DOCSLIB.ORG

Understanding the Effect of Freezing on Rock Mass Behaviour As Applied to the Cigar Lake Mining Method

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Understanding the Effect of Freezing on Rock Mass Behaviour As Applied to the Cigar Lake Mining Method UNDERSTANDING THE EFFECT OF FREEZING ON ROCK MASS BEHAVIOUR AS APPLIED TO THE CIGAR LAKE MINING METHOD by Megan Rose Roworth B.A.Sc., The University of Waterloo, 2005 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF APPLIED SCIENCE in The Faculty of Graduate Studies (Mining Engineering) THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA (Vancouver) July 2013 © Megan Rose Roworth, 2013 Abstract The objective of this research is to determine how ground freezing affects weak rockmass behaviour with application to the Cigar Lake mine. Cigar Lake mine is a prospective high grade uranium property in northern Saskatchewan where artificial ground freezing will be implemented to support the weak rock associated with the orebody and minimize the potential for a significant water inflow while mining the ore. The deposit comprises a mixture of massive pitchblende, clay and sand and is overlain by thick zones of sandy clay, unconsolidated sand, and altered sandstone. Above and below the orebody, the rockmass shows variations in porosity and permeability due to fracturing and alteration. Artificial ground freezing can be an effective approach to successfully manage and control underground excavations in weak rock mass conditions. Numerous mining and civil projects use artificial freezing worldwide; however, uncertainties remain with respect to understanding and predicting the behavior of frozen rock mass. Previous studies of frozen ground have largely focussed on the behaviour of soil, or in the few studies involving rock, the rock matrix. Of particular interest here is the behaviour of frozen discontinuities present in the weak rock mass and its influence in combination with the matrix on the overall frozen rock mass strength. A comparison of the Cigar Lake mine rockmass and mining operations with that of the McArthur River mine, an unconformity uranium deposit in northern Saskatchewan also utilizing artificial ground freezing will provide the basis for the increase in rockmass quality from unfrozen to frozen conditions. Improving in situ and laboratory characterization methods and developing a better understanding of rock behaviour at sub-zero temperatures is the key focus of this research. A material testing program including unconfined compressive strength, direct shear, and four-point beam experiments was completed using frozen Cigar Lake rock samples. These results are then discussed with respect to the behaviour of the frozen material encompassing the mined out cavities in order to ensure cavity stability during mining. The influence of freezing on the rockmass quality is found to be significant for very weak rocks and decreases exponentially with increasing rockmass strength. ii Preface Chapter 8 is based on the paper "Developments in Empirical Approaches to Mining in Frozen Rock Masses" prepared by UBC graduate students Sheila Ballantyne and Megan Roworth, Cristian Caceres, and Rimas Pakalnis for presentation at the 47th US Rock Mechanics / Geomechanics Symposium held in San Francisco in June 2013. iii Table of Contents Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... ii Preface ............................................................................................................................................ iii Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................... iv List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. ix List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ xi Glossary ....................................................................................................................................... xiv Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................... xv 1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Thesis Outline .................................................................................................................. 2 1.2 Research Objective ........................................................................................................... 3 1.3 Location and Background ................................................................................................ 5 1.4 Cigar Lake Mining Method .............................................................................................. 7 2. Literature Review .................................................................................................................... 9 2.1 Properties of Frozen Ground .......................................................................................... 10 2.1.1 Artificial Ground Freezing Background ................................................................. 10 2.1.2 Ice Mechanical Properties ....................................................................................... 11 2.1.3 Frozen Soil Mechanical Properties ......................................................................... 14 2.1.4 Frozen Intact Rock Properties ................................................................................. 26 2.1.5 Creep Behaviour in Weak Rock ............................................................................. 34 2.2 Thermal Properties ......................................................................................................... 37 2.3 Frozen/Unfrozen Interface Behaviour ............................................................................ 38 2.4 Mining in Permafrost ..................................................................................................... 39 2.4.1 Case Studies in Frozen Underground Mines .......................................................... 40 2.4.2 Case Studies in Frozen Soil and Ice Deposits ......................................................... 43 2.4.3 Ground Control of Frozen Placer Deposits ............................................................. 44 2.5 Weak Rock Mass Behaviour .......................................................................................... 46 2.5.1 Rock Mass Classification Systems ......................................................................... 47 2.5.2 Modification of Rock Mass Classification Systems for Frozen Ground ................ 