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ESTONIA GREECE CEDONIA Y MA SERBIA MONTENEGRO . AKIA os ovo AND Europe K Katalin Halász and OV POL SL ALBANIA Kaliningrad (Rus.) . HUNGAR TIA A

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ICEL Boris Babin, Electra Babouri, IREL

AIN Shorena Kobaidze, Federica Prina SP ANTIC

L and Sara Vincini OCEAN AT PORTUGAL vents affecting minorities in Europe origin, Roma and immigrant populations during 2015 were dominated by violent continue to experience high levels of verbal and E attacks by religious extremists, including physical assault. two major incidents in Paris that together killed almost 150 people, as well as a foiled attempted France shooting on a train travelling from Amsterdam France suffered two major attacks carried out to Paris. The year also marked the emergence by religious extremists during the year. On 7 of a crisis that saw more than a million refugees January, an assault by armed gunmen on the and migrants enter the region, including a large offices of the satirical magazine Charlie Hebdo in proportion of Syrians displaced by the conflict. Paris, allegedly in reprisal for publishing cartoons Amid fears of further attacks inspired by the of the Prophet Muhammad, was followed by militant group Islamic State in and al-Sham a series of other attacks that culminated in (ISIS), many governments have increasingly shootings at a Jewish supermarket in the city’s seen the swelling number of refugees as an issue eastern suburbs on 9 January. With a total of 17 of security rather than one of humanitarian people killed, the attacks were among the worst protection. security incidents the country had experienced These developments have impacted deeply in several decades. While some of the subsequent not only on the treatment of refugees and public discussion focused on the exclusion of migrants by many European countries, but France’s Muslim minority and the ghettoization also caused a shift in popular attitudes towards of its immigrant population in marginalized ethnic and religious minorities in general that suburban banlieues, the attacks also served to has contributed to the rise of right-wing political reinforce existing religious and ethnic divisions organizations across the region. In Denmark, within French society. France and elsewhere, this increased popularity These issues were brought into even sharper was reflected in significant gains in national relief in November, when a series of coordinated elections in 2015, as well as a rise in hate speech suicide bombings and shootings targeting cafés, and hate crime towards Muslim communities restaurants, a music venue and near the Stade de 2014, the attacks contributed to a further surge Above: Muslim women in France. Baba1948. in particular. However, other parties with a France stadium left 130 people dead and injured in votes for the party during the December broader racist or xenophobic message, such as more than 350. In the wake of the attacks, France regional elections. religious symbols at school, meaning female Greece’s Golden Dawn or Hungary’s Jobbik, declared a state of emergency and imposed a Nevertheless, the fears expressed by the Muslim students were unable to wear a headscarf which secured more than a fifth of all votes in range of provisions that greatly extended police FN around assimilation, diversity and or hijab in class. Though not explicitly targeted April elections, have also been able to exploit powers to undertake searches, house arrests multiculturalism have long had currency within at any one religion, in practice French Muslims, popular frustrations at the continuing financial and other actions. Amid heightened security, mainstream French society, resulting at times in particularly girls, were most affected by the ban. crisis to achieve support for campaigns targeting hate crimes against Muslims rose sharply in the incidents of hate speech and hate crime targeted Though the ban has been justified by its immigrants, , Roma and other minorities. following days, with 32 incidents recorded by at dress and other markers. supporters as a positive step to promote gender In this context, concerns around integration, France’s National Observatory of Islamophobia One incident, captured on film in the wake of equality, arguing that many Muslim women assimilation and cultural difference have become across the country within just one week. But the Paris attacks, involved a woman on a train wearing the burqa or niqab are coerced into increasingly divisive, reflected at times in while the attacks undoubtedly intensified negative in Paris insulting a Muslim man because she doing so by other members of their community, suspicion and surveillance of minority spaces attitudes towards the country’s Muslim minority, regarded his attire – a beard, a small cap and a others have argued that it has served to further such as mosques as well as an increased focus on the community has long faced worsening hostility qarmis, a long garment traditionally worn by isolate women in that situation who may be language, social values and other issues. While and a widespread feeling that they are not fully Muslim men – as ‘illegal’ and ‘offensive’. The pressured into not appearing in public as a these concerns have shaped official policy, they part of French society. French state has a long established principle of result. Furthermore, critics have argued that have also driven hate crime and hate speech Popular intolerance towards Islam and broader laïcité, loosely signifying the separation of the it has contributed to a broader climate of across Europe. Indeed, many community concerns about France’s immigrant population, state from religion. This has been reflected in discrimination for Muslim women who wear members have been targeted solely on the basis attitudes rooted in both ethnic and religious various state policies, including the controversial face coverings, whether through choice or of identifiable markers, while places of worship, discrimination, have been reinforced by the rise ban on face coverings in public that came into coercion. One example took place in December graveyards, cultural centres and other sites have of far-right political groups. While this trend force from April 2011 – a stipulation that in Vénissieux, near Lyon, when the headmaster also been attacked. However, while Muslims has been apparent for a while, reflected in the prevents Muslim women from wearing a full- of the Jacques Brel secondary school reportedly in many countries appear to be increasingly unprecedented number of seats won by the far- face veil, the burqa or niqab, in public. This was asked a group of Muslim mothers to wait targeted, ethnic minorities of African or Asian right Front National (FN) in local elections in preceded by the 2004 law banning conspicuous outside during a puppet show organized for their

