Universiti Putra Malaysia Politics of Indigenizing Brecht's Work in Selected Plays of Ajoka Theatre in Pakistan Taimur Kayani

UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA

POLITICS OF INDIGENIZING BRECHT’S WORK IN SELECTED PLAYS OF AJOKA THEATRE IN PAKISTAN

UPM

TAIMUR KAYANI

POLITICS OF INDIGENIZING BRECHT’S WORK IN SELECTED PLAYS OF AJOKA THEATRE IN PAKISTAN

UPM

TAIMUR KAYANI

September 2018

All material contained within the thesis, including without limitation text, logos, icons, photographs, and all other artwork, is copyright material of Universiti Putra Malaysia unless otherwise stated. Use may be made of any material contained within the thesis for non-commercial purposes from the copyright holder. Commercial use of material may only be made with the express, prior, written permission of Universiti Putra Malaysia.

UPM

Abstract of thesis presented to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia in fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

POLITICS OF INDIGENIZING BRECHT’S WORK IN SELECTED PLAYS OF AJOKA THEATRE IN PAKISTAN

TAIMUR KAYANI

September 2018

UPM Chairman : Associate Professor Arbaayah Ali Termizi, PhD Faculty : Modern Languages and Communication

Transcultural theatrical adaptation has become an increasingly important and emerging domain of inquiry for scholars of language and literature because it illuminates points of contention, raises questions, problems and allows multiple perspectives to suggest answers to the contemporary issues. In this context, it is also a key issue and vigorous focus for dramatists and artists in storytelling due to its collaborative creative mode as a process, continuing popularity as a product. In recognition of above mentioned issue, Brecht’s canonical literary work and its indigenization in Pakistan offer a valuable transcultural adaptation study because it was performed through a radical theatre movement with a distinct dramaturgy and political philosophy in two different cultural contexts and historical frame of references. As the foremost representative of Brecht’s radical dramaturgy, in Pakistan since 1983, Ajoka theatre utilized these adaptations as socio-political spaces to challenge dominant discourse on the rise of dictatorship and capitalism in Pakistan. The study anchors the selected plays within their historical contexts, emphasizing the value regarding the plays themselves as historical documents. This study addresses this gap by exploring and examining the political dimension of these theatrical adaptations of Brecht selected works in light of Hutcheon’s theory of adaptation and New Historicism. The study comprised three separate sections. The first dealt with criticismCOPYRIGHT of capitalist society, the second with the means of changing that society and third with the nexus between capitalism and dictatorship. This dissertation investigated the socio-political imperatives: the emergence of fundamentalist Martial Law regime, rise of capitalism with nexus between it and religion which necessitated © the transcultural adaptation of selected Brecht’s plays thus confirmed Hutcheon’s assumption of historical intentionality that socio-political conditions also create the environment for adaptation and that the theory of adaptation should address that researched area of investigation. Secondly, it explored Brecht’s theatre adaptability to traditional Asian folk theatre and locate distinct transcultural adaptation process which

made them new cultural products and thirdly, the study conducted new historicist study of selected Brecht plays and their adaptations with dictatorship and capitalism as a historical context, which revealed thought provoking findings, contradicted the previous researches which label them as ‘timeless pieces of literature’. The study revealed that Ajoka theatre’s continuous engagement with Brecht’s work is highly productive. Ajoka theatre has gained radical identity and an international reputation while Brecht’s canon has gained a new set of audience, dynamic Asian theatrical space and opportunity to propagate Brecht’s social and political philosophy. Finally, since majority of the current research look at political dimensions and social factors in Pakistan from the late 1970s onward have contributed towards Pakistan’s image as a terrorist land, particularly after 9/11, this dissertation provides a fresh look on the struggle of Pakistani nation as a vibrant, democratic and theatre loving nation.

UPM

Abstrak tesis yang dikemukakan kepada Senat Universiti Putra Malaysia sebagai memenuhi keperluan untuk ijazah Doktor Falsafah

POLITIK MEMPERIBUMIKAN KARYA BRECHT DALAM DRAMA TEATER AJOKA DI PAKISTAN

Oleh

TAIMUR KAYANI

September 2018

UPM Pengerusi : Profesor Madya Arbaayah Ali Termizi, PhD Fakulti : Bahasa Moden dan Komunikasi

Adaptasi teater transbudaya menjadi semakin penting dan menjadi domain penyelidikan bagi para sarjana bahasa dan kesusasteraan kerana ia menjelaskan perkara yang dibahaskan, menimbulkan persoalan, masalah dan mewujudkan pelbagai perspektif untuk cadangan jawapan kepada isu-isu kontemporari. Dalam konteks ini, ia juga menjadi isu utama dan fokus kukuh untuk para pelakon dan artis dalam cerita kerana mod kreatif kerjasamanya sebagai satu proses, terus popular sebagai produk. Sebagai mengiktiraf isu yang dinyatakan di atas, karya sastera berkanun Brecht dan pemperibumiannya di Pakistan menawarkan kajian adaptasi transbudaya yang bernilai kerana ia dilakukan melalui pergerakan teater radikal dengan dramaturgi dan falsafah politik dalam dua konteks budaya dan kerangka rujukan sejarah yang berbeza. Sebagai wakil terkemuka dramaturgi radikal Brecht di Pakistan sejak 1983, teater Ajoka menggunakan adaptasi ini sebagai ruang sosiopolitik untuk mencabar perbincangan dominan dengan meningkatnya kediktatoran dan kapitalisme di Pakistan. Kajian ini menggunakan drama terpilih dalam konteks sejarahnya, yang drama tersebut juga mempunyai nilai sebagai dokumen sejarah. Kajian ini membahas lompang yang wujud dengan meneroka dan mengkaji dimensi politik adaptasi teater karya-karya terpilih Brecht berdasarkan teori adaptasi dan pensejarahan baru Hutcheon. Kajian ini terdiri daripada tiga bahagian berasingan. Bahagian pertama membicarakan tentang kritikan masyarakatCOPYRIGHT kapitalis, bahagian kedua membicarakan kaedah perubahan masyarakat dan ketiga membicarakan pertalian antara kapitalisme dan kediktatoran. Disertasi ini mengkaji kepentingan sosiopolitik: kemunculan rejim undang-undang tentera fundamentalis, kemunculan kapitalisme yang mempunyai hubungan antara satu sama © lain serta agama yang memerlukan adaptasi transbudaya bagi drama Brecht yang terpilih yang mengesahkan andaian Hutcheon tentang kesengajaan sejarah bahawa keadaan sosiopolitik juga mewujudkan persekitaran untuk adaptasi dan teori adaptasi sepatutnya mampu menjelaskan bidang kajian yang diselidiki. Kedua, kajian ini meneroka keteradaptasian teater Brecht kepada teater rakyat Asia tradisional dan

iii

mencari proses adaptasi transbudaya yang berbeza bagi menjadikannya produk budaya yang baru dan ketiga, kajian ini menggunakan penyelidikan pensejarahan baru bagi drama Brecht terpilih dan adaptasinya dengan kediktatoran dan kapitalisme sebagai konteks sejarah, yang menunjukkan dapatan yang merangsang pemikiran, berlawanan dengan penyelidikan terdahulu yang melabelkannya sebagai 'suatu karya sastera abadi'. Kajian menunjukkan bahawa penglibatan berterusan teater Ajoka dengan karya Brecht sangat produktif. Teater Ajoka telah mendapat identiti radikal dan reputasi antarabangsa sementara kanun Brecht telah memperoleh suatu set baru penonton, ruang teater Asia dinamik dan peluang untuk menyebarkan falsafah sosial dan politik Brecht. Akhirnya, oleh kerana majoriti penyelidikan semasa melihat dimensi politik dan faktor sosial di Pakistan dari akhir 1970-an dan seterusnya telah menyumbang ke arah imej Pakistan sebagai wilayah pengganas khususnya selepas 9/11, disertasi ini dapat memberi pandangan baru terhadap perjuangan negara Pakistan sebagai negara demokratik dan menyayangi teater.

UPM

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost, I acknowledge the tireless efforts of my supervisor and mentor, Dr. Arbaayah Ali Termizi, for her continuous motivation, constructive brief comments, meticulous reading of my work and incisive guidance. She is my role model for scholarship, academic integrity and dedication. Here I also express my profound gratitude to Dr.Wan Roselezam Wan Yahya and Dr. Ida Baizura Bahar who remained vigilant yet accommodating as my supervisory committee members and shared their wealth of knowledge in literature and research.

Besides, I appreciate the wholehearted financial support of my family and particularly encouragement of my lovely wife, Imrana Mehr. One person who stands out in this ‘isolated’ and ‘nerve breaking’ journey called Ph.D is my seventy three years old young mother Zamurad Nasreen Kayani, who became the ‘light house’ of inspiration as she remained with me throughout my stay in Malaysia and cheeredUPM me all the way to finish line. I would like to express my special regards to the senior librarian of G.C. University, Naeem Mehmood, who took keen interest in my research and went extra mile to provide me the latest academic resources and rare manuscripts that this research builds upon.

Finally, I am grateful to all of my internal and external examiners for their careful reading and accurate judgment.

UPM

COPYRIGHT © This thesis was submitted to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia and has been accepted as fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. The members of the Supervisory Committee were as follows:

Arbaayah binti Ali Termizi, PhD Associate Professor Faculty of Modern Languages and Communications Universiti Putra Malaysia (Chairperson)

Wan Roselezam Wan Yahya, PhD Associate Professor Faculty of Modern Languages and Communications Universiti Putra Malaysia (Member) UPM

Ida Baizura Bahar, PhD Senior Lecturer Faculty of Modern Languages and Communications Universiti Putra Malaysia (Member)

ROBIAH BINTI YUNUS, PhD Professor and Dean School of Graduate Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia

Date: COPYRIGHT

vii

Declaration by graduate student

I hereby confirm that:  this thesis is my original work;  quotations, illustrations and citations have been duly referenced;  this thesis has not been submitted previously or concurrently for any other degree at any institutions;  intellectual property from the thesis and copyright of thesis are fully-owned by Universiti Putra Malaysia, as according to the Universiti Putra Malaysia (Research) Rules 2012;  written permission must be obtained from supervisor and the office of Deputy Vice-Chancellor (Research and innovation) before thesis is published (in the form of written, printed or in electronic form) including books, journals, modules, proceedings, popular writings, seminar papers, manuscripts, posters, reports, lecture notes, learning modules or any other materials as stated in the Universiti Putra Malaysia (Research) Rules 2012; UPM  there is no plagiarism or data falsification/fabrication in the thesis, and scholarly integrity is upheld as according to the Universiti Putra Malaysia (Graduate Studies) Rules 2003 (Revision 2012-2013) and the Universiti Putra Malaysia (Research) Rules 2012. The thesis has undergone plagiarism detection software

Signature: Date:

Name and Matric No: Taimur Kayani, GS43317

viii

Declaration by Members of Supervisory Committee

This is to confirm that:  the research conducted and the writing of this thesis was under our supervision;  supervision responsibilities as stated in the Universiti Putra Malaysia (Graduate Studies) Rules 2003 (Revision 2012-2013) were adhered to.

Signature: Name of Chairman of Supervisory Committee: Associate Professor Dr. Arbaayah binti Ali Termizi

UPM Signature: Name of Member of Supervisory Committee: Professor Dr. Wan Roselezam Wan Yahya

Signature: Name of Member of Supervisory Committee: Dr. Ida Baizura Bahar

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ABSTRACT i ABSTRAK iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v APPROVAL vi DECLARATION viii LIST OF FIGURES xii

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Background of the Study 1 1.2 Political and Economic History of Pakistan: A Brief Overview 9 1.3 Defining the Contours of Ajoka Theatre: Critical reviewUPM 15 1.4 Conceptualizing Adaptation in a political discourse 18 1.5 Statement of the Problem 24 1.6 Research Objectives 28 1.7 Significance and Contribution of the Study 28 1.8 Scope and Limitations of the Study 30 1.9 Structure of the Thesis 31 1.10 Definition of Key Terms 33

2 LITERATURE REVIEW 36 2.1 Introduction 36 2.2 Dictatorship as a Historical Context 37 2.3 History of Reception of Brecht’s Work in Pakistan 45 2.4 Theories Related to Study 55 2.4.1 New Historicism 55 2.4.2 Hutcheon’s Theory of Adaptation 60 2.4.3 Jauss’s horizon of expectations 63 2.5 Research Related to the Indigenization of Brecht’s work 66 2.6 Summary and Emerging Issues 74

3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 77 3.1 Conceptual Framework 77 3.1.1 Selected texts and authors 77 COPYRIGHT3.2 Representations of Capitalism and Dictatorship 78 3.2.1 Parallel reading of selected texts along with co-texts 78 3.3 Key Assumptions of New Historicism 79 3.4 Key Recommendations by Hutcheon’s Theory of Adaptation 81 © 3.5 Application of Jauss’s horizon of expectations 81 3.6 Conclusion 82

4 A REPRESENTATION OF MODERN CAPITALIST SOCIETY 83 4.1 Introduction 83 4.2 Representation of capitalism in academic studies in Pakistan 90 4.3 Successful Performance History of TheThreepenny Opera in Pakistan 91 4.4 Emerging Capitalist Pakistani Society: Parallel study of non- literary texts 95 4.5 Satire on Pakistani Capitalist Society through Brechtian Theatrical Model 100 4.6 Conclusion 105

5 TRANSFORMATION OF CAPITALIST SOCIETY 107 5.1 Introduction 107 5.2 Success Factors: Ajoka Innovations in Adapting The Caucasian Chalk Circle 119 5.3 Politics Behind the Absence of the Prologue in Adaptation 120 5.4 Changes in the ‘Horizon of Expectations’ of AudienceUPM 121 5.5 Contingent Transcultural Adaptation Model in Black is My Robe 122 5.6 Revival of Cultural Heritage through adaptation 124 5.7 Politics of Resistance in Black is my Robe 125 5.8 Conclusion 127

6 CAPITALIST DICTATORSHIP REPRESENTATIONS 130 6.1 Introduction 130 6.2 Brecht’s Social and Political Philosophy against Dictatorship 134 6.3 Representation of Capitalist dictatorship in historical texts 135 6.4 The Third Knock: Extension of Brecht’s social and political Philosophy 138 6.5 Success Factors in Pakistani Arturo Ui 147 6.6 Conclusion 152

7 CONCLUSION 154 7.1 Research Objectives: Summary of the Findings and Conclusions 154 7.2 Limitations 160 7.3 Recommendations for future studies 160 7.4 Contribution to the Knowledge 161

REFERENCESCOPYRIGHT 163 BIODATA OF STUDENT 174 LIST OF PUBLICATIONS 175

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1.1 Brecht’s Epic theatre based on Representative Characters 3

1.2 Team of Ajoka Theatre discussing the play text of BK 15

4.1 TPO on Berlin Stage in 1928 85

4.2 TDT by Ajoka 89

4.3 BQ by Ajoka Theatre 100

5.1 The Caucasian Chalk Cirle by Brecht 108 5.2 Chak Chakar by Ajoka Theatre enacted in 1985 UPM117 5.3 Stage Performance of BMR 122

6.1 Hitler as a Capitalist Dictator shown on Stage 134

6.2 TK performed by Ajoka Theatre in 1997 138

6.3 BK performed by Ajoka Theatre in 1997 147

6.4 Colourful Spectacle of BK by Ajoka Theatre in 1999 147

xii

CHAPTER 1

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

I have a firm faith that Brecht watches our every performance and smiles at us to see how much he has transformed us and through the same performance process how much we have changed him (Key note address by Madeeha Gauhar (2010), Dramaturg Ajoka Theatre, in the Brecht Theatre Festival, Lahore, Pakistan.