53 iv 2.5.3 Rock Mass Strength ................................................................................................ 54 2.6 Failure Mechanisms in Frozen Stratified Ground .......................................................... 57 2.6.1 Beam Theory ........................................................................................................... 58 2.6.2 Voussoir Analogue.................................................................................................. 60 2.7 Span Design of Underground Excavations .................................................................... 60 2.7.1 Critical Span Empirical Chart ................................................................................. 61 2.8 Applicability of Hoek-Brown Parameters to Frozen Ground ........................................ 63 3. Methodology .......................................................................................................................... 65 3.1 Assessment of Existing Information .............................................................................. 65 3.2 Conceptual Model of Failure Mechanisms .................................................................... 66 3.3 Material Properties Sampling Program .......................................................................... 67 3.3.1 Sample Collection ................................................................................................... 67 3.3.2 Sample Integrity During Drilling ............................................................................ 68 3.4 Classification Systems in Frozen Weak Rock ................................................................ 69 3.5 Laboratory Testing to Establish Influence of Freezing .................................................. 70 3.5.1 Unconfined Compressive Strength Testing ............................................................ 72 3.5.2 Four Point Beam Testing ........................................................................................ 72 3.5.3 Direct Shear Testing ............................................................................................... 73 4. Cigar Lake Geology, Hydrogeology, and Historical Geotechnical Data .............................. 74 4.1 Regional Geology ........................................................................................................... 74 4.2 Formation of the Cigar Lake Deposit and Mineralization ............................................. 74 4.3 Local Geology ................................................................................................................ 75 4.3.1 Alteration ................................................................................................................ 75 4.3.2 Faulting and Structures ........................................................................................... 77 4.4
Load more

Recommended publications
  • SECTION 3 Erosion Control Measures
    SECTION 3 Erosion Control Measures 1. SEEDING When • Bare soil is exposed to erosive forces from wind and or water. Why • A cost effective way to prevent erosion by protecting the soil from raindrop impact, flowing water and wind. • Vegetation binds soil particles together with a dense root system, increasing infiltration thereby reducing runoff volume and velocity. Where • On all disturbed areas except where non-vegetative stabilization measures are being used or where seeding would interfere with agricultural activity. Scheduling • During the recommended temporary and permanent seeding dates outlined below. • Dormant seeding is acceptable. How 1. Site Assessment. Determine site physical characteristics including available sunlight, slope, adjacent topography, local climate, proximity to sensitive areas or natural plant communities, and soil characteristics such as natural drainage class, texture, fertility and pH. 2. Seed Selection. Use seed with acceptable purity and germination tests that are viable for the planned seeding date. Seed that has become wet, moldy or otherwise damaged is unacceptable. Select seed depending on, location and intended purpose. A mixture of native species for permanent cover may provide some advantages because they have coevolved with native wildlife and other plants and typically play an important function in the ecosystem. They are also adapted to the local climate and soil if properly selected for site conditions; can dramatically reduce fertilizer, lime and maintenance requirements; and provide a deeper root structure. When re- vegetating natural areas, introduced species may spread into adjacent natural areas, native species should be used. Noxious or aquatic nuisance species shall not be used (see list below). If seeding is a temporary soil erosion control measure select annual, non-aggressive species such as annual rye, wheat, or oats.
    [Show full text]
  • Freezing in Naples Underground
    THE ARTIFICIAL GROUND FREEZING TECHNIQUE APPLICATION FOR THE NAPLES UNDERGROUND Giuseppe Colombo a Construction Supervisor of Naples underground, MM c Technicalb Director MM S.p.A., via del Vecchio Polit Abstract e Technicald DirectorStudio Icotekne, di progettazione Vico II S. Nicola Lunardi, all piazza S. Marco 1, The extension of the Naples Technical underground Director between Rocksoil Pia S.p.A., piazza S. Marc Direzionale by using bored tunnelling methods through the Neapo Cassania to unusually high heads of water for projects of th , Pietro Lunardi natural water table. Given the extreme difficulty of injecting the mater problem of waterproofing it during construction was by employing artificial ground freezing (office (AGF) district) metho on Line 1 includes 5 stations. T The main characteristics of this ground treatment a d with the main problems and solutions adopted during , Vittorio Manassero aspects of this experience which constitutes one of Italy, of the application of AGF technology. b , Bruno Cavagna e c S.p.A., Naples, Giovanna e a Dogana 9,ecnico Naples 8, Milan ion azi Sta o led To is type due to the presence of the Milan zza Dante and the o 1, Milan ial surrounding thelitan excavation, yellow tuff, the were subject he stations, driven partly St taz Stazione M zio solved for four of the stations un n Università ic e ds. ip Sta io zione Du e omo re presented in the text along the major the project examples, and theat leastsignificant in S t G ta a z r io iibb n a e Centro lldd i - 1 - 1.
