was done with an emphasis Medi in Mbojo language. This activity was ini- on the process, not the outcome. Therefore, cap- tially performed by women. They weave fabric tured data is data about the origin of labor market while taking care of their children. “While chat- entry, until they participate in the job market. Spe- ting as well”, said the weavers of Rabadompu, cifically, collected data is emik data (visible in man, Bima city. Bima fabric and woven handicrafts perception, motivation, and attitude). Data was are prime commodities in Nusa Tenggara activi- collected using interviews and observations. To ty. The most popular woven handicrafts are sa- ensure data validity on collected member infor- rong (tembe), destar or headband (sambolo), and mation regarding the real situation and its rele- belt (weri). vance which contain important information, tri- Weaving activity is centralized in Rabadom- angulation was conducted (using multiple infor- pu which keeps the cultural heritage alive and it mation sources to verify and strengthen data) was developed to be local community’s confi- either through a different data collection method dence. Produced fabric possess high quality and or using supporting informants. aesthetical value which draws people’s interest RESULTS AND DISCUSSION from outside the tribe, even foreigners. Mbojo women start weaving since an early age. Each Mbojo Career Woman Image house possess weaving equipment. Aforemen- tioned equipment is a traditional tool called ge- Prior to globalization, there was gender dif- dongan. It is put on weaver’s lap who is sitting ference between women and men. Women’s role with legs straight. The equipment is passed INTERPRETATION OF ETHNO-ECONOMIC ON WORK PARTICIPATION 73 down to women. It is at least two generations are economic, social, and other. Before they de- old. cide to work, they have to gain their husband’s Weaving tembe nggoli is a side activity for permission and blessing, in order to have a pros- village women, which is performed in between perous career. A husband gives permission for agricultural activity. This activity is hard to find their wives to participate in the work market. during cultivation and harvest period as the Their primary reasons are to enable a woman to women would be busy working in the field. Out- appreciate their husband’s work and being in- side of those periods, the village will be filled dependent. Some expressed their pride in their with weaving tools noise. Should they focus on wives’ participation in the work market. weaving alone, a woman is capable of produc- ing ten sheets of tembe nggoli each month. It Mbojo Women’s Motivation to Participate in does not generate a huge income, but it sup- Work Market ports household revenue. Aside from weaving, Mbojo married women Despite working while bearing double role bake snacks and cakes. Those are also local and being diplomatic in choosing either manag- goods generated by the housewives, domestic ing household or participating in the work mar- industry, and local cakes companies. These ket, women muster their willpower to be inde- snacks and cakes possess a variety of flavors, pendent economically, in this case, through work shapes, and names. Penaraga Village became a market. Women participation in economic activ- snack and traditional cuisine center in Bima city. ity is not something new. Women’s endeavour In this location, visitors could observe the man- to gain income (work) is caused by few factors ufacturing process from the beginning. Produced such as women’s endeavour to be economically snacks are ready to be eaten or sold. Visitors independent. It could be performed by using can directly buy and enjoy snacks or other food their own income to fulfill their individual needs in Penaraga. as well as dependents under them. Another fac- Mbojo women’s preferred occupation is tor is to supplement household revenue. Broad- teacher and nurse, while some other choose to er job opportunity which absorbs women labor be migrant labor. A number of occupation and is a supporting factor which encourages women work field have been conducted for various to work. motivation and reasoning. Selected occupation Originally, Mbojo married women were hesi- and work field are related to consideration that tant participating in the work market, due to their the women possess double role. On one side, a domestic role (managing household). On the woman is expected to dedicate themselves to other hand, Mbojo women participation became their respective household. On the other hand, more open and increased (BPS 2015). This ex- they are expected to participate in development. hibits women independence to fulfill their needs A woman is a source of potential development. and increased job opportunity. Therefore this Economy and non-economy benefit are research aims to examine the ethno-economy gained by working. Economically, the women meaning and its dynamics which involves the can support their husband in making ends meet, following factors: women education level, local children school tuition fee, and other economic culture, household type, salary, husband income, needs. They could also save money for the Is- and asset ownership. lamic-based religious pilgrimage to Mecca. On non-economic factor, the women could boost Education as Motivation to Enter Work Market their confidence due to possessing certain so- cial status independently, having a good phys- The highest education level attained is one’s ical appearance, appreciating their husband’s educational attainment after attending lesson at work and communities outside their households. highest grade level of particular school and ob- Seen from married woman scope, benefits gained taining graduation certificate (BPS 2015). from working would influence their surrounding Education and training is one of the impor- which includes core family, extended family, and tant factor in human resource development. Ed- community. ucation and training do not merely increase a Mbojo women possess their respective mo- person’s knowledge, but also work skills. There- tivation in deciding to work. Those motivations fore it would increase worker productivity. Edu- 74 ST. MARYAM, M. PUDJIHARDJO, SUSILO ET AL. cation and training are considered as an invest- ipation. Life obstacles tend to be present in fam- ment in which the return is obtained in several ilies incapable of encouraging their women to years in the form of production increase. Educa- work. tion increases aspiration and hope for higher Career women hail from every class of soci- income and a better life. ety. Those hailing from a lower class of society Increasing education level may result in ben- works to increase household revenue, as their efits such as a change in position or work type. husband’s income is not sufficient to provide a High education level encourages many adult livelihood. Women from higher society level women to participate in the professional world. work to improve themselves. These women pos- The 21st century is characterized by competition sess more educational opportunity. in work market. These opportunities are open to Education level is one of the endeavour in women. Education and training are seen as an increasing human resource quality. By possess- investment that can be obtained in return a few ing high education level, it is expected for a per- years later in the form of productivity increase. son (Mbojo married women) to have a critical Simanjuntak (2001) states women who possess thought process and more responsive to new higher education level, in general, will not stay technology. These women’s education level re- at home to manage their household but hunt for flects their thought processes and rational be- a job. havior. Women possessing high education lev- Higher education level would increase em- el would be able to grab better economic oppor- ployment feasibility, therefore, working hours tunities. Higher education level would increase could reduce. Education also increases wom- work quality and productivity. Those possess- en’s aspirations and expectations on higher in- ing high education level consider it is a “waste” come and a better life. Higher wages means more to not work. These women consider work as a workers are willing to offer their labor. Higher well of knowledge. They also capable of con- labor education earns higher incomes due to tributing to the household economy. their education. In turn, it increases their work capability and enhances productivity. Local Culture as Behavior Base Job position will change in line with increas- ing education, industrialization and development Culture is a way of life that as developed and (Squire 1982). A person’s education level affects shared by a group of people, passed down from work type and status he/she obtains later on. generation to generation. Culture is made up of Higher education level tends to ensure more many complex elements, including religions, appropriate job to meet a person’s needs. In this political system, customs, languages, tools, case, Mbojo women education level can affect clothing, buildings, and artwork. Language, as their working hours. Higher education ensures well as culture, is an integral part of human be- feasible line of work, therefore reducing time al- ings that people tend to think as genetically in- lotment at work. herited. When a person endeavours to commu- As in most developing countries, Mbojo nicate with people of different cultures and adapt women (INTB-Indonesia) tend to possess low- to differences, it proves that culture could be er educational level compared to men. This af- learned. Culture is creativity, preference, and in- fects their access to employment and wages tention of a community, while culture is the re- earned. Lack of formal education can be an ob- sult of those three factors in the community. stacle to certain work type which requires train- On the other hand, values and ethics could ing and specific skills. Despite so, there are a have been originated from religious beliefs. Lo- number of literature resources exhibiting a cor- cal culture is a particular area’s native culture relation between female labor force participation provided by the local community. It is taken as and higher education compared to men (Beneria local belief and norm in a territory, which is phys- 2001). ically clear and possess distinct goal, which is Industrial development (technology) means to solve the problem in accordance with envi- availability of suitable work for women. It would ronmental conditions. provide more employment opportunities for In Mbojo community, there is no distinct pro- women. Education sector advancement also hibition for wives to work (allows wives to par- contributes to Mbojo women labor force partic- ticipate in work market) whether as an employee INTERPRETATION OF ETHNO-ECONOMIC ON WORK PARTICIPATION 75 or entrepreneur. Husbands and their respective hold need may influence someone to increase families allow it and take pride in their wives/ work hour. The existence of child/dependent in- family members’ career. Therefore, Mbojo wom- creases the household needs. A larger number en do not merely act as housewives, especially of children increases household’s livelihood those possessing bachelor degree. Even for high cost. More household dependents encourage society families with a high waged husband, a women to participate in work market if there are career wife is a medium to increase social status family members taking care of the children. This in the community. is in line with Simanjuntak’s (2001) opinion. The most important matter for Mbojo com- In contrast, children’s existence in the house- munity, is they remain obedient to community hold tends to reduce a woman’s will to partici- norms such as “Maja labo dahu”. It means to pate in the work market, especially if there is possess “shame and fear” to perform activities nobody to help in taking care of the children which contradicts religion or cultural norms. while they work. Children’s existence in house- “Ngaha Aina Ngoho” means to work is to seek hold creates a demand for household produc- wealth, but not to disturb the environment or tion known as child rearing. It could be said that other people. For Mbojo community, to work is child rearing is an intensive productive activity. to increase social and economic status in the Despite so, there are services market and house- community especially how a household can be hold service available such as childcare center independent and secured economically, provide and household maids. Those services are capa- high education level to children, marry the chil- ble of substituting wives’ time in child rearing dren sufficiently according to local religion and production activity. Therefore these substitutes culture, and go on a pilgrimage to Mecca (Naik release time from children in a household which Haji). tend to reduce women’s participation in the work market. Mbojo Community Family Type A daughter in productive age existence (15 years old and above) in a household, could in- Family types in Mbojo community are similar fluence Mbojo women participation in the work to universal family. There’s core family (nucleus market. This would be different should a house- family) and big family (extended family). Those hold possess baby/toddlers and children in are social units consisting of the core family and school age. Sons in productive age decrease family members tied by blood, most of the time Mbojo women participation in the work market, upto three generations or more. Distant relatives as they could increase household revenue. are members of extended families as well. For Therefore their mothers (married woman) have families where the main occupation is farming little need to participate in the work market. Sim- and hunting, a family is a sufficient structure to ilarly, in household business, sons in produc- tackle production and consumption. Nucleus tive age would reduce women labor force de- family is a part of social institution existing in- mand. Sons in productive age substitute wom- side a community. en labor force (Lokshin et al. 2000). Extended family (not specifically) often oc- Family members in the extended family unit curs in regions with the poor economic condi- could support career married woman in manag- tion, therefore making it difficult for core fami- ing the household and child-rearing (despite the lies to be independent. In those regions, coop- responsibility lies in the mother/wife), therefore eration from patrilineal and matrilineal is required. a career woman is capable of participating in the An extended family could live together for a few work market economic activity. The role is usu- factors: aiding each other in child rearing, taking ally substituted by a daughter or mother in law. care of sick family member, and aiding monetary McGrattan and Rogerson (2004) concluded that issues. Grandparents take responsibility in child- family type changes is a factor which increases rearing, especially when both parents are work- average work hour of a married woman in work ing (in the domestic region or foreign countries). market. Family composition of nucleus family or ex- Research result exhibits daughters in school- tended family may become a Mbojo woman’s age will increase Mbojo women work participa- consideration before participating in the work tion. On the contrary, sons would decrease work market. More family members and higher house- participation. This is in line with Tiefenthaler 76 ST. MARYAM, M. PUDJIHARDJO, SUSILO ET AL.

(1997) and Connelly’s (1996) research result ty activities are mainly controlled under Islamic which exhibits a daughter’s existence in a house- sharia. Work division in Bima community is con- hold would force a woman (married) to partici- trolled according to religion. This is mainly pate in the work market. Daughters in the house- caused by strong Islamic influence in daily ac- hold, especially young women, could act as tivity. Mbojo women are placed in partnership child-rearer, therefore, enabling their mothers to position, it means that in socio-culture life their participate in the work market. roles are regulated based on skill and kodrat For women who work in the agriculture sec- (power). For example, in agricultural activity tor, higher number of family member decrease women complements men activity. Men possess their work hour in work market as there are other stronger physic compared to women, therefore family members who could substitute their role they take an active role in cultivating the field. at work. It differs with women who work outside On the other hand, women take charge in weed- agriculture sector, they tend to increase work ing the field and trading the harvested yields. hour in work market as there are family members Economy responsibility in Bima community who could substitute them managing the house- generally lies in their men. This means that wom- hold and child-rearing. en have no obligation to fulfill their family needs. On the contrary, a man as head of the family Obtained Salary or Wages possesses obligation to fulfilll every household Concept and definition used in Susenas (BPS need which management is undertaken by sub- 2015) exhibits that only worker status of labour- head of family, which is the women. er or employee is eligible to obtain wage, salary, For centuries, men act as the breadwinner or income. Income influences women work hour. for the family. Women stay at home and manage Wages are a component influencing work hour the household as well as child rearing. After Sec- which continually changes. A person would in- ond World War, a huge shift in work and family crease their work hour should they possess high relationship occurred (Namayandech et al. 2011). wages. On the other hand, when a person is Mbojo women do not merely act as house- satisfied with their wages, they tend to decrease wives in their household. They also perform pro- their work hour. ductive activities in order to increase household Higher wages invites more labor force. Their revenue. There are more women labor coming participation in a work is nothing new. Mbojo from low-income households compared to those women endeavour to obtain income (work), with high income. which is caused by several factors: a woman’s Blau and Kahn (2005) found that an increase will to be independent economically. They en- in husband’s income would decrease married deavour to fulfill their individual need as well as women participating in the work market, who dependants using their own income. On the other concluded that main reason for women labor hand, there is a need to supplement household acceleration and growth is decrease in hus- revenue. band’s real wages. In reality, they work in order to obtain wage A husband’s work status and income level or salary in order to fulfill household needs, not influence Mbojo married woman to participate prevailing wage/salary in work market. House- in the work market. This mostly occurs in fami- hold economic security is the primary reason for lies possessing fragile economy security, where women to obtain wage/salary from working. A the adult male in the household is responsible large of a number of women work due to eco- nomic motivation. Their primary reason to be for household expenditure. Working not only involved in work market is to stabilize the house- provides economic benefits but also non-eco- hold economy, filling the kitchen, and provide nomic benefits like increased confidence, im- education to children. Their choice to work is proved appearance, appreciation of husband’s supported by their respective husbands as head work which reflects on the better marital rela- of the family. tionship, positive outlook on work, and capabil- ity of empathizing with the community. Husband’s Salary as Bread Winner Husband income influences Mbojo women’s drive to participate in work (Salway et al. 2003). Mbojo community generally possess control Household income is the primary benchmark of institution based on Islam. Therefore, communi- household’s socio-economic condition. Aside INTERPRETATION OF ETHNO-ECONOMIC ON WORK PARTICIPATION 77 from relationship between household income and set ownership would decrease married women Sasak married women work participation, wom- work participation. en coming from various economic conditions participate in work. Majority of married women Research Findings chose to participate in work in order to support the household economy (in line with Hafeez and Based on ethno perspective, working is con- Ahmed 2002). This is in contrary to Shahnaz ducted to improve personal self-esteem and so- and Naqvi (2002) who stated that city women cial status in society. For those hailing from es- are more likely to participate in the work market. tablished families, working is conducted for self- Household where both husband and wife actualization, expanding social status, optimiz- work to obtain income possess variety of house- ing time usage, take advantage of hobbies, ex- hold management pattern. There are three pat- tending friendship and kinship. terns found. First, woman possesses free rein Based on economic perspective, these wom- on how they peruse their money, household live- en aim to improve household economic resil- lihood comes from the husband. Secondly, wives’ ience and security, lighten respective husband’s income is used for household matter and pay help- burden in providing family economy and ob- ers, husband’s income is used for a non- house- taining better economic status. In case of single hold matter. Third, every primary income is man- parents, they work to earn income and increase aged by wives, husband request money from their confidence. wives for household daily needs or allowance. Based on ethno economic perspective, Mbo- jo married women work to self-actualize, broad- Household Asset en social sphere, and improve social status in society. They will earn income, increase their The household asset is one of the deciding self-confidence as wives and as members of the factor for Mbojo married women to participate in community supported by their own economic the work market. Households possessing assets status. reflects their household security level in provid- ing a livelihood. Married women with house- CONCLUSION hold possessing assets, tend to have low par- ticipation level. As concluded by Kang et al. Mbojo married women hailing from middle to (2004), income increase would decrease poverty low class participate in work market to increase in the family. Asset increase would decrease job economic security and independence. Therefore offer. This exhibits a negative relationship be- they need to aid their respective husbands in pro- tween owned asset and married women work viding a household livelihood. On the other hand, hour. It is indicated that huge asset would cause women hailing from middle to upper class partic- career women to exit work market, or perform ipate in work market with an economy motive and part-time jobs should they return. increasing their social status in the community. Should the women work, their action is not Research result exhibits that despite women based on economic motivation but rather com- working outside their household, they do not munity social status. They possess confidence neglect household management. Prior to working and pride in work participation, as well as ob- or conducting the productive activity, they com- taining their own income. Therefore, their in- plete household management as wives or moth- volvement in work market is related to the econ- ers. This is a general image of Mbojo married omy and social status in the community. woman as depicted in Bima language “Tabe’a The research exhibits that married women Rasa” (it is a characteristic in local region). hailing from households with a small number of These women experience benefits as career asset to no asset tend to participate in the work women, such as increased confidence, improved market, especially in the informal sector. Mar- appearance, appreciation of husband’s work ried women from relatively richer family tend to which influences positively in the marital rela- work with a financial motive as they gain income tionship, possessing a positive outlook on work, from assets alone. This is in line with Rashid and capability to empathize with surrounding and Faridi (2014) research which stated that as- community. 78 ST. MARYAM, M. PUDJIHARDJO, SUSILO ET AL.

Mbojo women work not for demanding equal- The involvement of married women in the ity to men; instead, they work due to the need labor market needs to get the attention of the for income/wages in order to improve the house- stakeholders related to their role as housewives hold economy. They work as they possess high and as workers. Management and supervision education level, assisting their respective hus- of children (especially those still nursing) needs bands in providing livelihood especially when to get the best solution. Some things that can be household expenditure is higher than husband’s done by the stakeholders are: First, the govern- income or wages or the community is support- ment needs to provide education and training in ing them to participate in the public sector or the form of vocational institutions for adult wom- when they have minimum owned asset. There- en so that they can improve their skills. Second, fore they assist their husband to fulfilll house- they need coaching and empowerment about hold needs. The women realized that they ob- the importance of family resilience and econom- tained similar rights in education and career sec- ic security, the benefits to them, their families tors. There is little need to demand equal rights and their region. Third, attention to the values and opportunity to better livelihood financially of local culture are actions and ideas that are and socially. They understood since the dawn influenced by the dynamics in the region con- of Islam presence, women are glorified. cerned. Fourth, the existence of economic ac- The findings of this study conclude that cess justice for women. there are two major things that become main rea- sons women marry Mbojo ethnic. First is that REFERENCES they do double roles because it is must, and the second is that they work because of choice. Becker GS 1976. The Economics of Discrimination. Life is not about who the best is, but who are Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Beneria L 2001. Shifting the risk: New employment capable of conducting good deed. Working is patterns, informalization and shifting women’s work. one medium to conduct good deed and be ben- International Journal of Politics, Culture and Soci- eficial for families and communities. Mbojo wom- ety, 15(1): 27-53. en perform their dual role with pleasure, bearing Blau FD, Kahn LM 2005. Change in the Labor Supply Behaviour of Married Women:1980-2000. NBER in mind that managing a household is a form of Working Paper No. 1230. Cambridge, MA: National worship. Assisting their respective husbands in Bureau of Economic Research. providing livelihood is also a form of worship. BPS (Badan Pusat Statistik) 2015. Survey Sosial These women remain as mothers who act as a Ekonomi Nsional (SUSENAS) 2015. Jakarta: Badan Pusat Statistik. first madrasa (Islamic institution) for their chil- Connelly R 1996. The effect of childcare cost on mar- dren. Despite their achievement outside the ried women’s labor force participation. The Review household, a husband remains as priest/head of of Economics and Statistics, 74(1): 83-90. the family. In conclusion, each of them possess Figart DM 1999. Theories of discrimination. In: J respective roles and position, instead of revers- Peterson, M Lewis (Eds.): The Elgar Companion to Feminist Economics. Cheltenham, England: Edward ing them. For the women, their best career lays Elgar Publishing Ltd, pp. 107-112. in their respective household and their hus- Hafeez A, Ahmed E 2002. Factors Affecting Labor band’s ridho (blessing) as the highest form of Force Participation Decision of Educated Married income. Their greatest achievement is nurturing Women in a Punjabi District. Islamabad: Sustainable Development Policy Institute. children’s quality to possess Intelligence Quo- Iversen T, Rosenbluth F 2010. Women, Work, and Pol- tient (IQ), Emotional Quotient (EQ) and Spiritual itics: The Political Economy of Gender Inequality. Quotient (SQ). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Jennings A 1999. Theories of labor market. In: J Peter- son, M Lewis (Eds.): The Elgar Companion to Fem- RECOMMENDATIONS inist Economics. Cheltenham, England: Edward El- gar Publishing Ltd, pp. 511-521. The findings of this study could be a refer- Kang GC, Huffman SK, Jensen HH 2004. An Empirical ence and consideration, especially for observers Analysis of Joint Decision on Labor Supply and Welfare Participation. Working Paper 04-WP 361. of labor issues and local government related to Ames, Iowa: Center for Agricultural and Rural De- women empowerment especially in the context of velopment, IOWA States University. the involvement of married women in the labor Lokshin MM, Glinskaya E, Garcial M 2000. The Ef- market so that they can be involved optimally fects of Early Childhood Development Programs on but precisely in the socio-cultural and religion. Women’s Labor Force Participation and Older Chil- INTERPRETATION OF ETHNO-ECONOMIC ON WORK PARTICIPATION 79

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