Transcultural theatrical adaptation has become an increasingly important and emerging domain of inquiry for scholars of language and literature because through indigenizing and twisting old stories it illuminates points of contention,UPM raises questions, problems and allows multiple perspectives to suggest answers to the contemporary issues (Sanders, 2006; Whittington, 2008; Gupta, 2013; Leitch, 2008; Cardwell, 2002; Burrough, 1991). These interesting elements can be observed in the Gauhar’s statement cited at the outset which showcases the complexity and multifaceted challenges in adapting Brecht’s selected work in Pakistan. In this context, it is also a key issue and vigorous focus for dramatists and artists in “storytelling” due to its “collaborative” creative mode as a process, “continuing popularity” as a product (Hutcheon, 2006). Storytelling is therefore a key element in discussion of Transcultural adaptation.

Similarly, Kinney (2013) in his critical review of Hutcheon’s A Theory of Adaptation (2006) considers it as a unique process worth examining and exploring because:

Storytelling allows for the sharing of ideas and the teaching of ideals across cultures. Common themes can be communicated to a number of audiences through culture traditions that both show – through theatre, film, television – and tell through novels, books radio- human values. Many of these stories and lessons have been told and told again, yet they continue to find a place in our cultural landscape. This occurs through the unique process of adaptation. (p.7).

COPYRIGHT Socially and culturally, storytelling is as ancient as the history of civilization. For centuries stories have been shared in almost all cultures as a potent medium of instruction, guidance, entertainment, and in order to inculcate moral values. It is © through storytelling that the traditional values are instilled in social consciousness. Many conventions that are upheld are due to a constant drilling of the facts that we as children believe and as an adult pass it on. In this particular role the storytelling takes the form of culture preservation. Moreover, it is the presence of the narrator that makes

storytelling more effective in different ways, “the figure of storyteller lends cultural weight to the histories presented and foregrounds the ways in which such narratives are re-constructed: they are learned and re-told, given added inflections, altered slightly, and packaged in a way that pleases and instructs the listener” (Gilbert, 2006, p.129).

In literature, round the globe, the storytelling has been present in variety of forms: fables, legends, folklore, epic poems, even in the form of chorus in the classic drama, Sanskrit drama1 and Swaang2. As Taylor (1997) agrees that “the theatre is just a logical extension of storytelling. To look back at the roots and origins of traditional storytelling it’s about taking your audience on a journey through the use of your voice, your body, and the spoken words. And going from that onto the stage is just the next logical progression”. (p.140).

In the similar manner, in adaptation context, Benjamin (1992) considers “story telling is always the art of repeating stories” (p.90). While, Hutcheon (2006)UPM goes one step further and asserts that “art is derive from other arts, stories are born of other stories” (p.2). It could be argued however, the telling and re-telling alter the way we perceive things in a fixed narrative context. Each new version speaks to the audience of its own time. The reliance on the traditional storytelling and stories is done by “contemporizing” of what is known as past. The constant looking back at times suggests looking for the possibility of answers that the past stories can provide. Brecht’s The Caucasian Chalk Circle, Derek Walcott’s Odyssey, and Girish Karnad’s Hayavadana are the re-workings of classical drama, epic poem and mythology respectively. Through these the playwrights make the past speak to the present and address the present situation. Though the stories mainly remain the same, it is the treatment that injects a new life to the previous versions and gives them an altogether a different visage.

This “here and now” scenario and contemporary audience are important in another playwright, whose major preoccupation is the re-ordering of present state of affairs. Shahid Nadeem, the key adapter of Brecht’s work and Pakistan’s foremost playwright who incorporates in his plays various traditional forms of storytelling; folk theatre, folk poetry, Swaang theatre, and makes use of a Ravi3. The subsequent fusion is an enriching form of theatre aiming at entertainment and guidance of the audience.

WithCOPYRIGHT this context in mind, therefore, beside aesthetics, story telling also has a pivotal political dimension. It carries forward a “complex discussion of the politics of histography4, and the textual construction and representation of reality” (Tissera, 2015, p.28). In Germany historical context, Brecht’s engaging and unearthing alternative narrative5 addresses economic inequality produced by the spread of © 6 western liberal capitalism . It also focuses on the huge private cost of public events such a World War I and II. His signature plays Mother Courage, Arturu Ui and The Caucasian Chalk Circle thus represents the other version of political history (Leach, 2015).

Another matter of controversy is related to the question of relevancy of Brecht’s anti- capitalist work in contemporary world. Keeping this concern in view, it can be argued that due to this “visibility” of alternative narrative as mentioned in previous paragraph, the criticism on Brecht’s work has been influenced by his critics’ evaluation of his Marxist political philosophy and therefore presents multiple conflicting perspectives on his work. In modern theatrical context, on one end of the spectrum, Brecht’s political work (mainly in the form of adaptations) is considered as one of “the most important, most indispensable plays of the modern theatre” due to their distinctive political appeal, enduring relevance, narrotology, representative characterization and unequivocally theatrical form. On the other hand, it was considered as “irrelevant, dead and out-dated” like Marxist philosophy due to the change in economic perspective of the contemporary world. At first sight there is much to support the first perspective. For instance, Clurman, in introduction to Nine Plays of the Modern Theatre (1981) states Brecht selected play, The Caucasian Chalk Circle as among the most representative play of our era:

There is another respect in which Brecht is contemporary and UPMpre-eminent: his work is cast in unequivocally theatrical form. Along with poetically inspired dialogue he employs song and musical accompaniment, innovative scenic inventions rarely found in the drama which runs from Ibsen through to German expressionists. Brecht’s formal means which mark to return –he said “Japanese”- and new kind of direction (demanded by the texts themselves), have influenced a large area of contemporary stagecraft, whatever their “ideology”.(p.ix).

Figure 1.1 : Brecht’s Epic theatre based on Representative Characters

For the purpose of this dissertation, on the other hand, a further point of significance is critical discussion on differing views on ‘contemporary relevance’ of Brecht’s political work from across the literary spectrum. Therefore, in re-visiting Brecht’s canonical work it also pertinent to re-view the twenty–first century’s ‘opposite perspective’ on their contemporary significance. According to Leach and other likeminded critics, although Brecht’s dramaturgical principles continuous to have an enormous affect however, the political content of his plays due to its historical and geographical specificity seems “redundant”. This particular opposite perspective reflected by Leach in Makers of Modern Theatre (2004) draws attention towards this ‘decline’ in the significance of his canonical work:

By the end of the twentieth century, Brecht seemed ‘dead’ to many. He had acquired the status of ‘classic’ and his plays, though no doubt interesting, were no more (and no less) relevant to today’s politics, societies or aesthetics than were say, Buchner’s Wozeck or D.H. Lawrence‘s The Daughter –in –law. He was said to have held and presented a simplified view of life. The Marxism he had exposed all his life had disintegrated in Moscow, and UPM his avant-garde Modernism was outdated and gauched in time of international mass culture, global consumerism, and the World Wide Web. (p.146).

More importantly, this opponent perceptive on contemporary relevance of Brecht’s work has another significant aspect which is ignored by critics and researchers. It is regarding the nature and contextual specifity of his theatrescape. Political in letter and spirit based on external realities7, it seems to serve the central function of political theatre 8which is to intervene in the “given historical circumstances of its time as a piece of theatre” (Aziz, 2016). This particular nature and specific contribution of political theatre is also observed by Shevtsova (2016) in her article, “Political Theatre in Europe: East to West, 2007-2014” in New Theatre Quarterly as:

Political Theatre is only political in a particularly society in time-space and place and its resonance as political varies according to socially defined groups of people; Nothing is absolute, universal or essentialist about political theatre. (p.142).

Keeping this specific ‘purpose’ and ‘shortcoming’ of the political theatre in view and drawing from a vast body of literature, this study critically examines the ‘dynamic yet unstudiedCOPYRIGHT connection between Brecht’s source texts and their adaptation based on this relevancy perspective. The central and overarching premise of the dissertation is that due to the historic, political and geographic specification of Brecht’s selected texts, the transcultural adaptation seems the appropriate literary vehicle to carry forward the © historically contextualized Brecht’s selected plays into current century, new geographical location and in different languages.

It can also be added that due to this fusion of Western and Eastern dramaturgies9, Brecht’s theatrical work has an international appeal for adaptation. Canonical plays became a source of inspiration for Asian dramatists in India, Bangladesh, Singapore Sri Lanka and Pakistan in both content and form (Khatoon, 2011; Gupta 2013; Bannerjee, 1990). Political theatre across Asia innovately adapted Brecht’s plays in Asian theatrical landscape according to their own immediate socio-political context. Bannerjee (1990) in his seminal work, “Brecht’s adaptation in Modern Bengali Theatre: A Study in Reception” also points out and asserts the significant research potential in this area due to this re-contextualization of both culture and language in them:

A study of the reception of a dramatic text by a theatre belonging to a different language and culture should ideally constitute research and analysis at many levels. No reception study can claim to be complete, however, it can only aspire to focus on few chosen area and scrutinize data and documents for some kind of answer. (p.1) UPM

In this same vein, it can be argued that Brecht’s “canonical” literary work’s, controversial indigenization in Pakistan, where majority of the adaptations were banned due to their ‘provocative material’ and alternative narrative on twin issues of capitalism and dictatorship offer a striking account of valuable and interesting transcultural adaptation study which was performed through a ‘radical’ theatre with a distinct dramaturgy and political philosophy in two different cultural contexts and also in distant historical frame of reference.

Historically speaking, Ajoka theatre10 thirty years ago through the indigenization of Brecht’s theatrical work initiated the process of revival and revisualization of the ‘dramaturgical spirit’ of his radical political theatre, named Epic theatre in South Asian landscape11 (Khan, 2006; Gauhar, 2008; Nadeem, 2010; and Rumi 2011). This process of indigenization and politics of intertextuality12 seem highly significant to the Brecht cannon in 21st century because “it is an engagement with the original text that make us see that text in different ways” (Benjamin ,1992) or as Hutcheon (2006) puts it in her book, A Theory of Adaptation (2006) that “transculturation across cultures, languages, and history, the meaning and impact of stories can change radically.” (p.21). Anti-establishment in character, Ajoka theatre performed Brecht’s transcultural adaptations in various outdoor locations: street corners, lawns of cultural centers such as the Goethe Institute of Lahore, inner-city location, village courtyards, andCOPYRIGHT factory sites defined itself in opposition to both Zia’s dictatorial and pro-capitalist regime and “traditional commercial stage plays performed in state run auditoriums or © seen on state-owned television” (Khan, 1997, Rahid,2012; Rumi 2010; Sameer 2016). However, Khan (2009) in her interview with Agarwal considers this resistance against dictatorship and capitalism as a “parallel theatrical movement” based on Brecht’s model of theatre which empowers the audience with political consciousness:

Many of the productions and street plays I discuss by groups like Ajoka, Lok Rehas, Tehrik-i- Niswan and others, are performances which want to make their audience un-comfortable in the Brecthian sense--- that is, make folks question their pieties and received or conventional ways of seeing and treating the other within. This “otherization” includes the second class treatment accorded to women and to religious and ethnic minorities in Pakistan by a society where the state and the mullahs of late have tried to claim rhetoric of purity for the country on basis of Islam. (p.7-8).

By including names of the other theatre with Ajoka, Khan wants to suggest the contribution of alternative theatre in general in challenging the cultural repression such as orthodoxies in patriarchal, religious and economic spheres during Zia Martial law period13, thus establishing a general theatrical trend in early 1980s in Pakistan.

Specifically, in Pakistani theatrical context, I begin this dissertation with the historical antecedents documented by Qureshi (1987) in The Drama of theUPM Subcontinent: History, Vision and Decline and Khan (2006) in Critical stage, which could reveal many significant features and observations. Firstly, rich tradition of Punjab’s indigenous multi-dimensional theatre identified as ‘Swaang’ in “Sanjha Punjab”14. It was distinguished among other type of theatres due to its dynamic modalities; like open air dance drama with multiple narrators dressed in colorful costumes and the performance accompanied by folk music based on loud drum beats and flutes. The stage was decorated according to the location with bright colors (p.112). Secondly and most importantly, it was also regarded as symbol of celebration, resistance and freedom (p.124). However, unfortunately, it was officially banned and prohibited intentionally by the advent of prolong colonial subjection15 (lasted over 100 years), ideologically repressive three martial laws 16(1956, 77, 99), and reactionary Islamist ideology (p.200-3). Specifically, Khan (2006) highlights the famous British Code 1876 which ensured state control over theatrical activities and prohibited any dramatic activity not previously vetted and permitted by state. It is interesting to note that Ajoka anti-capitalist plays were banned, prohibited and censored by enforcing the British code of 1876.

The striking feature in similarity between colonial subjection to civilian dictatorships17 in Pakistan besides prohibiting local art and culture is the omniscient presence of thriving western capitalist system which played a key role in silencing the voice of working class in literature (Khan 2007, Siddiqui 2010). In his ground breaking study, whichCOPYRIGHT looks at the pre-colonial and pre-capitalist class structure of the period of Mughal Empire18, Rahman (2012) asserts that capitalism came in South Asia through the path of colonialism ended the centuries old Asiatic mode of Production (AMP) © which he claims different from medieval European feudalism:

Feudalism was a medieval European phenomenon based on serfdom, private ownership of land, and rent as the principal form of surplus extraction. Pre- colonial South Asia, however, was without serfdom, private ownership of land, or rent as the dominant form of surplus extraction. The pre-colonial mode of production of South Asia was based the village community organized along the lines of caste system. The jagirdar, a representative of the state, appropriated land revenue from village communities. However, neither the jagirdars nor the muzaras were property owners. (p.xvi)

Rahman further builds his core argument on the advent and consolidation of Asiatic capitalism, which is significantly the historical context of current study, as an unnatural and transplanted in South Asia for colonial purposes and which consequently, laid the foundation of current class structure of Pakistan:

The specific paths of capitalist transition of South Asia and Europe were distinct from each other, whereas the European transition towardsUPM capitalism occurred through the republican and /or the Junkers path (Lenin, 1899): Preface; Moore, 1966), the transition of South Asia occurred under the influence of colonialism. This colonial path included three distinct features: foreign domination, siphoning of surplus and capitalism planted on the AMP. The Planting of capitalism on the AMP has produced a combination of European capitalism and the AMP in south Asia which I term ‘Asiatic capitalism.’ (p.xvi)

It is however, Ralph Fox who has most extensively interrogated the enormous effects of capitalism on the subcontinent society in his book, The Colonial Policy of British imperialism (1930) a time when Brecht was writing the plays against capitalism in Germany. This historical document defines the reasons and effect of western capitalism and links it with British Raj19 in India in following words:

Capitalism, breaking down the old Asiatic economy, bringing suffering and semi-starvation to the peasant millions, has failed entirely to develop the productive forces of exploited countries… so in India and other colonial countries imperialism creates for itself contradictions which can only be solved by the revolutionary forces of workers’ and peasant’s revolution. (p.19). COPYRIGHT

Interestingly, Fox also points out the emergence of counter – discourse against capitalism in India and see that the people of backward countries especially “India and © China are awakening to political life and becoming active factor of world history” and “alongside capitalism now exists socialism, exposing all the rottenness of capitalism, shaking its very foundations.” (p.39)

In addition, there seems a hidden and unexplored link between the historical context of Asiatic capitalism and gradual disappearance of traditional South Asian theatre in Pakistan (Khan, 2006; Qureshi, 1987; Mirza, 1992). Therefore, the transcultural adaptations performed by Ajoka theatre as ‘creative tool for resistance’ and source of generating alternative discourse to both capitalism and dictatorship provide a valuable case study to examine the complex tripartite relationship between history, political ideas and theatrical works in a specific time period.

As the foremost representative of Brecht’s radical dramaturgy, anti-capitalist philosophy in Pakistan since 1983, Ajoka theatre has endeavored to re-birth, resurge and re-celebrate indigenous folk traditions20 with confluence of bold Brecht theatrical innovations (Rumi, 2011). Ajoka’s creative theatrical indigenization of series of Brecht’s selected work includes: The Caucasian Chalk Cricle (Chalk Circle premiered in 1985, Black is My Robe 1996), The Resistible Rise of Arturu Ui (Third Knock 1991, BK premiered in 1992,) and The Threepenny Opera (One Penny Show, premiered in 1994, Burqawagnza, 2007). These transcultural adaptations were performed in multiple languages (indigenous languages, Punjabi21, Urdu andUPM international language, English).

Specially anti-capitalist plays such as TK, BMR and BQ were performed in English by Ajoka for the packed international audience of Martin Segal Theatre, City university of New York (2003), Lark Theatre, New York (2002) and Mahostav Theatre Festival, Delhi (2008) respectively. From a Pakistani perspective, these performances also mark the revival of the working class literature which had been remained absent from the literary scene since 1977.

In Politics of Performance (2007), Baz Kreshef, a distinguish scholar on political theatre, acknowledges that “Brecht generated a rich and varied dialogue between theatre and politics” (56). Working on the same vision of theatrical engagement with political ideas, these transcultural adaptations, anti –proscenium in nature, have endeavored to ‘address’ and ‘subvert’ the dominant discourse on capitalism and dictatorship and discursive practices of military establishment in Pakistan by rewriting history. Importantly, Hutcheon (2006) suggests this as an emerging trend in postcolonial dramatists:

Postcolonial dramatists and anti- war television producers have likewise used COPYRIGHTadaptations to articulate their political positions. This kind of political and historical intentionality is now of great interest in academic circles. (p.94)

© Thus, in this ‘longer view’ of history of capitalism in Indian subcontinent exhibits that capitalism emerged here due to the colonial economic policies of British Raj. It produced devastating results and when Ajoka theatre performed anti-capitalist plays on the streets of Lahore, Pakistan the audience as part of the “national collective

memory” responded positively and considered it resistance to imperialistic designs since “history keeps haunting the individuals and the nations” (Jajja, 2012).

1.2 Political and Economic History of Pakistan: A Brief Overview

There are several reasons to review political and economic history in relation to the adaptation of Brech’s work in Pakistan. Firstly, in light of Hutcheon’s ‘historical intentionality’, it seems highly pertinent to have a brief overview of the political and economic history of Pakistan to examine why capitalism and dictatorship seems as core issues and a historical context for Ajoka theatre adaptations. Secondly, unlike Hegel who views character as an absolute subject, Brecht considers character as an “object, as a spokes person for economic and social forces” (Boal, 2000) therefore, it will highly beneficial to investigate these active forces operating at the time of adaptation of his work in Pakistan.

Moreover, Durrant (1968), in The Lessons of History, asserts that theUPM economics and history are inter-related and he cites Karl Marx philosophy that “history is economic in action- the contest among individuals, groups, and classes, states, for food, fuel, materials and economic power. Political forms, religious institutions, and cultural creations, all are actually rooted in economic realities” (52). Likewise, it seems a close and hidden link between the economic policies pursued and historical events occurred in Pakistani context. This intrinsic relationship is illustrated through adapting Brecht’s political plays particularly by Ajoka theatre during 1980s and 1990s.

Pakistan emerged as an independent state from British Empire amidst the traumas of Partition in 1947 largely between two religious entities i.e. Muslims and Hindus with high hopes for both individual and collective transformation. It was optimistically assumed that the cultural and material life of India’s Muslim population would economically flourish in a new democratic homeland under the leadership of Muhammad Ali Jinnah (Talbot, 2012; Ziring, 1997; Ayaz, 2013; Qureshi, 1987). Burki (1988) in “Pakistan under Zia” in Asian Survey terms the creation of Pakistan as a “political solution to an economic problem.” (p.10)

Importantly, Jinnah (1887-48), the founder of Pakistan espoused his vision of the new state in his inaugural address as a modern progressive, anti-capitalist Western-oriented country where religious minorities could enjoy the same rights and privileges as MuslimsCOPYRIGHT and the questions of religion and religiosity would diminish:

In course of time Hindus would cease to be Hindus and Muslims would cease © to be Muslims, not in the religious sense, because that it is personal faith of each individual, but in the political sense as citizens of the State (Naim, 1979, 49).

However, this political vision of ‘secular’ Pakistan could not be sustained because of sudden death of Jinnah in 1948 and it became closely identified with the distinct religion of Islam probably more than Jinnah had ever intended (Jalal, 2017; Ayaz, 2013; Talbot, 2012). Weiss (1991) in Culture, Class, and development in Pakistan pinpoints the drastic change within one year after the independence:

The period of Pakistan’s emergence was one the unparalleled catastrophe in the world history: for six weeks in the fall of 1947, half as many south Asians perished in the migration following Partition as American soldiers who died in all of World War II.The unseen calamity’s disastrous effect on the new sate of Pakistan were further accentuated by Jinnah death the following years. Questions of national identity and ideology were overshadowed by the basic issues of national survival. (p.32)

This extract exhibits how much blood shed was done in the name of religion and even with the continuous statements issued from the leaders from both sidesUPM to stop this violence but no concrete steps were taken to actually stop it (Ayaz, 2013; Zirring 1997). This event actually divided subcontinent into two arch enemies; Pakistan and India (Burki, 1971; Talbot, 2012; Ali, 2012, Ayaz, 2013).

At the outset, Pakistan’s economic situation was dismal. The traditional elite were occupied with the exigencies of land ownership following the chaotic transitory period. Traders were hesitant to engage in new enterprises for as Papanek (1967) argues, they were still seeking:

The prestige of landownership; they divert industrial income to land inquisition, and thus abort industrial development. They retain a trader or a gambler’s mentality, unwilling to invest in profitable industries that require waiting for returns…the development of private industrial entrepreneurs is a slow and difficult process. (p.28)

On political front, Pakistan faced failure of her first experiment with social democracy (1947-58) as there was lack of participatory element in the exercise of power and the removal of inequalities. Limited attempts at land reforms were thwarted by the landowning elites whose power had been entrenched during the British period. PoliticiansCOPYRIGHT like Prime Minister Mian Mumtaz Daultana and Nawab of Mamdot and Prime Minister M.A. Khuhro unfortunately protected group interests by adopting the language of provincial rights directed against the center and discouraged social transformation consequently failed participatory democracy (Ali, 2012; Weiss, 1991; © Talbot, 2012).

The only hope came in the form of the Prime Minister Shaheed Suhrawardys’s tenure which began on September 1956. He turned hopeless condition into relative stability and Pakistan got membership of South East Asia Treaty in 1950s by drawing closer to America interests. However, seeing Prime Minister was going strong at the helm of the affairs, President Mirza ousted him and change the course of history and marked the end of Pakistan’s parliament experiment and the era, since then no Prime Minister even completed his 5 year term and chaos tracked the its destiny (Jalal, 2017; Talbot, 2012; Ayaz, 2013; Zirring, 1997; Weiss, 1991; Aziz, 1996).

Marshall (1959) in his “Reflection on a revolution in Pakistan” Foreign Affairs lamented the elimination of a civilian leader who was bringing stability in Pakistan:

The last piece of folly was of determining importance, it violated the canons of parliamentary order…the action was taken on the basis of issues with respect to which the Prime Minister was clearly acting in the interest of national unity and responsibility in policy. It sent out of UPM office the only available man with aptitude as a politician and giving reasonable promise of national leadership. (p.247).

In a way, this situation provided golden opportunity to the armed forces to intervene in civilian affairs as this would give their institution hegemony over other institutions and finally Pakistan moved toward security state instead of social welfare state (Gull, 2010; Aziz, 1993)

Seeing the vulnerable situation, Ayub Khan Defense minister and chief of the army staff took the advantage and imposed martial law in “the interest of nation “(Aziz, 1997; Zirring, 1996; Hamid, 1991). Ayub reinvigorated the vice regal tradition inherited from the British and asserted that ‘democracy was not suited to the genius of the people’ (Niazi, 1997). It is also pertinent to note that his dictatorial regime laid the foundation of capitalism in Pakistan (Talbot, 2012; Rahman, 2012; Weiss, 1993) and Ajoka theatre’s adaptation TK is exclusively creatively developed to highlight his regime (Nadeem, 2008).

Interestingly there are two conflicting reports that are available on the economic outcome of his capitalist regime. Papanek (1967) points to the high rates of growth experiencedCOPYRIGHT during Ayub’s era to signify the advances that such a policy of economic determination linked to the international capital and political institution- building can have. Amjad (1978) on the other hand, claims they were a direct result of foreign assistance from America and that the aid inflows which changed the economic © scenario. (p.6)

Weiss asserts that due to the war with India in 1965, foreign aid was suspended and economic plan were minimized and consequently provided the impetus for most Pakistanis to rally against Ayub’s regime under the leadership of socialist Z. A. Bhutto:

After the army defeat – particularly after Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto told the masses that Ayub khan had sold the country out at Tashkent—the government’s popularity severely diminished. The political institution building –building this decade was not lasting although it did set a precedent for military intervention in the domestic governing of the country. Most importantly, however, Ayub’s program generated increased inequalities between classes and between regions. While growth rates were increased, the industrial wages stagnated. The resultant contradiction which erupted during the early 1970s was eminently predictable. (p.39).

It is pertinent to note that during Ayub regime due to increase in the gapUPM between poor and rich, ‘left’ political perspective got popular. Many Pakistan’s literary figures such Faiz Ahmed Faiz, Habib Jalib, and M.D Taseer’s works emerged as resistance to pro- capitalist Ayub Regime (Aziz, 1993; Nadeem, 2007).

Instead of giving the powers to the National Assembly, Ayub khan handed over powers to another military dictator, Yahya Khan. The three years rule of Yahya Khan appears to have been preoccupied with holding the country together. The 1971 national election burst the illusion of nationhood apart as the Eastern part of the country seceded in December and became Bangladesh (Weiss, 1991; Talbot, 2012).

Bhutto‘s Pakistan People’s Party (PPP) came to power in the aftermath of the military’s crushing defeat in the 1971 war. The Berkeley educated Bhutto advocated a wholly different orientation towards economic development, social reform and political organization (Burki 1980). The PPP soon set upon a directed course which included nationalization of factories, land reforms, a new labor policy (which empowered unions) and social welfare programs under the rubric “Islamic Socialism”. Extensive public works were undertaken to put unemployed to work, food is distributed gratis or reduced price and limiting of individualistic acquisition by semi- socialist legislation and re-distribution of wealth (Rahman, 2011; Aziz, 1991; Weiss, 1991). With these radical economic and political reforms, Bhutto democratic regime developedCOPYRIGHT an animosity with business elite, powerful military establishment and religious parties (Siddaqa, 2003; Talbot, 2012; Nasr, 2008).

© However, here one should not ignore the “divided opinion” about his decisive yet “controversial” personality in relation to Pakistan political and economical landscape. Khalique (2017) in Herald magazine highlights this interesting and pivotal aspect:

When it comes to Zulifikar Ali Bhutto, opinion is always divided. He continues to segregate the public sharply and decisively along the lines of class and support or opposition to civilian democracy’s supremacy over military hegemony. The conflicting positions of his admirers and detractors make his character contentious, his ideas divisive, his actions controversial and his achievement and his achievements disputed. One may say that the contradictions of Pakistan’s state and society are all manifested in the life and death of Zulifakar Ali Bhutto. (p.72).

Opposition along with military establishment rallied against him after the election in 1977 in which his party gained again majority seats. Finally, he was ousted by military dictator General Zia-ul-Haq and finally executed (Khalique 2017, Zirring 1993, Ayaz2013). Talbot sums up the decade as the lost opportunity for democratization in Pakistan:

It was to be another decade before a third opportunity for UPMdemocratization presented itself. The PPP under the leadership of the founder’s daughter Benazir Bhutto was to re-emerge as the challenger to the establishment’s interest. The possibilities for a major re- alignment of power were however far less promising that they had been in the heady days of 1970-1. Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto’s name remained a stirring popular memory, but the possibilities for socio-economic transformation and democratic consolidation were more distant than they had been in the late 1960s and early 1970s. (p.114).