    [Show full text]
  • Report 2008/05 Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research Center College of Engineering University of California, Berkeley August 2008
    PACIFIC EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING RESEARCH CENTER Performance-Based Earthquake Engineering Design Evaluation Procedure for Bridge Foundations Undergoing Liquefaction-Induced Lateral Ground Displacement Christian A. Ledezma and Jonathan D. Bray University of California, Berkeley PEER 2008/05 AUGUST 2008 Performance-Based Earthquake Engineering Design Evaluation Procedure for Bridge Foundations Undergoing Liquefaction-Induced Lateral Ground Displacement Christian A. Ledezma and Jonathan D. Bray, Ph.D., P.E. Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering University of California, Berkeley PEER Report 2008/05 Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research Center College of Engineering University of California, Berkeley August 2008 ABSTRACT Liquefaction-induced lateral ground displacement has caused significant damage to pile foundations during past earthquakes. Ground displacements due to liquefaction can impose large forces on the overlying structure and large bending moments in the laterally displaced piles. Pile foundations, however, can be designed to withstand the displacement and forces induced by lateral ground displacement. Piles may actually “pin” the upper layer of soil that would normally spread atop the liquefied layer below it into the stronger soils below the liquefiable soil layer. This phenomenon is known as the “pile-pinning” effect. Piles have been designed as “pins” across liquefiable layers in a number of projects, and this design methodology was standardized in the U.S. bridge design guidance document MCEER/ATC-49-1. A number of simplifying assumptions were made in developing this design procedure, and several of these assumptions warrant re-evaluation. In this report, some of the key assumptions involved in evaluating the pile-pinning effect are critiqued, and a simplified probabilistic design framework is proposed for evaluating the effects of liquefaction-induced displacement on pile foundations of bridge structures.
    [Show full text]
  • JBT Lecture Paper
    JACKED BOX TUNNELLING Using the Ropkins System TM , a non-intrusive tunnelling technique for constructing new underbridges beneath existing traffic arteries DR DOUGLAS ALLENBY, Chief Tunnelling Engineer, Edmund Nuttall Limited JOHN W T ROPKINS, Managing Director, John Ropkins Limited Lecture presented at the Institution of Mechanical Engineers Held at 1 Birdcage Walk, London On Wednesday 17 October 2007 © Institution of Mechanical Engineers 2007 This publication is copyright under the Berne Convention and the International Copyright Convention. All rights reserved. Apart from any fair dealing for the purpose of private study, research, criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patent Act, 1988, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means without the prior permission of the copyright owners. Reprographic reproduction is permitted only in accordance with the terms of licenses issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1P 9HE. Unlicensed multiple copying of the contents of the publication without permission is illegal. Jacked Box Tunnelling using the Ropkins System TM , a non-intrusive tunnelling technique for constructing new underbridges beneath existing traffic arteries Dr Douglas Allenby BSc(Hons) PhD CEng FICE FIMechE FGS, Chief Tunnelling Engineer, Edmund Nuttall Limited John W T Ropkins BSc CEng MICE, Managing Director, John Ropkins Limited The Ropkins System TM is a non-intrusive tunnelling technique that enables engineers to construct underbridges beneath existing traffic arteries in a manner that avoids the cost and inconvenience of traffic disruption associated with traditional construction techniques. The paper outlines a tunnelling system designed to install large open ended rectangular reinforced concrete box structures at shallow depth beneath existing railway and highway infrastructure.
    [Show full text]
  • Combined Ground Freezing Application for the Excavation of Connection Tunnels for Centrum Nauki Kopernik Station - Warsaw Underground Line II
    Combined ground freezing application for the excavation of connection tunnels for Centrum Nauki Kopernik Station - Warsaw Underground Line II Achille Balossi Restelli, Elena Rovetto Studio ingegneria Balossi Restelli e Associati Andrea Pettinaroli Studio Andrea Pettinaroli s.r.l. ABSTRACT The Station “C13” of Warsaw Underground Line II, with tunnel crown 10m below the water table, required the excavation of three connection tunnels, underpassing a six-lane in service road tunnel, working from two lateral shafts. After the collapse occurred while digging the first tunnel, the use of artificial ground freezing was chosen to ensure the excavation under safe conditions. A complex freezing pipe geometry and excavation sequencing was necessary because of the interferences of the overlying road tunnel diaphragm wall foundations, shaft internal structures and previous grouting activities. A combined freezing method was used: nitrogen for freezing the tunnel arches, brine for freezing the intermediate wall and for maintenance stages. Sandy and silty sandy layers were frozen around the crowns and sides. No treatment was necessary for the inverts, lying in clay. A monitoring system of ground temperatures and structure movements allowed for successful completion of work in 8 months. INTRODUCTION The C13 Station of the Warsaw Underground-Line II is located on the West bank of the Vistula River. It consists of two shafts and three connecting tunnels, passing under the Wislostrada (WS) Road tunnel. According to the initial geotechnical investigation, tunnels should have been excavated in high- plasticity clay, but during the first borings non cohesive soil was encountered. Additional investigations were performed on both shafts and a more detailed stratigraphy was reconstructed (Lombardi et al.