170 Europe State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Europe 171 and Indigenous Peoples 2016 and Indigenous Peoples 2016 children. Though the reason given was that they Jewish people were held hostage and four were cultural heritage and an important source of were wearing hijab and therefore were in breach killed, was particularly extreme, hate crime and Case study by Annela Laaneots pride for the community. of France’s Charter for Secularity in School, the hate speech more generally has reportedly been The year 2015 was a remarkable one Charter in fact forbids only pupils from wearing on the rise. According to figures released by the for Seto people as one of their cultural religious symbols to school, while making an Service de Protection de la Communauté Juive centres, the village of Obinitsa, held the exception for accompanying parents and adults. (SPCJ), anti-Semitic acts in France continued Estonia’s Seto title of Finno-Ugric Capital of Culture. Another area that has proved divisive is diet, throughout 2015, including death threats, This annual award was developed by the with many schools deciding during the year online hate speech and physical assaults on people host Finno- Youth Association of Finno-Ugric Peoples to stop offering pork-free menus in the name people wearing the kippah and other religious (MAFUN) with the aim of strengthening of laïcité. This approach, while receiving the markers. They recorded 808 anti-Semitic acts Ugric Capital the common identity of Finno-Ugric support of some public officials – Jean-Paul during the year, although SPCJ also noted that peoples, to which Seto belong, raising Beneytou, mayor of the small town of Chilly- many victims were hesitant to file complaints of Culture in awareness of kindred Finno-Ugric Mazarin, claims that it was simply a way to after others had recently been killed on account communities and languages, as well as ‘preserve public sector neutrality’ – the effect of their faith. Perhaps as a result of these Obinitsa village stimulating local development in different has been to further segregate minority students. incidents and of an increasingly widespread Finno-Ugric regions. Loosely modelled The families of Muslim and Jewish children feeling of being ‘unwelcome’, approximately after the European Capitals of Culture who do not eat pork for religious reasons 8,000 French Jewish people migrated to Seto are indigenous to the territories of what is programme, it has been adapted to reflect have complained when pork main dishes are in 2015. now south-east Estonia and north-west Russia. Finno-Ugric realities. This means a focus on featured on the menu, as their children are no Another minority that struggles with But while in Russia Seto are recognized as a rural areas as the primary repositories of the longer offered a different option. social exclusion is France’s Roma, who face small indigenous people, in Estonia their status living Finno-Ugric heritage. Social prejudice in France towards its Muslim discrimination in many areas of their lives, has not been formally recognized, despite their As the Seto village of Obinitsa has a long minority has also shaped its response to the particularly housing. The European Roma self-identification. With a total population of history of collaboration with other Finno- current refugee crisis in Europe, with thousands Rights Centre (ERRC) reported in July that 12,000, of whom 2,000 live in Setomaa, their Ugric peoples, the title was well-deserved. of refugees and asylum seekers from largely an average of 150 Roma were evicted by the traditional territory, Seto have a unique identity The central objective was to mutually Islamic countries like now seeking sanctuary French authorities every week during the first sustained by their own language, heritage and learn and teach about different aspects of in the country. This has led to increasing tensions half of the year. Anti-Roma sentiment in France identity. An example of this is Seto polyphonic cultural heritage between communities: for in certain areas, particularly the coastal town remains pervasive. During the year, several bus ‘leelo’ singing, a tradition included on the of Calais, as some locals have set up vigilante drivers in Montpellier declined to pick up Roma United Nations Educational, Scientific and Below: Obinitsa’s delegation in Petseri, groups that have reportedly carried out attacks children on their way to school, for example, Cultural Organization’s global list of intangible Russian Federation. Helju Majak. on refugees. In early 2016, demolition works in while in a small municipality near Paris, several the open-air, state-sanctioned Calais refugee camp newly enrolled Romanian Roma pupils were dubbed ‘the Jungle’ commenced. Human rights offered to be taught in a separate building away organizations such as Amnesty International from any school. The right-wing mayor of warned that this action risked making people Champlan refused to bury a two-month-old baby already vulnerable to social and economic issues because of his Roma identity, reportedly stating even more so. The camp’s makeshift church and that graveyards are ‘for those who pay taxes’. mosque were also razed to the ground, despite The mayor of a neighbouring town stepped not being included in the original demolition in and gave permission for the burial to take plans, sparking anger and indignation among the place there; he called his colleague’s decision camp’s population. ‘incomprehensible’. Besides being the European country with the largest Muslim minority community, Georgia France is also home to approximately 500,000 Preliminary results from Georgia’s 2014 census, Jewish people – the largest Jewish community the first in more than a decade, were released in Europe. However, a significant number during the year, showing that the country’s have been emigrating in recent years, partly population as at the beginning of 2015 was in response to the perception that they are no just 3.7 million, compared to a little below longer welcome. While the attack on a kosher 4.4 million in 2002. Though the official supermarket in eastern Paris shortly after the figures are widely disputed, they nevertheless Charlie Hebdo shootings in January, where 15 indicate that Georgia’s population has been

172 Europe State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Europe 173 and Indigenous Peoples 2016 and Indigenous Peoples 2016 example, Seto masters taught representatives shrinking. Demographic decline is not a new international recognition, language and identity Greece of other Finno-Ugric peoples the community’s phenomenon in Georgia, however: in its early are also strongly contested issues in Abkhazia, Greece’s protracted economic crisis, which handicrafts, cooking, singing and dancing, years of independence, a large number of which declared independence from Georgia showed little sign of abating during 2015, has while at the same time learning from their Armenians, Greeks, Jews, Russians and other following its secession in the 1990s. In this fuelled the rise of far-right parties, such as Golden counterparts. These exchanges led to a minorities left the country amid fears of rising context, ethnic Georgians living in the region Dawn, with a strong anti-immigrant focus. In number of new creative economy initiatives, ethno-nationalism, economic insecurity and are still marginalized from public life. This recent years, these organizations have exploited including in the field of tourism development. the escalation of civil conflict in the breakaway is especially evident in Gali, one of the most popular frustration and insecurity through During the year, over 60 cultural events – regions of South Ossetia and then Abkhazia, now volatile areas near the border of Abkhazia, where xenophobic political rhetoric, in the process exhibitions, workshops, concerts, film festivals a de facto separatist republic. While many have officially only instruction in Abkhaz and Russian winning a significant portion of votes. Despite and much more – were held. A new art gallery left the country in the years since, emigration is permitted at the pre-school and primary level, efforts to clamp down on its activities during the and a Finno-Ugric flag square were opened. levels have been disproportionately high among meaning that Georgian language speakers are year – including the commencement of a trial in As a result, this tiny village of 168 residents minorities, meaning their representation denied the right to receive education in their April of 69 Golden Dawn members on charges hosted over 25,000 visitors. within Georgia has declined markedly. Despite mother tongue. Some families have reportedly of participating in violence and criminality – In addition to holding traditional cultural significant progress in certain areas, including been forced to move to the Zugdidi region in Golden Dawn still managed to secure 7 per cent events, Obinitsa became an arena to discuss a number of recent measures to support the western Georgia so that their children can attend of votes and 18 seats in the September elections. a number of topics of central importance for full participation of minorities in public life, Georgian schools. The areas where Golden Dawn appeared to enjoy Finno-Ugric communities, many of whom the country’s history of division continues to While the Ministry of Culture and Monument the most popularity were those most affected are facing a dramatic decline in the number be felt to this day, reflected in ongoing tensions Protection of Georgia and other government by Europe’s refugee crisis, with at least 800,000 of people who can speak their languages over minority languages, religions and cultures. bodies have taken steps to protect important mostly Syrian refugees reaching Greece by sea. and the threat of assimilation into dominant Religiously motivated violence and an inadequate minority heritage sites such as mosques, as The islands of Kos and Lesbos, for example, cultures. A conference on ethno-futurism response from law-enforcement agencies to well as provide some support to contemporary which received a large influx of refugees in the (an international movement with Estonian, address the problem have also persisted, despite cultural activities such as theatrical productions first half of the year, saw votes for Golden Dawn including Seto, roots) and a Forum of efforts to promote integration. in minority languages, the contribution of almost double in September. The European Finno-Ugric Villages are just a few examples As Georgia is a largely Orthodox Christian Georgia’s minority traditions to the country’s Union’s (EU) registration system on the islands of how Obinitsa served as both a cultural country, the Orthodox Church’s resurgence since heritage is often undervalued. Furthermore, has been criticized for implementing a tiered and intellectual centre for the Finno-Ugric the end of Soviet rule has heavily influenced while many religious and cultural monuments system that reportedly privileges Syrian nationals world. A key factor of Obinitsa’s success as the development of Georgian nationalism. In belonging to minorities are in need of immediate over refugees from other countries. Meanwhile Finno-Ugric Capital of Culture was effective addition to widespread popular support, the rehabilitation, recent research has suggested Afghan families were reportedly receiving just communication about the initiative both in Church’s position has also been strengthened that less than 1 per cent of funding provided one full meal a day and were allowed only one Estonia and other Finno-Ugric countries and through a 2002 agreement with the state that by cities and towns to religious organizations, month’s leave to stay in the country, compared to regions. This was accomplished through, for provides official recognition and a range of including for the preservation of buildings, the six months granted to Syrians. This system, example, a multimedia website, an active benefits that include tax relief, exemptions and a went to non-Orthodox groups. Furthermore, apparently designed on the assumption that social media presence, webcasts of video significant role in the country’s education system. in parts of the country the construction of new other nationalities had weaker asylum claims clips documenting nearly every programme Minority religions, in contrast, are often seen as places of worship by minority communities than Syrian nationals, was reportedly leading event and a special Setomaa theme page on a threat to Georgian identity, particularly when is still constrained by regulations and local to tensions between refugees from different Estonia’s most popular web portal. a specific ethnicity is perceived to have ties with resistance. During 2015, Muslims in Batumi, the countries. On a positive note, however, many While Obinitsa also faced a number of nearby countries – for example, the description capital of Adjara region, continued to be denied islanders from Lesbos received worldwide praise challenges during the year, such as mobilizing of Georgian Muslims in some media outlets as permission to build a second mosque in the city for their humanitarian efforts in helping to rescue the entire village population and ensuring ‘Turks’. In some state schools, particularly in the – an ongoing issue – obstructed by nationalist hundreds of refugees throughout the year and by sufficient financing to support the year’s autonomous republic of Adjara bordering Turkey, politicians who have attacked the proposal as giving them food and water. Petitions have been ambitious programme, the end result was a Muslim students have reportedly been stigmatized a threat to Georgian identity. Other religious set up to nominate some of these residents as remarkable success, and an inspiration both and even at times faced pressure to convert – a minorities, such as Catholics and Jehovah’s candidates for the Nobel Peace Prize. for Seto people and other kindred Finno- situation that, as described by the Advisory Witnesses, have also experienced barriers in Besides targeting migrants, Golden Dawn has a Ugric peoples. The initiative is an impressive Committee on the Framework Convention for securing permission to construct churches or policy of physically and verbally attacking certain example of how cultural heritage can be the Protection of National Minorities (FCNM) Kingdom Halls. These and other restrictions ethnic and religious groups, such as the country’s placed in the service of not only artistic in its 2015 opinion, undermines the legal highlight the continued need, as emphasized Jewish minority. In October 2015, three Golden and intellectual expression, but also further principle of the school as a ‘neutral space where by the FCNM Advisory Committee during the Dawn European Parliament members (MEPs) socio-economic development and broader religious indoctrination, proselytism and forced year, for authorities to promote the ‘integration published a video online containing anti-Semitic recognition of an indigenous community. ■ assimilation are forbidden’. of society while fully valuing and respecting its and anti-migrant content, accusing the Merkel As a separatist republic still lacking ethnic, cultural, religious, and language diversity’. government in Germany of supporting a ‘Zionist’

174 Europe State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Europe 175 and Indigenous Peoples 2016 and Indigenous Peoples 2016 live in decrepit and dangerous camps at the edges campaign against Roma settlements, with conspiracy against Europe. Anti-Semitism is Case study by Sara Vincini of towns without access to sanitation, running Matteo Salvini, leader of the party, urging not confined to Golden Dawn alone, however: water or other services. These settlements, citizens to ‘raze Roma camps with bulldozers’. the Coordination Forum for Countering anti- besides being under constant threat of eviction This sparked vehement reactions from left- Semitism recorded several anti-Semitic incidents Using culture to break by local authorities, have regularly been attacked wing parties, which rejected Salvini’s proposal during 2015. Former Greek Finance Minister by racist groups, with politicians themselves at and called for more effective and inclusive Yanis Varoufakis was depicted as a ‘Jewish loan down stereotypes of times encouraging the violence. Following the actions to integrate the Roma minority. shark’ in a cartoon that appeared in the Greek announcement in March 2015 by Pope Francis While strengthening legal protections daily newspaper Ta Nea. In June, anti-Semitic Italy’s Roma of the 2016 Jubilee of Mercy in Rome – a major for the community is an important step in graffiti warning that ‘the Jews are murderers’ religious celebration expected to bring thousands improving the situation of Roma, cultural appeared in Kavala and the town’s Holocaust of pilgrims and tourists to the capital – local expression and interaction also have an memorial was desecrated, while in October one Italy’s Roma are among the country’s poorest authorities used the event as a pretext to carry important role in addressing popular attitudes of Athens’ main Jewish cemeteries was vandalized and most marginalized communities, with a long out further forced evictions of Roma settlements, and misconceptions about the community. with sprayed swastikas and insults against Jews. history of discrimination that has only intensified which tripled to an average of nine evictions per As a result, some non-governmental The anti-Semitic group Combat 18 Hellas later in recent years. A recent poll by the Pew Research month. Far-right and xenophobic political parties organizations (NGOs) working on advocacy claimed responsibility for the attack by posting Center found that as many as 85 per cent of in Italy – especially the Lega Nord (Northern and social emancipation for Roma in Italy pictures on its website. Italians hold negative views towards Roma, League) – took to Italian TV and social media to have developed programmes that explore As is the case in many European countries, reflected in high levels of hate crime and enduring the potential of the arts to engage different the estimated 265,000 Roma in Greece regularly stereotypes against the community. Below: Roma and non-Roma children communities, break down barriers and enable experience marginalization and stigmatization. Today it is estimated that around 180,000 perform a play in an Italian school about the those without a public platform to express Although the government’s National Strategy Roma are in Italy, 35,000 of whom are forced to history of Roma people. 21 Luglio. themselves. Among other activities, the for Social Integration of Roma focuses on organization 21 Luglio previously developed a improving the integration and living conditions programme that seeks to address the barriers of Roma, the community still faces high levels of and discrimination that Roma frequently physical segregation, discrimination and negative experience at school by bringing them stereotypes. In October 2015, after a two-year together with non-Roma children to engage trial, charges against Roma couple Christos Salis in dance and theatre – an accessible and and Eleftheria Dimopoulou – accused of stealing effective way to bring different communities a 4-year-old child named Maria – were dropped, together. Another rights group, Romà Onlus, when the court ruled that evidence against the also works to empower Roma through couple was inconclusive. This is a significant teaching Roma history and customs to step forward in the struggle to debunk myths raise awareness among other Italians of the and stereotypes attached to the Roma minority, community’s rich heritage. One project, for such as the one that accuses them of kidnapping example, has focused on traditional Roma children. cuisine as a way of engaging non-Roma. In May 2015, the UN Special Rapporteur Initiatives such as these can be powerful on contemporary forms of racism, racial platforms to break down barriers and discrimination, xenophobia and related counter negative representations of Roma intolerance, Mutuma Ruteere, declared that disseminated by media, right-wing politicians ‘Roma of Greece, while being for the vast and racist groups. One of the challenges majority Greek citizens, continue to face that Italy’s Roma face is that, since they discrimination and remain economically and are widely ostracized, the community is socially vulnerable.’ The most concerning aspects largely segregated from other Italians – a are highlighted as being housing, social care and fact that can enable harmful or misleading health services. As most Roma settlements are representations to take root. Cultural not connected to Greece’s national power grid, engagement, by raising awareness and it is impossible for Roma people to register with promoting interaction, not only helps to local authorities as they are unable to provide undermine hate speech but can also enhance gas or electricity bills as proof of residence. the community’s sense of identity. ■ For the same reason, Roma children living in informal camps are not able to complete primary

176 Europe State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Europe 177 and Indigenous Peoples 2016 and Indigenous Peoples 2016 school education. A 2015 study conducted by for carrying narcotics. The demonstrators called a work permit have been required to pass an The law foresees the banning of organizations Antigone, an anti-racism information centre in for Tatarstan’s sovereignty, education in Tatar extensive test on , history and engaging in such activities and the prosecution Thessaloniki, analysed the discrimination that language and the freeing of Rafis Kashapov, a civic rights (including questions on ’s of Russian activists or organizations involved can also take place within Roma communities: community representative who received a three- ‘unification’ with Russia), as well as paying with them, including those in receipt of their varying educational attainment, financial status, year prison sentence in September for criticizing higher fees for permits and other documents. funding. The provisions thus threaten the funds religious beliefs and cultural practices are said to Russia’s policies in Crimea and eastern . The bureaucratic and complex procedures of of minority and indigenous organizations from be key contributing factors, with Roma women In March 2015 the United Nations (UN) migration and refugee law have also contributed foreign entities. Obstacles to international facing gender-based discrimination as well. Human Rights Committee adopted its to the precarious living conditions of the funding continue the trend of 2012 provisions ‘Concluding observations on the seventh numerous Ukrainian refugees fleeing the conflict that require Russian NGOs to register as ‘foreign Russian Federation periodic report of the Russian Federation’. in eastern Ukraine. agents’ when they receive funds from abroad Russia’s annexation of Crimea in early 2014 and The Human Rights Committee expressed its The right to freedom of religion of some and implement ‘political activities’. For example, its subsequent support of pro-Russian separatists concern at ‘manifestations of Islamophobia minorities in Russia is at times restricted, the organization Nuori Karjala (Young Karelia), in eastern Ukraine has had considerable impact and anti-Semitism as well as other racist and through arbitrary application of legislation and which promoted the languages and cultures of within Russia itself. To some extent, it has xenophobic acts’, including attacks by Cossack discrimination by the government, judges and the Finno-Ugric indigenous communities of the fragmented the Russian nationalist movement patrols. According to data from the Moscow- the police. Among others, those most affected are Republic of Karelia, was included by the Ministry between pro-government and opposition groups, based SOVA centre, between January and the some Protestant and ‘non-traditional’ religious of Justice in the register of ‘foreign agents’. meaning that public events such as rallies have end of November 2015 nine people were killed groups (such as Jehovah’s Witnesses), given that As a result the organization decided to cease attracted fewer supporters than in previous and 65 injured as a result of ethnically motivated their teachings are often regarded as a possible activities in August 2015. The only non-Russian years. Despite this, three ‘Russian marches’, as violence – a reduction from 2014, however, when threat to stability. There have been instances of institution from which the organization had well as other nationalistic public events, were 27 people were killed and 123 people injured. harassment of Muslim communities practising received funding was the UN, which had given a held on 4 November 2015, the Day of National Attacks have continued to target predominantly non-traditional forms of Islam, particularly in the grant of US$10,000 for an education project. Unity. And while public actions focusing on the persons of ‘non-Slavic appearance’: Roma and North Caucasus. Some Muslims and members of Russia’s indigenous communities continue conflict in Ukraine have generally decreased since people originating from the Caucasus, Central other religious communities have been detained to be marginalized and remain vulnerable to 2014, Russian nationalists have intensified the Asia and Africa. and tried on criminal charges of extremism. land rights violations due to the state’s failure military training of their recruits. Anti-extremism Migration law continued to be hostile to The authorities continue to maintain tight to designate specific ‘territories of traditional legislation also continued to be used during the migrants: complex regulations for registration control over the publication of any materials nature use’ (as foreseen by Russian law). There course of the year to silence dissent on Russia’s and for obtaining work permits, and often the that are thought to contradict the government’s was limited consultation with indigenous peoples involvement in Ukraine. Among others, charges absence of a permanent address, tend to force official stance. In 2015 the federal authorities on matters of interest to their communities of incitement to ethnic hatred were brought migrants into a precarious position of illegality continued to update the Federal List of Extremist during the year and insufficient access to effective against the director of Moscow’s Library of or semi-illegality. Problems with registration Materials: according to SOVA centre, it was remedies in case of rights violations. In some Ukrainian Literature, Natalia Sharina, allegedly have affected even those who benefit from a visa- updated 26 times in the first six months of 2015, cases, the judiciary has seemingly persecuted for disseminating ‘anti-Russian propaganda’, as free regime with Russia, such as migrants from with the addition of 305 items (from 2,562 to indigenous human rights defenders. For example, well as against a shop assistant, an ethnic Russian, Kyrgyzstan, who make up the majority of Russia’s 2,867), at twice the rate of the first half of 2014. Evenk leader Sergey Nikiforov, who opposed who had shared social media links to Ukrainian migrants. Due to regulations introduced in 2014, The banned materials were linked to subversion gold mining in Evenk ancestral territories, was television programmes on the Ukrainian crisis. migrants from these countries could not remain even when they did not seem to pose a threat to sentenced in September 2015 to five years in While the Russian authorities have been in Russia for more than 90 days in each 180-day public order, as there is a lack of clear criteria on a penal colony for allegedly accepting a bribe. repressive of minority and indigenous period; many then resorted to crossing the border the classification of documents as extremist. The He had led the protests of the reindeer-herding organizations in Crimea, as described in the with a neighbouring country and then re-entering banned materials included religious texts, such as Evenk community against gold mining in Ukraine section, state officials have also cracked Russia. Violations of migration law were followed Islamic and Jehovah’s Witnesses’ literature. the Amur region, denouncing its effect on down on freedom of expression and assembly by periods in detention centres in extremely Another way that the state exerts considerable environmental conditions and the health of the in Russia itself. For example, on the anniversary poor conditions, then deportation. There were control over civil society is through restrictions local population. of the ’ defence of the Kazan Khanate instances of foreign children being deported from on the funding of Russian NGOs by foreign Indigenous sacred sites, such as lakes and before Ivan the Terrible’s conquest in 1552, Russia without their parents, after they were organizations, including those protecting mountains associated with religious practices, a commemorative event on 10 November in separated from them during police raids. minority and indigenous rights. Law No. have been violated for activities such as resource Russia’s Republic of Tatarstan was partially Law enforcement officials have also undertaken 129-FZ (known as the law on ‘undesirable’ extraction and construction. For example, disrupted as the demonstrators were prevented ethnic profiling, resulting in persons of ‘non- foreign organizations) was adopted on 23 May one such case led to damage, through mining from congregating by the walls of Kazan’s Slavic appearance’ being disproportionately 2015: it targets foreign or international NGOs activities, to the mountain of Karagai-Nash Kremlin, as is traditionally done. Two Tatar affected by identity checks, extortion of bribes, as implementing ‘undesirable’ activities (representing (Russian: Lysaya Gora) – a place of worship of leaders were reportedly prevented from attending well as harassment, arrests and physical violence. a threat to the country’s ‘constitutional order, the indigenous Shor people, located near the as their car was stopped by the police, allegedly From January 2015, migrants wishing to obtain its defence potential or national security’). village of Kazas, in Kemerovo Oblast, in south-

178 Europe State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Europe 179 and Indigenous Peoples 2016 and Indigenous Peoples 2016 west Siberia. The mining operations started in Right: Kurds at a mosque in Diyarbakir, Turkey. 2012 around the village, forcing most of the Carpetblogger. village’s residents to relocate by 2014, leaving some missing or homeless. They were further individuals have also reportedly been targeted by denied access to a cemetery where their ancestors nationalists. Reacting against deadly attacks by were buried, while the village was ultimately the PKK on 6 and 8 September, offices belonging completely demolished. to the pro-Kurdish People’s Democratic Party (HDP) in Ankara and the southern city of Turkey Alanya were torched. Elsewhere, too, the conflict The year 2015 saw some signs of progress for reignited inter-communal tensions and led to minorities in Turkey, reflected in the election a spate of attacks against Kurds. In Muğla, a of a number of new members of parliament Kurdish farmer was physically assaulted by locals (MPs) from minority backgrounds, including and forced to kiss a statue of Ataturk, the founder the country’s Armenian, Roma, Syriac and of the modern Turkish state and an important Yezidi communities, in general elections in June nationalist figurehead, while in a and November. However, significant challenges 21-year-old Kurdish man was reportedly stabbed remain in terms of minority rights, as highlighted to death by a gang who had overheard him during the year in a report by Minority Rights speaking Kurdish on the phone. Group International and the History Foundation In November, Tahir Elçi, a renowned Kurdish of Turkey documenting the continued human rights lawyer and peace advocate, was discrimination against minorities in education. murdered in the south-eastern city of Diyarbakir. Among other challenges, minority students face An estimated 100,000 people attended his exclusionary curricula and the absence of mother- funeral, with his death seen as symbolizing a tongue instruction for many communities. Only further setback for efforts to secure a peaceful children of Jewish and Christian families may resolution to the conflict. Elçi was killed while apply to opt out of compulsory classes in Sunni attempting to raise awareness about the cultural Islam, but the process can be cumbersome and damage caused by fighting between Turkish displacement and resettlement. According to being daubed with paint. Behzat Hazır, head of in many schools alternatives are not provided and PKK forces in Sur, a historic district in some reports, the dam could displace as many the Elazığ Human Rights Association’s (İHD) for them. They can still find themselves having Diyarbakir. Sur is predominantly home to Kurds as 78,000 people, most of whom are Kurdish, branch, called on people to remain calm as the to remain in religious instruction classes or, and some Armenians, Assyrians and Yezidis, with and impact directly on another 30,000 nomadic tagging was intended to create ‘an environment alternatively, having to wander around the school a wealth of ancient and irreplaceable heritage people. One of the main sites to be affected is of fear and panic, making people anxious and premises – making them vulnerable to taunts that has been devastated in the conflict. With Hasankeyf, a largely Kurdish city with a rich deepening the religious discrimination’. from pupils and even teachers. the violence intensifying in December, by early heritage of ancient ruins and caves. Land and property rights remain a significant In July, after a two-year ceasefire, the conflict 2016 hundreds of shops had been destroyed and Another marginalized community in Turkey barrier for religious minorities, a situation that that has lasted for decades and claimed over more than 30,000 residents forced to flee the is its Alevi population, the country’s largest has seen many important cultural heritage 40,000 lives between Turkey’s security forces and area. While the government has promised it will religious minority, who subscribe to a distinct sites destroyed, appropriated or neglected. In the Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK) resumed, rebuild the district, many locals are suspicious form of Islam that differs from that practised by Turkey’s assessment for joining the EU, released bringing significant attacks and casualties of its intentions as Sur had previously been the Sunni majority. An important milestone for in March, the European Commission called on both sides. Responding to the renewed earmarked for redevelopment, with the state’s the community came with the announcement on the government to protect minority rights, hostilities, the government banned Kurdish housing body undertaking demolition work in in December of a range of expanded rights for including to ‘allow the reopening of the Halki demonstrations and restricted access to related 2011 that was eventually halted due to strong Alevis, including legal recognition of cemevis, Greek Orthodox Seminary and lift all obstacles websites. Turkish authorities have launched a local opposition. Critics fear that the Turkish their houses of worship – a long-standing area of to its proper functioning’, ensure that property heavy security crackdown since the outbreak authorities will use Sur’s reconstruction as an discrimination. This was preceded some months and educational rights of the Greek minorities of the conflict, including the imposition of opportunity to reshape the city in line with their earlier by the visitation of an Alevi religious on Imbros and Tenedos were safeguarded, an extended curfew to allegedly contain PKK economic and security agendas. leader or dede to an Alevi prisoner in May – the and resolve ‘outstanding issues related to the fighters in the predominantly Kurdish city of Conflict is not the only threat to Turkey’s first time an Alevi religious leader had been restitution of land’ belonging to Syriacs, a Cizre in September that left residents without diverse cultural heritage, as development officially allowed to meet with a community religious minority, including the Mor Gabriel electricity and with limited access to food, water programmes such as the controversial Ilisu member in jail. Despite this progress, however, monastery and other sites. In many cases, the and medical treatment. dam have undermined the way of life of problems persist, with reports in June of Alevi appropriation of legal land deeds decades ago Kurdish organizations, businesses and many communities and resulted in evictions, homes in the provinces of Elazığ and Kocaeli has left important minority sites vulnerable

180 Europe State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Europe 181 and Indigenous Peoples 2016 and Indigenous Peoples 2016 to demolition or redevelopment. In May, for Turkey, as well as under-age marriage, these are controlled by pro-Russian forces, nor address Crimea and eastern Ukraine, lodged before the instance, the Kamp Armen orphanage – a site issues particularly affect girls and women from the ongoing humanitarian crisis in Crimea. ECtHR by the Ukrainian government against of great importance to the Armenian minority marginalized communities such as Roma. Uçan As a result of the conflict, more than 1.4 Russia. community and once a thriving cultural area Süpürge, a Turkish women’s rights organization, million civilians from eastern Ukraine and In other Ukrainian regions during the year before the state annulled the foundation’s estimates that one in five of the Roma girls in an Crimea are now officially registered as internally there was little in the way of substantive change ownership of the land in 1983 – began to be area north-west of Istanbul were married by the displaced persons (IDPs). Around 750,000 in relation to minority rights. State financing demolished. However, after extensive protests time they had turned 15. IDPs are concentrated in non-occupied parts of of media for traditional minorities in their own and vigils brought the demolition to a halt, These issues also affect refugee women Donetsk and Luhansk regions, meaning they are languages was in fact reduced during 2015, the landowner agreed to donate the site to the and girls, who are especially vulnerable to still in practice residing in the conflict zone but while a survey of the implementation of the Gedikpaşa Armenian Protestant Church, which exploitation due to war trauma and their have registered to preserve their legal status and Strategy of Defence and Integration for the plans to rebuild it. financial dependency. Of the estimated 2.2 secure state aid. Though more than 100,000 are Roma National Minority, adopted in 2013, Turkey’s Roma continue to suffer the effects of million Syrian refugees based in Turkey by the based in city, and a sizeable number in other suggested that there had so far been little in deep-seated social exclusion, commonly having end of 2015, many face added disadvantage due parts of central and, to a lesser extent, western the way of concrete impact for the community. to leave school early and work in the informal to their belonging to minorities such as Syrian Ukraine, the majority of the IDPs are based in In these circumstances, the problems facing sector to help their families survive, leaving them Kurds. Dom refugees, another ethnic minority eastern parts of the country. A large proportion of traditional minorities in frontier zones, such as unable to access public services. The community group linked to the Roma with a distinct these IDPs originate from the Russian-speaking Bulgarians, Gagauzes and Moldovans in Odessa, is frequently targeted with hate speech as well language, Domari, face particular discrimination urban areas of eastern Ukraine and are now and Hungarians and Romanians in Transkarpatia, as physical violence. In January, for example, in due to entrenched prejudices and hostile media residing in Ukrainian-speaking territory, often are ongoing. A positive step for minorities the western city of Denizli, a 10-year-old Roma coverage of ‘Syrian gypsies’. Refugees from the in rural areas. For a long period, the Ukrainian nevertheless took place in Transkarpatia, where boy was killed by a landlord who accused him community have given accounts of harassment by government provided minimal assistance to the Ukrainian Party of Hungarians (UPH) of theft, sparking clashes between locals and both Turkish soldiers and other Syrian refugees. IDPs, many of whom found themselves in an participated successfully in local elections in Roma. Discrimination also occurs at an official More generally, there is increased concern about administrative limbo due to their uncertain legal October 2015. Though no special quota system level. In July, an investigation was launched after the exploitation faced by the estimated 250,000 status. However, following a veto by President was in place, UPH took eight seats (12.5 per cent police officers reportedly chanted discriminatory Syrian refugees working illegally in order to Petro Poroshenko of proposed IDP legislation of the total) on the regional council and secured a slogans during a street march in Keşan, in survive, lacking decent wages, employment rights in November 2015, a revised law was passed by significant number of deputy places in the region. Edirne province. This followed multiple raids by and access to legal recourse. parliament in December 2015 and approved Religious relations in Ukraine have also hundreds of anti-riot police officers in a number Despite Turkey allowing access to its public by Poroshenko in January 2016. Recognizing become a hostage of the conflict. After the of Roma neighbourhoods less than a fortnight school system, Human Rights Watch reported the long-term reality of internal displacement election of the new Metropolitan in August 2014, before, in which 45 people were detained. The in November that over 400,000 Syrian refugee for these groups, the legislation was intended the Ukrainian Orthodox Church (UOC) of the raids were criticized by Özcan Purçu, an MP of children mostly residing outside refugee camps to provide better access to legal documentation Moscow Patriarchate is increasingly perceived to Roma origin, who accused police of using Roma are unable to attend school due to language and essential services to those who had fled the be influenced by the Russian government. The neighbourhoods as ‘training sites’ and fuelling barriers, issues with integration and a lack of fighting. other UOC of the Kyiv Patriarchate, as well as ethnic discrimination. resources to meet related costs such as travel. The Ukrainian authorities tried to the Ukrainian Greek-Catholic Church, support The Turkish authorities have made some negotiate during the year with Russia on the Ukraine in the conflict, but now struggle to efforts to support greater integration and better Ukraine enforcement of the International Convention operate in the territories controlled by Russia. access to services for the Roma population, Throughout 2015, Ukraine remained in a on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial On the Ukrainian mainland, conflicts in local including a US$12 million fund to invest in situation of protracted conflict, first triggered Discrimination in the conflict zone. In August communities between followers of the different relevant projects in Roma communities between by the annexation of the Crimean peninsula by 2015, the government lodged an interstate claim UOC Patriarchates have become more frequent 2014 and 2016. In February, the governor Russia in early 2014 and the subsequent military before the European Court on Human Rights since 2014. Tensions in traditional Muslim of the province of Edirne announced the escalation by Russian-supported separatists and (ECtHR) against Russia, alleging systematic communities have also increased after the establishment of an Ottoman army band, or Russian troops in the Donetsk and Luhansk violations of the rights of ethnic , Spiritual Administration of Muslims of Crimea mehter, made up of Roma musicians and the regions in eastern Ukraine. Following the Second minorities and indigenous people to freedom declared its public support in November 2014 training of Roma children as hafiz, reciters of Minsk Ceasefire Agreement on 11 February of religion, expression, peaceful assembly and for the Russian occupying authorities and against the Qur’an – an announcement welcomed by 2015, the frontline stabilized and the level association. According to the submission, there the Crimean Tatar Mejlis as well as other activists Roma representatives as an important source of of military operations reduced. Nevertheless, have been cases of disappearances and arbitrary supporting the anti-Russian blockade. recognition for the community. Nevertheless, far despite these negotiations, violence in the east arrests of members of the Crimean Tatar more systematic efforts are needed to address the of the country continued throughout the year. indigenous people as well as opposition activists. Crimea marginalization of the community, particularly Furthermore, the agreement and subsequent The Ukrainian government accuses armed groups Since the forcible annexation of Crimean by Roma women. Though gender-based violence talks failed to include essential minority rights controlled by Russia of torture and ill-treatment. Russian forces in 2014, the region – while legally is an acute problem for women in general in protections in the parts of eastern Ukraine that This followed two earlier applications concerning remaining part of Ukrainian territory – has

182 Europe State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Europe 183 and Indigenous Peoples 2016 and Indigenous Peoples 2016 been under the de facto control of the Russian were fined for celebrating Vyshivanka Day, a date bill, recognizing the non-numerous peoples authorities. The de facto authorities have initiated honouring traditional Ukrainian embroidery. An of the Crimea, such as Crimean Karaites and a clampdown on the Crimean Tatar population, event on the 201st birthday of Ukrainian poet Krymchaks, as indigenous peoples, fell short of which has long struggled for recognition as Taras Shevchenko, also in March, had to be held being passed by the Ukrainian parliament in June indigenous people in the region. The Mejlis, in the outskirts of as permission for 2015. ■ the representative body of the , it to be held in the city centre was denied. There which denounced the Russian annexation as were instances of harassment against religious illegal, has been virtually forced to stop its social minorities too, such as the UOC, the Greek- and political activities given the pressure placed Catholic Church and the Muslim community, upon its members, who have faced intimidation, including the seizure of places of worship. The de detention and charges of extremism. A variety facto authorities have also targeted pro-Ukraine of pro-Russian ‘self-defence’ militias have NGOs and silenced independent human rights also intimidated Crimean Tatars and other organizations. people who tend to hold pro-Ukrainian views. Since March 2014, Ukrainian channels There have been instances of abductions and in Crimea have been jammed and replaced disappearances, including of Crimean Tatars. with broadcasts originating from the Russian The de facto authorities have also cracked Federation. The Russia-controlled media has down on cultural gatherings by Crimean Tatars, presented a highly skewed portrayal of the especially commemorative events. This affected events in the peninsula, while websites providing events that the Mejlis attempted to organize independent information have at times been during the year, such as a traditional ceremony blocked. All Crimean Tatar media outlets but commemorating the deportation of Crimean one – the newspaper Yeni Dunya – were forced Tatars on 18 May that was denied permission in to close down on 1 April 2015, as they could 2015 on public safety grounds. Instead, the de not re-register under Russian law (as required facto authorities held their own event with loyal by the de facto authorities in April 2014). Crimean Tatar organizations. While other key While Russian-language media outlets generally celebrations were also cancelled, such as Crimean received new licences, Crimean Tatar-language Tatar Flag Day in June, events initiated by media outlets – such as the news agency QHA, Crimean Tatars but with a pro-Russia orientation the television channel ATR, as well as the were authorized. children’s television channel Lale – were denied All seven Ukrainian-medium schools that re-registration, despite repeated attempts. The operated in Crimea at the time of the annexation denials were routinely linked to technicalities, have been closed; in other schools, Ukrainian leaving the media outlets no option but to classes were generally replaced with Russian close down to avoid facing substantial fines language and literature. Some parents have and criminal charges. Instances of harassment reportedly been too intimidated to request of minority media in Crimea include a raid on instruction in Ukrainian. Provision has been the Crimean Tatar television channel ATR on made for education in Crimean Tatar, yet in 26 January 2015 by an armed police unit that practice the right to receive an education in this confiscated materials, as well as issuing warnings language has been restricted. about broadcasting ‘extremist’ information. Aspects of Ukrainian cultural and religious Even before the Russian annexation, Crimean identity have also been repressed in Crimea. As is Tatars have long struggled to achieve formal the case with Crimean Tatar flags, the display of status as an indigenous people. While Russia Ukrainian flags at events has led to interrogations, still does not recognize their claim, in March fines and prosecution for extremism. Activists 2014 the Ukrainian parliament finally adopted of the Ukrainian Cultural Centre have also been a resolution designating Crimean Tatars as arrested, fined and sentenced to community an indigenous people. However, Ukraine work. In February, the Museum of Ukrainian has subsequently failed to adopt the national Vyshivanka (traditional Ukrainian embroidery) legislation on indigenous peoples that was in Crimea was closed, and in March three people promised to Crimean Tatars. Even a draft

184 Europe State of the World’s Minorities State of the World’s Minorities Europe 185 and Indigenous Peoples 2016 and Indigenous Peoples 2016