The ‘alternative narrative’ of social welfare known as “economic socialism” (Rahman, 2012) generated by Bhutto democratic regime against capitalism and twenty six families including few industrialist who control eighty percent of the economy is highly significant because audience at the time of Brecht’s anti-capitalist plays indigenization seems related to this particular narrative and considered it very close to “Bhuttoism” and his “stirring popular memory.

General Zia ul Haq, chief of Army staff, took the charge of the country in the name of religion and stability in 1977 (Qureshi 1980). He consolidated the political and economic role of army by reverting back to capitalism and dictatorship model of underfunding the social welfare projects as envisioned by his military predecessor Ayub Khan (Rahman, 2012). He changed the “secular outlook” of the country and its constitutionCOPYRIGHT and converted into a trans-national Jihadist one (Siddiqa, 2006; Rehman, 2012).

© Talbot (2012) defines this era “bequeathed the doleful legacies of the ‘Kalashinkov culture” (p.115). This time period is comprehensively examined in the literature review as it presents the historical context of the transcultural adaptation of CCC (1985) by Ajoka theatre.

It is important to acknowledge that General Zia’s sudden death in 1988 re-opened the doors of democracy for people (Hussain; 1990, Ali, 2007; Rahman, 2012). The continuous struggle for the restoration of democracy by political parties, theatres and masses finally bore fruit when the daughter of Z.A. Bhutto got elected as “Pakistan’s youngest and first female Prime Minister” (Talbot, 2012). However, the big hopes were dashed due to political infighting between Benazir Bhutto and her main pro- capitalist rival Nawaz Sharif, financial scandals and economic failures (Zirring, 1997; Ayaz, 2013; Talbot, 2012). They both got elected twice to the Prime Minister’s Office and then ousted by the powerful military establishment and the president of their time period. The specific period is highly significant to this study as the two adaptations of TTO and AU were premiered during this democratic interlude. It is pertinent to note that Capitalism flourished during this time especially, Nawaz Sharif started the privatization of government organizations (Talbot, 2012; Siddiqa, 2007; Zirring, 1993, Rahman, 2012). The socio-political environment of this period is explored in detail in the literature review and in the analysis of the above mentioned selected texts for current study. UPM Due to the growing tension in civil military relationship Nawaz Sharif sacked the Army chief. However, the military responded by ousting him from the Prime Minister office and posed itself as a ‘reluctant coup maker’ (Ali, 2012). Pakistan returned back to the Ayub Khan era again. Due to pro-capitalist policies, big businesses such as multinational organizations were promoted and flourished (Talbot, 2012). Musharaf, like his military predecessors, lacked legitimacy and tried to gain public support by using political parties such as Pakistan Muslim League (Q). By 2007, he faced mounting unpopularity because of his perceived pro-American stance in war against terror (2001-till to date), fight with the judiciary, and tragic assassination of Benazir Bhutto (Talbot 2012). He understood the writing on the wall and held elections. Finally, he transferred power to Pakistan People’s Party, resigned within few months and left the country. The second adaptation, titled BQ of TTO was performed during his era and reflected the socio-political context of his legacy.

Currently, same political parties PPP and PML (N) took the political stage with more maturity than the democratic interlude (1988-99) and made collation governments in the provinces. Led by Asif Ali Zardari, Benazir Bhutto’s controversial widower, completed the five year term but with mixed results. The constitutional achievements (18th amendment to address the provincial autonomy) were over shadowed by the ongoing security crisis due to “War against terror”. Social reforms were conducted to empower women and marginalized sector of the society with moderate success (Rahman,COPYRIGHT 2012).

Finally, Pakistan saw first smooth transition from one elected government to another © elected when Nawaz Sharif‘s political Party, PML (N) took the charge of the country in 2013. It has been facing multiple challenges due to deteriorating current security issue, growing religiosity and fundamentalism in society and declining economic situation since 2008 (Ayaz, 2013).

Again capitalism is the corner stone of his government’s economic policies. The current economic plan (2013-2018) includes privatization of all government organization and social welfare organizations such as transport system, hospitals and public universities (Ayaz, 2013; Mir, 2015; Afzal, 2016). This policy has sparked fear and protest among the trade and student unions. Particularly, Pakistan faced worst airline strike when no airplane flew for ten days within its airports in January 2016. All domestic and international flights were cancelled. Five airline workers lost their lives when police opened fire on protesters (Jang 2016). In light of this emerging socio-economic situation, Ajoka enacted its anti-capitalist transcultural adaptations of Brecht literary work such as BK and TDT throughout 2016 with huge success (Dawn 2016, Gauhar 2016, and Afzal 2016). Importantly, in the same year, an international financial scandal Panama Paper Leak international scandal appeared through leading international newspapers and Nawaz Sharif’s family name was the list of benifiaries therefore, after a long trail; Supreme Court of Pakistan ousted Sharif on corruption charges and ordered authorities to register multiple criminal cases against him and his family. UPM In brief, Pakistan turbulent political and economic history has tempered its present and shadowed its future opportunities. Jalal (2017) in her article, “The lessons of history: Anguish and aspirations as Pakistan turns seventy” in Herald magazine, sums up the enormous challenges:

On August 14, 2017, Pakistan will mark the 70th anniversary of freedom amid widespread political disillusionment, high security concerns and intense economic anxieties. They are continuous uncertainties about the impact of an ongoing war in neighbourhood Afghanistan that has taken a deadly toll on the social and moral fabric of Pakistan for almost four decades (p.46).

1.3 Defining the Contours of Ajoka Theatre: Critical review

Figure 1.2 : Team of Ajoka Theatre discussing the play text of BK

It is relevant to recall the fact that during this time of counter revolution of Islamization, initiated by military take-over, we surprisingly notice the radical emergence of alternative secular theatres, such as Ajoka theatre (means dawn of a new day) in 1983 to reverse and challenge the official discourse and discursive practices of the Zia regime. Hilton asserts in her book, New Directions in Theatre (1987) that “Art may just as well emerge from the triumph over limitations as from the chemistry of ideal conditions’ (p.142). Powered with the creative passion of resistance, a bunch of radical intellectuals under the young leadership of Madeeha Gauhar, both actress and director, although limited by both human and physical resources, challenged these rapid socio-economic developments through the innovative medium of alternative secular theatre.

According to Sirajudin (2010), politics of resistance exhibited through their performances, “radiated outwards to explore the possibilities of change in true Brechtian sense” (5). It appears that Ajoka theatre during its first decade of existence becomes the voice of the oppressed and marginalized by advocating their rights in their local language and by indigenizing Brecht it stands out to projectUPM progressive and secular values, Marxist and humanistic approach instead of propagating dominant discourse of Islamization and fundamentalism.

However, it is quite interesting and thought provoking going through the diverse literature –books to newspaper headlines, which endeavors to define “Ajoka theatre”. It presents a trajectory of different perspectives from ‘Theatre of Resistance’ to the “Theatre of Opportunism” but the different perceptive also exhibits the significance Ajoka holds among intellectual community in Pakistan as well as international.

Firstly, Rumi (2011), renowned journalist and policy advisor, defines Ajoka Theatre conceptually in term of modernity and universality in his article “voice against terrorism and injustice” in the book, History of Ajoka theatre:

Ajoka, as the name suggests (“aajka”; dawn of a new day in Punjabi) is about contemporary consciousness and perpetual dynamism- a commitment to stay relevant, meaningful, to respond to the challenges of the times. Yet, mere presence in this modernity is not all that suffices. The issues Ajoka addresses, and the form it employs is simultaneously universal-its ultimate perpetual impact is much deeper and much long lasting than a screaming headline or a COPYRIGHTnew feature. It strikes at the very heart of the social contradictions and repressions that have become a symbol of what Pakistan seems to propagate. That has been the story of Ajoka quarter century journey. (p.6).

© Secondly, Gauhar defines her own theatre conceptually in terms of political and secular theatre and includes folk theatre in the realm of Political theatre. In a country which label itself an Islamic republic of Pakistan, it is quite radical to express your organization’s identity so clearly. In her detailed interview with Rahid (2006), author

of Contested Representation, a comprehensive research on the Punjabi Women and feminist debate in Pakistan, she explicitly shows the secular direction of Ajoka theatre. She declares “Ajoka does not believe in the use of orthodox religion as an instrument of change as it further complicates the problems of raising awareness amongst communities so therefore we avoid using religious idioms and rather link issues with local culture and traditions.” (p.197) .

Specifically, it is pertinent to note Ajoka’s secular and anti-capitalist positioning in Zia-ul-Haq fundamentalist regime although it brought enormous challenges but also made it strikingly different from other alternative theatre such Lok Rehas and Dastak in image and appeal. In her article, “Crossing Frontiers: Shared Concerns in Alternative Theatre” published in India International quarterly, Gauhar elaborates Ajoka’s distinct vision among the other political theatres in Pakistan:

Ajoka is a theatre with a radical social and political content. Its work is a blend of modern and folk forms. Its most frequent themes are social injustice,UPM women struggle for emancipation, and exploitation of workers and projections of values of humanism, secularism and social justice. Ajoka thus takes pride to become a part of the democratic movement. (p.9).

On the contrary, Tehmina Rashid (2006) bluntly labels Ajoka theatre as a ‘commercial production company’ (p.194) in her book, the contest Representation. She argues that compare to Lok Rehas, the other visible competing folk theatre, Ajoka thrives exclusively on aggressive marketing and adopts entertaining ways to attract poor rural communities through colorful costumes, elaborated stage and folk music based on drums and flutes.

“They are successful because they are well equipped to adapt to situations both in rural and urban communities. Ajoka being a well establish group, has links with various organization as well as various cultural avenues, and are therefore able to advertise through personal and organizational links as well as in the media.” (p.195).

In a nutshell, she emphasizes ‘capitalist tendencies’ in Ajoka theatre which ironically on the other hand vigorously promotes socialist ideals of Brecht in their plays. She viewsCOPYRIGHT this as a contradiction in itself.

Similarly, in Critical Stage, Khan (2006) decries Ajoka theatre for collaborating with © the State authorities by holding prominent administrative positions on State TV during former Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto’s second tenure. She calls it “opportunism at its best” and considers BK adaptation of Resistible rise of Arturu Ui of Brecht as a reaction to Ajoka’s director, Nadeem Shahid, termination in 1996 by Nawaz Sharif government who took charge after Benazir regime fell. (p.196)

It is also significant to note here that the performance history of this play also exhibits that it was performed again in General Mushraf’s tenure (A dictator who over expelled Nawaz Sharif government) in 2007 and just after this play performance, Madeeha Gauhar received the highest civil award – Sitara-e- Imtiaz by the military establishment.

Yet in another research article written by her previously, “Street Theatre in Pakistani Punjab: The Case of Ajoka, Lok Rehas, and (So called) Women Question Khan” (1997) promptly acknowledges the “revolutionary potential” of Ajoka theatre but questions its effectiveness as an agent for social change. She argues that its effectiveness is “curtailed by its primary devotion to theatre as end itself and secondly Ajoka’s political and social message often gets lost in the spectacle: colorful costumes, hypnotic dances and increasingly elaborate sets.” (p.196).

Briefly, Ajoka productions show revolutionary zeal, Marxist vision and commitment. At the peak of General Zia’s military regime, CC, first performedUPM in 1985, as a transcultural adaptation of Brecht’s CCC. It was a strong indictment of the political, social and economic system of Pakistan at that time (Rumi 2010). The apt use of traditional Punjabi culture with its in-built deep roots in politics of resistance, unique scenography, unexpected simplicity in production, its profound linguistic identity in the form of colloquial loud dialogues, and representative type characterization in Ajoka’s performances provide evidence of cultural politics through Ajoka. Brecht entered a different theatrical space in an entirely different cultural context and acquired a new language. In addition, above mentioned elements in indigenizing Brecht’s work not only enhanced its status among masses but also provided ‘competitive edge’ over other local competing theatres.

1.4 Conceptualizing Adaptation in a political discourse

In order to conceptualize “cross-cultural Adaptation”, at the very outset, we need to un-pack the contentious term “indigenization” in the form of definition, function, role and characteristics. Broadly speaking, Susan Stanford Friedman (2004) uses the anthropological term “indigenization” to refer to two basic characteristics of transcultural adaptation process which are primarily ‘intercultural encounter’ and ‘accommodation’. (p.1).

OnCOPYRIGHT the other hand, Linda Hutcheon (2006), pre-eminent scholar on literary adaptation, initially provides this general term – Adaptation, before going in depth in to cross – cultural adaptation or indigenization, provides a multi perspective and function. In her first chapter titled, “Beginning to theorize adaptation” of her book Theory of © Adaptation (2006), adaptation can be defined from “three distinct but interrelated perspectives firstly, viewed as “product” since it acknowledges “transposition of a recognizable other work or works.”(p.7).

Secondly, adaptations, as a “process of creation” involve both re-interpretation and re- creation through appropriation and thirdly, as a “process of reception” due to its direct intertextual engagement with the adapted work (p.8). Hutcheon by forwarding these pivotal perspectives declares that “adaptation is a derivation that is not derivative – a work that is second without being secondary.” (p.9).

Moreover, in conceptualizing Adaptation, Hutcheon points out the functional value of cross- cultural adaptations for Postcolonial dramatist who use them to articulate their political positions:

Postcolonial dramatists and anti-war television producers have likewise used adaptations to articulate their political positions. This kind of political and historical intentionality is now of great interest in academic circles, despite a half-century of critical dismissal of the relevance of artistic intention to interpretation by formalists, new Critics, structuralists, and poststructuralists alike. (p.94). UPM

Importantly, Hutcheon considers transcultural adaptation as indigenization which can be used by political discourse within a national setting to refer to establishing a “national discourse different from the dominant” (150). Additionally, adapting cross culturally is more than translating words. It requires “showing or interacting modes of engagement, cultural and social meaning has to be conveyed and adapted to a new environment” (149). We see this as a prime political function of adaptation by Ajoka theatre in indigenizing Brecht’s work. By performing literature of resistance through adapting Brecht’s work, Ajoka theatre initiated a ‘discourse of resistance’ during martial law years in Pakistan.

In addition, Hutcheon also cites Cuddy –Keane (2003) and Patrice Pavis (1989) to introduce another term, “cultural globalization” for transcultural adaptation in which change of place or time period is involved (p.145). She reminds that adapting from one culture to another is challenging but not new; “the Romans adapted Greek theatre after all” (p.145). Pavis considers that through this environment which he calls “language body” visual is as important as significant as the aural. He points out:

In transfer from a telling to a performance mode, differences of philosophy, COPYRIGHTreligion, national culture, gender, or race can create gaps that need filling by dramaturgical considerations that are as likely to be kinetic and physical as linguistic. Facial expressions, dress, and gestures take their place along with architecture and sets to convey cultural information that is both verisimilar and © an “index of the ideologies, values, and conventions by which we order experience and predicate activity. (p.150).

On telling stories, Said (1983) in his book, Travelling Theory presents the richly informative study on distinct characteristics of cross cultural adaptations of narratives. He suggests that when stories in the form of ideas or theories travels from one place to another place, they end up bringing together different “process of representation and institutionalization” which constitute of four elements: 1) a set of initial circumstances, 2) a distance transverse, 3) a set of conditions of acceptance or resistance, and 4) a transformation of ideas in its new time and space (p.226).

Following Edward Said’s above mentioned critical statement, the research will also examine the process of representation and institutionalization of Brecht’s adapted work in Pakistan.

More importantly, Sanders enforces that adaptation and appropriation are in effect and practice have much in common. Interestingly, Sanders forcefully challenges Hutcheon’s principle that adaptation should declare themselves as adaptations by arguing that: UPM

Adaptation and appropriation are dependent on the literary canon for the provision of a shared body of storylines, themes, characters, and ideas upon which their creative variations are made. The spectator or reader must be able to participate in the play of similarity and difference perceived between the original, source, or inspiration to appreciate fully the reshaping or rewriting undertaken by the adaptive text. (p.45).

Moreover, Sanders explicitly states that the distinct relationship between the adaptation and the canon by pointing out that the adaptation seems “to require and to perpetuate the existence of the cannon, although it may in turn contribute to its ongoing reformulation and expansion.” (8)

Sanders’ comments are highly significant for this project as they investigate the relationship between Brecht’s adaptation by Ajoka theatre and Brecht cannon in particular.

Cassetti (2004) seems to sums up the heated debate on definition of adaptation when he explicitly states, “Evidently, adaptation is primarily a phenomenon of recontextualizationCOPYRIGHT of the text and re-programing the reception of the story” (p.83). Cassetti’s assertion is starkly illustrated by close examination of the source text of © Brecht plays in comparisons to the stage production of the adaptations. It can further be argued that the transcultural adaptation of Brecht’s plays initially in local languages (later on all plays were also written in English language) is itself suggests a first key political and linguistic strategy to resist dominant discourse. Use

of local language creates a strong social contract between the theatre and audience who enjoy, celebrate its performances. According to Edward Saeed Every one lives in a given language; every one experiences therefore are had, absorbed and recalled in that language. This means that the function of language is not just to reflect what is happening in life but also construction of social reality.

Siddiqui (2010) in his book, Power, Gender and Politics,, after endorsing the effectiveness of Sapir-Whorf hypothesis in discourse which claims that no two languages are ever sufficiently similar to be considered as representing the same social reality and Foucault that power and powerlessness are not fixed positions, takes the argument on discourse and power further when he argues for the ‘reversal of the discourse’ in the section of language and resistance of his book, Language, Power and Gender “Marginalized groups need to realize the central significance of discourse as a potential tool to shift the advantage in their favor.” (p. 7).

According to Robert Leach in context of theatre, language is a socialUPM relationship between members of a defined community and a “cultural tool in our living social experience and prime means whereby we construct our social reality” (p.4). Ajoka’s use of multiple languages i.e. English, Urdu and Punjabi is in line with Brecht’s unique social and political philosophy of language which states in Brecht on theatre that revolutionary social change to happen the subaltern classes cannot rely on the language of the exploiter (p.122).

In addition, this pragmatic linguistic strategy has expanded the horizon of these transcultural adaptations to other countries as Ajoka performed also in India, United Kingdom, United States and Canada beside Pakistan in English language to engage international audience. Particularly, Punjabi especially considers as language of working class and marginalized by elite as ‘low status’ and ‘less intellectual’ (Mirza, 1991). Ajoka’s bringing it to national and international spaces suggests the ideological spirit of Brecht in utilizing language to construct alternative social reality. Sullivan (2009) suggests in the chapter, “The languages of resistance” of her book Post-colonial drama: politics, language and trends that use of indigenous language is also a form of defiance:

When a Playwright chooses an indigenous language over English she/he refuses to submit to the dominance of the imposed standard language and to COPYRIGHTsubscribe to the ‘reality’ it sustains. Indigenous language can be broadly defined as those which were native to a culture prior to colonization and which have since maintained their original grammatical structures and their basic lexicon…Given that colonial authorities often banned the use of indigenous © languages, especially in public places, their presentation on stage can represent an act of defiance and an attempt to retrieve cultural autonomy. While in semiotic terms, language resonates with every other theatrical signifier, it is often viewed by audiences as the fundamental and most important system through which a play ‘means’. (p.169).

Specifically in transcultural adaptation of Brecht’s work the process of re – contextualization becomes highly complex because Brecht is introduced in different and changing cultural landscape, different language and different context. Fischlin and Fortier (2000) in their ground breaking book on adaptation, titled Adaptations of Shakespeare cites interesting challenges faced in indigenization due to re- contextualization:

When we re-contextualize, we inevitably rework and alter, even if we are trying to be faithful to our sense of the original. Reception and reader-response theories also stress how the meaning of texts from the past is changed by their appearance in new conditions. In this light, critic Graham Holderness writes, ‘Shakespeare is, here, now, always, what is currently being made of him. (p.5)

Similarly, it appears that Ajoka theatre politically re-contextualized Brecht’s work according to the socio-economic realities of contemporary Pakistan and even these adaptations are highly creative yet they are historically contextualizedUPM response to the real events.

Broadly speaking, in adaptation of any literary work, according to Fischlin and Fortier, ‘historical context’ plays a pivotal function. In their highly acclaimed book, Adaptations of Shakespeare (2000) which sets out some of key ideas in the eminent intellectual and artistic understanding of the concepts of adaptation, decisively places foremost importance on context. He asserts in the third section titled, ‘The politics of adaptation’, that “any cultural work, including any theatrical adaptation, has to study in its specifics to see political issues play out within, and is affected by that work. Moreover, any work of culture has a history in which its political import is repeatedly transform. Therefore, context is highly crucial when we study the political significance of art”. Linda Hutcheon (2006) sums up the significance of context by stating in the preface that “neither the product nor the process of adaptation exists in a vacuum: they all have a context – a time and a place, a society and a culture.” (p.XVI).

Similarly, Karnad (1998) endorses Fischlin and Fortier when he suggests in the Author’s Introduction to three plays: Naga-Mandala, Hayavadana and Tughlaq that historical context has given rise to his many plays and those of his contemporaries. (p.COPYRIGHT1). Taking one step further, Leach, writer and theatre director endorses comparative view of history in tracing the link between theatre and history in his book, Theatre Studies (2003). He suggests that there is no ultimate truth, only ‘interconnecting © reverberation’. He places the plays of Shakespeare not only work of great drama but preferably as ‘cultural products’ of Elizabethan age. He points out the New Historicist view about the significance of context:

For the New Historicist the context, and specifically the historical context, is crucial to any examination of a performance or piece of theatre. And the key element in this contextualization is often taken to be the structures of power in the given society, structures which the inevitably colors what they do. The new Historicist asks: knowledge) in this performance? How does it operate? Who is marginalized? Who has knowledge? Such questions may be addressed equally of the performed text, and of the group of performers of the text. (p.80).

Since the concept “Politics” is central to the current study, it seems pertinent to elaborate it with help of prominent studies conducted by Lane (2014) and Foucault (1975). Firstly, to define politics, Melissa Lane (2014) states that it is a “spectrum of the possibilities of power” because it defines the relationship among humans and the purposes they pursue” (3). She further explains the two polar ends of this spectrum which shows the ability of politics to go either way. She asserts: UPM At one end of the spectrum is sheer exploitative domination, where the only question is, as Lenin said, ‘who [is able to dominate] whom?’ There was no single birth of the idea of domination, all too many societies in human history have been marked by it. At the other end of the spectrum of the politics is the rear ideal: that of a regime of free and equal citizen with a power to decide and act: There is no monopoly on this practice either; it has evolved in many places and in many forms. (p.3).

This particular project deals with the intensive investigation of these conflicting economic ideologies namely capitalism and socialism lying at two ends of the spectrum of politics. On one hand, exploitive domination of Pro capitalist and dictatorial regimes of Zia-ul-Haq, Ayub Khan and Nawaz Sharif dictatorial regimes through politics of deception, brutal state force and discursive practices on the other hand, Ajoka and other political theatres subversive plays endeavouring to rewrite history of those periods with power of performance. It is interesting to note that one used the powerful nexus between capitalism and religiosity to validate and to strength its dominant discourse and to legitimate power while other brought Brecht and Boal’ work in the form of transcultural adaptation to rescue and to voice resistance discourse and their inspirations.

TheseCOPYRIGHT two conflicting elements lying at the heart of the political process can be defined in binaries of “containment” and “subversion”. Interestingly, Foucault draws a complex argument in resistance to power as he consider power as not monolithic but multiple. He sees resistance to power as many and varying in intensity and © effectiveness (William, 2012). In “Sex, Power and Politics of identity” Foucault force fully asserts:

You see, if there is no resistance, there would be no power relations. Because it would simply be a matter of obedience. You have to use power relations to refer to the situation where you’re not doing what you want. So resistance come first, and resistance remains superior to the forces of the process; power relations are obliged to change with resistance. So resistance is the main word, the key word, in this dynamic. (p.91).

Brecht adapted plays as ‘vehicles of resistance’ seem to provide Ajoka theatre a political space to build powerful and innovative counter discourse relevant to the emerging contexts and to showcase Brecht social and political philosophy behind them. However, one can also observe these ends of spectrum of politics are becoming blurred due to reasons which the study intends to highlight. 1.5 Statement of the Problem UPM The state of Brechtian scholarship seems robust especially after the global financial crisis in 2002 which has renewed the political and social significance of Brecht’s literary work’s perspective on capitalism. (Squiers, 2012; Eagelton, 2014). However, even with such an acknowledgement, as Bernett (2016) points out that “for all Brecht’s fimilarity he still remains remarkably misunderstood because there has not been proper reception of Brecht’s ideas and practices in UK (and, by extention USA)” (p.4). He further argues that the “political aspects of Brecht’s theories and stage craft have rarely been palpable in the English -speaking theatre” (p, 5). In the same vein, it also suffers from some paucity especially in area of transcultural adaptation studies of his dramatic work in South Asian context in general and in Pakistan in particular (Khatoon, 2011).

Specifically in South Asian context, limited in quantity, research articles on transcultural adaptation of Brecht’s work rigorously focused on the formal criticism such as the visual and aural elements of the performances. For instance, researchers such as Khatoon (2011) and Banner jee (1990) do not attempt to conduct contextual criticism to examine selected texts’ intellectual content – its themes, ideas, and perceptions about human experience.

According to Barnett (2016) it is “due to the wide ranging phenonmena of depoliticization of Brecht since Esslin’s book titled, Brecht: A choice of Evil (1959) whichCOPYRIGHT suggests to split Brecht’s art from his politics”. Likewise, in Pakistan, the socio- political imperatives and dimensions of these works in their local contexts remain unexplored and unexamined. It is here pertinent to note here that social and political dimension were ‘instrumental consideration’ for Brecht as he developed the formal © elements (Brecht, 1935; Innes, 1979; Squiers, 2012; Sulieman, 2013; Abdi, 1997).

In addition, Hutcheon in her book, A Theory of Adaptation (2006) also signifies the need for investigating the imperatives behind adaptation as she states, “[The reasons behind the adaptation] should be considered seriously by adaptation theory, even if this means rethinking the role intentionality in our critical thinking about art in general”. (p.95). She stresses scholars in adaptation studies to examine the ‘politics’ behind adapting certain text. She argues reasons for adaptation, perhaps more so than in original art must be closely considered by scholars and audiences to uncover the layers that may exist in (re) presenting of a story. Reasons for creating art are almost as important as the art itself (p.96). This pivotal area for investigation which is pointed out by Hucheon is overlooked by researches conducted on the transcultural adaptation Brecht’s work in South Asia in general.

In South Asian context, another striking issue is the contradictory findings of previous researches (BannerJee, 1990; Gupta, 2013; Khatoon, 2011; Mundrawala, 2009; Velman, 2013). For instance, inconclusive findings in Bangladesh’s context where Brecht’s work has been performed for more three decades; there are even conflicting reports on even its level of reception among local audiences. Specifically,UPM Banerji (1990) in his research article “Brecht’s adaptations in Modern Bengali Theatre: A Study in Reception”, declared them a huge success and had an everlasting effects on the dramaturgical standards of Bangladesh (21) while,on the hand, Gupta (2013) twenty three years later (2013) in his research study, “When the Windows Opened: Communication Though Foreign Adaptations on the Bengali stage” contradicted this declaration by stating that “it must be mentioned, however, that Brecht adaptations have not taken roots in the soil of Bengali stage”. (p.3). Unfornately, none of these researches debated the political significance of these transcultural adaptations in Bangladeshi context. Furthermore, they provide no commentary on his social ontology, or his views on capitalism as elaborated and expressed in these transcultural adaptations of CCC, AU and The TPO.

Similarly, in Indian context, the rigorous focus of discussion among researchers and writers (Velman2013; Karnaad 2015) was on the forms of Epic theatre and elements founds in the leading dramatist of India such as, Datani and Sircar. Though these eminent scholars provide insight into Brecht forms, they offer little analysis on the Brecht’s philosophy and political dimension in these transcultural adaptations. Velman (2013), for example, in his book, Brecht in India, only devoted small section as a rudimentary out line of Brecht’s political ideas and did not discuss this in any of theseCOPYRIGHT writers work. On a whole, it seems the most significant limitation in these researches is based on the linguistic strategy of the adapters in both Bangladesh and India. The transcultural adaptations of Brecht’s work were performed in local languages and nor translated or © transcreated in English which seems a serious draw back in these researches as none of these adaptation studies cited ‘dialogues’ in their critical analysis.

It is pertinent to note here that unlike these adaptations performed in other parts of South Asia, Brecht’s transcultural adaptations in Pakistan were performed by Ajoka Theatre in multiple languages especially in English language in second phase of indigenization for international audience and readers. Thus provide wider scope of discourse analysis than for previous studies.

In Pakistani context, despite the intuitive appeal of transcultural Adaptations of Brecht’s dramatic work, which was initially strategically utilized by Ajoka theatre as a ‘counter discourse’ against rise of capitalism and its close nexus with dictatorship in Pakistan’s socio- political context, have surprisingly in general received relatively ‘less attention’ from both literary critics and academic researchers during its long and continuous successful performance history of thirty years.

The majority of studies to date such as Khan in Critical Stage (2006) and “Street theatre in Pakistani Punjab” (2007), Mundrawala’s PhD dissertation, Depoliticization of theatre in Pakistan (2009) “Framing the narratives in theatre” (2010),UPM Ahmed in Exploring the role story telling in Shahid Nadeem’s plays (2011) researched extensively and exclusively on ‘gender politics’ and aesthetic aspect of Ajoka’s signature work and presented Ajoka as “Feminist Theatre” or “Folk theatre” rather than a mainstream political theatre. All these critics unfortunately did not endeavor to explore or debate the political and social significance and impact of these transcultural adaptations of Brecht’s work in Pakistan’s socio-political context.

After overlooking and neglecting this crucial aspect of Ajoka’s premier work for so long, Khatoon’s scholarly article “Brecht in Pakistan” published in 2011, in Explorations, one of the most prestigious journal of English literature in South Asia, eventually considered Brecht’s local adaptations as a “catalyst” for the “productive theatre” in Pakistan, birth of “new Brecht” and “innovative folk theatre” in Pakistan:

In dramatizing Brecht, local theatre in Pakistan has dealt with bold subjects, experimented with dramatic techniques, and blended contemporary reality with traditional epic form that constitute the essence of Brechtian drama. The indigenous staging of his plays are a great contribution to the promotion of art and culture and the struggle for social justice and peace for the country. In promoting productive theatre in Pakistan, the local adaptations and reworking of Brecht’s plays has acted as catalyst. It has not only provided entertainment COPYRIGHTwhich has a social relevance but has also created a great awareness among artists about indigenous theatre forms. It has also helped the alternative theatre groups utilize traditional folk theatre forms and indigenous dramaturgical devices more innovatively (p.22). ©

Unfortunately, this significant seminal work on transcultural adaptation in Pakistan could not break the ‘scholarly silence’ as one could find hardly any other scholarly article exclusively on indigenization of Brecht’s work in Pakistan particularly, on the

‘political value’ and impact of this literary effort. Series of crisp journalist reports (Dawn, Friday Times, The News, The Nation and Daily Times, the leading English newspapers in Pakistan, on 11April 2010) however, published on the event of Brecht Theatre Festival 2010, briefly depicted the stories of the plays and its aesthetic appeal and overlooked its political significance in contemporary Pakistan.

However, broadly speaking it can also be argued that this lukewarm attitude towards adaptation seems global. Even adaptations appear to emerge as a new ‘trend’ in the field of drama and theatre and achieve tremendous reception by audiences across the world (Hutcheon 2006, Sanders 2006) the extant research into their nature and effects is partial and incomplete as a practical dramatist; Blodis (2013) observes the dearth of critical literature on adaptation in spite of huge commercial success and prominent presence since the advent of western drama and theatre:

The critical literature on the history, theory and practice of stage adaptations of plays novels and other poetic and prose works is not extensive.UPM This is despite the fact that adaptation has been a common and popular form of theoretical writing since the advent of Western drama. (p.14).

Relevant literature review exhibits that there is lack of comprehensive research in the field of adaptation especially on Brecht’s work which was initially indigenized (1977- 88) with unprecedented success and popularity in form of audience reception even under chaotic circumstances. Hutcheon considers the context of reception as just important as the context of its creation when it comes to adaptation. (p.149).

Khan (2007) in Critical Stage and Talbot (2012) in Pakistan: A New History point out that there is also lack of extensive study on the literary and historical representation of capitalism and dictatorship in Pakistan. These transcultural adaptations of Brecht work provide a valuable literary platform to examine these historical issues multiple representations in Pakistani context. Specifically, Talbot (2012) highlights the dearth of critical discussion on military dictatorship (54) while, Rahman (2012) in Class Structure of Pakistan asserts lack of serious investigation on the nexus between capitalism and dictatorship. (p.112).

In summary, in reviewing the literature related to adaptation of Brecht work in Pakistan,COPYRIGHT one is struck by the almost non-existence of ‘contextual criticism’ on political dimension of the adaptation of Brecht’s work even after three long decades of the extensive performance history of them. There is a need for contextual study on its intellectual contents: imperatives, reception and impact of these transcultural © adaptations of Brecht literary works in raising the issues of capitalism and dictatorship in Pakistan’s context.

1.6 Research Objectives

Based on the Statement of the problem, the current study focuses on the political dimension of the transcultural adaptations of Brecht’s work with capitalism and dictatorship as the main lenses of survey. Specifically, the study endeavours to provide in-depth, richly detailed insight into the hidden and un-explored Brecht’s transcultural adaptations in Pakistan by Ajoka theatre. The study also intends to explore the relationship between history, political ideas and literary works. Consistent to the argument presented by the Hutcheon Theory of Adaptation (2006) that “reasons for creating art are almost as important as the art itself” (p.96). It seeks to investigate the imperative which motivated these transcultural adaptations. It explores the adaptation as a process and product and examines how adaptation re-creates a literary work which was product of certain socio-political context (as argued by New Historicism) into a new and vibrant cultural artefact of a different country and contributes to the literary politics of the author and cannon as well as on pivotal issues such as the rise of capitalism and dictatorship. The inter-related research objectives are formulated as follows: UPM

1. To investigate the imperatives behind the import and adaptation of Brecht work in Pakistan. 2. To evaluate the effect of each contingent factor contributed in the successful audience response to the adaptations of Brecht’s work by Ajoka theatre. 3. To explore the dissident discourses on capitalism and dictatorship presented in selected plays of Ajoka theatre during 1980s and 1990s in Pakistan.

Achieving all the three inter-related objectives helps us determine the dynamic relationship between Brecht’s work and its transcultural adaptations participation in circulation of the historical discourse of their times, shaping and being shaped by the cultural and society out of which is emerged. It highlights the role of adaptation in support of the canonical work which seems old fashioned or out dated.

1.7 Significance and Contribution of the Study

The current research endeavours to contribute to Brechtian scholarship, Hutcheon’s theory of adaptation and New Historicism perspective at different levels as it extends previous studies on transcultural adaptation of Brecht’s work in Pakistani context in severalCOPYRIGHT aspects.

Broadly speaking, the current research provides fresh insights on the imperatives © which necessitated the import and indigenization process of these Brecht’s selected work in light of New-Historicism and process of transcultural adaptation through Hutcheon’s theory of adaptation and its historical reception through Jauss’s horizon of expectation. All these theories specifically signify the need for investigating the political dimension [Historical intentionality] of the selected texts (transcultural

adaptations) (95-7). This hidden historical intentionality behind the emergence of these texts is previously ignored. Following the Hutchison’s theory key assumption that the “context of reception is as just important as the context of creation when comes to adapting” (149), it vigorously investigated the imperatives and effects of these transcultural adaptations on history of Pakistan by vigorously focusing on the contextual reading (cultural matrix) along with the other co-texts from the same period as suggested by New Historicism while the previous studies focused on the visual and aural features.

Unfortunately, previous studies did not examine the selected texts as adaptations; Khatoon (2011) discussed the general significance of these transcultural adaptations and comment on them in a passing way in her research article, “Brecht in Pakistan” This only emphasizes to dig deep on the subject. Furthermore, Mundrawala (2009), Khan (2006) left inclusive findings and unfair suggestions on the imperatives, success factors and effects of these adaptations on Pakistan society and political environment due to lack of theoretical framework. Thus this research with the conceptual framework compromised of New-Historicism and Theory of AdaptationUPM addressed the ‘theoretical gap’ left by the prior studies. Second, and more importantly, this research will examine the interaction between capitalism and dictatorship in Pakistan historical context through these selected texts that have not been examined in previous studies. Briefly, the significance and contribution of the study can be out line as:

This research project has also has a “practical contribution” to adaptation studies by bringing the discourse on Brecht’s transcultural adaptations around the world by investigating the political dimension and its functional value and may also become a model or template to be used and critiqued for adaptation readings of western literary figures and artists in Pakistan.

The current research carries forward the “cultural study framework” with a sharp focus on the subjects of capitalism and dictatorship as a historical context generally lacking in the prior researches on Brecht’s selected work and its transcultural adaptations.

Specifically, this dissertation is an attempt to enhance ‘contextual criticism’ by fulfilling a ‘knowledge gap’ regarding capitalism and dictatorship discourse in the selected transcultural adaptations of Brecht’s selected texts. Since majority of these transcultural adaptations were banned due to their subversive treatment to the dominantCOPYRIGHT discourse generated by most powerful circles i.e. establishment and clergy of the state, the political aspect of these controversial adaptations seems to over looked and ignored by the previous researches based on new criticism. As explained above in the problem statement section, no scholarly work to date has examined these Brecht’s © transcultural adaptations from a contextual perspective.

Detailed Literature review revealed that there was lack of comparative study between Brecht’s work and its transcultural adaptations thus the current status of Brecht dramaturgical principles and philosophy in these adaptations was still unexamined. It’s also examined the Brecht’s cannon in 21st century perspective by conducting a seminal study on Brecht indigenization and effects on the Pakistani theatre in particular. It also evaluates the political function of these transcultural adaptations in ‘re-writing’ the history of Pakistan.

Additionally, interdisciplinary in nature, the study is useful not only for the students of literature but also for students of culture studies, anthropology, political science, history, theatre studies, comparative cultural studies and South Asian Studies. The students of aforementioned subjects can study the issues mentioned in this research in light of their respective subject and contribute to the existing body of respective literatures of their subjects.

In Pakistan’s context, it initiates the debate on adaptations of westernUPM literary figures. One of the foremost limitations one would face is the dearth of research work conducted on theatre by Pakistani scholars that makes the new researchers face difficulty when they intend to relate the studies to their own culture. This research with detail discussion on theatrical work in relation to the history of Pakistan can provide foundation for further studies in the realm of political theatre.

1.8 Scope and Limitations of the Study

This study sets down a foundation for further study into transcultural adaptations of Brecht’s work in South Asian setting by selecting Ajoka theatre in Pakistan. The study presents the scope for comparative study between the source texts and their adaptations due to distinct similarities and differences. However, this study is limited to Brecht’s three plays, Caucasian Chalk Circle, Threepenny Opera and Resistible Rise of Arturu Ui and their six adaptations in two phases. It is pertinent to note that these texts are highly representative to the issues i.e. capitalism and dictatorship address by the study thus provide appropriate foundation to explore and examine the historical significance of Brecht’s work and its transcultural adaptations.

Furthermore, it is also limited in its selection of non-literary texts as 15 books from the area of history, politics and sociology of those eras (Brecht 1928-60) and (Nadeem 1977COPYRIGHT-2015). These texts have been selected for parallel study as suggested by Greenblatt’s approach to new historicism. These books are also selected in the view of the issues addressed in the dissertation and are also recognized as the prominent non-literature during the times Brecht’s selected work and its transcultural adaptations © were produced and performed.

It is also significant to note that study has selected only the “performance texts written in English language” by Shahid Nadeem, the key adapter of Brecht’s work in Pakistan for Ajoka theatre. They were published by Oxford University Press in 2007. These adaptations, in second phase of indigenization of Brecht’s work, were performed in multiple languages; Urdu and Punjabi for local audiences while in English for international audiences. The selection of adaptations written in English language will help address the gap in previous studies which included the adaptations in local languages and therefore did not cite dialogues for critical analysis.

The study is also specific in its theoretical frame work as it will apply new historicism critical theory specifically, the presumptions presented by Stephen Greenblatt (1982) as a main theoretical lens and Hutcheon theory of adaptation and Jauss concept of “horizon of expectations” and Michael Foucault’s three discursive strategies will work under it. This conceptual frame work will provide appropriate theoretical background to explore and examine the relationship among history, literature andUPM political ideas. Although this work can become model for critique in other part of Asia, it is limited to the adaptations of Brecht’s work initially conducted in Pakistan by Ajoka theatre. It does not include India and Bangladesh where Brecht’s work is also adapted and performed successfully. This limitation will increase the focus of study to explore and evaluate the political dimension of these transcultural adaptations.

1.9 Structure of the Thesis

The thesis is divided into three sections. The summary of each section is presented below.

Chapter 1 : Introduction encapsulates the essence of the research in transcultural adaptation. Brief political and economic history is given to highlight the significance of capitalism and dictatorship as a historical context. The chapter covers the objectives, significance, limitations and scope of the research. The research methodology is included in this chapter to outline the means to achieve the objectives.

Chapter 2 : Literature Review examines the literature in light of objectives set in the first chapter from the outline. In light of objectives set in the previous chapter, this chapterCOPYRIGHT launches its investigation specifically by revisiting the historical context of capitalist dictatorship comprehensively. Next section discusses the reception of Brecht’s transcultural adaptations in Pakistan in context to Asian dramaturgy in general and Brecht vision of theatre in particular. In addition, the chapter summarizes © evaluates and synthesizes previous researches conducted on Ajoka work in general and on transcultural adaptations in particular

Chapter 3 : Research Methodology explores the theories and concepts related to study and identify the theoretical, knowledge and practical gaps which can be filled by the conceptual frame work of this research.

Analysis Chapters (4-6): The study comprises three separate sections. The first deals with the criticism of capitalist society, the second with the means of changing that society and the third with the nexus between capitalism and dictatorship. Specifically, next two chapters concentrate on two forms of critique on Capitalism i.e. ‘Prescriptive’ and ‘Descriptive’ (Ingle 1979) in transcultural adaptations of Brecht’s work while the third chapter explores the literary representation of capitalist dictatorship. It is pertinent to note that current study is comparative in nature to evaluate how the adaptations interact with their source texts in different cultural settings.

Chapter 4 : A Representation of Modern Capitalist Society explores the descriptive critique of capitalism which concentrates on “what is wrong”. The chapter is divided into three parts. The first part explores the collaborativeUPM nature of the selected text through the lens of new historicism and frames it in socio-political and historical dimension of its time and see how and why did selected text politically represented love and exploitation of beggars in the bourgeoisie capitalist society in Weimar republic, thus unleash it discourse in socio-political context of its birth. The second part explores the salient features if its adaptations in light of Hutcheon theory of adaptation (2006) and examines how through re-contextualizing Brecht text in different culture setting gives it new ‘political meaning’ and vibrant creative life to the source text and final part shows how and what happens in Focauldian sense when one dimension religion is added to the existing fierce interplay between capitalism and family values in Pakistani context.

Chapter 5 : Transformation of capitalist society examines the prescriptive critique of capitalism which focuses on “what is to be done” i.e. transformation of Capitalist society to Socialist one. The first part explores and evaluates the definition of capitalism presented in the selected text of Brecht and examines how in resistance to this dominant discourse Brecht creatively crafts a new of model of motherhood. The second part investigates the dynamic adaptation process through which Ajoka transformed a 1940s German cultural product into 1980s Pakistani cultural product in light of Hutcheon Theory of Adaptation (2006). In third part debates the extension of Brecht social and political philosophy and theatrical vision by Ajoka theatre which actually resulted in re-creating the discourse and transcultural adaptation model of BrechtCOPYRIGHT in Asia.

Chapter 6 : Literary Representation of Capitalist dictatorship in transcultural © adaptations of Brecht’s AU investigates the effects of capitalism on political landscape. This chapter is divided into three interrelated parts: the first part explores the relationship between concept of personalist dictatorship and Brecht’s social and political philosophy in The Resistible Rise of Arturu Ui in light of new historicism. The second section is dedicated to General Ayub Khan’s personalist dictatorship and

its literary representation in The Third Knock (1970), the first adaptation of Brecht’s selected play in light of Hutcheon’s Theory of Adaptation (2006) and Greenblatt’s approach to New Historicism (1985).The third and final section explores the civilian dictatorship through BK of Pakistan and examine how Ajoka’s BK plays out Brecht social and political philosophy in Pakistani context.

Chapter 7 : Conclusion presents the findings of the project, as well as recommendation for those interested in further research on adaptation of Brecht work in different theatrical landscape.

1.10 Definition of Key Terms

Alienation : It is a method of presentation developed by Brecht, the aim of which is to demonstrate that what seem fixed and eternal is in fact subject to change. This concept is comprehensively discussed in the section 2.2.5 of the chapter, titled Literature Review of this thesis. UPM

Indigenization : For definitions, kindly refer to the section 1.4 earlier in this chapter.

History : According to Leach in Theatre Studies (2013), in new historicism comparative or non-linear view of history is considered which suggests that there is “no ultimate truth” to be found, only a series of perhaps reverberations. From this position, the plays of Brecht can be seen less a work of great drama than as sociological and political products of their times influenced by or influenced the historical forces.

Context : For new historicist, the context, and specifically the historical context, is crucial to any examination of a performance or piece of theatre (Leach, 2013).

Discourses : According to Dobie (2012), in light of New Historicism, discourses are the “ways of seeing and talking about the world” (p.178). They are different types of discourse operate simultaneously. These discourses clash and overlap and repeat shaping and being shaped one another. New Historicism investigates the repressed discourses as well as the dominant discourses to uncover the complex yet dynamic relationship among ideologies which in return “provides an interpretation of what the storiesCOPYRIGHT of past means” (p.180). Literature : According to New Historicist, “Literature is one many inter-active discourses and studying it requires putting together these discourses –the accepted © with the excluded –even when they are contradictory”. Therefore, Literature is intergral “part of the record of human experience that formed by the cultural conditions at a particular time and place” (Dobie, 185, 2012).

Discursive Formation : Foucault uses the term discursive formation "for a system of statements produced by force of a single discursive practice" (Buchanan, 134). "Discursive formations emerge in a slow and uncertain way" (Ibid. 135).

Power : According to Mills in his book , Discourse , the "Power is often conceptualized as the capacity of powerful agents to realize their will over the will of powerless people, and the ability to force them to do things which they do not wish to do" (p.35).

Statement : New Historicism asserts that, "statement" is the basic constitutive unit of discourse. Although constructed by language, statement should not be mistaken for a linguistic word or sentence; it is more an unnoticed social utterance.

Episteme : According to Williams (2014), in Foucault’s Representations the discourse does not necessarily constitute of a single text, statements or actionsUPM but repeated its patterns of thinking and knowledge across wide range of text, conduct and institution in society. Foucault terms this repetitive pattern an episteme, “which acquired a discursive pattern whenever it is shared politically or institutionally through objects, style and strategy” (p.123).

Note

1 Sanskrit Drama is a part of Sanskrit literature, the classical literature of India, which flourished from about 1500 B.C to about 1100 AD. The performances were highly stylized in term of gestures and costumes and music and dance. 2 An ancient South Asian form of Folk theatre. An open air drama with narrators. It incorporates suitable theatrics and mimicry accompanied by sound and dialogue. It is a dialogue-oriented than movement- oriented. 3 Ravi is a traditional story teller in a Indo-Pak literary context. 4 According to Merrian Webster dictionary it is the writing of history based on critical examination of sources into narrative. 5 Means challenging the official narrative of Germany in 1930s and 40s. Leach (2008) discusses this element in his book, Theatre Studies p. 7. 6 It is an economic system in which the means of production the factories, tools, equipment etc. are owned and controlled by private individual, not by the state. For further information see the book, Economics, chapter 25 which states that this modified “Law of Jungle, survival of the Fittest” philosophy of Capitalism was accepted by most business and political leaders of the western world in the last century (414) 7 Martin Esslin in Anatomy of Drama (1958) points out the difference between Brecht’s and his other contemporary writers. He asserts that Brecht’s writing is based on external realities (political conditions,COPYRIGHT social problems, etc.) while Becket and Ionesco “tend to neglect the realities of social circumstances” and their documentation is in the favor of “inner truth” (102) 8 According to Wothen (2000) in Harcourt Brace Anthology of Drama (3rd edition), Political theatre “questions the inequalities and injustices of contemporary society (1486). 9 Brecht’s theatrical work represents both the characteristics of Asian and Europeon theatres. © 10 A political and secular folk theatre for extensive discussion read section contours of Ajoka Theatre of this thesis. 11 Countries like Pakistan, India and Bangladesh etc. 12 One literary text reflection in another literary text. This concept is carried forwarded by Julia Krestiva.

13 Third Military take over in Pakistan, considered as the longest and the most brutal dictatorship regime by many critics. For detailed history of this regime see section “dictatorship as a historical context” in Chapter 2 of this thesis. 14 One Punjab" -the romantic identity of undivided Punjab before partition. This term is used by Abdullah Hussain in the introduction to the novel, The Weary Generation (1958). 15 Sarbani Sen, an eminent Indian researcher asserts in ‘Indian Drama Today’ that advent of imperial power and imperial strategies simply destroyed the traditional theatre by turning dramatist “the unashamedly derivative” and “fiercely imitative losing their roots and audiences in the bargain” (72). 16 According to Khalid Ahmed, an activity such as theatre that has the potential to encourage critical thinking in considered suspect and subversive by military dictatorships, Critical Stage, p. 36. 17 Civil Regime supported by military establishment. Generally the government is ruled by one man. Nawaz Sharif regime is discussed under this title. Many prominent writers such as Talbot, Jalal, Amir argued against these kind of dictatorships in Pakistan. 18 Empire began by Babar in 1527 and ended with Bahadur Shah’s defeat by the English in 1857. Famous for great architectural master pieces such as Taj Mahal and Badshahi Mosque. For detailed history of Mughals read the section “The coming of Mughals” in History of India vol. 2 page 15-60. 19 British imperialism in India is also known as British Raj. 20 Such as music, multiple narrator, poetry and dance in a play. For detailed discussion read section Asian Theatre of this thesis. 21 Majority of adaptations of Brecht’s plays are in Punjabi language, the provisional UPMlanguage of Punjab. Although, Urdu is an official language of Pakistan, Punjabi is the language of Masses/common people of 160 million.

8 REFERENCES

Abdi, R. (1987). Tragic vision: the Western drama and modern literary movements. Lahore: Punjab University Press.

Afzal, S. (2012). Theatre of prophecy. Unpublished Dissertation. Lahore: Govt. College University.

Afzal-Khan, F. (1997). Street theatre in Pakistani Punjab: The case of Ajoka, Lok Rehas, and the woman question. TDR (1988-), 41(3), 39-62.

Afzal-Khan, F. (2005). A Critical Stage: The Role of Secular Alternative Theatre in Pakistan. Seagull Books Pvt Ltd.

Ajoka Annual Report, Quarter (2008). Ajoka Theatre, Lahore. Ajoka Brecht Theatre Festival Brochure, (2010) 25 years of performingUPM Brecht in Pakistan (1985-2010), Ajoka Theatre, Lahore.

Ajoka Festival Brochure, Musafat. (2009). The Journey continues. Celebrating 25 years of Ajoka Theatre. Ajoka Theatre, Lahore.

Ajoka, P. (8 March 2009). Bala King. By Bertolt Brecht. Adpt. Shahid Nadeem. Dir. Madeeha Gauhar, Alhamra Theatre, Lahore. Performance

Akhir, K. (2006). Street Theatre for Raiing Awareness, Aahung.

Ali, T. (1970). Pakistan: military rule or people’s power, London: Jonathan Cape Press.

Ali, T. (2012). The duel: Pakistan on the flight path of American power. Karachi: Oxford University Press.

Allen,G. (2000). Intertextuality, London: Routledge.

Amin, S. (1979). Unequal development: an essay on the formation of peripheral capitalism. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.

Amjad, R. (1974). Industrial concentration and economic power in Pakistan. Lahore: South Asian Institute, University of the Punjab.

Amjad,COPYRIGHT R. (1978). Pakistan’s growth experience: objectives, achievement, and impact on poverty: 1947-1977. Lahore: Progressive Publisher. © Anwar, T. (2002). Impact of globalization and liberalization on growth, employment and poverty. World Institute of Development Economics Research (WIDER) Development Conference.

Asian Drama, (Dec 2007). The Columbia encyclopaedia, Sixth Edition, 2001-0717.

163

Aslam, M. (2011). Contemporary Pakistani Drama: The Case of Ajoka Theatre. Unpublished Dissertation. Lahore: Govt. College University, Lahore.

Ayaz, B. (2012). What’s wrong with Pakistan? Delhi: Hay House Judia.

Azam, I. (1991). Pakistan’s political culture. Lahore: Polymer Publications.

Aziz, A. “Using Past to intervene in the Present: Spectacular Framing in Arthur Miller’s The Crucible”, New Theatre Quarterly, vol.xxxiiii Part II, Cambridge University Press, UK.2017.

Aziz, K.K. (1993). The murder of history. Lahore: Vanguard Press.

Aziz, K.K. (2015). The making of Pakistan, Lahore: Service Book Club.

Babu, M. S. (1994). Indian Drama Today, New Delhi. Bajwa, F. N. (2010). Pakistan a historical and contemporary look. UPMKarachi: Oxford University Press.

Baker, W. R. (2005). Capitalism’s achilles heel, New Jersey: John Wiley & Son.

Balodis, J. (2012). The practice of adaptation: turning fact and fiction into theatre. PhD dissertation, Queensland University of Technology.

Banerjee, A. (31 Jan 2016). “Brecht’s adaptation in Modern Bengali Theatre: A study in Reception.” Asian Theatre Journal 7.1 (1990):1-28. University of Hawai’I Press.

Barker, M., & Robinson, S. (1999). History: Student Handbook. Cambridge: Pearson Publishing.

Barnett, D. (2016). BRECHT IN PRACTICE: Theatre, Theory and Performance. London: Bloomsbury .

Barthes, R. (2001). From Work to Text: The Norton Anthology of Literary Criticism. London: W. W. Norton and Company.

Bashir, Z., & Din, M. U. (2003). The Impacts of Economic Reforms and Trade Liberalisation on Agricultural Export Performance in Pakistan [with COPYRIGHTComments]. The Pakistan Development Review, 941-960. Benjamin, W. (1992). The task of the translator. In Schulte and Beguent, 71-92.

Bentley, E. (1977). “What is theatre? A point of view.” European theories of drama. © Ed. Barrett H. Clark. New York: Crown. Bertens, H. (2014). Literary theory: the basics. New York: Rutledge.

164

Biggam, J. (2011). Succeeding with your Master’s dissertation. London: McGraw Hill Education.

Boal, A. (2000). Theatre of the oppressed, London: Pluto Press, 2000. Print.

Bose, S., & Jalal, A. (2017). Modern South Asia: history, culture, political economy. Routledge.

Bowden, E. V. (1986). Abridged economics: the science of common sense. Thomson South-Western.

Brandon, J. R., & Banham, M. (Eds.). (1997). The Cambridge guide to Asian theatre. Cambridge University Press.

Brecht, B. (1948). A Short Organum for the Theatre. Retrieved from http://tenstakonsthall.se/ uploads/139- Brecht_A_Short_Organum_for_the_Theatre.pdf. UPM Brecht, B. (1964). “Theatre for Pleasure or Theatre for Instruction.” Brecht on theatre: the development of an aesthetic. Trans. John Willett. London: Shenval Press.

Brecht, B. (1977). “Theatre for Learning.” European theories of the drama: with a supplement on the American drama. Ed. Barrett H.Clark. New York: Crown.

Brecht, B. (1997). Collected plays: three. London: Methuen.

Bristol, M. D. (1993). Encyclopaedia of contemporary literary theory : approaches, scholars, terms. Ed. Irena R. Makaryk. Canada: University of Toronto Press.

Buchanan, D.H. (1934). The Development of capitalist enterprise in India, London: Macmillan.

Burki, S. J. (1980). Pakistan under Bhutto, 1971-77. New York : St.Martin Press.

Burki, S. J. (1988). Pakistan under Zia, 1977-1988. Asian Survey, 28(10), 1082-1100.

Burki, S. J. (2 Nov 2010). The middle class millions, Dawn, Internet edition.

Burki, S. J. (2002). Politics of power and its economic imperatives: Pakistan, 1947- 99. Karachi: Oxford University Press. Buse,COPYRIGHT P. (2001). Drama + theory: critical approaches to modern British Drama, Manchester: Manchester University Press

Cardwell, S. (2002). Adaptation revisited: television and the classic novel. © Manchester: Manchester University Press. Castle, G. (2007). The blackwell guide to literary theory, Malden: Blackwell Publishing.

165

Clurman, H. (1981). Introduction: nine plays of modern theatre, New York: Grove Press.

Cole, T. (Ed.). (1960). Playwrights on playwriting: the meaning and making of modern drama from Ibsen to Ionesco (Vol. 529). Hill and Wang.

Cowie, A. P. (2002). English dictionaries for foreign learners: A history. Oxford University Press on Demand.

Culler, J. (1997). Literary theory, a very short introduction, Oxford: Oxford University Press.

di Patti, E. B., & Hardy, D. C. (2005). Financial sector liberalization, bank privatization, and efficiency: Evidence from Pakistan. Journal of banking & finance, 29(8), 2381-2406.

Dijk, T. A. (1977). Text and Context-Explorations in the. Semantics and pragmatics of. Discourse. London: Longman. UPM Dobie, Ann B. (2012). Theory into Practice: An introduction to Literary Criticism, Delhi: Cenage Learning.

Dollimore, J., & Sinfield, A. (1985). Transgression and surveillance in'measure for measure'. Manchester University Press.

Drucker, P. F. (1993). Post-Capitalist Society (New York: HarperBusiness, 1993). Chapter, 6, 123.

Durrant, W. (1968). The lessons of history, New York: Simon & Schuster publisher.

Eagleton, T. (1998). Literature and history, context for criticism, Donald Keesey (ed.) London : Mayfield Publishing Company.

Eagleton, T. (2011). Why Marx was right, Yale: Yale University Press.

Eliot, S., & Owens, W. R. (Eds.). (1996). A handbook to literary research. Psychology Press.

Ezrow, N. M., & Frantz, E. (2011). Dictators and dictatorships: Understanding authoritarian regimes and their leaders. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. Fatima,COPYRIGHT F. (2014). The integration of verbal and non-verbal codes in Girish Karnad’s plays. Unpublished PhD Dissertation. Lahore: University of the Punjab, Lahore

Fischer-Lichte, E. (1996). Interculturalism in contemporary theatre. The intercultural © performance reader, 27-40. Fischlin, D., & Fortier, M. (Eds.). (2000). Adaptations of Shakespeare: an Anthology of Plays from the 17th Century to the Present. Routledge.

166

Fliotsos, A. (2011). Interpreting the play script: Contemplation and analysis. Palgrave Macmillan.

Foucault, M. (1972). The archaeology of knowledge. London: Tavistock.

Foucault, M. (1974). The order of things: an archaeology of human sciences, London: Rutledge.

Foucault, M. (1978). The history of sexuality. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books.

Foucault, M. (1980). Power/knowledge: selected interviews and other writings, Brighton: Harvester Press.

Foucault, M. (1995). Discipline and punish: the birth of a prison. Translated by A. Sheridan. New York: Vintage. Fox, R. (1933). The colonial policy of British imperialism. InternationalUPM Publishers. Frus, P., & Williams, C. (Eds.). (2010). Beyond adaptation: essays on radical transformations of original works. McFarland.

Fuegi, J. (1994). The Zelda Syndrome: Brecht and Elisabeth Hauptmann.". Thomson and Sacks, 104-16.

Gardezi, H. N. (1966). Society in Pakistan. Lahore: University of Punjab Press.

Gauhar, M. (22 April 2014). Personal interview. Retrieved from https://www.pinkvilla.com

Gilbert, H., & Tompkins, J. (2006). Post-colonial drama: theory, practice, politics. Routledge.

Greenblatt, S. (1980). Renaissance self fashioning: from more to Shakespeare. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Greenblatt, S. (1989). The new historicism, H. Aram Vesser (ed.), New York : Routelege, 1989.

Greenblatt, S. (2001). The Power of Forms in the English Renaissance. In Vincent B. Leithch, Et. al. (eds.), Norton Anthology of Literary Criticism, New York and COPYRIGHTLondon: W.W.Norton and Company, Inc. Greenblatt, S. (Ed.). (1982). The forms of power and the power of forms in the renaissance. University of Oklahoma. © Griffin, G. (Ed.). (2005). Research methods for English studies. Edinburgh University Press.

Gull, I. (2010). The most dangerous place: Pakistan lawless frontiers. New York: Viking Penguin.

167

Gupta, G. S. (2013). When the windows opened: Communication through foreign adaptations on the Bengali stage. Global Media Journal, University of Calcutta.

Hansen, D. (2010). Radical Rhetoric-Moderate Behaviour: Perceptions of Islam, Shari’a and the Radical Dimensions among inhabitants of Islamabad and Rawalpindi in the post- 9/11 Pakistani Reality’, PhD Thesis, Princeton University, 2010.

Harvey, D. (2007). A Brief History of Neoliberalism, New York: Oxford University Press.

Hilton, J. (1987). Performance. London: MacMillan 1987. Print.

Hitler, A. (2016), Mein Kamp (Limited Edition), Lahore: Readings Book.

Hopkin, L. (2016). Beginning Shakespeare, New Delhi: Viva Book. Husain, F. M. (14 Sep 2007). It is A Pretty Mocking of Life. Friday Times.UPM Hussain, I. (2011). Ajoka’s magic Kaleidoscope: History of Ajoka Theatre, Lahore: Ajoka Press.

Hussain, M. (1990). Pakistan's politics: the Zia years. Stosius Inc/Advent Books Division.

Hussain, Z. (2006). Frontline Pakistan: the struggle with militant Islam. IB Tauris.

Hutcheon, L. (2006). Linda. A theory of adaptation. New York: Rutledge.

Ingle, S. (1979). Socialist thought in imaginative literature. Springer.

Innes, C. D. (1979). Modern German drama: a study in form. CUP Archive.

Jajja, M A. (2012). Shadows of Time: Colonial Encounter and Partition, Explorations 23, 18-39.

Jalal, A. (1990). The state of martial rule: The origins of Pakistan's political economy of defence. Cambridge University Press.

Joll, J. (1990). Europe since 1870: an international history. Penguin Group (CA).

Karnad, G. R. (1994). Three plays: nāga-mandala, hayavadana, tughlaq. Oxford COPYRIGHTUniversity Press, USA.

Kershaw, B. (1992). The politics of performance: radical theatre as cultural © intervention, Routledge. Khan, M. A. (2003).Restructuring of Financial Sector in Pakistan. Journal of the Institute of Bankers Pakistan, 70, 13-22.

168

Khan, Shazeb (2016). “Pedagogy of Alienation: Epistemic Hegemony of the Mental spaces and Fatal fault lines in the National Space”, Journal of South Asian Studies, University of the Punjab, 31(1)321.

Khatoon, S. (2011). Brecht in Pakistan. Exploration 22,18-30.

Kinney, M. (2013). A Review of Linda Hutcheon's A Theory of Adaptation. Critical Voices: The University of Guelph Book Review Project, 3(3), 7-15.

Leach, R. (2004). Makers of modern theatre. London: Rutledge.

Leach, R. (2008). Theatre studies, the basics. London: Rutledge.

Leitch, T. (2008). Adaptation Studies at a Crossroads, Adaptation, 1(1) 63-77.

Leitch, V. B., & Cain, W. E. (Eds.). (2010). The Norton anthology of theory and criticism. WW Norton & Company. UPM Lenin, V. I. (1919). A great beginning: the heroism of the workers in the rear: on communist subbotniks. Co-Operation Pub. Society of Foreign Workers in the USSR.

Lenin, V. I. (1999). Imperialism: The highest stage of capitalism. Resistance Books.

Lewisohn, L. (1977). European theories of the drama: with a supplement on the American drama, Ed. Barrett H.Clark. New York: Crown.

Marx, K., & Engels, F. (1998). The Communist Manifesto. In K.Marx and F.Engles, Classics in Politics (CD-Rom). London: The Electric Book Company.

Masud, K. (2012). Lessons of my life: pakistan, islam and spirit of revolution, Lahore: ILQA Publications.

Meech, T. (1994). Brecht’s early plays, the cambridge companion to brecht, Cambridge : Cambridge University Press.

Mills, S. (1997). Discourse, New York: Rutledge.

Mirza, S. T. (1992). Resistance themes in punjabi literature. Lahore: Sang-e-Meel Publications. Muller,COPYRIGHT J. P., & Brent, J. (Eds.). (2000). Peirce, semiotics, and psychoanalysis (Vol. 15). Johns Hopkins University Press.

Mundrawala, A. (2009). Shifting terrains: the depoliticisation of political theatre in © Pakistan, PhD dissertation, University of Sussex, UK. Mustafa, S. G. (1964). The British in the Subcontinent, Lahore: Ferozsons Ltd.

169

Nadeem S. (12 Feb 2005). Rev. of kashmir times. The Third Knock by Shahid Nadeem. Jammu, 279-280.

Nadeem S. (2008). Selected Play, New York: Oxford University Press.

Nasr, S. V. R. (2010). The rise of Islamic capitalism: Why the new Muslim middle class is the key to defeating extremism. Free Press.

Orgel, S. (1975). The illusion of power: political theater in the English Renaissance (Vol. 127). Univ of California Press.

Orwell, G. (2000). George Orwell: An age like this, 1920-1940(Vol. 1). David R. Godine Publisher.

Pandey, S., & Barua, F. (Eds.). (1994). New Directions in Indian Drama: With Special Reference to the Plays ot Vijay Tendulkar, Badal Sircar and Girish Karnad. Prestige. UPM Paul, T.V. (2014). Warorior State, Karachi: Oxford University Press.

Pavis, P. (Ed.). (1996). The intercultural performance reader. Psychology Press.

Planning Commission, (1988). The seventh five year plan, 1988-93 & Perspective Plan, 1988-2003. Islamabad : Printing Corporation of Pakistan Press.

Pritner, C., & Walters, S. E. (2017). Introduction to play analysis. Waveland Press.

Punjab Board of Economic inquiry. (1953). Effects of partition on industry. Karachi.

Quraishi, W. (1982). Ideological Foundations of Pakistan, Lahore: Aziz Publisher.

Qureshi, A. (1987). Drama of the subcontinent: history, vision and decline, Islamabad: Urdu Academy.

Rahid,T. (2006). Contested representation. Karachi: Oxford University Press.

Rahman, T. (2011). Language and politics in Pakistan. Lahore: Sang-e-Meel Publications.

Rahman, T. (2012). The class structure of Pakistan. Karachi: Oxford University Press.

Raza, A (2000). Epic character evolution in Brecht’s The Threepenny Opera. Journal COPYRIGHTof Research (Humanities) 34, 71-87.

Resshid, Zakia (2017). “Neo- Liberal Epistemology in Pakistani Fiction” Journal of © South Asian Studies, 32(2), 41. Rizvi, H. A. (2000). Military, State and Society in Pakistan, Basingstoke: Macmillan.

170

Roose-Evans, J. (2013). Experimental theatre: from stanislavsky to peter brook. Routledge.

Rosenhaft, E. (1994). Brecht Germany: 1898-1933, The cambridge companion to brecht, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Rumi, R. (2011). Ajoka – a powerful voice against terrorism and injustice, Lahore: Ajoka Publications.

Sanders, J. (2006). Adaptation and Appropriation, London: Routledge.

Searle, J. R. (1995). The construction of social reality. New York: The First Free Press.

Sehab, R. (1989). History of Pakistan, Lahore: Sang-e-meel Publication.

Shah, M. (2012). Cultural Retrieval as a Dramatic Strategy. The Journal of Indian Writing in UPM Shah, S. A. (2007). Corporate debt policy—pre-and post-financial market reforms: The case of the textile Industry of Pakistan. The Pakistan Development Review, 465-478.

Shakespeare, W. (1971). King richard. the complete works of William Shakespeare. London: Collins.

Shevtsova, M. (2016). Political Theatre in Europe: East to West, 2007–2014. New Theatre Quarterly, 32(2), 142-156.

Siddiqa, A. (2007). Military Inc. inside Pakistan’s military economy. London: Pluto Press.

Siddiqui, S. (2014). Language, gender and power: The politics of representation and hegemony in South Asia. Oxford University Press.

Sirajuddin, S. S. (2013). Selected Plays by Shahid Nadeem. Oxford University Press.

Spear, P., Thapar, R., & Spear, T. G. P. (1990). A history of India (Vol. 2). Viking Pr. New Delhi: Pengium Books.

Sporre, J. D. (1993). The art of theatre, New Jersey: Princeton Hall. Squiers,COPYRIGHT A. (2012). The social and political philosophy of Bertolt Brecht. Western Michigan University.

Sulieman, A. (2011). Studies in Modern Drama: Bertolt Brecht, Mosul: Mena © Publisher. Talbot, I. (2012). Pakistan: A New History. Karachi: Oxford University Press.

171

Termizi, Arbaayah (2010). “Appropriating Shakespeare for a Malaysian Theatre: A Case Study of Play Production Project”, Critical Perspective on English Literature: UPM.

Thomson, P., & Sacks, G. (Eds.). (2006). The Cambridge Companion to Brecht. Cambridge University Press.

Thornborrow, T. (2002). Power talk: language and interaction in institutional discourse, New York: Longman.

Travers, M. (Ed.). (2001). European literature from Romanticism to Postmodernism: a reader in aesthetic practice. Bloomsbury Publishing.

Veeser, H. A. (1989). The New Historicism, New York: Rutledge.

Velmani, N. (2013). Drama in Indian Writing in English: Tradition and Modernity, Tamilnadu: Deemed University Press. UPM Waseem, M. (1996). Ethnic conflict in Pakistan: the case of MQM. The Pakistan Development Review, 617-629.

Webster, M. (1996). Webster's Comprehensive Dictionary of the English Language. Naples: Trident Press International.

Weiss, A. M. (1991). Culture, class, and development in Pakistan: the emergence of an industrial bourgeoisie in Punjab. Westview Pr.

Welch, D. (1993). The Third Reich: Politics and Propaganda. London: Rutledge.

Whittongton, W. (2008). A Theory of Adaptation (review). Comparative Literature Studies, 4(3), 404-406.

Wiedeli, W. (1963). The art of bertolt brecht. London: The Merlin Press.

Wiener, M. J. (1981). English Culture and Decline of the Industrial Spirit 1850-1980, London: Penguin Book.

Williams, M. (2010). New historicism and literary studies. New York: Rutledge.

Wilson, R., & Dutton, R. (2016). New historicism and renaissance drama. Routledge. Worthen,COPYRIGHT W. B. (2000). The Harcourt Brace Anthology of Drama, (3rd ed). Bostonh: Thomson Heihle.

Zia-ul-Haq, M. (1979). Introduction of Islamic Laws: Address to the Nation, © Islamabad. Ziring, L. (1967). The Ayub Khan Era: Politics in Pakistan, 1958-1969, New Jersey, Syracuse University Press.

172

Ziring, L. (1997). Pakistan in the twentieth century: A political history (pp. 460-61). Karachi: Oxford University Press.

Jauss, H. R., & Benzinger, E. (1970). Literary history as a challenge to literary theory. New Literary History, 2(1), 7-37.

Rumi, R. (2018). Being Pakistani: Society, Culture and Arts. Nodia: Harper Collins Publisher

UPM

173