    [Show full text]
  • Selection of Shaft Sinking Method for Underground Mining in Khalashpir Coal Field, Khalashpir, Rangpur, Bangladesh
    IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineering (IOSR-JMCE) ISSN: 2278-1684 Volume 3, Issue 5 (Sep-Oct. 2012), PP 15-20 www.iosrjournals.org Selection of Shaft Sinking Method for Underground Mining in Khalashpir Coal Field, Khalashpir, Rangpur, Bangladesh Atikul Haque Farazi1, Chowdhury Quamruzzaman2, Nasim Ferdous3, Md. Abdul Mumin4, Fansab Mustahid5, A.K.M Fayazul Kabir6 1,2,3,4, 5, 6 (Department of Geology, University of Dhaka, Bangladesh) Abstract : Khalashpir coal field is the 3rd largest coal field in Bangladesh, where coal occurs at depths of 257m to 483m below the surface. Considering the Geological, Geo-environment and other related geo- engineering information, underground mining have been selected there to extract the deposit. In this paper, our concern is about shaft sinking method for underground mining. Depths of the coal seams reveal the necessity of a vertical shaft underground which again needs deep excavation. The problem arises with the excavation because of nearly 138m thick Dupitila Sandstone Formation just 6m below the surface in the area. It is loose, water bearing, containing dominantly porous and permeable sandstone and experiences massive water flow. So, the major concern is that any excavation through this will readily collapse and suffer massive water inrush. This will totally disturb the whole mining work progression and cause economic loss as well. By analyzing the ground condition of the Khalashpir cola field, artificial ground freezing has been identified most appropriate as shaft sinking method to control the ground water and to stabilize the loose soil during excavation. Lawfulness of the method and reason of neglecting other two common shaft sinking methods has been pointed out in this paper.
    [Show full text]
  • New Tunnel Construction Starts Across the City
    The offi cial publication of the Tunnelling NORTH AMERICAN EDITION Association of Canada October ~ November 2017 MONTREAL AT WORK New tunnel construction starts across the city 001tunNA1017_cover.indd 1 20/09/2017 11:44 TECHNICAL / GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING GROUND CONTROL Joseph Sopko, director of ground freezing for Moretrench, discusses the design of frozen Earth structure for cross passage excavation structure, thermal analysis and design, and frost heave and thaw consolidation evaluation. Quite often the geometry of the cross passage relative to the main tunnels requires complex drilling angles, specialised equipment and quality assurance procedures to ensure accurate placement and continuity of the refrigeration Joseph Sopko pipes (Figure 2). Joseph is the director of ground freezing The first component of the design of a frozen cross passage for Moretrench is the evaluation of the material properties of the soil, both in the natural and frozen state. Ground freezing is most applicable in coarse-grained water bearing soils. Other methods such as the sequential excavation method (SEM) are typically well suited HE USE OF GROUND freezing for fine grained clayey or silty clayey soils. The preliminary to provide excavation support evaluation is typically driven by the permeability of soils. If and groundwater control groundwater cannot be controlled by dewatering or grouting for the construction of cross techniques from the surface, freezing becomes an attractive passagesT between two tunnels has option. been used extensively in Europe, Asia The permeability of the soils in the excavation zone is and most recently in North America best evaluated by groundwater pumping tests. However, such on the Port of Miami Tunnel and the tests are rarely available requiring evaluation of the grain Northgate Link Extension in Seattle.
    [Show full text]
  • Case Study of Heat Transfer During Artificial Ground Freezing With
    water Article Case Study of Heat Transfer during Artificial Ground Freezing with Groundwater Flow Rui Hu 1,†, Quan Liu 2,*,† and Yixuan Xing 2 1 School of Earth Science and Engineering, Hohai University, Nanjing 211100, China; [email protected] 2 Geoscience Centre, University of Göttingen, 37077 Göttingen, Germany; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +49-157-835-53628 † These authors contributed equally to this work. Received: 13 August 2018; Accepted: 21 September 2018; Published: 25 September 2018 Abstract: For the artificial ground freezing (AGF) projects in highly permeable formations, the effect of groundwater flow cannot be neglected. Based on the heat transfer and seepage theory in porous media with the finite element method, a fully coupled numerical model was established to simulate the changes of temperature field and groundwater flow field. