Colonialism: Origin, Development and Consequences Isaac Padinjarekuttu

Jnanadeepa Pune Journal of Religious Studies ISSN 2249-1503 www.punejournal.in

DOI: 10.5281/zenodo. 4249740 Colonialism: Origin, Development and Consequences Isaac Padinjarekuttu

Abstract: Colonialism is one of the most emotion• ally charged concepts in contemporary language. It is perceived in radically different ways by the colonizers and the colonized. Francisco de Gomara (1552), Adam Smith (1776) and Karl Marx (1848) described the discovery of the Americas and the sea route to India as the two most important events recorded in the history of humankind.1 Four hundred years later, K. M. Panikkar in his famous book Asia and Western Dominance characterized the ‘Vasco da Gama era’ as the beginning of the political domination of Asia by Europe.2 In 1992, on the occasion of the 500th anniversary of the “discovery” of America by Columbus, there was large scale condemnation of it as an invasion, colonization, legalised occupation, genocide, economic exploitation, eco• logical destruction, institutional racism and moral decadence.3 On the same tone ran the voices of protest this year, on the occasion of the 500th anniversary of the arrival of Vasco da Gama in India. The Government of India announced that no official commemoration of the event would take place, and social activists planned protest actions against the event which they saw as the beginning of the colonization of the country.4 There are others, however, who warn against historical amnesia and want us to look at history more realistically. According to the famous ecclesiastical historian A. M. Mundadan, to picture the arrival of Vasco da Gama only as a black memory will be historically unjustifiable.

Keywords: Colonialism, Francisco de Gomara, Adam Smith, Vasco da Gama, A. M. Mundadan

Cited as:

Padinjarekuttu, Isaac(1998). Colonialism: Origin, Development and Consequences. Jnanadeepa: Pune Journal of Religious Studies, Jan 1998 Vol 1/2 5-22 https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo. 4249740

Updated on Nov 10, 2020 JPJRS 1/2 (1998) 5-22

Colonialism Origin, Development and Consequences Isaac Padinjarekuttu Dept, of Historical Theology, JDV, Pane -411 014

Coloniaism is one of the most emotion and want us to look at history more ally charged concepts in contemporary realistically. According to the famous language. It is perceived in radically ecclesiastical historian A. M. different ways by the colonizers and the Mundadan, to picture the arrival of colonized. Francisco de Gomara (1552), Vasco da Gama only as a black memory Adam Smith (1776) and Karl Marx will be historically unjustifiable.5 (1848) described the discovery of the Thus there are different ways of Americas and the sea route to India as perceiving colonialism and it is diffi the two most important events recorded cult to define it. Nor is it fully an event in the history of humankind.1 Four hun of the past with sufficient historical dis dred years later, K. M. Panikkar in his tance6 for an objective evaluation. Still, famous book Asia and Western Domi in the following pages an attempt is nance characterized the ‘Vasco da made to trace the origin and develop Gama era’ as the beginning of the po ment of colonialism from the setting out litical domination of Asia by Europe.2 of the Portuguese to explore the seas in In 1992, on the occasion of the 500th the 15th century to the present day. I anniversary of the “discovery” of shall then describe the intimate relation America by Columbus, there was large ship between colonialism and Christian scale condemnation of it as an invasion, m-ission and its far-reaching conse colonization, legalised occupation, quences. genocide, economic exploitation, eco logical destruction, institutional racism 1. The Concept and moral decadence.3 On the same tone ran the voices of protest this year, Colpnialism has been defined in on the occasion of the 500th anniver different ways. Some of the important sary of the arrival of Vasco da Gama in definitions are: “Colonialism is the es India. The Government of India an tablishment and maintenance for an nounced that no official commemora extended time of rule over-alien people tion of the event would take place, and that is separate from and subordinate to social activists planned protest actions the ruling power.” It is the “Rule over against the event which they saw as the peoples of different race inhabiting beginning of the colonization of the lands separated by salt water from the country.4 There are others, however, imperial centre”. It is “Direct political who warn against historical amnesia control by Europeans or states settled

5 by Europeans over peoples of other viewpoint 011 colonialism.9 A value- races, notably over Asians and Afri free definition of colonialism is diffi cans”.7 Two important aspects of co cult but from all that has been said so lonialism stand out in these definitions: far, we may conclude that colonialism 1) assertion of racial and cultural supe has to do with control over alien peoples riority by an alien minority over a local who are considered inferior, and wide- majority; 2) encounter of a machine ranging exploitation of these peoples.10 oriented civilization with Christian ori As far as periodization is con gins, a powerful economy and a rapid cerned, modern colonialism begins with rhythm of life with a non-Christian civi the navigational explorations of the Ibe lization that lacks machines, marked by rian powers, Portugal and Spain, and a backward economy and a slow rhythm ends with the decolonization of Africa of life, and the imposition of the former in the 1960s. Closely related to colo civilization upon the latter. nialism is the concept of “imperialism” There are problems with these which in a way provided the conditions definitions. For example, expressions for establishing colonialism. Decoloni like powerful and weak economy, rapid zation refers to the process of attainment and slow' rhythm of life, etc., are biased of political independence by the colo and partial views about non-European nies. The concept of neo-colonialism peoples and cultures. Secondly, these refers to the indirect control exercised by the erstwhile colonizers on their definitions do not include 11011-western forms of colonialism like that of China colonies, particularly in the economic and Japan. Therefore, attempts have field. been made to give a still broader defi The motives for colonialism were nition of colonialism. It is seen as a phe varied. It is one of the ironies of world nomenon where “one political entity ex history that it was European nations that ercises direct political control over part went out as colonizers, and not the Ar of the world not contiguous to it, and abs or the Chinese. Compared to them, any movement or set of ideas desig Christian Europe in the 15th century nated to bring about or justify such a was peripheral in terms of geography, relationship”, or as a “domination of population, history and economics, and overseas areas without the acquisition yet it managed to colonize the whole of de facto sovereignty over them”, or world because of a number of factors: as the “expansion of a nation’s politi quest for glory and power, an aggres cal system over contiguous areas”.8 sive missionary enthusiasm, and a te There are people who see in colonial nacious will for profit at any cost." ism only evil of the worst sort, charac terized by military control, enslavement 2. A Brief History of and bestial exploitation and extermina Colonialism12 tion of peoples and cultures. This is In 1492 Columbus crossed the generally the view-point of the colo Atlantic and reached the islands in the nized themselves, and is often branded Caribbean which he called the “West as the “left-wing” or “communist” Indies”, thus beginning the Spanish co

6 Jnanadeepa 1998, Vol. I, No. 2 lonial adventure; six years later Vasco political rivalry that existed among lo da Gama cast anchor at Kappad near cal rulers. They established a number Kozhikode in India, inaugurating the of trading pockets all along the coasts. Portuguese trading empire in the East. In the 17th century the Dutch, the Thus western Europe began its domi second most important economic power nance over the rest of the world. Why in Europe in the Middle Ages, took the and how did this happen? Improve place of Portugal in Asia. They too ments in navigation, intense curiosity came in search of spices and wanted to about the unknown regions of the world, establish a Dutch monopoly over spice desire for a share in the lucrative trade trade in Asia. Unlike the Portuguese, in spices and silk monopolised by business was the only concern of the Venice and Genoa and taxed by the Dutch. Starting with a factory in Japan Muslims, and the religious motive to in 1609/10, by 1663, Java, Jakarta, take the gospel to new peoples were all Formosa/Taiwan, Surat, Ormuz, factors that contributed to it.13 In short, Ceylon, the Malabar coast, Malacca, crusade, curiosity, commerce, conver etc., were established or taken from the sion, conquest and colonization in that Portuguese. The Dutch thus monopo order 14 provided the motivations for lized the spice trade and this made the the colonial enterprises of the Iberian import of spices difficult for England. powers. This led to the founding of the English East India Company in 1600, and fac 2.1 In Asia tories were founded on the coasts of When the Portuguese landed at India, Malaya, Sumatra and Java. How Kozhikode in May, 1498, they were ever, in the Spice Islands the Dutch asked the reasons for their arrival, and proved to be very powerful. At this they answered that they came in search point, the discovery of cotton made In of ‘spices and Christians.’ Their first dia an important trading centre and En priority was to wrest the spice trade gland shifted its attention to India. By from the Muslims and to establish a the middle of the 18th century, there durable Portuguese presence in the In were at least 170 British trading cen dian Ocean. The first Governor General tres in India under three presidencies. Affonso de Albuquerque (1509-1515) The first French enterprise in India in began this process with the founding of the early 17th century was not a suc Goa (1510) and other colonial posts like cess because of the opposition from the Malacca, Ormuz, Ceylon, Macao, etc. Dutch. The French Trading Company From 1544 Portuguese ships travelled of East India was founded in 1664 and regularly to Japan too. But the arrival in 1672/74 Pondicherry and .of the Spaniards created suspicion in the Chandannagar were establ ished as trad ■minds of the Japanese and that led to ing centres but slowly French trade de the closure of Japan in 1639. One of the clined and never picked up momentum. main reasons for the success of the Por No other European power was able to tuguese was the cruelty of their system. compete with the Dutch and the En Moreover, they took advantage of the glish.

Colonialism: Origin, Development and Consequences 7 2.2 In America The plantations of America, an The ancient and fascinating cul other economic innovation, necessitated tures of South and Central America with the slave trade. The Portuguese had their radically different world-views started the slave trade already in the were unknown to Europe till the fif middle of the 15th century, and in 1479 teenth century. When the Spaniards dis they established the first monopoly in covered these cultures, what took place slave trade. It was a triangular system: was not an encounter, but colonization European ships brought goods to Af in great style. Even today, the South rica and from there slaves to America American continent is plagued by the and then sugar to Europe. Millions of consequences of this monumental act people were brought to the plantations of Eurocentrism. from Africa. The mode of operation by Spain Meanwhile a new colonial Europe was entirely different from that of Por took shape in the Northern Hemisphere tugal in Asia. Spain wanted desperately under France, Britain and Holland. The slaves and gold. So from 1498 private French began their settlement in initiatives were encouraged with license Canada, the Dutch on the Hudson and England in the rest of North America. from the state. People began pouring I Iere there was colonization of the pur into South America to work for “God est kind with annihilation or total and the King”. Therefore, mission also marginalization of the natives. In South played an important role in the Span America, colonization produced a syn ish conquest. It was done with force and thesis and not another Europe. Here, on cruelty and the empire was won swiftly. the contrary, was a total transplantation The seizure of the West Indies was com of Europe. Ironically, these colonies pleted within 23 years of Columbus’ also began the first decolonization pro first voyage; the Aztec (1519) and Inca cess. It started in North America and in (1532) empires were brutally over 1783 the United States became indepen thrown. The native Indian population dent of England. Its resonance was felt declined rapidly because of ill-treat overall in America and it led to the in ment, epidemics and forced labour to dependence of the Spanish American which they were not accustomed. colonies at the beginning of the 19th Whether genocidal killing took place or century. The Europeans also colonized not is not entirely clear. By 1630, there countries like Argentina, Chile and Uru were about 331 Spanish towns and cit guay, South Africa, Australia and New ies in America. So the Spaniards who Zealand. Everywhere it led to the total started with a trading empire became marginalization of the indigenous the rulers of a large number of peoples, peoples. thus creating a multi-ethnic society. Meanwhile in 1695 gold was discov 3. Modern Colonialism and ered in Brazil which led to the first gold Imperialism rush in history and it added to the suf Modern colonialism began with ferings of the people. the transition from trade to political

8 Jnanadeepa 1998, Vol. I, No. 2 domination of Asia and Africa by Eu colony in the 19th and 20th centuries. rope. During this period, “a handful” of Completely side-lined because of the Europeans controlled the destinies of prejudices of the Europeans, Africa still large countries like India, Indonesia and remains in the shadow of European Indochina, and the whole continent of historiography. Till the 19th century, Africa. It was a total domination with European presence in Africa was con the help of military, political, economic fined to the colony of Cape of Good and technological might on the one Hope. But through the slave trade Af hand, and cultural might-deep-rooted rica was known to Europe already from ethnocentrism which condemned every the 15th century. From 1830 Africa too thing non-European as inferior-on the was forced to be part of the free trade other. imperialism of the West. Britain and One of the rudest forms of colo France began to expand their influence nialism and imperialism in the 19th cen over Africa rapidly. By 1870 Britain tury was the so-called “opening of had claimed for itself the status of “para China,” a doctrine of free trade unilat mount power” in Africa which meant erally imposed on the Chinese by Eu not only control over the colonies but ropean powers. The refusal of China to also the exclusion of other European accept the import of opium from India powers. This led to rivalries among resulted in the Opium Wars. The un European powers and the “Scramble for just treaties imposed on the Chinese in Africa” and its division among them. the wake of these wars compelled them The Berlin Congress of 1884/5 accom to open their ports for trade with the plished this work, but the process con Europeans. The interference of France tinued till 1935/36 when Ethiopia was in China in the form of “Protectorates” captured by Italy. It was a brutal con compelled the Chinese to let in Chris quest, at times reminding one of the tian missionaries as well. Japan, closed Spanish conquest of South America. to the outside world since 1639, was The social consequences of colo forcibly opened to the outer world by nialism were the severest in Africa. It the Americans in 1853/4. It reacted to radically altered the social structure. the situation differently; it accepted New groups of elite were created, ur western knowledge and went through a banization increased, new modes of phase of intense modernization which agricultural production began to be ap helped it to become a superpower. But plied, fertility increased with better life the Japanese society held fast to its cul expectancy, horizontal mobility was tural and religious roots. The acceptance created, and other economically profit of western knowledge was not power able activities were introduced, like ful enough to threaten its cultural iden mining, building of ports, infrastructure, tity. etc. The Christian missionaries played Africa which initially played only an important role in all this./Mission a marginal role in the colonial designs accompanied imperialism and the mis of the Europeans became an important sionaries were in many ways helpful to

Colonialism: Origin, Development and Consequences 9 the colonial powers. The whole activ-,r and condemned colonialism as against ity was based on paternalism and the the Charter of the United Nations which belief in the superiority of the white guarantees self-government, and Called man. All Christian confessions were for its end. In the 1960s, almost all the actively engaged in this work. 45% of African colonies gained their indepen Africa was won over to Christianity dence. In the aftermath of swiftly. decolonization, there emerged the prob lem of“neo-colonialism.” In the begin 4. Decolonization ning it meant the continuing financial With the division and distribution dependence of the erstwhile African of the German colonies and the Otto colonies on the former colonizers. Later man Empire after World War 1, British on it came to mean the sad conse and French colonization reached its quences of western education which greatest possible expansion. Japan and perpetuated the cultural hegemony of Italy also became aggressive imperial the Europeans in the colonies. Gradu ists. Japan’s imperialism had a decisive ally all developmental helps were role to play in the Second World War. branded as methods of neo-colonialism Japan’s success began with its victory and neo-imperialism. Even today neo over Russia and China and its protec colonialism is an important topic in in torate in Korea. It pursued an aggres ternational relations because indirect sive expansionist policy because it be economic control over and political sub lieved that territorial expansion was ordination of the erstwhile colonies con absolutely essential for its survival. It tinue in subtle forms throughout the also envisioned a greater Asian sphere world. of influence for itself. This led to its of Are we now in a position to fensive against the Allied Powers in the evaluate colonialism? I had started by Second World War which, however, saying that there were different ways ended in defeat. This was also the pe of judging colonialism. For some, the riod when powerful movements for beginning of modern European decolonization were gaining momen expansionism was an event of world- tum. The role of the Indian National historic significance while for others it Movement was decisive in this process. was the beginning of subjugation and Three factors led to the decolonization exploitation of the weak by the process: 1) powerful movements for in powerful. Whatever one may say, the dependence everywhere; 2) the lack of consequences of this phenomenon are options for the colonial powers; and 3) clear to every one. It is responsible for international opinion which was in the political and economic map of the creasingly becoming anti-colonial. So world today. These consequences are around 1950 almost all the Asian colo visible and effective. Expressions like nies became independent. In 1955 “North-South” conflict, distinctions like twenty nine Asian and African nations “First World-Third World”, institutions of western, eastern and neutral alle like the “G Eight” (the club of the so- giance gathered in Bandung in Sumatra called most industrialised nations), “P

10 Jnanadeepa 1998, Vol. I, No. 2 Five” (another exclusive club of five tural history of humankind. In some nations seeking to perpetuate a way, all peoples had been colonizers, hegemony over nuclear weapons), and had been colonized, at some time financial structures like the “World or other. But colonialism in the mod Bank”, “International Monetary Fund”, ern sense was primarily a European etc. are unintelligible without a colonial phenomenon with its specifically west past. Equally visible are the cultural ern Christian value system, and its own consequences of colonialism: specific economic, political, spiritual destruction of social structures and and cultural dynamics. Precisely for this indigenous religions, imposition of reason, the expeditions of the Arabs, educational systems which disparage Mongols and Chinese did not have such everything that is indigenous, and a world-historic consequences as that of Eurocentric view of history. the Europeans. The process is some times called the Europeanization of the The colonized peoples, surely, learned something from this experience earth or the globalization of world his but their gains were clearly outweighed tory.15 European colonial expansion, by their losses. Improved methods of therefore, more than territorial expan agricultural production, exploration of sion and political domination, was a natural resources etc., led to increased cultural and spiritual conquest in which productivity but were accompanied by Christianity played a central role. The brutal exploitation of human beings and expansion of Christianity went hand in nature. Modern European concepts like hand with colonial expansion. Mission democracy, international law, human functioned as an integral and integrat rights, religious freedom, etc. found ing element of western expansionism.16 their way into the vocabulary of the In the following pages an attempt is colonies but their adoption had also made to evaluate the role Christian mis adverse consequences. They led to radi sion played in colonial expansion. cal socio-cultural transformations in The partnership between the cross many societies. Western concepts of and the sword, the altar and the throne, education, science, technology, philoso existed from the early centuries of phy, medicine, rationalism, individual Christianity. Soon after the death of ism, nationalism etc. were useful con Jesus, his disciples began the proclama tributions of the colonial masters. But tion of his message in Palestine, Syria today they are evaluated in the light of and Asia Minor, and in the major trad the demand for the acceptance of the real genius of all the peoples of the ing centres of the Roman Empire, like world. Antioch, Alexandria, Ephesus, Thessalonica, Corinth and Rome.

5. Christian Mission and From the time of Theodosius I, Colonialism Roman emperor from 379 to 395, Chris Colonial expansionism was not a tianity officially became the state reli purely European phenomenon. Migra gion. Mission also came under the pro tions and wanderings belong to the cul tection of the state. Christianity became

Colonialism: Origin, Development and Consequences 11 an instrument at the service of the state. with the active support and protection According to the political theology of of the king or emperor. It does not mean Eusebius of Caesaria (260-340), the re that there was no mission arising out of lationship between the throne and the spiritual motives. But there were real altar was a providential factor in the “sword missions” like the conversion Christianization of the world.17 Mission of the Saxons by Charles the Great (772 became the task of emperors and kings, 85), the conversion of the Hungarians and monks and clerics worked hand in in 955 etc. The Crusades only contin hand with the rulers. Force also began ued this tradition. This was the same to be used increasingly in the further spirit that was now rekindled in the ing of mission. According to wake of the exploration and coloniza Augustine’s (354-430) Just War tion enterprises of the Iberian powers, Theory, war against heretics kept the Spain and Portugal. Church pure from within, and war against the heathens helped the spread 5.1 Portuguese Mission of Christianity outside. Pope Gregory Establishing the orb is chrisiicmus the Great (540-604) saw war as a means was one of the objectives of the explo for spreading Christianity. In fact, it is rations of the Iberian powers. The said that Gregory laid the foundation for chronicler of Henry the Navigator European colonialism.18 Kings and rul (1394-1460), Gomes Eanes de Azurara, ers used the defence of the Church as a mentions five reasons why Henry un means to legitimize their rule, and the dertook the exploration of the seas and propagation of the faith became a le the expansion of Portuguese power out side Europe. The fifth reason is the great gitimizing factor in their expansionist wish to spread the holy faith in our Lord policies.19 Thus the ruler was the first Jesus Christ in order to lead all souls to missionary, and missionary expansion him.20 Already in 1510 Goa became a became identified with territorial expan Portuguese colony. In 1534 it became a sion. diocese, and in 1557/8 an archdiocese The Church also became the car and the centre of Portuguese mission rier of cur/ure and the.instrument of ary activity. Goa was Christianized unity. This cultural mission included through the use of considerable force confrontation with traditional religions (moral force some would say) in dif and social and political structures. With ferent ways.21 Since 1560, the Inquisi baptism, the old traditions had to be to tion was actively engaged in the tally rejected. The unbaptized were of Christianization of Goa. The ten considered to be wild and uncivi Christianization of the Paravas of the lized and had to be made humans first, Pearl Fishery Coast (1536/37) was an and then Christians. With the baptism other important missionary success of of Clovis, king of the Franks, in 496 be the Portuguese. The most successful gan the expansionism of the Franks and missionary of the Portuguese era was the policy of “conversion from above.” Francis Xavier who arrived in India in There began conversion through force, 1542. Another milestone in the history

12 Jnanadeepa 1998, Vol. I, No. 2 of Portuguese missionary activity in bound to arise sooner or later. The pic India was the forcible Latinization of ture painted in England about India was the Thomas Christians of Kerala who that it was an uncivilized land of anar were brought under their control in 1599 chy, idolatry and ignorance. England, at the Synod of Diamper. Robert de the land of enlightenment, should there Nobili (1577-1656) tried to convert the fore transmit the English culture and higher castes of south India through civilization to India. English Evangeli accommodation, which later on gave calism and Revival movements in the rise to the conflict on Rites (Malabar second half of the 18th century contrib Rites Controversy), and the final pro uted to the strengthening of this attitude. hibition of all accommodation practices Christian leaders like Charles Grant by the Church in 1744. The missionary (1746-1823) and William Wilberforce activity at the court of Akbar (1542 (1759-1833) wanted India to be civi 1605) by the Jesuits bore little fruit. The lized and Christianized. The two pam success of Portuguese missionary activ phlets of Charles Grant, A Proposal for ity was not great. As happened later in Establishing a Protestant Mission in Japan and China, the Portuguese en Bengal and Bihar published in 1787 and countered in India powerful religions with sophisticated philosophical and Observations on the State of Society theological traditions, and Christianity Among the Asiatic Subjects of Great could not pose any serious challenge to Britain, Particularly with Respect to them. their Morals, and on the Means o f Im proving It, published in 1792 showed 5.2 Britain and its Missionary this agenda clearly. In 1793 he tried to Activity in India introduce the “pious clause” into the As Portuguese power in India de charter of the Company. This was re clined, the Dutch and the English at jected. However, in 1813 the new char tempted to exercise control over India ter of the Company ended the strict neu and ultimately the English succeeded. trality with regard to religion, and in Their religious policy, in the beginning, 1833 general freedom for missionary was one of neutrality. In 1706 the first activity was granted. It was hoped that Protestant missionaries came to south missionary activity would ultimately India. Conversions at this stage came safeguard British interests in India. from the lower castes and classes. The With this in mind, the missionaries ini Protestants emphasised direct indi tiated social reforms and introduced vidual conversion. At the battle of English education. But this did not lead Plassey in 1757 the British realized that to a Christianization oflndia. The Indi India could be easily conquered politi ans reacted to the challenge posed by cally and this was the beginning of the Christianity not by accepting Christian colonization oflndia by Britain. From ity but by recognizing the inner dyna 1786 the missionaries also began to ar mism and richness of their own reli rive in North India in large numbers. gious traditions. The mass conversions The question of active mission was created a numerical base for Christian

Colonialism: Origin, Development and Consequences 13 ity but they did not pose any serious 1587 he issued an order for the expul challenge to the Indian society.22 sion of all missionaries. Though the order was not carried out, missionary 5.3 Mission in Japan and China work had to be done much more cir In Japan and China, too, Christian cumspectly. But the “San Felipe Affair mission did not succeed in any signifi of 1596 turned the wind against the cant way. In Japan trade and mission Christians once and for all. The remark arrived together and had to depart to of the captain of the shipSc/w Felipe that gether. The European enterprise there the Spaniards sent merchants and mis lasted only for a century.23 Francis sionaries in order to conquer foreign Xavier began the evangelization of Ja lands with their assistance, and that was pan in 1549. But for the Portuguese and how the Spanish king had so many colo the Spaniards trade and commerce were nies, was taken seriously by Hideyoshi. more important than mission although The sequel was the mass martyrdom of the Jesuits had made some missionary Nagasaki in 1597 where 6 Spanish advances and converted some Daimyos. Franciscans, 17 lay persons and 3 Jesu Around 1580, 150,000 Christians and its suffered crucifixion. His edict de 200 Churches seemed to have existed clared that the Jesuits were a threat to in Japan. Francis Xavier had also con the unity of the nation. In 1613 his suc sidered the option of accommodation cessor Ieyasu Tokugawa issued an edict and inculturation of Christianity in Ja against the Christians which was fol pan. However, the man in charge of the lowed in 1614 by a decree of banish Japanese mission from 1570, Francisco ment. A revolt in 1637/38 due to social Cabral, was a true European, and had causes was blamed on the Christians no desire for any accommodation. He and they were accused of endangering had no respect for Japanese culture and the integrity of the nation. In the perse traditions. The Japanese reciprocated cutions which ensued 30,000 Christians with an equal contempt for Europeans died. The edict of 1639 closed the land and the missionaries. The Visitor of the to outsiders. Christianity was practically Jesuits to the East, Alessandro exterminated and only an underground Valignano, who came to Japan in 1579 Church persevered. Only in 1859 did tried to exorcise this internal crisis by missionaries come to Japan again, af following the footsteps of Francis ter the opening of Japan by the Ameri Xavier but even he was not ready to cans in 1853/4. accept the radical difference between In China, too, the impact of Chris the two world-views. The missionaries tianity remained minimal. The were also very slow to realize the im Nestorian (635-845) and the Latin (13th portance of an indigenous clergy. and 14th centuries) missions to China With the attempt at the political did not last long. The Jesuits began their unification of Japan under Toyotomi mission in China with their arrival in Hideyoshi in the early 1580s, Christian Macao in 1562.24 The famous mission ity came under increasing pressure. In ary Mattheo Ricci reached Peking in

14 Jnanadeepa 1998, Vol. I, No. 2 1601 and was invited by the emperor to 5.4 Mission in Spanish America his court. When Ricci died in 1610 he In Spanish America, the process had laid the foundation for the Church of colonization and Christianization in China. Undoubtedly the Jesuits had went on simultaneously. The mission significant influence at the courts of aries came full of enthusiasm, fired by successive emperors with their knowl the utopian vision of the dawn of the edge about almost everything that in age of the Holy Spirit and a new hu terested the Chinese. At the end of the manity as envisioned by the mystic 17th century, there were 300,000 Catho Cistercian monk, Joachim of Fiore lics, about 1.5% of the population. Ricci (1132-1202). They did not engage in himself made attempts at an accommo any dialogue with the religions of the dation of Christianity to Chinese cul people, but instead destroyed them as ture. He accepted the practice of ances though exorcising demons. The colo tor worship as a harmless social cus nizers conquered the body, and the mis tom and allowed the Christians to prac sionaries, the soul. They believed that tise it. It later on gave rise to the Chi they were performing a sacred duty by nese Rites Controversy. Here, again, freeing the Indians from idolatry and in two world-views were in conflict, and the process demolished whole cultures few had the broad vision of a Ricci to like the Mayan civilization and the em understand the other. By the end of the pire of the Incas. It was both a Euro 17th century, Christianity in China be pean and a Christian act.25 The Church gan to decline. The Chinese were more was an actor in this drama together with interested in western knowledge than in money, the state, the conquistadors, and Christianity. There were occasional per the victims.26 With its plentiful clergy, secutions from 1615 onwards. But it powerful bishops and cultural power, was the conflict on Rites (1634-1742) the Church set out with the king at the that spelt the end of Christianity in head and performed an essential func China. The prohibition of the Chinese tion for the conquerors. This was also Rites by the papal legate in 1707 and an immediate continuation of the “rc- later on by the pope in 1715 and 1742 conquest” - freeing Spain from Islam - angered the emperor. With this decision which ended in 1492. The role the to follow a Eurocentric Christianity Church played in the Spanish conquest rather than one adapted to the culture of South America, thus, was more than of China, the dream of the Jesuit mis that of the Portuguese Church in Portu sionaries of creating a Chinese Chris guese colonies. The official policy of tianity failed. Missionaries were exiled the Spanish crown put conversion of the to Macao. Only those who were at the native population as its first priority. court of the emperor as advisors were “Without the peculiar force of religious allowed to stay on in China. In 1827, certainty, it is hard to see how the con even they had to leave China. Only in quistadors could have triumphed; steel the 19th century did the missionaries blades, thirteen musketeers, sixteen come again to China, now accompanied horses, and intrigues with dissatisfied by the cannon boats. tribes are hardly sufficient cxplana-

Colonialism: Origin, Development and Consequences 15 tion.”27 Columbus himself was tired by positive, for example, the bull Sublinius this motivation.28 From 1492 to 1822, Dens of pope Paul III in 1537 which at least 15,000 missionaries were sent said that the Indians are human beings to Spanish America. It was an army of and cannot be made slaves. Conversions its own, led by the Religious Orders.29 should take place through preaching and good examples. The Jesuit experiment There were some protests by mis of the Reductions of Paraguay (the sionaries like that of Antonio de Paraguay Jesuit State) for the Guarani Montesinos in 15 11, Bartholome de las Indians started in 1585, was another Casas (1474-1566), etc.30 The Domini form of protest, which still remains one can jurist Francisco de Vitoria (1492 of the most original experiments in mis 1546) said that a nation had no right to sion history. In 1732 the Reductions wage war against another because the counted 140,000 members, and there latter was inferior in civilization or were Reductions in other countries as idolatrous, or to convert its people. Force could be used only against an well. These were exceptions. In general, aggressor state, or one that refused en mission and colonialism in Latin try to peaceful Christian missionaries. America remained a unified entity. Thus although Spain had a theoretical justification for its invasion, it had far 5.5 French Mission exceeded what was allowed by human Missionary collaboration with co and divine law.31 But the establishment lonialism was evident also in French replied with a violent theology. Juan Canada. The story of the encounter of Gines de Sepulveda justified the vio the Jesuits with the Hurons as agents of lence practised by the Spaniards against fur trade, who later on turned against the Indians through a logic of domina them, is an exciting story, and most of tion, presented as natural law, and sub the missionaries had to pay with their ordinated the Church and her theology lives in the most brutal fashion. The Hu to this logic. rons revolted against the “cultural revo Though being by nature servile, the lution” in their midst and did not want barbarians, uncultured and inhuman, to accept French culture and European refuse to accept the domination of Christianity. Evangelization was iden those who are more prudent, power tified with Europeanization and the ful and perfect than themselves, a missionaries were seen as the bulwark domination which would bring them of the French. The Church was one of very great benefits, and it is in addi the pillars of the colonial structure, the tion right, by natural law, that matter should obey form, the body the soul, clergy making up about 2.5% of the to appetite reason, brute beasts human tal population, much more than in the beings, the wife her husband, children mothercountry. a father, the imperfect the perfect, the worse the better, for the universal 5.6 British Mission in America good of all things.32 In the English colonies in Some reactions to the protests America, too, colonization was very against the treatment of the Indians were much connected with religion - the Pu

16 Jnanadeepa 1998, Vol. I, No. 2 ritan faith of the Pilgrim Fathers. The lonial enterprise. The Evangelical and Calvinist idea of Election defined their Revival movements in England particu attitude towards the occupation of the larly helped this renewal. Colonialism land of the Indians and their total was perceived as a providential factor marginalization. Indeed, this attitude in mission. The characteristics of the determined their approach to anyone Revival Movement were: a biblically different from them in religion, ideol founded idea of chosenness, a scftse of ogy, race and culture. Missionary ex superiority, cultural optimism, a belief pansion was not their primary goal but in progress and philanthropy. One of the still an integral part of their programme. concrete expressions of this movement Mission, according to the Puritan the was the founding of Missionary Soci ology, was primarily intended to give eties. With this there began a clear mis glory to God and was an act of service sionary expansion under colonial pro to the Indians; there was also an ele tection. European civilization, technol ment of competition with the Catholics, ogy, political and cultural systems and who were normally considered to be Christianity were to be instruments in their enemies. The Indians were forced the civilization of the non-Christian to accept their faith, and there was no world. Commerce and Christianity went tolerance of their cultures or traditions. hand in hand. The missionaries them They were considered children of Sa selves were engaged in economic ac tan. So, more than Europeanization and tivities, making profit just like any one Christianization, there was total else. marginalization and destruction as was The religious and cultural Protec shown in the James-Town massacre of torates of the French in the Ottoman 1622.33 Empire and China manifest the totally hypocritical character of the whole en 6. Mission in the Age of terprise. Although in their own secular Imperialism ized and laicized countries, religion Mission in the age of imperialism played a minor role,-they pretended to in the 19th and 20th centuries is inti be ardent protectors of religion else mately connected with the “Protector where. It was not any commitment to ates.” Around the year 1800, the mis religion that prompted them to do it but sionary movement in Europe faced a pure political interests. Later on there crisis owing to the radical movements came other European powers, particu which shook Europe, like the Enlight larly England, and America. Another enment, the French Revolution, secu sphere of French activity was Vietnam. larization and the dissolution of the By the beginning of the 19th century Society of Jesus. But soon it picked up Christianity had taken root in Vietnam momentum and became a popular but there were also some persecutions. movement. With the rise of Protestant The automatic reaction of the mission powers like Holland and England, Prot aries was to ask for protection, which estant mission also showed signs of re meant a call for cannon boats and di newal. Mission now really became a co rect colonial administration. France

Colonialism: Origin, Development and Consequences 17 jumped in to fulfil this role. It intervened ity, western goods and the cannon boats in Vietnam with the full support of the were instruments of European and Church and established its Protectorate American imperialism. in there. 7. Mission in Africa The Protectorate in China began However, the greatest collabora with the Opium Wars and the so-called tion between mission and colonialism “opening” of China. For the missionar took place in Africa. Till the 1880s, ies the Opium Wars were signs of provi when the “Scramble for Africa” really dence. With the Treaty of Nanking of began, it was considered only a reser 1842 China had to abolish the trade voir of slaves. It was precisely the ques monopoly of Chinese businessmen, tion of slavery that now directed the open another five trading ports, and al attention of the imperial powers to Af low Christians in these places the un rica. There began the association of hindered practice of their religion. Af commerce and Christianity in one of its ter the second Opium War and the most radical forms. The “Scramble for Treaty of Tianjin in 1858, the foreign Africa” was not only with reference to ers were given freedom for trade and land and resources but also souls. At the the churches were given full freedom Berlin Conference of 1884/85 it was in China. This was reaffirmed in the said that there should be religious free Treaty of Peking in 1860 after the third dom and freedom of conscience for all Opium War; a French missionary even in Africa, including the natives. But it forged a clause into the treaty that al was pure rhetoric because it could not lowed him and other qiissionaries the be reconciled with the feeling of west- right to buy land in China which was ern-Christian cultural superiority evi forbidden except in the trading ports. dently shown by the participants at the These treaties created the conditions for the missionary movement in China. Conference. Christian mission began its “civilizational work” soon after the France now built upon these treaties and Conference. State and Church worked claimed to be the protector of the Catho hand in hand. The colonizers saw the lics in China. This led to tremendous missionaries as useful agents in realiz hatred toward foreigners which showed ing their goals. itself in persecutions and the Boxer Rebellion of 1900/1. The Boxer move This is clearly expressed in the ment was suppressed and this along saying of the Zulu chief Cetshwayo in with the abolition of the monarchy and 1870: ‘First a missionary, then a con the calling of the Republic in 1911 were sul, and then come (sic) the army.’ Mis seen by the Chinese Christians as the sion in Africa vvas cultural imperialism beginning of the Christianization of at its worst. It destroyed the traditional China. However, they were to be sadly order and effected a Christian revolu disappointed. China accepted western tion. Christianity was an ideological and knowledge but was clearly against ritual accompaniment of imperialism. Christianity. When the communists The missionaries took away land with came to power, they said that Christian the help of the colonizers; any move

18 Jnanadeepa 1998, Vol. I, No. 2 ment towards self-identity was consid cans were like children who needed ered rebellion and was suppressed; ev strict upbringing. However, what re ery advance of the white man had to be mained was the rationalistic and mate greeted with joy; he was the natural rialistic culture of the West, and not its leader of the Africans appointed by di real values, like liberal democracy or vine providence. The missionaries as an egalitarian society.34 This in no sense agents of spiritual conquest (Josef denies the revolutionary and Schmidlin, 1876-1944) had the most emancipatory contributions of the West, important duty of educating the natives. what is today called, the “dialectic of One of their important tasks was to colonialism.”35 On the one hand, Chris teach them to work which was impor tianity initiated a radical break with the tant for the colonizers. The Africans past and created an exit point for a so were, according to them, accustomed to cial and cultural transformation. On the natural laziness and, therefore, the west other, it contributed to a political, so ern Christian work ethic had to be im cial and cultural disintegration which posed upon them. They had to accept would create latent tensions in the so the absolute superiority of western ciety with a lot of conflict potential. Christian culture, as also the inseparable Mission had not only a system-imma relationship between western culture nent but also a system-transcending ef and Christianity. European culture was fect. the model for all cultures and therefore it should substitute all others. With the independence of the Af rican colonies in the 1960s, an epoch in The missionaries were also con world history came to an end. It was vinced of the inferiority of the indig the end of the partnership between state enous people. They justified this racist and Church which began in the 4th cen mentality biblically, by going back to tury with Constantine. It was also the the book of Genesis where Ham was definitive end of European expansion cursed by Noah, and the Africans were ism as it is traditionally understood. It considered to be the descendants of has been clearly shown that European Ham. All alien cultures “sat in the expansionism and Christian mission shadow of death” (Luke 1,79), igno functioned hand in hand. Mission was rance, superstition and immorality. an integral and integrating element of African rituals and traditions like po European expansionism and imperial lygamy, circumcision etc. were seen as ism. But not everywhere was it equally sexual immorality of the worst sort, successful. Where there were powerful without giving any thought to their eco religious, cultural and political struc nomic and social background. As a tures, Christian mission could not suc whole, the missionaries practised an ceed, as in India, Japan, and China. But intolerant and aggressive cultural and where the religious, cultural and politi spiritual imperialism. Indigenous tradi cal structures were weak, it effected tions, customs and religious practices radical and revolutionary transforma were mercilessly destroyed. The Afri tions with grave consequences.

Colonialism: Origin, Development and Consequences 19 Conclusion try. This section is an alienated group which mostly protects its own interests What judgement can the historian rather than work for the progress of the give on the phenomenon of colonial ism? History from the “point of view whole nation. of the other,” that is, from the point of The colonial era has left behind an view of the colonized, is yet to be writ international structure which divides the ten. This neglect of history is perilous world into industrialised nations and the for any society. We must have the cour rest which are dependent on them. It is age to read the facts from the other side maintained by strict protectionism and of history. Only historical honesty can division of labour. This dependence is free us from prejudice and ignorance. perpetuated at all cost because the pros Hiding what really happened condemns perity and way of life of the rich na us to historical amnesia and sterility. tions depend on it. The development However, the purpose of studying his achieved by most erstwhile colonial tory is to deal with the present and the powers and their high standard of liv future, and not condemnation of the ing and the stagnation and deterioration past. Fixation on the past is unhelpful in the erstwhile colonies are undeniable. and it is not possible to turn back the Developmental helps from the rich na historical clock. But the historical past tions are often deadly poisons which is a fact. Against historical facts, nei achieve the opposite of what is in ther the mind’s abstract speculations nor tended. It is only natural that from eco the spirit’s highest ideals can do much. nomics, this dependence is extended to It is a matter of realism. Unfortunately the political and socio-cultural spheres. The imposition of an alien educational this realism is not coming forth from system, alien languages and an almost theology, the Church, and from the narcissistic attachment to a Eurocentric world of politics. Christianity are examples of this pro Neo-colonial structures and cess. Coming specifically to the Church behavioural patterns are not illusions and her mission, one must ask the ques but contemporary realities. Most erst tion whether it is clear to the European while colonies feel that colonialism did Church that European expansionism has not end with the attainment of indepen definitely ended, and that it has no le dence. Particularly in the economic gitimately dominating role in global field, dependence on the erstwhile co Christianity. But the desire for unifor lonial masters still continues. This is mity and power so dominates the dis perpetuated through military interven tant centre of Christianity, that one can tions, political assassinations, develop not but be reminded of the colonial past, mental help, technological monopoly, when a handful of parliamentarians in and cultural and ideological imperial Britain controlled the fortunes of mil ism. It is helped by a section of the so lions of Indians, thousands of miles ciety in the erstwhile colonies them away. The answer to it is another “free selves which often conducts a kind of dom struggle” which is a far more subtle colonial government within the coun and intellectually challenging task.

20 Jnanadeepa 1998, Vol. I, No. 2 N otes

1. W. Reinhard, Kleine Geschichte des Kolonialismus, Stuttgart, Alfred Kroner Verlag, 1996, p. 338. This book by one of the leading historians of European expansionism gives a compact but instructive history of the phenomenon of colonialism. For a de tailed study of the same, see by the same author, Geschichte der europaischen Expan sion, 4 vols., Stuttgart, Verlag W. Kohlhammer, 1983-1990. 2. K. M. Panikkar, Asia and Western Dominance, London, George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1959, p. 14. 3. Extremely enlightening is the volume of Concilium, (1990/6), “1492-1992: The Voice of the Victims”, ed. by L. Boff and V. Elizondo; see also C. Krauthammer, “Hail Columbus, Dead White Male”, Time, May 27 1991, p. 76; “The Trouble with Colum bus”, Time, October 7 1991, pp. 52-56. 4. V. Honawar, “Gunning for the First Comprador”, The Telegraph, May 19 1996, p. 13. 5. A. M. Mundadan, “Gama Who Came in Search of Spices and Christians” (Malayalam), Sathyadeepam, July 9 1997, pp. 1,6. 6. Since the concept of the “longue duree” has been introduced by the “nouvelie histoire” as one of the driving forces of history, one cannot neglect this aspect any more. 7. “Colonialism”, International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, vol. 3, Crowell Collier and Macmillan Inc., 1968, p. I. 8. “Colonialism”, The New Catholic Encyclopedia, vol. 3, Catholic University of America, Washington, 1967, p. 1024. 9. “Colonialism”, International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, vol. 3, p. 1. 10. Reinhard, Kleine Geschichte..., p. I I I. Reinhard, Geschichte der europaischen Expansion, vol. 1, p. 27. 12. Sources for this brief overview are: Reinhard, Kleine Geschichte des Kolonialismus whose basic structure is followed in this exposition; Reinhard, Geschichte der Europaischen Expansion; D. Fieldhouse, Colonialism 1870-1945, An Introduction, London, 1981; J. Osterhammel, Kolonialismus, Geschichte, Formen, Folgen, MUnchen, 1995; J. S. Olson, ed., Historical Dictionary of European Imperialism, New York/Westport, 1991; H. GrUnder, Welteroberung undChristentum, Gutersloh, GUtersloher Verlagshaus Gerd Mohn, 1992; J. Vogt, “Kolonie, Kolonisation, Dekolonisation, UmriB einer Fragestellung”, Saeculum, 30 (1979), pp. 240-250. 13. J. McManners, The Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity, Oxford, New York, Oxford university Press, 1990, pp. 301-304. 14. S. Neill, A History of Christianity in India: From the Beginnings to AD 1707, Cam bridge, Cambridge University Press, 1984, pp. 87-88. 15. H. GrUnder, Welteroberung und Christentum, GUtersloh, GUtersloher Verlagshaus Gerd Mohn, 1992. p. 12. 16. Ibid., p. 14. 17. J. Vogt, “Die kaiserliche Politik und die christliche Mission im 4. und 5. Jahrhundert”, in: H. Frohnes, ed., Kirchengeschichte als Missionsgeschichte, vol. 1, MUnchen, Chr. Kaiser Verlag, 1974, 166-188; G. Ruhbach, “Die politische Theologie Eusebs von Caesarea”, in: Die Kirche angesichts der konstantinischen Wende, Darmstadt, 1976, pp. 236-258. 18. H.-D. Halil, “Die ersten Jahrhunderte des missionsgeschichtlichen Mittelalters.

Colonialism: Origin, Development and Consequences 21 Bausteine fur eine Phanomenologie bis ca. 1050”, in: K. Schaferdieck, ed., Kirchengeschichte als Missionsgeschichte, vol. II, Miinchen, Chr. Kaiser Verlag, 1978, pp. 11-76. 19. Griinder, p. 23. 20. Ibid., p. 41 21. J. Thekkedath, History of Christianity in .India , vol. 2, Bangalore, Church History of Association oflndia, 1982. 22. A. Kanjamala (ed), Integral Mission Dynamics, Delhi, Intercultural Publications, 1995. 23. C. R. Boxer, The Christian CenturyJn Japan 1549-1650, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1951. 24. J. Gernet, Christus kam bis nach China. Eine erste Begegnung und ihr Scheitern, Ziirich-Munchen, 1984. 25. E. Diissel, “The Real Motives for the Conquest”, Concilium, (1990/6), pp. 30-46. 26. Ibid., p. 33. 27. McManners, p. 304. 28. “Franziskanische Spiritualitat, Kreuzfahrermentalitat und Goldhunger bildeten bei Kolumbus eine Einheit. So gesehen war er “Kreuzfahrer” und “Konquistador” ° zugleich.”, Griinder, p. 86. 29. For a very informative study on the role of Religious Orders in the evangelization of Latin America, see, M. Sievernich et al., eds., Conquista und Evangelization. Fiinfhundert Jahre Orden in Lateinamerika, Mainz, Matthias-Griinewald-Verlag, 1992. 30. M. Salinas, “The Voices of Those who Spoke Up for the Victims”, Concilium, (1990/ 6), pp. 101-109. 31. McManners, 308. • 32. P. Richard, “The Violence of God and the Future of Christianity”, Concilium, (1990/ 6), p.62. 33. “In der Tat haben die Englander, anders als ihre kolonialen Rivalen, die Spanier und Franzosen, den Indianem in ihrer Kolonialpolitik in Amerika nie einen Platz oder eine Zukunft in ihrem Kolonialreich zugewiesen”, Griinder, p. 196. 34. Ibid., pp. 568-577. 35. Ibid., pp. 577-582, W. Reinhard, “Christliche Mission und Dialektik des Kolonialismus”, Historisches JaHrbuch, 109 (1989), pp. 353-370.

22 Jnanadeepa 1998, Vol. I, No. 2