Promoting Independent Media in Russia an Assessment of USAID’S Media Assistance

Promoting Independent Media in Russia An Assessment of USAID’s Media Assistance

Bureau for Policy and Program Coordination PPC EVALUATION WORKING PAPER NO. PAPER WORKING 7 PPC EVALUATION August 2003

PN-ACR-757 RELATED PUBLICATIONS

PPC Evaluation Working Papers on Media Assistance Media Assistance: Best Practices and Priorities (PN-ACR-754) Journalism Training and Institution Building in Central American Countries (PN-ACR-755) Assessment of USAID Media Assistance in Bosnia and Herzegovina 1996–2002 (PN-ACR-756) Promoting Independent Media in Russia: An Assessment of USAID’s Media Assistance (PN-ACR-757) U.S. Media Assistance Programs in Serbia, July 1997–June 2002 (PN-ACT-553) PPC Evaluation Paper No. 3: USAID’s Media Assistance: Policy and Programmatic Lessons (PN-ACU-013) Promoting Independent Media in Russia An Assessment of USAID’s Media Assistance

Krishna Kumar, Senior Social Scientist, USAID Laura Randall Cooper, Media Specialist, Management Systems International

Bureau for Policy and Program Coordination August 2003

Contents Abbreviations and Acronyms v

Preface vi

Executive Summary vii

Promoting Independent Media in Russia 1

1. Introduction 1

2. The Media Scene in Russia 2

3. History and Focus of the Media Assistance Program 5

4. Contribution to Broadcast Media 8

5. USAID-Supported Print Media Program 14

6. Promoting the Media Sector 18

7. Lessons and Implications 25

Annex: Principal Contacts 29

Bibliography 33

Promoting Independent Media in Russia iii

Abbreviations and Acronyms

CTW Children’s Television Workshop

DCTV Downtown Community Television

EMAP Emergency Media Assistance Program

GDF Glasnost Defense Foundation

IFES International Foundation for Electoral Systems

IIL Institute for Information Laws

IREX International Research and Exchanges Board

ITV Independent Television Project

MDP Media Development Program

MLPC Media Law and Policy Center (Moscow)

MVF Media Viability Fund

NAT National Association of Teleradio Broadcasters

NPI National Press Institute

NYU New York University

PDI Press Development Institute

PPC Bureau for Policy and Program Coordination (USAID)

RAMED Russian-American Media Entrepreneurship Dialogue

RAMP Russian-American Media Project

RAPIC Russian-American Press and Information Center

UNC University of North Carolina

Promoting Independent Media in Russia v Preface

USAID has supported a wide variety of media projects and programs for building viable democratic institutions and reducing political tensions. The Agency gave technical and economic assistance to independent media outlets. It also assisted in the privatization of state-owned media, particularly television. Still more importantly, USAID has helped to build an enabling environment in which independent, professional media can grow and survive.

The Bureau for Policy and Program Coordination undertook a global assessment of USAID media assistance programs to draw policy and operational lessons to improve both the effectiveness and relevance of future media assistance initiatives. The assessment critically examined the nature and focus of media assistance programs. It undertook intensive fieldwork in Bosnia, Central America, Russia, and Serbia, and plans to do limited fieldwork in Indonesia.

This report presents the findings of a three-person team that conducted an assessment of USAID media assistance programs in Russia. During its fieldwork in October–November 2002, the team conducted in- depth discussions with the staff of USAID and its partners, journalists, managers of independent media outlets, and the leaders of civil society organizations. The team also undertook a comprehensive examina- tion of project and program documents and academic literature on the Russian media scene.

Several colleagues, outside experts, and media persons assisted this assessment. Within USAID, John Simon, Deputy Assistant Administrator; Elaine Grigsby, Deputy Director, Office of Development Evaluation and Information; Woody Navin, Chief, Division of Evaluation Studies and Performance Assessment; and Peter Graves, Senior Media Advisor, Bureau for Europe and Eurasia, gave their full support to the team. Mark Koenig, Senior Democracy Fellow, was a source of invaluable information and insight on the history and working of the Russian media. In USAID/Russia, senior officials, particularly Susan Reichle, Director, Office of Democratic Initiatives; Mark Dillen, Director, Media Programs; Katya Drozdova, Media Specialist; and German Abaev, Project Management Specialist, went out of their way to help the team. Stefan Medina helped in library research. Zoey Breslar and Chad Hespell from Management Systems International provided technical support to the assessment, and the staff of IBI–International Business Initiatives edited this report with remarkable skill. I am grateful to all of them.

Krishna Kumar Senior Social Scientist

vi PPC Evaluation Working Paper No. 7 Executive Summary

Background skills and capabilities, it was not their primary intention. ince 1991, USAID has spent more than $44 million to promote nonstate media in Building Broadcast Media SRussia—the largest recipient of USAID media USAID Russia’s major partner in the broadcast assistance. The program’s size and focus on broad- media was Internews, which received $18.1 million. cast and print media led USAID’s Bureau for Policy Although undertaking various activities to promote and Program Coordination (PPC) to undertake an independent media in Russia, Internews’s primary evaluation of the program’s achievements, impacts, focus was to assist emerging, independent regional and limitations to see if it offers lessons useful in television stations. With dynamic leadership and developing new and innovative programs. innovative program strategies, Internews has become one of the most prominent media NGOs USAID media assistance strategies in Russia in the Russian Federation. USAID’s activities evolved in response to rapidly changing conditions with Internews covered various television-related and experimentation. In the earliest years, USAID programs: Russia focused on journalism training, the clearest, most obvious need to help overcome ingrained ■ Training programs. Training television journal- habits of seven decades of state-controlled media. ists has been a major initial and continuing Later, it also started giving attention to business activity. Nearly 5,000 broadcast journalists— development and management training. USAID close to half the total of participants in all also supported media organizations and associations Internews instructional undertakings—have that promote the growth of independent, responsi- been trained. ble media. Only during the financial crisis of 1998 ■ did USAID provide limited direct economic and Improving management and financial viability. Since the early 1990s, Internews has focused on commodity assistance to selected media outlets. improving the management and financial viability of regional television stations by undertaking USAID Assistance training seminars on management, marketing USAID media-related assistance to Russia totaled and advertisement, and design and technology. over $44 million during the June 1992–September ■ Programming and dissemination. In addition to 2002 period. Television-focused funding absorbed training, Internews implemented innovative $22.4 million; projects focused mainly on the print projects to produce and disseminate television media accounted for just over $7 million; and programs for regional television stations. funding for the media sector as a whole was over $14.5 million. In addition to direct institution- ■ Promoting an enabling environment and other building activities, USAID provided assistance for assistance. With USAID support, Internews using media for special purposes, such as holding has undertaken activities and projects that elections and preventing domestic violence. While spurred the growth of independent media. these two projects may have increased local media Activities included computerization of regional

Promoting Independent Media in Russia vii newsrooms for greater ease of news sharing and staff is well trained, committed, and willing to learn. support for the formation and growth of a Managers are not afraid of changing course, even national association of television and radio during the middle of a program. Once a project is broadcasters. implemented, they receive feedback through various mechanisms to assess progress as well as failure. There is little doubt that USAID support has helped Internews make a profound contribution to Last, it is important to note USAID’s flexibility in the growth and success of regional television implementing funding for Internews’s programs as stations. Although these stations have progressed at well as its approach of allowing maximum opera- varying rates—depending on local markets, politi- tional freedom. When Internews demonstrated cal circumstances, and the commitment of man- positive results very early, USAID developed a rel- agers—practically all have benefited from the pro- atively hands-off approach that gave Internews grams initiated and implemented by Internews. maximum freedom to implement “Russian solu- tions” where U.S. model might have failed. This Several factors contributed to this success. One is policy continues today. that Internews focused on the relatively small seg- ment of the media eager to receive assistance. USAID-Supported Print Media Program When it started its activities, only a few dozen USAID’s program aimed mainly at the press was independent, regional television stations existed, funded at just over $7 million from September although their number has gradually grown. As a 1996 through September 2002. The program is result, Internews could establish close and continu- currently administered through a partnership with ous relationships with these stations. Moreover, the the Press Development Institute (PDI). PDI has a entrepreneurs who started these stations, and the distinguished ancestry. Its predecessors, the journalists who joined them, were relatively young Russian-American Press and Information Center and dynamic; they were eager to learn and profit (RAPIC) and the National Press Institute (NPI), from any assistance program from any quarter. were pioneers in exposing Russian journalists, When Internews launched training projects, human rights activists, and proponents of western they responded with enthusiasm and initiative. liberal democracy to the role and responsibilities Internews has also succeeded because of its of the free press. emphasis on practical projects. It has designed training and other assistance programs that address Registered as a Russian NGO with a Russian the day-to-day problems faced by the regional tele- board of directors and founders, PDI inherited vision stations. NPI’s offices, key staff, institutional “culture,” and centers in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Yekaterinburg, Internews consciously appealed to the economic Novosibirsk, Samara, and Vladivostok. Since 1998, self-interest of the managers and journalists, and NPI/PDI have undertaken a variety of activities, only indirectly to the ideology of a free press. There including has been a distinctly apolitical undertone in Internews’s strategy, which has made it acceptable ■ Press briefings and conferences. NPI/PDI contin- to a wide spectrum of end-users, despite the fact ued operating press centers, which held brief- that it was largely funded by USAID. The stated ings, press conferences, and meetings on topics objective of its projects is to make the trainees of national and international importance. These more professional and the television stations centers promoted political openness and more profitable. accountability by facilitating the exchange of ideas and public discussions. NPI/PDI particu- Another major factor behind Internews’s success is its larly focused on human rights and freedom of leadership and staff. The director is a dynamic and press issues. respected figure in the broadcast community. The

viii PPC Evaluation Working Paper No. 7 ■ Educational and training programs. NPI/PDI groups. These papers cannot survive without help have also mounted various training exercises— that compromises their editorial independence. single presentations and short seminars—put- ting forward Western journalistic standards Several factors shed light on the limited impact of and techniques and adapting them to Russian USAID’s assistance on the regional print media conditions. especially when compared to its remarkable contribution to the regional television stations. ■ Legal services. PDI now operates the NPI-estab- NDI/PDI had to deal with a large number of lished commercial law consulting service, which newspapers. More than 12,000 regional newspa- performs critical functions essential for the pers are registered. Assuming that even half are growth of independent media in Russia’s regularly published, it is beyond the technical and regions by helping newspapers write and physical resources of a single organization to reach enforce contracts and other legal documents. them. Moreover, many regional papers lack the ■ Information services. NPI/PDI supported educa- managerial and economic resources to take advan- tional programs for training news media profes- tage of the training and other services provided by sionals in the use of the internet. PDI has also NPI/PDI. Many editors and publishers represent established an interactive database listing all an old generation that finds it hard to adapt to the independent, regional print media to help new realities. Besides, many newspapers cannot monitor newspaper quality and assess the effec- afford to spare staff for training in Moscow or the tiveness of PDI’s programs. regional centers. Many more have difficulty afford- ing travel and other costs (since PDI rightly insists USAID’s support clearly allowed NDI/PDI to that they should share costs). establish venues in five major provincial cities and Moscow, where journalists interested in improving NPI did not pay enough attention to the issue of their performance can compare notes and consult the financial viability of newspapers. In direct con- outside experts. It has also an enabled it to keep trast to Internews’s approach, NPI’s early, primary watch on the strivings, advances, and setbacks of focus was on press freedom, journalistic standards, print media in large and small cities across Russia, access to information, and supporting civil society and maintain at least informal contact with the organizations. Although this focus undoubtedly most promising enterprises, their editors, and staff. had some value in the aftermath of a totalitarian regime, the bigger problem is that journalistic inde- Above all, USAID’s assistance to NDI/PDI has pendence generally—though not always—requires exposed many more journalists and publishers to financial independence. Unless a media outlet gen- western standards of accuracy and objectivity in erates enough revenue, it is likely to remain at the reporting, ways to seek advertising revenues, and mercy of whichever interest group or individual is managing a publication as a business. financing it. Recognizing this fundamental weak- ness in its earlier approach, PDI has taken steps to Challenges promote financial independence of the regional print media. Despite these accomplishments, NDI/PDI’s overall impact on the regional print media scene has been NPI suffered from many management and organiza- modest. Regional print media have registered only tional problems, and these were inherited by PDI. limited progress toward editorial and financial The leadership is deeply divided and each unit seeks independence during the past five years. A sizable vigorously to guard its territory. Although the situa- portion of the regional newspapers depends upon tion has slightly improved in recent years, NPI/PDI the patronage of political leaders, public officials, failed to provide much needed autonomy to their businessmen, and other interested individuals and regional centers. They controlled all resources—

Promoting Independent Media in Russia ix technical and monetary—leaving little room for Lessons local initiative. Consequently, enthusiastic and ener- From the analysis and conclusions above flow a getic staffers at some regional centers became frus- number of lessons derived from the analysis of trated, and some left. media support programs in Russia.

Promoting the Media Sector 1. Even in a highly complex political transition, Parallel and related USAID-backed efforts, funded carefully planned media programs can make a at $14.7 million, fostered the development of the difference by contributing to the growth of Russian media sector. The Russian-American Media nonstate media. Partnership Project (RAMP), renamed the Media Development Program (MDP), provided $10.5 mil- 2. A comprehensive strategy for promoting inde- lion to promote independent media, and was jointly pendent media should focus on the economic implemented by Internews and NDI/PDI. viability of privatized or newly established RAMP/MDP supported 31 projects involving 66 media outlets, institutionalization of the norms Russian organizations, 61 U.S. groups, and 9 others of professional ethics, and enabling other voices based in Europe. These projects ranged from foster- to reach wider audiences. ing commercial media enterprises to providing infrastructure support and professional training. The 3. The term “independent media” can create two journalism training institutes that received sup- unjustified complacency in policy circles: it port—Pozner School of Broadcase Journalism and gives the impression that privatized or newly Ural State University Journalism School—are still established nonstate media are essentially inde- functioning. Many RAMP/MDP-supported media pendent simply because they are not owned by associations and organizations have emerged as pow- the state. erful entities, playing an important role in the media scene. The Glasnost Defense Foundation and 4. USAID’s policy of assisting only nonstate media is essentially sound, but program Institute for Information Laws are good examples. managers should enjoy flexibility in implementing it. Despite some achievements in improving the institutional environment for independent media in 5. In transition societies, when concerns about Russia, two limitations seem to have adversely media assistance from former adversaries exist, affected RAMP/MDP. First, its focus on partnership the prudent course is to focus on skills and rather than on promoting independent media hin- training, not on content. dered success. Experience showed that the focus of such projects was generally dictated by the interests 6. As a result of privatization and commercializa- of the two parties rather than the needs of the tion, many educational and cultural programs media sector. The goals and outcome of the pro- formerly shown on state-owned television have grams became muddied, showing that such collabo- been crowded out by entertainment program- rative projects were not the best mechanism for pro- ming. The designers of USAID media programs moting an independent media sector. Second, should recognize this development and, when RAMP/MDP lacked a coherent strategy for pro- possible, take steps that widen access to and moting independent media in Russia. Funding increase the quantity of educational and cultur- projects with differing focus and approaches failed al programs during transition. to produce synergy; impacts were isolated and spasmodic.

x PPC Evaluation Working Paper No. 7 Promoting Independent Media in Russia

1. Introduction community in developing new and innovative programs in other parts of the world. Finally, or many years, USAID has supported a wide Russia is a former superpower; the whole world has variety of media projects and programs for a paramount interest in its transformation to a free, Fbuilding viable democratic institutions and democratic society. The growth and maturation of reducing political tensions in transition and devel- independent and responsible media are integral oping countries. In addition to generous funding parts of the democratization process. for educational and training programs for journalists, the Agency has trained managers of media As with other country assessments, PPC followed enterprises in accounting and business management a multipronged strategy for data collection and and given technical assistance to media outlets so analysis. It began with a systematic review of that they can become economically viable and sus- the program documents and interviews with tainable. Still more importantly, USAID has helped USAID’s partners, particularly Internews and the build an enabling environment in which independ- International Research and Exchanges Board ent, professional media can grow and prosper. It is (IREX), which run USAID media programs in the estimated that USAID has spent over $260 million country. USAID’s Bureau for Democracy, Conflict, in media assistance since the mid-1980s. and Humanitarian Assistance also prepared a partial background paper for the assessment team and sent The Bureau for Policy and Program Coordination a three-member team to Russia. (PPC) has undertaken a global assessment of USAID’s media assistance programs. The objective The team spent three weeks in Russia (September is to draw policy and operational lessons to improve both the effectiveness and relevance of future 20–October 12, 2002), and individually or USAID media assistance. collectively met staff of USAID and its partner organizations, project managers, and program PPC selected the Russian Federation as one of the beneficiaries. In addition, team members also fieldwork countries for many reasons, not least interviewed many leaders of NGOs involved in because it has been the largest recipient of USAID’s promoting independent media. Finally, the team media assistance. Over the past decade, USAID has met with many media experts and professionals. spent more than $44 million on promoting non- Team members visited program sites in Moscow, state media in the Russian Federation. The sheer St. Petersburg, Nizhny Novgorod, Tomsk, and size of the assistance necessitates an objective look Yekaterinburg. The annex lists the names and at its achievements, impacts, and limitations. affiliations of persons met in Russia. Moreover, not only has the program been quite large, it has focused on both broadcast and print In presenting the main findings and conclusions media. Consequently, it offers a wide range of les- of the assessment, this report seeks to answer the sons that can be useful for the international donor following questions:

Promoting Independent Media in Russia 1 ■ What has been the nature and focus of tenuous hold over the vast and diverse country, USAID’s media assistance program in Russia? and promoting communist ideology at home and How did the program evolve over time? What abroad. Therefore, the regime controlled the media programming strategies did it follow? by promoting state and party ownership, enforcing strict censorship, and, most importantly, institu- ■ What have been the achievements and short- tionalizing a system that mandated self-censorship comings of media interventions? What types of by journalists. It allowed only trusted party loyal- results did they achieve? What factors affected ists to manage media outlets; edit newspapers, the effectiveness of media programs? periodicals, and news bulletins on radio and television; manage the TASS news agency; and ■ What has been the overall effectiveness of control publication of books, films, and documen- USAID media assistance on promoting taries. The regime also centralized the media; independent, sustainable media? information flowed from Moscow to the union’s consistuent republics and states. Obsessed with ■ What are the policy and programmatic lessons the destabilizing effects of information and ideas for future USAID media assistance programs? emanating from abroad, the regime took every possible step to prevent their flow, although not The reminder of this report is organized as follows: always successfully. Chapter 2 summarizes recent developments in Russian media. Chapter 3 explains the growth of Winds of Change (1987–90) media assistance programs and gives brief details The situation began to change with the launch of about each of USAID’s major programs. Chapters perestroika and glasnost in the 1980s. The new 4 and 5 examine in detail the nature of USAID leadership under Mikhail Gorbachev (who came to program achievements and shortcomings in broad- power in 1985) sought the help of progressive sec- cast and print media. Chapter 6 discusses the tions of the media in on-again, off-again efforts to USAID-funded programs designed to assist the open the Soviet system. A number of Moscow media sector as a whole. Chapter 7 identifies criti- journalists responded to this opportunity with cal policy and operational lessons. cautious enthusiasm. Such publications as the weeklies Ogonyok and Argumenty i Fakty and the 2. The Media Scene in national dailies, Izvestia and Moscow News, became energetic in exposing embarrassing secrets from Russia the past, though they were only rarely active in he past 15 years have brought significant investigating current controversies. It was a para- change to the Russian media. Although the doxical development: the communist regime country has far to go in establishing inde- T allowed journalists much-vaunted freedom, but on pendent and responsive media, the sector has been a small scale. rapidly transformed. However, the change has not always been linear, and apparent progress has been followed by setbacks and regressions. This chapter Two private news agencies—Postfactum and looks closely at those developments and the Interfax—were also founded during this period, present situation to provide a backdrop for USAID- delivering news not available through the official supported media interventions in Russia. news agency. This first wave of free expression was fueled by a desire to “recover” Soviet history and to Under the communist regime that held power advance unofficial points of view and priorities. from 1917 to 1991, the media came under Given the public appetite for disclosures and con- absolute governmental control. Soviet leaders tinuation of government financing, publications understood the role of mass media in mobilizing gave little or no attention to the economic viability people for revolutionary change, legitimizing their of their enterprises.

2 PPC Evaluation Working Paper No. 7 A notable development during this period was the Newspaper managers willing to echo official politi- 1990 adoption of the breakthrough law on the cal views could tap state subsidies—from both fed- press and other media. It guaranteed freedom of eration and regional budgets—that averaged $4,100 press, abolished censorship, and, in tandem with a year as late as 2001, when 1,956 papers—more other measures to encourage privatization, recog- than half the estimated total in the regions— nized the right to establish privately owned media. received such help (RAMED 2002, 8). The law also provided for the independence of editorial bodies and journalism collectives, but not for However, as a result of a rapid rise in the prices of enforceable rights of access to information. newsprint, inadequate advertising revenues, and the decline of state subsidies, print media growth came Growth of Commercial Media to a halt and actually reversed. For example, during (1991–95) the Soviet era, the combined circulation of the cen- Under the presidency of Boris Yeltsin (1991–99), tral newspapers amounted to 100 million copies. the government of the newly formed Russian That number declined to 24 million in 1992, Federation significantly reduced its control over the as broadcast media gained both audience and adver- media. The country witnessed increasing privatiza- tising income (Rantanen 2002, 30). As public tion and decentralization of the media system and hunger for revelations about the past diminished, the emergence of independent voices in print and free television provided entertainment. on the air. The government allowed the partial privatization of The Communist Party press—notably the party’s Channel 1, creating a new TV giant, ORT. flagship newspaper, Pravda—collapsed during this Although the state still owned 51 percent of its period. Journalists and other groups outside the shares, the rest were passed to a consortium of banks capital launched thousands of newspapers and and other industrial interests. The central govern- periodicals, opening a new era in the print media. ment in Moscow retained control of Channel 2 Many newspapers were launched with the intent of (RTR), and has recently recentralized management. making money. A minority targeted at special audi- Despite the endurance of state-owned television net- ences evolved into profitable or break-even business works, fundamental changes in the broadcast sector enterprises, but a significant (even growing) share of nevertheless occurred in the early to mid-1990s. In general interest newspaper publishers invested in particular, several hundred independent regional tel- media for purposes of political influence rather than evision stations emerged and developed. profits or public service. Powerful business interests, local politicians, or wealthy businessmen labeled as Rise and Fall of Media Empires “oligarchs” increasingly supported these publica- (1996–2001) tions. The unfortunate tradition of political and By the end of 1996, a few national media barons economic interests patronizing media tended to had emerged to take control over most of the grow after the mid-1990s, at national as well as national television networks and a number of influ- regional levels. ential dailies and weeklies. Two men, in particular, accumulated vast resources by taking advantage of Some advertising circulars distributed for free were privatization of the state enterprises, financial intended to be a profitable business. High circula- manipulation, and their proximity to power. Boris tion and new forms of advertising also produced Berezovsky acquired control of some part of televi- substantial earnings for some publications and sion channels ORT and TV-6 (particularly several broadcast outlets—at least until sharp economic news and editorial shows); newspapers Nezavisimaya downturns cut into disposable income. Gazeta, Novye Izvesty, and Kommersant, and a number of weekly political, business, and entertainment Cost savings were not a major concern for all the magazines (Fossato 2001, 345). Vladimir Guzinsky, old-school or upstart papers of the early 1990s. who owned NTV, a private television network, also

Promoting Independent Media in Russia 3 acquired a national reach through his company role in the media sector. The government has been Media Most. On a smaller scale, Vladimir Potanin also trying to improve the functioning of state- created Prof-Media by merging Russky Telegraph and owned media enterprises. Such efforts—including a Izvestia newspapers. These “barons,” like many oth- push to rewrite the media law—have created appre- ers, saw the media more as a source of political hension among those who believe in free and power enabling them to influence the government responsible media. rather than as a direct source of profit. Current Status After the 1996 elections, the media barons who had Several publications such as Argumenti i Fakty, joined hands to elect President Yeltsin started feud- Komsomolskaya Pravda, and Izvestia have substantial ing. These so-called media wars were not about pol- nationwide audiences. Most of these newspapers are icy or ideology, but for privileged access to yet-to- printed in Moscow, often adding a small supple- be-privatized state property and influence over the ment to their different regional editions. The coun- government. In this information war, “the opposing try has about 33,000 officially registered publica- positions of battling oligarchs were proclaimed on tions—most of them tiny, infrequent, and even different channels’ national news programs and on nonpublishing. Of these, two-thirds are termed the pages of the papers they owned” (Internews newspapers and the remainder magazines Network 2002, 4). (Internews Network 2002, 12).

The economic crisis of 1998 had negative effects There is a general consensus among experts that a on the media. First and foremost, it brought a majority of the regional newspapers are not eco- 70–90 percent decline in advertising revenues, a nomically viable. They manage to survive only with rise in prices of imported commodities, high infla- political or business underwriting. Their presence tion, and a rapid decline in business activity, all of poses a major problem for the growth of independ- which posed a major challenge to the survival of ent regional print media. It also makes it difficult emerging nonstate media enterprises. The declining for international donor agencies to provide assis- economic fortunes of “patrons” who had subsidized tance to regional newspapers in ways that discrimi- favorite media outlets made it difficult for them to nate between publishers genuinely aspiring to inde- continue their assistance at past levels. Ironically, pendence and others who have become partisan to the economic crisis pushed the media toward eco- one degree or another. nomic independence, as owners were forced to focus on the business side of their media enterpris- Only four television companies—ORT, RTR, es. Many independent broadcasters gave added NTV, and Channel 6—have national reach attention to business management. On the other through either direct relay transmission or affilia- hand, many regional publishers forsook independ- tion rebroadcast agreements with individual region- ence for subsidization by local politicians or large al stations (Internews Russia and USA 2000, 2). In enterprises. addition, many commercial networks such as REN- TV, TNT, and CTC and Russian MTV also broad- Since 1999, the Putin government has sought to cast in multiple cities, as does Kultura, a highbrow increase its influence over the media, particularly noncommercial channel. the broadcast media. It engineered the downfall of Berezovsky and Guzinsky and liquidated TV-6. In The most significant development in the broadcast its most recent act of intimidation, the Kremlin media after the collapse of the Soviet Union has fired its own handpicked head of NTV after two been the growth of regional television stations. years on the job, reportedly because of the net- There are about 700 commercial regional television work’s continuing attempts to assert some editorial stations operating in the country. The profit mar- independence. It established a new Ministry of gins for the stations in large cities are encouraging Print and Broadcast Media to play a more active because of growing advertising markets. The major-

4 PPC Evaluation Working Paper No. 7 ity of these regional stations produce news, and munity had any experience with the attempted have trained staff and steady advertising income transition by such large, entrenched, centralized (Internews Network 2002, 15). Most of them are economies toward market-oriented democratic related to various media groups or holding compa- systems. nies in much the same way that local American stations are affiliated to national networks. Accordingly, USAID Russia in the earliest years focused on the clearest, most obvious needs: jour- Of the 534 radio stations operating in Russia, 391 nalism training (often combined with production are commercial; the rest are owned by the state, assistance) to assist overcoming ingrained habits of municipal bodies, or NGOs (Internews Network seven decades of state censorship. Business develop- 2002, 12). Most of the commercial stations are ment and management training also began receiv- affiliates of such networks as Europa Plus and ing attention fairly early on. New and evolving Ruskoe Radio. Unaffiliated stations find it difficult challenges required ongoing observation and pro- to compete with network affiliates and have a limit- grammatic shifts (with various levels of effective- ed share of advertising revenues. Most commercial ness) by USAID and its partners. Such challenges stations conform to the news and entertainment included the positive development of increasingly format. The audience of commercial radio has been sophisticated media and advertising markets togeth- increasing over time, reaching about 45 percent of er with the entry of politically motivated invest- households. In addition, foreign radio broadcast- ment in the media sector by so-called “oligarchs” ers—such as Radio Liberty and the BBC, jammed after the mid-1990s, the financial crisis of 1998, in Soviet times—are increasingly regarded as reli- and a multitude of attempts over the years by able sources of information the state seeks to spin or suppress. regional and national authorities to reimpose state controls.

3. History and Focus of the Second, USAID has largely focused on training and technical assistance. Only during the financial crisis Media Assistance Program of 1998 did the Agency provide limited economic gainst the backdrop of the preceding and commodity assistance to selected media outlets. overview of the emergence of the media sector in postcommunist Russia, this chapter The Eurasia Foundation, which receives about half A its funding from USAID, and its offshoot, the describes the evolution of USAID’s media programs, their substantive focus, and budgetary allo- Media Viability Fund (MVF)—a recipient of signif- cations. In addition to concentrating heavily on the icant startup support—have also provided financial development of regional media—on the grounds support for specific projects, including facilitating both of the need for them and their seeming loans. However, USAID has generally avoided direct prospects for asserting and sustaining a measure of economic assistance, a strategy that proved to be political independence—four general characteristics sensible. Russia is not a developing country lacking regarding these programs should be noted. in economic and human resources. What it lacked in the past—and perhaps still does—is the technical First, media assistance strategies evolved over time, and organizational expertise in managing commer- partly due to rapidly changing conditions, but also cial media. USAID and its partners have tried to fill due in part to some trial-and-error experimenta- this gap by undertaking a wide variety tion that tested new ideas under unprecedented of training and educational programs. Absence of historical conditions. While other postauthoritari- direct economic assistance has prevented media an media transitions (including east-central dependence on external assistance and encouraged Europe after 1989) provided some shared lessons, some local media professionals to build and sustain post-Soviet Russia and the Commonwealth of economically viable enterprises. Independent States presented unique challenges. Neither the Russians nor the Western donor com-

Promoting Independent Media in Russia 5 Third, USAID has mostly worked with local part- programs is not to reproduce the U.S. media sector, ners. In the broadcast sector, USAID has collabo- but to help the Russians develop their own institu- rated exclusively with Internews/Russia, a local tions to promote and sustain independent media. NGO registered under Russian law with an independent board and almost entirely Russian staff Level of USAID Assistance and management.1 However, for reasons of admin- Table 1 summarizes USAID media assistance to istrative efficiency and improved security of bank- Russia. It classifies USAID’s funding under three ing transactions (U.S. bank deposits are more categories: mainly for television, mainly for press, secure than those in the Russian system), USAID’s and funding for the sector as a whole. The table funds are channeled through the parent Internews shows that, roughly speaking, television has Network, a U.S. NGO. received three times as much assistance as the print During the past decade, Internews has reduced its media. It also indicates that, in addition to direct financial dependence on USAID and has earned a institution-building activities, USAID has provided reputation as a premier media NGO in Russia. It assistance for using media for special purposes such has also trained local professionals who have as holding elections and preventing domestic vio- assumed practically all training and technical assis- lence. Although these two projects may have had tance responsibilities. USAID’s partner in the print positive effects on increasing local media skills and media, the Press Development Institute (PDI), is capabilities, that was not their primary intention. the successor to the Russian-American Press and Information Center (RAPIC) and the National Descriptions of USAID’s Programs Press Institute (NPI), and is registered as an inde- A brief description of each program gives an idea of pendent media NGO. As with Internews, USAID the range of USAID support. assistance to PDI is channeled through IREX. ■ Independent Television Project (ITV): $18.11 Partnership with local institutions has had many million, June 1992–September 2002 advantages. Many people did not view USAID- ITV represents USAID’s largest and most sus- funded activities as the projects of a foreign power tained media assistance activity in Russia. but rather of their own organizations. Such organi- Although aimed primarily at developing inde- zations have been more responsive to local needs pendent, regional television, USAID also used and political realities. Moreover, such an approach this program to support other activities, has been quite cost effective. including media sector association building and media law activities. Internews has been Finally, USAID has taken into consideration the managing this large program since the begin- geopolitical realities of the country from the beginning and has made a remarkable contribution ning. The Agency recognized Russia’s vast economic to the growth of regional, independent and educational resources and its status as a former television stations (see Chapter 3). superpower. Russia is unlike developing or other transition countries that have received USAID assis- ■ Emergency Media Assistance Program (EMAP): tance. Despite its economic problems, Russia is $2.27 million, March 1999–August 2000 gradually emerging as a major economic power. Moreover, it has a vast reservoir of educated, This special project was implemented in part- trained manpower and its own cultural traditions. nership with Internews in response to the eco- Consequently, USAID started with the premise that nomic and political crisis spawned by the ruble it is up to Russians to shape the nature and focus of crash of August 1998. The instability of the their media sector. The aim of USAID-supported economy posed a threat to the survival of independent television stations because advertising 1 Internews/Russia is referred to as Internews in the rest of this report. revenues dried up overnight. Internews used the

6 PPC Evaluation Working Paper No. 7 grant to support broadcasters’ associations and week for two years on Russia’s first national legal organizations, and to develop and distrib- independent network, NTV, and weekly on ute television programs to participating televi- Russia’s largest network, ORT. Ulitsa Sezam sion stations. has enjoyed high popularity among young audiences. Research has demonstrated that ■ Children’s Television Workshop (CTW): $2.00 viewers received significant educational bene- million, September 1994–December 1996 fits, including improvement of skills in the To produce the Russian version of Sesame areas of mathematics, communications, and Street, (Ulitsa Sezam), USAID and other cofun- conflict resolution. In 2002, production of ders supported CTW to work with VideoArt, Ulitsa Sezam became economically self-sustain- at that time a leading Russian advertising ing. With completely private funding, the agency in Moscow. The program was adapted, program began production of a third season of designed, and developed by the Russian part- the program to be aired on the STS network. ners, though it built on the tradition of Sesame Street and its humanized puppet figures ■ Press Development Institute (PDI): $6.3 million, (Muppets). Under the direction of a Russian- September 1997–September 2002 speaking U.S. executive producer with previous This project focuses on the print media, and experience working in U.S. television network has been supporting PDI and its predecessor, news in Russia, more than 300 Russian RAPIC and NPI. Together, PDI/NPI have researchers, writers, directors, artists, and edu- undertaken a wide variety of activities to cational specialists were employed to produce support print media, particularly regional culturally sensitive, half-hour shows for a 52- newspapers. They have held regular briefings episode series—sufficient for two annual sea- for the press, conducted training programs for sons. The episodes were broadcast three days a print journalists, and provided on- and off-site

Table 1. USAID Media-Related Assistance to Russia (Budget in million dollars)

Jun 1992–Sep 2002 Budget

Mainly Television Independent Television Project (Internews) Jun 1992–Sep 2002 18.11* Emergency Media Assistance Program Mar 1999–Aug 2000 2.27 Children’s Television Workshop Sep 1994–Dec 1996 2.00

Mainly Press Press Institute (RAPIC/NPI/PDI) Sep 1997–Sep 2002 6.30* Media Viability Fund (MVF) Sep 1996–Jul 1997 0.75

Media as a Sector Media Development Program (MDP) Sep 1994–May 1998 10.50 Eurasia Fund Small Grants 1999–2002 3.67 IFES Media and Elections Program Jun 1999–Sep 2002 0.50

Approximate Total Jun 1992–Sep 2002 44.12

* The grant of $1,082,000 to the Independent Television Project (Internews) to administer temporarily the Press Development Institute in 2000–01 has been subtracted from the Internews “Mainly Television” entry and added to the Press Institute “Mainly Press” entry to avoid double counting.

Promoting Independent Media in Russia 7 management and legal consulting to print ■ International Foundation for Electoral Systems media enterprises. NPI also established a com- (IFES) Media and Election Program: $500,000, mercial law consulting service to help inde- June 1999–September 2000 pendent newspaper publishers fight harassment USAID provided this grant to IFES to promote from local and national authorities. The activi- transparency in Russian elections by promoting ties of NPI/PDI are discussed in Chapter 5. balanced and objective coverage in the media. It worked with NPI and Internews to organize a ■ Media Viability Fund (MVF): $750,000 series of media seminars for broadcast and print ($500,000 from USAID Russia and $250,000 media journalists to expose them to the estab- from USAID Washington), 1996–97 lished norms of press coverage of elections, MVF facilitates loans to publishers in the their rights and obligations, and the problems former Soviet Union to purchase and install that the media face during elections. It also modern printing presses. Since making its first published a training package for distribution grants in 1996–97, USAID has indirectly among the participants. Although it is difficult supported MVF through the Eurasia to assess its impact on the freeness and fairness Foundation. MVF has provided management of elections, it can be safely said that this proj- and other training, and arranged loans for the ect advanced Russian journalists’ understanding purchase of modern printing presses by four of free and competitive elections. Russian publishers. Chapter 5 describes its activities. 4. Contribution to ■ Media Development Program (MDP): $10.5 Broadcast Media million, September 1994–May 1998 s indicated in Chapter 3, Internews has This project was established by USAID been USAID’s major partner in the broad- cooperative agreements with Internews and A cast media and has received the largest NPI/RAPIC, the predecessors of PDI. The share of assistance. Although Internews has under- program used grants to help NGOs supporting taken different kinds of activities to promote inde- independent media, assist independent televi- pendent media in Russia, its primary focus has sion stations and newspapers become economi- been on assisting emerging, independent, regional cally viable, and promote the growth of an television stations. With dynamic leadership and enabling environment for independent media. innovative program strategies, Internews has Its activities are discussed in Chapter 6. emerged as a major media NGO in the Russian Federation. This chapter focuses on the activities ■ Eurasia Foundation Small Grants: $3.67 million, carried out by Internews during the past 10 years 1999–2002 with USAID assistance, including funding under Eurasia Foundation is a privately managed ITV and EMAP. grantmaking body dedicated to funding initiatives that build democratic and free market Evolution of Programs and institutions in the former Soviet Union. Strategies USAID provided this grant to the foundation’s When it started in 1992, the focus of Internews’s civil society programs, which emphasize the training programs was on broadcast journalism, as financial sustainability of media organizations the level of professionalism was extremely low in and a favorable legal and regulatory environ- the country. Even in Moscow, the journalists ment for the free press. Chapter 6 describes staffing the first independent stations lacked an the media sector activities undertaken by the understanding of the fundamentals of broadcast foundation. journalism. Conditions were undoubtedly worse in

8 PPC Evaluation Working Paper No. 7 the regions. Under these circumstances, the focus Activities on journalism training was appropriate and proved to be the first step toward the professionalization Training Programs for Broadcast of the broadcast media. Journalism A major activity of Internews has been the training While reviewing the effectiveness of its training pro- of television journalists. It is estimated that nearly grams, Internews found that its trainees were not 5,000 broadcast journalists have been trained—close able to make use of the skills and knowledge they to half the total participants in all Internews instruc- had acquired. A major barrier was that the managers tional undertakings. (The actual number might be of the television stations did not understand the lower, as some journalists may have received multiple norms and techniques of broadcast journalism. To trainings in various journalism disciplines.) them, some of the practices that their journalists wanted to introduce were almost “revolutionary.” The five-day seminars were designed to teach basic Internews realized that the best solution to the broadcasting and journalism theory, skills, and tech- problem was to train the managers along with the niques. Most are held outside Moscow, in different journalists. As a result, it launched training regions. Although originally Internews depended programs for managers. upon western trainers, it is now generally able to find experienced Russian television professionals to Internews also recognized that the newly estab- conduct the seminars. The use of Russian profession- lished television stations could not survive—much als has cut the cost of the training, thereby enabling less follow the norms of a free press—unless they Internews to provide training to a larger number of were financially viable, operating as profitable journalists within the same budget. business enterprises and using sound business and management practices. Therefore, Internews start- A typical broadcast training seminar includes a ed a new series of training seminars covering sta- short course in theory, followed by the basics of tion management, accounting, advertising, and television journalism—the power of pictures, sales. In addition to traditional training seminars writing text to pictures, interviewing techniques, involving several dozen participants at once, broad- camera and sound skills, and editing techniques. casting consultants in management and journalism Classes number approximately 20 participants and began visiting stations on a much more focused are led by two trainers. Internews and the local and intensive team basis. The goal was to create a host station provide the equipment. Each course two-pronged plan to enable the news and station pairs a reporter with a camera operator. During the managers to reach new levels of understanding. seminar, participants work together or alone to focus on specific skills. Trainees interact in a real- After a base of stations with a clear understanding life newsroom atmosphere, looking for local stories of news production, programming, and advertising to cover, with trainers acting as executive produc- began to emerge, Internews broadened its focus to ers or news managers. include more networking of stations through shared programming and moved on to the next In addition to such seminars, Internews has devel- step of successful station growth—broadcast man- oped advanced training seminars on investigative agement. It also helped in the production and dis- journalism, TV news magazine production, politi- tribution of programs that could be used by region- cal reporting, election coverage, and legal issues al television stations. From early on, moreover, related to news gathering. Seminars on investigative Internews worked to improve the enabling envi- reporting teach the trainees how to cover in-depth ronment for the growth of independent broadcast such sensitive issues as human trafficking, child media. pornography, offshore investment, and capital

Promoting Independent Media in Russia 9 flight. By working with Russian organizations such and includes 10–15 guest lecturers speaking about as the Agency for Investigative Journalism and the specialized aspects of the television industry.2 Guild for Court Reporters, media professionals are able to practice investigative journalism. There is little doubt that these journalism training programs have upgraded the skills and expertise of Because of the varied forms of political pressure in the regional television stations. Moreover, the con- Russia and a widespread unfamiliarity with the tacts established between participants have proven media laws in the country, Internews has support- beneficial to their professional development. The ed legal training seminars. They have been largely short-term seminars have also provided opportuni- conducted in conjunction with organizations such ties for host stations to highlight the work of sister as the Moscow Media Law and Policy Center stations on their newscasts on an informal basis, (MLPC)—renamed the Institute for Information with fellow students often taking copies of stories Law—and the Glasnost Defense Foundation back home to air on their own stations. (GDF). Internews has also organized seminars to teach broadcast journalists the norms and practice Improving Management and Financial of election coverage and reporting. Viability Since the early 1990s, Internews has also focused The short-term training programs have had short- on improving the management and financial via- comings. Some experts have questioned the con- bility of regional television stations, undertaking tinuing need for these seminars, as regional televi- training seminars on management, marketing and sion journalists have rapidly grown more sophisti- advertisement, and design and technology. The cated in basic news production techniques. Others management seminars impart instruction on have expressed doubts about the qualifications of modern management techniques, newsroom the trainees. As one educator familiar with the pro- management, and investing. These seminars are gram told the team: “As a teacher, I could see that conducted in the same manner as the training the background of some of the people wasn’t high seminars on broadcast journalism. Managers from enough. … The people for the program were not Western or Russian stations of similar size and properly chosen, and some were simply sent or with similar development issues spend several days chosen because they got to come for free.” Still or weeks recreating real-life scenarios and using others have stressed the need for longer training case studies from the stations to explore various courses. Both USAID and Internews are aware of management and financial issues. the problem, and the training program was sched- uled to be reviewed in December 2002 to make In addition, Internews conducts training seminars appropriate adjustments and determine its future on marketing and advertising. Such training has direction. proven essential, since the survival of a station largely depends upon its advertising revenues. Internews also operates a five-week journalism These training programs have been extremely pop- school. The school goes beyond basic techniques, ular, and, after broadcast journalism, have attracted providing select groups of promising journalists the largest number of trainees. Closely related to with in-depth instruction on broadcast journal- these are training seminars on design and promo- ism. The school brings practicing journalists from tion, as the stations need to design commercials that attract attention. all over Russia and abroad to teach courses in reporting, camerawork, and editing, as well as supplemental courses on journalistic ethics, legal

issues, and investigative journalism. Each session 2 The school is operated in cooperation with and under the name of of the journalism school has one primary trainer well-known Russian broadcast journalist Vladimir Pozner.

10 PPC Evaluation Working Paper No. 7 Since technology changes very rapidly in broadcast In many cases, this was the first original program- media, Internews provides training to television sta- ming many of these stations had ever aired, and tions to upgrade skills and technology on a regular information-starved audiences responded over- basis. When an independent television station is whelmingly. This response provided the base the sta- launched, it usually begins with the most inexpen- tions needed to attract attention and sell advertising. sive equipment it can obtain. The use of such Within months, some of the more energetic stations equipment does not require much training and were building on this success to begin producing experience; however, once the station becomes their own news and analysis programs, most of more established, it must upgrade its equipment. which were taped at first and aired only once a Therefore, professional technical training is week. Eventually, production of Local Time ended as required to help stations learn to use their new and the regional stations learned to produce and share existing equipment as efficiently as possible. Such stories without filtering them through Internews. training includes camera techniques, editing, light- ing, and shooting in difficult conditions. Open Skies was launched as a documentary distribution project to promote the broadcast of high- Management training programs are prized by quality educational programming in 1994. Under struggling and well-established regional television this project, stations received programs free of stations. Over the past decade, about 7,000 people charge. During the first year, Open Skies provided have attended these seminars (Tables 2 and 3). seven hours per week of quality documentaries to interested independent regional television stations, Programming and Dissemination but the amount of programming was reduced to In addition to training, Internews has implement- three hours in 1996. When the program was con- ed many projects to produce and disseminate ceived, the staff envisioned distributing more television programs for regional television stations. Western programming, but the focus gradually shifted to domestically produced documentaries. Local Time was designed as a horizontal news exchange program with 20 participating independent stations. They were required to produce a news spot, first once a Table 2. Number of Internews Trainees, month, and then gradually progressing to 1992–2002* once a week. A story was produced and edited at the local regional station with the Seminars Trainees proviso that it must have broader interest outside the region and for other towns and Journalism seminars 4,661 cities in Russia. Often the first pieces were 3,313 flawed—lengthy and lacking production Marketing and advertising quality and objectivity. Internews’s Moscow Management and investment seminars 1,546 staff used the submissions as opportunities 1,040 to confer with and critique the stations on Technical seminars both journalistic and technical issues, creat- Promotion and design 651 ing a kind of correspondence course in jour- 354 nalism training. These stories were assem- Legal and elections seminars bled in Moscow with a taped anchor seg- Journalism school 328 ment into a 30-minute program; the fin- ished program was returned to the con- * Figures may include returning students attending multiple seminars and do not tributing stations by satellite. include final year totals for 2002

Promoting Independent Media in Russia 11 USAID also funded the production of local docu- to plans and schedules for airing and producing mentaries through a grant through the MDP. In programs by the stations, contributing to program- 1998, Internews moved Open Skies to the newly matic uncertainties. As a result, the Ford established TNT network. Foundation cease, funding the program.

Since launching, more than 1,000 hours of this doc- Provintsia was launched in 1999 by Internews as a umentary educational programming have been new form of video exchange to provide cross- shown on national commercial networks in hun- regional, human interest material for morning dreds of cities across Russia (Internews Network shows and other programs. Provintsia started 2002, 34). As Open Skies continues today, Internews with a “circle” of seven local stations exchanging is also using the program as a vehicle to overcome materials. Each station sent “evergreen” stories to what is described as “an alarming trend towards iso- Internews and received in return a cassette with all lationism that has been emerging in Russia in recent the other stations’ stories and the right to use them years” (Internews Network 2002, 34). in their own broadcasts. By 2001, the number of participating stations grew to 25; some editions of Open Skies was initially cofunded by the Ford the cassettes regularly contained as many as 40 Foundation. In recent years, however, major changes news feature stories. in ownership of several independent national television networks resulted in subsequent changes in In 2001–02, a second circle of participating sta- their management. This affected previously agreed tions was created, allowing two stations from the

Table 3. Internews Trainee Attendance by Year, 1992–2002

Journalism Technical Management Legal Journalism Marketing Promotion Investment and Election School Advertising and Design Total

1992 134 0 10 0 0 0 0 144

1993 76 0 120 0 0 0 0 196

1994 98 0 108 0 0 0 31 237

1995 147 68 103 100 0 27 0 445

1996 69 7 39 0 46 25 0 186

1997 88 47 193 18 42 96 12 496

1998 239 157 54 78 20 52 0 600

1999 816 334 91 98 58 1,527 0 2,924

2000 821 84 57 29 46 1,250 290 2,577

2001 1,071 48 234 0 45 78 302 1,778

2002 (partial) 1,102 295 537 31 71 258 16 2,310

Total 4,661 1,040 1,546 354 328 3,313 651 11,893

Source: Internews Russia

12 PPC Evaluation Working Paper No. 7 same city to participate in Provintsia without Another major factor behind Internews’s success is receiving the same material as a competitor. its leadership and staff. The director is a dynamic and respected figure in the broadcast community. Summary The staff is well trained, committed, and willing to There is little doubt that USAID support has learn. Managers are not afraid of changing course, helped Internews make a profound contribution to even during the middle of a program. Once a proj- the growth and success of regional television ect is implemented, they receive feedback through stations. Although these stations have progressed at various mechanisms to assess progress as well as varying rates—depending on local markets, politi- failure. cal circumstances, and the commitment of managers—practically all have benefited from the pro- Last, it is important to note USAID’s flexibility in grams initiated and implemented by Internews. implementing funding for Internews’s programs as well as its approach of allowing maximum opera- Several factors contributed to this success. One is tional freedom. When Internews demonstrated that Internews focused on the relatively small seg- positive results very early, USAID developed a rel- ment of the media eager to receive assistance. When atively hands-off approach that gave Internews it started its activities, only a few dozen independ- maximum freedom to implement “Russian solu- ent, regional television stations existed, although tions” where a U.S. model might have failed. This their number has gradually grown. As a result, policy continues today. Internews could establish close and continuous relationships with these stations. Moreover, the entre- Challenges and Future Directions preneurs who started these stations, and the journal- Some local observers expressed two concerns about ists who joined them, were relatively young and Internews. First, although local media NGOs dynamic; they were eager to learn and profit from applaud Internews’s contributions to the growth of any assistance program from any quarter. When independent media, they complain that its presence Internews launched training projects, they respond- overwhelms the media development sector. Because ed with enthusiasm and initiative. Internews has of its prominent position, it has acquired an almost also succeeded because of its emphasis on practical monopolistic dominance. As a result, other NGOs projects. It has designed training and other assis- are reluctant to offer similar services or undertake tance programs that address the day-to-day prob- similar programs. They are afraid they will not be lems faced by the regional television stations.3 able to attract funds or capture the interest of regional television stations. Internews consciously appealed to the economic self-interest of the managers and journalists, and Second, some media experts closely associated with only indirectly to the ideology of a free press. There the present government have criticized Internews as a has been a distinctly apolitical undertone in nonindigenous organization because it primarily Internews’s strategy, which has made it acceptable depends on USAID funding. Such criticism is not to a wide spectrum of end-users, despite the fact justified. Although it primarily depended on USAID that it was largely funded by USAID. The stated for its programs during the 1990s, Internews is objective of its projects is to make the trainees diversifying its sources of funding. Moreover, it has a more professional and the television stations management board that prizes its independence. more profitable. Both Internews and USAID are quite sensitive to this concern. 3 In an interview for this assessment, a manager of an independent television station in Nizhny Novgorod cited Internews’ understanding of the technical limitations of the regional stations as an important One issue of concern about the future directions aspect of its training success. He stated that although the stations are shown the levels to which they can aspire, they are also shown how of USAID’s support to broadcast media relates to to work better with limited technical capacity. the focus on assistance to television. Some experts

Promoting Independent Media in Russia 13 suggest that USAID should move beyond media relationships with large and small regional state education and business development and look for universities, a lengthy and difficult process. ways to support the development of more cultural and social programs. Because commercial stations give little play to programs on children, women, 5. USAID-Supported Print the disabled, the environment and conservation, Media Program and human rights, some critics say that Russian tel- his chapter briefly describes the activities of evision is becoming too much like commercial tele- USAID-supported programs designed to vision in the West and is abandoning the educa- foster the development of independent, tional aspect that characterized Russian television T regional print media and assesses their achieve- during the Soviet era. To counter this criticism, ments. Most such programs are being currently some analysts have suggested that USAID focus on administered through a partnership with PDI. social programming and help develop local capaci- Another program aimed primarily at the print ties and interest in such programming. The Soros media was the MVF, a joint project of the Eurasia Foundation is looking for ways to support content and Soros Foundations, which helped arrange loans development on a very local level in order to sup- to publishers to purchase and install modern print- port more cultural and social programs. ing presses.

Another issue is the shift from training to more for- Origin and Development mal education. Many analysts are now calling for a PDI has a distinguished ancestry. Its predecessors, redirected focus on the education process in media RAPIC and NPI, have been pioneers in exposing development—something more formalized than Russian journalists, human rights activists, and pro- seminars for midcareer professionals, perhaps ponents of Western liberal democracy to the roles organized in conjunction with existing university and responsibilities of the free press. RAPIC was programs. As one expert said with reference to the founded in 1992 as a joint venture of New York training programs conducted by Internews, “All of University’s (NYU) Center for War, Peace, and the these schools and seminars are piecemeal and they News Media, and the USA and Canada Institute of are not recognized in Russia as ‘real’ education but the Russian Academy of Science, a détente-era rather just teaching. We need to connect the com- thinktank closely associated with the Soviet leader- munications schools somehow.” ship. RAPIC’s original mission was to improve Russian media coverage (particularly of internation- Internews, aware of this concern, has taken steps al security issues) by providing journalists access to to move beyond training seminars. It acquired an a wide range of information, thus contributing to education license in 2001 from the Moscow City more balanced and accurate reporting. Educational Committee that permits it to issue official diplomas and certificates to graduates of its In the mid-1990s, RAPIC changed its name to Journalism School and the School of Film and NPI, signifying its increased focus on promoting Television. Although this move upgrades Internews’s independent and responsible print media in Russia. educational standing, it does not meet the stricter The institute embraced—but had a patchy record standards of Russia’s conservative critics of inde- of implementing—a “sectoral” approach to media pendent television, who could implement new legal development. Such an approach analyzes the differ- requirements requiring journalists to have defined ent components of the media sector—print and educational credentials. This would be a means of broadcast outlets, legal and regulatory regimes, controlling or shutting down many independent advertising agencies, related industries that produce media outlets. Such a shift toward formalized jour- communication machines and equipment, and nalism education will require building cooperative training and educational facilities—as part of a dynamic changing environment. The implication of

14 PPC Evaluation Working Paper No. 7 this approach is that international assistance should they worked with at least 55 human rights organi- focus not on a single element of the sector, but zations in Moscow and other regions, and were address major constraints to the development of the instrumental in highlighting numerous cases of entire sector. Consequently, the institute focused on human rights violations. Some of the topics covered activities designed not only to assist newspapers, but in the briefings and conferences included the plight also to facilitate the development of civil society and of Chechen refugees, torture and other violations by public participation. the police, conditions in Russian prisons, and dis- crimination against non-Slavic Russian citizens. USAID signed a cooperative agreement with NPI Nuclear safety issues and related environmental in 1997—after the expiry of a U.S. Information concerns have also been frequent subjects of press Agency-RAPIC agreement—to provide a wide briefings. range of media assistance and services to independent media. In 2000, after USAID ended its associa- The sheer number of briefings and press conferences tion with the NYU Center for War, Peace, and the organized by PDI and its predecessor is impressive. News Media, NPI was reborn as PDI, with a com- During its cooperative agreement with USAID mitment to promote reliable, independent print (1997–2000), NPI organized over 2,300 briefings media in Russia. Registered as a Russian NGO and conferences, attended by 57,000 journalists with a Russian board of directors and founders, (National Press Institute 2000a, 17). An additional PDI inherited NPI’s offices, key staffers, institu- 222 such events were hosted by PDI between tional culture, and centers in Moscow, St. November 2000 and June 2001. It is estimated that Petersburg, Yekaterinburg, Novosibirsk, Samara, “approximately 45,000 stories … appeared based on and Vladivostok. A regional office in Nizhny or informed by NPI Press Center events,” and that Novgorod closed when USAID and NYU ended presenting those stories “helped to reduce the their relationship. dependence of Russian journalists on official government sources, helping increase government account- Activities ability to the public” (Internews Network 2001). Since 1998, NPI/PDI have undertaken the following categories of activities. In the context of the public hunger for access to previously forbidden information, the press center Press Briefings and Conferences function has been a valid means of advancing press A major activity of NPI/PDI has been the operation freedom, especially in the first half of the 1990s. It of the press centers, which continue the RAPIC helped improve the access of regional journalists to practice of holding briefings, press conferences, and many issues and topics vital to building an open, meetings on topics of national and international democratic order. importance. These centers facilitate the exchange of ideas and public discussions, thereby promoting Educational and Training Programs political openness and accountability, a central NPI/PDI have also mounted various training exer- RAPIC priority in its first years. Well-known experts, political leaders, visiting scholars, and pro- cises—single presentations and seminars ranging fessors hold briefings on economic and foreign poli- from one to five days in length. These sessions gen- cy and on ecological, human rights, and nuclear erally put forward Western journalistic standards issues. In many regions, NPI centers provide both and techniques and examined the possibility of space and facilities for opposition and civil society adapting them to Russian conditions. The topics activists to hold press conferences and present their ranged from investigative reporting to layout and views to journalists. design, basic newswriting, methods of generating advertising revenue and raising circulation, and NPI/PDI have particularly focused on human rights management, information technology, and online and freedom of press issues. During 1997–2001, internet journalism.

Promoting Independent Media in Russia 15 During 1998–2001, NPI/PDI organized 158 the Canadian International Development Agency, training seminars and roundtables on journalism, hired a small cadre of experts who combine techni- media management, and media technologies that cal expertise with knowledge of the Russian print were attended by 2,700 media professionals. Of media and its needs. Its experts travel to regional these courses, 125 were held outside Moscow. The offices to conduct training seminars. courses held in Moscow were targeted to regional audiences. Both the content and quality of the seminars have improved in recent years. The seminars are now In the beginning, most trainers were foreign experts more practical and less theoretical. The emphasis is who stayed in Russia for only a short time. Though on problem solving. A few enterprising regional well established in their profession, they possessed centers have been able to tap the services of visiting limited knowledge of the problems facing the experts to give special seminars. The training pro- Russian media. Often, they lectured rather than grams have been especially popular with small gave practical training. “Too much training I’ve newspapers, which value the assistance they get seen is not training,” commented a media consult- from the institute. ant who has worked extensively in Russia. “It’s yapping. Lecturing. Crowing about the First Many media observers express a concern, however, Amendment. Western trainers talking about ‘how that the skills and knowledge imparted during I did it.’ Not enough interactive training, not training are not fully utilized. Often the journalists enough practice in seminars so that people get are unable to put the advice they receive into prac- actual learning, not just theory.” Such training was tice because of tight budgets and an unfavorable only superficially useful. It even created tensions work environment. GDF President Alexei Simonov between the trainers and the trainees, who resented described the daunting everyday reality: “You teach being lectured by foreigners with scant understand- 4 a journalist in the provinces how to improve his ing of the local situations. work, but he goes back to the newsroom, and he’s the only one who knows. No one else there cares.” Over time, however, qualified Russian instructors While there is some substance in the criticism, better able to deal with the problems faced by the it should be noted that the utilization of any regional media have generally replaced visiting knowledge occurs gradually; effects may not be experts. Although foreign consultants are still used immediately visible. selectively when specialized knowledge is required, most now tend to be repeat visitors. They include Two weaknesses of the training seminars can specialists who have remained as in-country resi- be mentioned here. First, while coordinating dents for months or years, and therefore apply scheduling and financing, PDI does not always much more local knowledge of the Russian press survey its regional centers regarding the needs and than ever before. interests of local journalists. The training schedules are often more tailored to the availability of instruc- Since its establishment in 2001, PDI has increasing- tors and funding than to the needs of local editors ly focused on the financial independence of regional and publishers. newspapers. It has designed two- and three-day seminars with significant practical content, and, Second, there is little or no followup. PDI has not with assistance from USAID, the World Bank, and attempted to foster a network of its training graduates, which would reinforce their commitment and 4 A typical, early example of resistance came from a senior reporter promote the utilization of newly acquired skills and in Moscow, who complained to a U.S. citizen preaching the virtue of objectivity in election coverage. “Let me get this right,” said the information. In addition to training seminars, NPI Russian. “For 70 years we have been waiting to say what we think. and PDI have also arranged for onsite training at Now you’re telling us not to do this?”

16 PPC Evaluation Working Paper No. 7 newspapers. Local experts from an NPI/PDI roster preventive measure against local political authorities provide such consulting. NPI arranged for 84 onsite misusing the law to intimidate media owners. consultations during its cooperative agreement with USAID. Such onsite help has been useful to the The PDI legal service also responds to requests for small number of regional newspapers that received assistance, including requests for second opinions to it. NPI/PDI published Russian translations of 10 evaluate and support the work of local lawyers American journalism and management textbooks, across the country. Many questions are routine, which are increasingly being used in journalism involving labor relations, tax law, copyright and training courses. author rights, and advertising contracts. A significant number, however, concern the paper’s Legal Services right to exist. During 2001 alone, “PDI lawyers Because of a general shortage of lawyers specializing provided more than 200 individual consultations to in media law, NPI established a commercial law the representatives of the print media [editors, jour- consulting service in 1999. The service, now operat- nalists, accountants, and others]” (Internews ed by PDI, performs three critical functions essen- Network 2001, 77). In addition to providing indi- tial for the growth of independent media in Russia’s vidual consultations, PDI has also been organizing regions. seminars on legal issues in the regions and has developed a database of lawyers in different regions First, the legal service helps newspapers write and who work with newspapers on media law issues. enforce contracts and other legal documents. Since commercial contracts are a recent innovation in Information Services Russia, this function is very important. Second, NPI/PDI have also supported educational pro- the service explains and clarifies for editors and grams for training news media professionals in the publishers the often confusing rules and regulations use of the internet. They developed a series of governing media ownership, management, and courses in cyberjournalism; the two most popular control. Such assistance also helps in ensuring are “The ABCs of Online Newspapers: From newspapers’ compliance with legal requirements, Concept to Implementation” and “The Internet especially on election campaign coverage and and Online Journalism.” By June 2000, the center political advertising. had held roughly 90 workshops to train more than 1,500 journalists, journalism teachers, and stu- The service assists newspapers, albeit in a limited dents in methods of using the internet to gain fashion, to fight spurious lawsuits. This is important access to information and disseminate it with because almost all Russian media enterprises share a greater freedom. Most of the training occurred in potentially crippling vulnerability to legal pressures Moscow, but 70 percent of the trainees came from arising from increasingly common defamation-of- the regions. character actions brought by political figures before judges who are often subject to political pressure. Summary Aside from the cost of legal defense, the penalty in USAID’s support clearly allowed NDI/PDI to such cases can be a forced retraction, or, if an editor establish venues in five major provincial cities and refuses to apologize, a fine. Moscow, where journalists interested in improving their performance can compare notes and consult In mid-2002, PDI began working with the GDF to outside experts. It has also an enabled it to keep encourage publishers to conduct an audit of all the watch on the strivings, advances, and setbacks of documentation—as many as 300 separate legal print media in large and small cities across Russia, forms—of their enterprise. The audit service, which and maintain at least informal contact with the Internews and the Institute for Information Law most promising enterprises, their editors, and staff. (IIL) are offering to broadcasters, is intended as a

Promoting Independent Media in Russia 17 Above all, USAID’s assistance to NDI/PDI has access to information, and supporting civil society exposed many more journalists and publishers to organizations. Although this focus undoubtedly western standards of accuracy and objectivity in had some value in the aftermath of a totalitarian reporting, ways to seek advertising revenues, and regime, the bigger problem is that journalistic inde- managing a publication as a business. pendence generally—though not always—requires financial independence. Unless a media outlet gen- Challenges erates enough revenue, it is likely to remain at the Despite these accomplishments, NDI/PDI’s overall mercy of whichever interest group or individual is impact on the regional print media scene has been financing it. Recognizing this fundamental weak- modest. Regional print media have registered only ness in its earlier approach, PDI has taken steps to limited progress toward editorial and financial promote financial independence of the regional independence during the past five years. A sizable print media. portion of the regional newspapers depends upon the patronage of political leaders, public officials, NPI suffered from many management and organiza- businessmen, and other interested individuals and tional problems, and these were inherited by PDI. groups. These papers cannot survive without help The leadership is deeply divided and each unit seeks that compromises their editorial independence. vigorously to guard its territory. Although the situation has slightly improved in recent years, NPI/PDI failed to provide much needed autonomy to their Several factors shed light on the limited impact of regional centers. They controlled all resources— USAID’s assistance on the regional print media technical and monetary—leaving little room for especially when compared to its remarkable contri- local initiative. Consequently, enthusiastic and ener- bution to the regional television stations. getic staffers at some regional centers became frus- NDI/PDI had to deal with a large number of trated, and some left. newspapers. More than 12,000 regional newspapers are registered. Assuming that even half are regularly published, it is beyond the technical and 6. Promoting the Media physical resources of a single organization to reach Sector them. Moreover, many regional papers lack the revious chapters examined USAID’s programs managerial and economic resources to take advan- for print and broadcast media implemented tage of the training and other services provided by in partnership with Internews and NPI/PDI. NPI/PDI. Many editors and publishers represent P This chapter discusses three parallel and related an old generation that finds it hard to adapt to the USAID-backed efforts to foster the development new realities. Besides, many newspapers cannot of the Russian media sector. The first, originally afford to spare staff for training in Moscow or the called the Russian-American Media Partnership regional centers. Many more have difficulty afford- Project (RAMP), was later renamed the Media ing travel and other costs (since PDI rightly insists Development Program (MDP). Jointly implement- 5 that they should share costs). ed by Internews and the NDI, RAMP/MDP provided grants for a wide range of initiatives NPI did not pay enough attention to the issue of designed to promote independent media. USAID the financial viability of newspapers. In direct con- also supported the Eurasia Foundation’s Small trast to Internews’s approach, NPI’s early, primary Grants program, which gives small grants to civil focus was on press freedom, journalistic standards, society organizations that aid independent media. Although focused primarily on the print media, 5 According to Ludmilla Shevchenko, director of the Yekaterinburg office, she has to underwrite even the smallest travel expenses of the MVF, discussed above, had an impact on the newspaper staffers around the Urals who are invited to PDI events. In development of the media sector as a whole St. Petersburg, reported Anna Sharogradskaya, some papers are able to contribute to seminar costs—a fairly recent improvement—but most lack such resources.

18 PPC Evaluation Working Paper No. 7 RAMP/MDP-Supported Projects Education and Training USAID initiated the $10.5 million program to The RAMP/MDP supported a number of organi- provide Russian media organizations access to zations to enhance their institutional capacity or Western expertise and technical assistance, and with undertake training and educational programs. exposure to the norms of a free press through their Some support went to Internews to develop new partnership with U.S. organizations. As originally training activities. For example, a grant of conceived, the program was expected to identify $235,324 supported Internews for Broadcast interested partners and fund their promising proj- Educational Residency Training to assist television ects. It assumed that the U.S. organizations would stations in evaluating their properties for the pur- also benefit from the collaboration, as it would poses of sale or investment. RAMP/MDP gave improve their understanding of and contacts with assistance to the following two journalism schools the growing media sector in Russia. that are still functioning.

During the program’s first two years program ■ Pozner School of Broadcast Journalism. With managers realized that the focus on partnership a grant from RAMP/MDP, the Pozner School was unrealistic. It was difficult and time consum- was established in 1997 in Internews’s premises ing to find suitable partners. Even when program in Moscow. Each year, the school conducts a staff could locate partners, their priorities were five-week course, taught by some of the most often different. The partners found it difficult to experienced and recognized Russian media and overcome organizational, cultural, and political academic professionals. It recruits bright, barriers. In many cases, a majority of project young, experienced journalists as students. The resources were budgeted for use by the U.S. half school combines textbook study with intensive of the media partnership, whose contribution practical newsroom experience. RAMP/MDP proved to be of dubious value. As a result, the funded three initial sessions of the school, program dropped the partnership emphasis and including room, board, and tuition for stu- changed its name to the Media Development dents who came from regions outside of Program. The renamed operation was meant to Moscow. Since then, it has attracted funds respond directly to proposals from Russian media from different sources. It does not yet have a and “organizations capable of managing their own permanent premise, but the Moscow city gov- grants.” In practice, the change meant that most ernment has promised to provide one. The of MDP’s funds went to and through Internews Pozner School, like the BBC School in and RAPIC/NPI “for special training programs Yekaterinburg, is one of only a few commercial for which they were unquestionably the most attempts to address the important market for qualified administrators” (Media Development broadcast education, but so far it cannot exist Program 1998, 11). without long-term subsidies.

The program consisted of 31 projects involving 66 ■ Ural State University Journalism School. Russian organizations, 61 U.S. groups, and 9 others RAMP/MDP funded a partnership between based in Europe. The projects ranged from fostering Ural State University in Yekaterinburg and the commercial media enterprises to providing infra- University of North Carolina (UNC) at structure support and professional training. Projects Chapel Hill to enhance Ural State’s training can be grouped under four categories: education and capacities by developing two projects: a profes- training, media associations and organizations, inno- sional journal for newspaper managers and an vation and information sharing, and other support- upgraded training studio and curriculum in ing activities. A representative sample of major proj- broadcast journalism. Each activity produced ects under each category is briefly mentioned here to mixed results: there were some definite success- give an indication of overall focus and achievements, es, but results were not as great or as sustained as well as the challenges of the program. as hoped for.

Promoting Independent Media in Russia 19 The partner universities and the local Sverdlovsk tion that was never fully realized. The educa- Union of Journalists did considerably improve tional curriculum remains too focused on aca- the format, usefulness, and readership of the demics rather than the craft of practicing mod- professional journal Fax Magazine. This publica- ern television journalism. Dean Boris Lozovsky tion evolved in its design and content “from an has recognized this limitation and is anxious to initially fairly dull academic orientation to a remedy it, not least through the acquisition of more dynamic focus on legal, ethical and busi- modern broadcast hardware. ness issues” (Media Development Program 1998, 52). Fax filled a new professional infor- Media Associations and Organizations mation niche and provided a forum for the RAMP/MDP gave financial and technical assis- exchange of practical knowledge among newspa- tance to many associations and organizations that per publishing managers in the Urals region. continue to play an important role in the media Fax continued publication after the end of the sector. Some examples follow. MDP grant. Having thus tested the concept and market niche at the regional level of a self-sus- ■ The Glasnost Defense Foundation (GDF), taining journal for media professionals, MDP founded in June 1991, has been a watchdog, staff passed this knowledge to and cooperated educator, advocacy group, and continuing with the Moscow-based launch of Zhurnalist, a testament to the need in Russia—as in the revamped national professional magazine for Soviet Union—for defenders of basic civil and media managers that succeeded in the long human rights. It has received two direct grants term. from USAID, as well as other support from USAID-supported programs through The second component of the Ural State/UNC Internews and NPI/PDI. Over the years, and partnership under MDP involved upgrading using a network of media watchers across the training studio and curriculum in broadcast Russia, GDF built a reputation for accuracy in journalism. MDP purchased low-end SVHS its reporting on the intimidation and abuse of cameras and editing equipment; the Ural State journalists by the state. The foundation’s hand- journalism department fully remodeled its books on media law, professional conduct, and basement floors into a television training even safety issues have been popular enough to studio. Ural State journalism students received be sold rather than given away. opportunities to get hands-on experience with television reporting, camera work, and editing. ■ Institute for Information Law (IIL) (formerly known as the Moscow Media Law and Policy Curriculum development assistance from UNC Center) has now emerged as a respected train- also helped modernize Ural State University’s tel- ing and consulting institution. It received evision-teaching curriculum—thus improving two MDP grants totaling $482,720 between the general professional level of media graduates 1995 and 1997. Housed in Moscow State throughout the Urals. However, Ural State facul- University’s journalism faculty, the institute is a ty receptivity to UNC technical advice was lower source of legal expertise for institutions work- than hoped for. Accordingly, despite some real ing on media issues. It has attracted funds achievements, both cultural and technical factors from many international donor agencies and limited the success of the project. NGOs, a good indication of the contribution it is making in analyzing media legislation at At the end of the grant, it was hoped that all levels in Russia, assisting lawyers contesting project-funded educational resources would assaults on press freedom, and collaborating continue to benefit Ural State students (Media with legal consultants employed by other Development Program 1998, 83), an expecta- organizations.

20 PPC Evaluation Working Paper No. 7 The director and staff of the institute have led or taken part in numerous seminars and train- In Chelyabinsk, the mayor attempted to take ing activities designed to make journalists and ownership of the politically independent their employers aware of both the legal prob- Chelyabinskiy Rabochiy and the modern lems they face and the legal weapons at their printing press it acquired with help from disposal, particularly in their efforts to gain the MVF in 1998. That threat was beaten access to information. Such issues are also back by an emergency response team of lawyers important to advocacy NGOs. The institute’s dispatched from Moscow, who helped the work, extending beyond the media community, has contributed to a better appreciation of the paper reorganize into the shelter of a new value of the rule of law in Russian civil society. and properly registered company. As a result of the IIL’s extensive training and publishing activities during the late 1990s, a community of media law experts has developed. Again as a result of the institute’s efforts, the before Russian legislative and state institutions Russian state university system formally adapt- and providing broadcasters with “technical, ed a media law component as part of its nation- educational, and other practical support.” NAT al curriculum. grew from about 70 members in early 1996 to over 130 by the end of the two-year grant Within the media development community, period. It now has 350 members, including the IIL has recently become the focus of a national, state, and commercial channels and major collaborative effort to help broadcasters regional, state, and independent stations. and publishers shield themselves from assault by local authorities (see Chapter 3). The proj- ■ Russian Television Development Foundation’s ect, known as the Legal Audit, is funded by a (now the Academy of Russian Television one-year Open Society Institute grant. It is a Foundation)TEFI Awards is an annual regional joint effort of IIL, Internews, NPI/PDI, and and national event similar to the U.S. Emmy GDF. The project seeks to enable media Awards. The foundation that organizes the managers to examine and regularize the legal awards is an NGO founded to promote documents relating to their registration as stronger relationships between television pro- enterprises: everything from the original priva- gram producers and consumers. tization or incorporation papers to the certificates attesting to their compliance with local Broadcast industry professionals cite the TEFI health, fire, and labor-relations ordinances. Awards as a valuable contribution to the devel- The institute has published a number of opment of regional independent television. scholarly documents that have been very well These awards, created under the guidance of received. The IIL is increasingly asked to help Internews, provide not only a standard to other Eurasian countries in the field of media which regional stations can hope to rise but law and policy. significant opportunities for winners to promote themselves within their own broadcasting ■ National Association of Teleradio Broadcasters markets. The awards signal to the viewing (NAT) has emerged as an influential associa- audience that a station has achieved a standard tion. Established by Russian broadcast industry of excellence that is recognized regionally and leaders, it received a grant of over $400,000 nationally. In addition to the awards, the foun- from RAMP/MPD to support its mission of dation organizes seminars and forums and sup- representing television and radio broadcasters ports the publication of industry textbooks.

Promoting Independent Media in Russia 21 USAID has also funded other media associations ■ Electronic newspaper in Vladivostok. This project through Internews, which has provided targeted supported the publication of the first online financial support to the Advertising Federation of electronic newspaper in the Russian Far East. In the Regions and the Guild of Eurasian Television 1995, the Tacoma News Tribune and the Designers. Vladivostok News started publishing an electronic version of the latter. This grant enabled the Innovative Initiatives Russian newspaper to develop its own inde- Under this category come innovative initiatives pendent online newspaper. The News Tribune designed to explore new ideas and approaches to trained the technical and journalistic staff, promote independent media. MDP supported enabling them to transfer the production from many such projects, though its record of success has Tacoma. This project also enabled the Russian been mixed. In addition to the MVF, discussed partner to create a local area network for broad earlier, other examples include the following: information sharing. The online newspaper is still being published. ■ Tomsk Community TV. Under this two-year project, conducted in collaboration with ■ In the Name of the Law. An experimental but Downtown Community Television (DCTV) of failed project was a collaborative effort between New York, Russia’s first community television U.S. and Russian writers and producers to center was established at TV2 in Tomsk. develop and produce a pilot episode of a Modeled after DCTV, the Tomsk Center was Russian weekly dramatic series. Moscow Studio designed to educate the local community in Tri-The and Yerosha Productions in New York producing television programs. DCTV provid- cooperated on this project, anticipating that ed equipment and helped train the staff. It also the genre had strong commercial potential in solicited assistance from two corporate Russia—just as LA Law and similar series had donors—Panasonic and AVID. After overcom- in the West (Media Development Program ing significant physical and technical difficul- 1998, 28). The pilot was also intended for sale ties, the center evolved into a community on the European television market. Nearly a teaching facility. Tomsk was the only city in year and a half after launching the project, no Russia at the time to have such high-end ran- agreement had been reached between the part- dom access editing systems. ners on story line or content. In the end, the partners were unable to agree on a screenplay The center has undertaken many activities, and the partnership was dissolved. such as holding seminars, producing weekly programs, and organizing Tomsk video festivals. Other Supporting Projects An integral part of the project involved a stu- RAMP/MDP also assisted a number of small and dent exchange: several Russian teenagers visited large projects designed to help individual media DCTV in New York, and several students from outlets or support a general infrastructure for their New York traveled to Tomsk, producing stories growth. to take home for their own local stations. Such exchanges, according to the director of DCTV, ■ The Volgograd printing press. This project helped the U.S. youngsters as much as the linked Gorodskiye Vesti—a daily paper—with Russians. The center still conducts seminars for an Alabama consulting firm to acquire and local residents using an AVID editing system install a used printing press in Volgograd at a from the program. More often, however, the total cost of $475,947. The funds were spent seminars are conducted to train budding young over 18 months, from mid-1996 to the end of journalists and television technicians. TV2 has 1997. The project, intended to advance the hired five people trained by the center. Volgograd publishing company’s independ-

22 PPC Evaluation Working Paper No. 7 ence, has had unintended consequences. The company has become profitable, largely due to Views on the Contributions of revenues from contract printing jobs for out- the Press Institutes siders, and the graphic quality of its publications has noticeably improved. The Russian “The overall contribution of RAPIC, NPI, and printing technicians greatly impressed their now PDI has been limited but significant. The U.S. counterparts with their mastery of print media scene would have been worse with- the new technology and creative technical out them. The predecessors of PDI played an adaptations to Russian operating conditions. important role in the late nineties.” Moreover, the printing press served as a train- A well-known observer of the media scene ing ground for printers and technicians from other Russian publications that were acquiring “The situation of the regional media has deteri- modern equipment on their own or with orated over the 10 years of Russia’s independ- MVF help. The printing press has remained ence, but it would be nearly hopeless without securely in the private hands of the grantee, the help Americans brought. … The [pro- who continues to print a broad range of inde- grams] have given some good people some pendent newspapers. A significant setback good ideas and some hope. They just have not occurred in 1999–2000, however, when sever- been able to connect the isolated success stories al of newspaper titles owned by the company into anything wider or deeper.” fell into the hands of the city government and lost some of their earlier independence. A Russian expert

■ International conferences. The program also sup- “If I were director of PDI, I would shut down ported Russian participation in a number of all the regional centers altogether. If they international conferences that exposed the should work, they should work well. They Russian media to the nature, organization, should have strong leaders, normal budgets, technologies, and norms of the free press. For and the ability to get things done. Right now, example, the program funded Russian partici- PDI is just a room with a director. ... If you’re pation in conferences on new media in the going to have centers, they need to work hori- United States, on post-Soviet media in transi- zontally and this is much harder to do.” tion in Scotland, and a convention of the Head of a prominent Russian media NGO National Association of Television Program Executives in the United States.

Russian American Media The dialogue has included bilateral meetings and Entrepreneurship Dialogue an intensive series of roundtable and working (RAMED) group sessions within the Russian media industry. Internews Russia and Internews Network played a Participants from some of the most successful media companies in both countries have been able central role in facilitating an exercise announced to develop new business connections and a more during the November 2001 Bush-Putin summit as thorough understanding of each other’s industries. a forum for direct contacts between Russian and Internews’s organizational work on RAMED U.S. media executives. Their dialogue is meant to has been funded through a modification to the help foster conditions for the growth of a competi- ITV grant. tive media sector in Russia, one that is able to deliver a full range of services based on the latest So far, the RAMED discussions and working technology and the highest journalistic standards. groups have produced the draft of a “state of the

Promoting Independent Media in Russia 23 industry” report on the Russian media, an analyti- Island, received a grant in 1997 for computer cal tool intended to serve as the basis for the devel- equipment and a second in 1999 to organize opment of recommendations for media reform. seminars on the law, economics, and journalistic However, the study has already sparked tension ethics. These drew 350 journalists, jurists, and between the Putin government’s conservative media administrative officials. sector and organizations such as Internews and the industry trade associations it helped build. In fact, Most of the foundation’s recent media grants have during a Russian industry meeting with President focused on improving the economic viability of Putin in May 2002 that grew out of RAMED, independent media enterprises. Such grants, which Putin stated openly that Internews is a propaganda support training, seminars, and publications on tool of the U.S. Government. management, information sharing, sales and advertising, and audience research, have been Until RAMED, Internews was viewed as an made to both established and relatively new organizing force in raising the level of profession- organizations. Some recent grantees include alism in the Russian media and had never been Sreda Center for Mass Media Research, Fund for publicly castigated for bias by Russian leaders. Independent Broadcasting, GDF, and Association Internews’s implementing partners, as well as of Journalism Teachers and Researchers. The management its own have expressed concern foundation has also funded distance learning and about this development and have been actively internet initiatives for the benefit of print and seeking funding from non-U.S. sources. broadcast media in various regions.

Eurasia Foundation Many of the small grants by the foundation for The Washington-based Eurasia Foundation is private enterprise development also indirectly help active in all the countries of the former Soviet independent media outlets. Such grants promote a Union, pursuing efforts to develop private enter- positive environment for the growth of the private prise and civil society as well as strengthen public sector and seek to improve the skills and expertise administration and policy. Its media support is of the managers. For example, in 2001, the founda- part of its engagement with efforts to promote tion gave a grant of about $35,000 to develop a civil society. course on copyright management for the Copyright Holders Association. Anecdotal evidence indicates Since its founding in 1992, the privately managed that the grants have enabled emerging media out- Eurasia Foundation has made more than 6,500 lets, associations, and other organizations to launch grants worth $130 million throughout the 12- or sustain existing activities. nation Commonwealth of Independent States, nearly half of them in Russia. Three-quarters of Programs’ Contribution to the the 1993–2002 funding came from USAID. From Media Sector early 1993 through September 2002, the founda- The above programs have contributed to the tion used $3,670,000 of USAID funding for growth of organizations, associations, and educa- various small (up to $35,000) media development tional institutions, thereby improving the institu- grants (Koenig 2002, Table 2). tional environment for the growth of independent media in Russia. With offices in Saratov, Vladivostok, and Moscow, and with half of its Russian grants going to recipi- As indicated earlier, GDF and IIL, which received ents outside Moscow, Eurasia has put money and funds from USAID, have focused on media laws advice into the hands of regional editors and pub- and their implementation—a major obstacle to the lishers, especially to advance legal awareness among growth of independent media in Russia. Media journalists. One grantee, an editor on Sakhalin laws in Russia are ambiguous. There is in practice

24 PPC Evaluation Working Paper No. 7 a two-tiered system of media laws—federal and regional. The Law on Mass Media, which came Comments on Programs’ into force in 1992, is outdated. A comprehensive Contributions media law is yet to be written. Moreover, implementation of the existing laws affecting media has “We started with a wrong premise. ... but we been quite problematic. There is still a shortage of realized our mistake. Certainly, we helped the lawyers who can provide legal assistance to news- Russian media at a critical stage. ... In retro- papers. spect, we should have focused more on building supporting organizations.” Two limitations have adversely affected the impact USAID official of these programs on the growth of independent media. First, the focus of RAMP/MDP on part- “RAMP/MDP was a modest success. It was a nership rather than the promotion of independent learning experience for us. ... One could media hindered success. According to the initial accomplish more with $10 million.” plan, all projects had to be collaborative, involving Consultant to RAMP/MDP Russian and U.S. organizations. The program sounded quite innovative because it would facili- “Eurasia Foundation is doing some good work, tate technology transfer while building media part- but it lacks a focus.” nerships between the two countries. The experi- Russian expert ence showed, however, that such collaborative projects are not the best mechanism for promoting the independent media sector. Because the focus of this was a good thing—it helped identify windows such projects is generally dictated by the interests of opportunity in a situation of great flux, and it of the two parties rather than the perceived needs did so with great effectiveness. Moreover, it allowed of the media sector, the goals and outcome of the USAID and its partners to take cutting-edge risks. programs became muddied. The problem with Some of that risktaking worked out very well; at these partnerships is that the goal was not clearly other times, it failed. Quite often, the mixed results stated from the start. U.S. partners often looked provided media developers with rich experience. on them as moneymaking opportunities, while Russian partners often perceived them as conduits The most successful projects were continued by for hardware—not for continuing, cooperative follow-on USAID programs, other donors, and relationships. Moreover, the very process of identi- outside investors. fying suitable partners overwhelmed program managers. The program wasted resources and time in its quest for promoting partnerships. 7. Lessons and Implications his paper has discussed the evolution of Second, both RAMP/MDP lacked a coherent strat- USAID media programs, their achieve- egy to promote independent media in Russia. They Tments and limitations, and their impact on funded a number of projects with differing focuses the development of nonstate media in Russia. This and approaches. Such projects were generally inde- chapter seeks to identify a few important lessons pendent of each other and produced no synergy. that the Russian experience offers for internation- Their impacts have been isolated and spasmodic. ally supported media interventions designed to In defense of these programs, however, it can be promote independent, responsive media in devel- argued that MDP sowed a wide variety of seeds by oping and transition societies. Given Russia’s supporting diverse projects, thereby increasing the unique circumstances—centuries of authoritarian chance that some of them grow to nurture inde- Czarist and communist rule over a vast land mass pendent and responsible media in Russia. Early on and an ethnically and socially diverse population—

Promoting Independent Media in Russia 25 USAID media support programs there offer no media sector. Although efforts in print media have mechanical models for easy application elsewhere. brought few deepseated improvements, there is a With that caveat, however, the relative successes general consensus that regional newspaper and peri- and failures of USAID-supported programs do odical journalists and managers might have been point to two broad conclusions. First, continuity in worse off without USAID’s support. One obvious developing and nurturing program clients—as car- lesson is that international donor agencies who find ried out by Internews Russia—pays higher divi- the right partners and fields of operation can for- dends than episodic contacts with scattered mulate and implement programs to help the participants. One significant dividend has been growth of nonstate media in transition societies, the development of a community of more or less thereby contributing to their political growth. independent regional television broadcasters, A comprehensive strategy for promoting brought together by Internews and aided in 2 independent media should focus on a) the forming associations with the potential of defend- economic viability of privatized or newly ing their collective independence and improving established media outlets, b) the institution- their professional standards and performance. alization of the norms of professional ethics, and c) enabling other voices to reach wider Second, indirect action—high-quality, focused audiences. training in journalism, management, advertising, design, and technology use—may advance press The Russian experience, though limited, points to a freedom more effectively than attempts to fit long-term strategy that can be followed by USAID Western models of media independence into a and other donors in promoting independent media. setting where economic difficulties and multiple The first element concerns the economic viability political pressures hinder such transplants. Again, of media enterprises, helping them run as stable Internews’s efforts to help broadcasters become businesses that are equipped to break even or make technically and commercially stronger appear to a profit. Without such financial independence, have bred stronger Russian practitioners of press owners and staff will be vulnerable to outside eco- freedom than did print media programs that gave nomic and political interests. initial priority to the dissemination of information (news) that had been off limits. In Russia, USAID and other donors initially focused on training journalists. The broadcast and In addition to these broad conclusions, the follow- print media programs were designed to impart ing lessons can be mentioned. skills and knowledge that were neither taught in journalism institutions nor practiced in the media. However, USAID’s partners gradually realized that Carefully planned media programs can make they should also support development of business 1 a difference, even in a highly complex politi- and management skills, as both are essential for the cal transition, by contributing to the growth growth of independent media. Internews, for exam- of nonstate media. ple, incorporated business development of regional television stations into training activities that had In Russia, USAID media programs had some primarily targeted journalists. On the other hand, notable achievements. USAID has been a major PDI and its earlier incarnations could not provide contributor to the growth of regional television sta- much matching help to regional print media. tions. A significant number are becoming increasingly independent and profitable. The Agency has Economic realities meant that print outlets got far also facilitated the growth of many organizations less advertising revenue than broadcasters; political that have played useful roles in strengthening the rivalries diverted what there was of a print advertis-

26 PPC Evaluation Working Paper No. 7 ing stream into many small channels. NPI/PDI, other than official or commercially self-interested moreover, had neither the technical and organiza- ones. The wider the variety of information and tional resources nor the will to reach about 2,000 opinion to which citizens have access, the more regional papers and periodicals that were attempt- responsibly they can form their own judgments. ing to stay independent of state subsidies or powerful patrons. This is not to argue that USAID or other agencies involved in media assistance should simultaneously The success of broadcasters who were helped and focus on all these elements. Such a course might the paucity of independent print media testify to not be possible, given constraints of time and the vital importance of business development resources. What is important, however, is to recog- assistance for privatized or newly established com- nize that the development of an independent media mercial media. As Russia’s economy strengthens, is a long-term process and multipronged efforts are USAID should focus on developing programs necessary. and strategies that focus on both journalism and business training and education for enterprises The term independent media can create capable and willing to put such assistance to 3 unjustified complacency in policy circles practical effect. because it gives the impression that privatized or newly established nonstate media are The second element is the institutionalization of essentially independent simply if they are not the norms of journalism: fair and balanced cover- owned by the state. age of news, presentation of diverse viewpoints, and editorial independence. In Russia, financial USAID has widely used the term independent independence makes it more likely—but does not media to refer to nonstate media in its policy and guarantee—that a media outlet will observe such program documents. The underlying assumption is professionalism. Western experience demonstrating that such media are independent because they are that reliable reporting and clear, attractive presen- not controlled by governmental authorities. The tation of information draw both readers and problem is that a most of the privatized or newly advertisers has guided the success of a number established media outlets in Russia are not inde- of specialized publications, but it has not proven as pendent, in the strict sense of the term. Political convincing to regional editors and publishers seek- and economic interests have frequently gained own- ing a general audience. However, since greater ership of these outlets to pursue their business and professionalism should, over time, pay dividends political agendas. Such outlets are not run as pri- to its practitioners, donor-supported media vate businesses, much less as independent publica- programs should focus on training, professional tions. To characterize them as independent is, at ethics, and the establishment of professional best, a misnomer and, at worst, can give the wrong associations that promote professional norms. impression that all is well with the nonstate media. The implication is that the growth of nonstate Training of this kind should be extended to man- media is a necessary, though not sufficient, condi- agers of television stations, and Internews has began tion for the emergence of independent media. to do so. By this means, their new understanding of the roles and obligations of journalists will encour- 4 USAID’s policy of assisting only nonstate age the freedom and support necessary for profes- media is essentially sound, but program sional news operations. Internews’s short programs managers should enjoy flexibility in for managers have already proved helpful. implementing it.

The last element of a strategy should be a search for In Russia as elsewhere, USAID has followed a poli- ways to open media of all kinds to views and voices cy of assisting only nonstate media. As the primary

Promoting Independent Media in Russia 27 objective of the assistance is to promote commercial As a result of privatization and commercial- media, it makes little sense to provide assistance to 6 ization, many educational and cultural state-owned enterprises. While this policy is essen- programs formerly shown on state-owned tially sound, the Russian experience shows that two television have been crowded out by enter- factors warrant programmatic flexibility. First, any tainment programming. The designers of assistance that helps institutionalize the norms of USAID media programs should recognize professional journalism in state-owned media out- this, and, when possible, take steps to widen lets improves the enabling environment for inde- access to and increase the quantity of such pendent media. For example, many state regional programs. television stations in Russia have, at their own expense, sent journalists to Internews’s training pro- Under communism, state television in Russia ran a grams to improve their professional skills. It is rea- wide variety of educational, social, and cultural sonable to assume that the exposure to training programs. Such programs often exposed the audi- improved the quality of news coverage by these sta- ence to scientific and technological developments, tions. Second, in many cases, it is difficult to deter- social history, and the rich cultural heritage of mine the ownership of the enterprise. Although Russia. Because such programs do not generate nominally commercial, a large number of regional advertising revenues, they have largely disappeared newspapers get direct and indirect subsidies from from privatized television stations or even state- the state. On the other hand, many state-owned owned stations. They have been replaced by popu- regional television stations are increasingly asserting lar entertainment programs. Although cable and their independence. Under these conditions, pro- satellite television is available throughout much of grammatic flexibility, rather than a rigid adherence the country, it is still financially out of reach for a to the stated policy, seems appropriate. great many households. In the United States, these alternatives, along with public television, provide In transition societies, when concerns about access to many educational and news stations. 5 media assistance from former adversaries The situation in Russia, however, is not likely to exist, the prudent course is to focus on skills improve in the near future. USAID should learn and training, not on the content. from this experience while promoting privatization of the state-owned media enterprises in other tran- Internews’s programs are designed to improve jour- sition and developing countries. It can help such nalistic, managerial, and business skills and expert- countries develop suitable strategies so that people ise. The underlying assumption is that both news continue to have access to high-quality alternative content and coverage will improve as journalists educational and cultural programs. and managers become more professional. Such an approach has been quite prudent. For example, experts agree that as a result of the training provided by Internews, the quality of news reporting has improved in regional television stations. News departments are becoming more sensitive to issues of accuracy, balance, and presentation of differing viewpoints. This is a valuable lesson that USAID can apply elsewhere.

28 PPC Evaluation Working Paper No. 7 Annex: Principal Contacts

Evgeniy Abov, deputy general director, Prof Media, Simon Cosgrove, European Initiative for Moscow Democracy and Human Rights, EU Delegation of the European Commission in Russia Ludmila Alexeeva, chairman, Moscow Helsinki Group Elena Dubchenko, coordinator, Russian Mass Media Support Program, Open Society Institute, Andrei Allakhverdov, editor, Radio Foundation of Soros Foundation, Russia Russia Yosif M. Dzyaloshinskiy, president, Commission Jon Alpert, director, DCTV and project manager for Free Access to Information for MDP Tomsk Community Media Center Alexandr Gorshkov, deputy director, Investigative Manana Aslamazyan, president, Internews Russia Journalism Agency, St. Petersburg

Nina Baliasnikova, coordinator, Russian Mass Chris Hamilton, PDI/Freedom Forum Library, Media Support Program, Open Society Institute, St. Petersburg Soros Foundation, Russia Anna Kachkaeva, training director, Internews Dr. Svetlana Balmaeva, dean, TV-Radio Department, Liberal Arts University, Yekaterinburg Mikhail Kaluzhsky, director of operations, IREX (Press Development Institute) Eugenia Benigni, Political Section, EU Delegation of the European Commission in Russia Olga Karabonova, executive director, Press Development Institute Raisa Bespechnaya, general director, Academy of Russian Television Foundation Boris Kirshin, editor-in-chief, Chelyabinski Rabochii, Chelyabinsk Arina Borodina, media correspondent, Kommersant, Moscow Silvia Kofler, head of Press and Information Section, EU Delegation of the European Arkadiy Borotilin, consultant, Interregional Media Commission in Russia Consulting Center, St. Petersburg Svetlana Kolchenskaya, general director, Volga Lev Bruni, journalist, Vremya Novostey, Moscow Independent TV, Nizhny Novgorod

Sergei Chervach, deputy editor, Tomskaya Nedalya, Irma Kumylganova, senior lecturer, Faculty of Tomsk Journalism, M.V. Lomonosov State University, Moscow

Promoting Independent Media in Russia 29 Grigori Kunis, media consultant, St. Petersburg Olga Noskova, director, NNTV, Nizhny Novgorod

Georgi Kuznetsov, professor of journalism, Moscow Cathy Packer, professor, University of North State University Carolina School of Journalism, program director, UNCCH/Ural State University Broadcast Vladimir Lapreen, director and chief editor, Beerja Journalism School MDP Program (Newspaper) Oleg Panfilov, director, Center for Journalism in Alexander Levinsky, business editor, Izvestiya, Extreme Situations, Russian Union of Journalists Moscow Alexei Pankin, director, Russian Mass Media Grigory Libergal, programming director, Internews Support Program, Soros Foundation, Russia Russia Sam Patten, International Republican Institute, Masha Lipman, deputy editor, Yezhenedelniy Moscow Zhurnal, Moscow Irina Pletneva, managing editor, Tomskaya Nedalya, Boris N. Lozovskiy, dean, Journalism Faculty, Ural Tomsk State University, Yekaterinburg Vladimir Pozner, president, Academy of Russian Ronan MacAongusa, second secretary, EU Television Foundation Delegation of the European Commission in Russia Aleksandr Privalov, dean, Higher Journalism Jeff Magness, art director, Press Development School, Higher School of Economics Institute, St. Petersburg Andrei Richter, director, Media Law and Policy Olga Makarova, director, Press Development Institute Institute Vladivostok Arseniy Roginski, chairman of the board, Drusilla Menaker, chief of party, IREX (Press Memorial, Moscow Development Institute) Andrey Safronov, PR Director, Russian National Irina Mikhalova, secretary, National Public Radio, Association of Teleradio Broadcasters Moscow Stephen Schmida, regional director, The Eurasia Peter Morley, arts editor, St. Petersburg Times Foundation

Victor Muchnik, general eirector and Chief Editor, Oxana Selekhova, program officer, The Eurasia Tomsk TV2 Foundation

Sergey Muratov, professor of journalism, Moscow Anna Sharogradskaya, director, Press Development State University Institute, St. Petersburg

Dr. Irina Netchayeva, deputy dean, Faculty of Ludmila K. Shevchenko, Director, Press Journalism, M.V. Lomonosov State University, Development Institute, Yekaterinburg Moscow

30 PPC Evaluation Working Paper No. 7 Victor Shmailov, project director, Novaya Rabota, Igor Yakovenko, general secretary, Russian Union of Yekaterinburg Journalists, Moscow

Grigori Shvedov, editor-in-chief, Memorial, Moscow Irina Yassina, project director, Open Russia Foundation Alexei Simonov, president, Glasnost Defense Foundation, Russian Union of Journalists Anastasia Yevdokimova, assistant to the director, Press Development Institute, St. Petersburg Vladislav Sinalitskiy, president, Interregional Media Consulting Center, St. Petersburg Victor Yukechev, director, Press Development Institute, Siberia Region Yaroslav Skvortsov, deputy dean, International Journalism Department, Moscow State University Irina Yurna, program officer, Ford Foundation, for International Relations Moscow Office

Natalya Skvortsova, project director, Vedomosti; Ravil Zagretdinov, first deputy editor-in-chief, director of the Center of Journalism Technologies, Delovoy Peterburg, St. Petersburg Nizhny Novgorod Yassen N. Zassourksky, dean, Faculty of Journalism, M.V. Lomonosov State University, Moscow Irina Smirnova, manager, Praktika Yuliana Zhaboponkova, consultant, Interregional Irene Stevenson, executive director, Solidarity Media Consulting Center, St. Petersburg Center, Moscow Andrei Zinoviev, advertising director, Chelyabinski Dmitri Surnin, codirector, Media Viability Fund, Rabochii (newspaper), Chelyabinsk Moscow Elena Zlotnikova, deputy general director, Kultura; Lada Tikhonova, press assistant, USIS, member of the Media Committee of Non- Yekaterinburg Commercial Partnerships; vice president of the Russian National Association of Teleradio Broadcasters Oleg Tregyakov, editor-in-chief, Delovoy Peterburg, St. Petersburg Nina Zvereva, director, Praktika School of Broadcast Journalism, Nizhny Novgorod Irina Tsvetkova, director, Press Development Institute, Volga Region Elena Zyrina, president, Dobraya Volya, Yekaterinburg Aleksandr Verzilov, BBC School radio instructor, Rostov State Teleradiocompany, Rostov-on-Don

Tatiana Kondratskaya Vintizenko, editor-in-chief, Krasnoye Znamya, Tomsk

Natalya Vlasova, general director, Radio Foundation of Russia

Promoting Independent Media in Russia 31

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34 PPC Evaluation Working Paper No. 7 This Evaluation Working Paper can be ordered from USAID’s Development Experience Clearinghouse (DEC). To download or order publications, go to www.dec.org and enter the document identification number in the search box. The DEC may also be contacted at 8403 Colesville Rd, Ste 210, Silver Spring, MD 20910; tel 301-562-0641; fax 301-588-7787; email [email protected]. IBI–International Business Initiatives, Inc., furnished editorial and production assistance. For more information, contact U.S. Agency for International Development Washington, D.C. 20523-1000 Telephone: 202-712-4810 Internet: www.usaid.gov

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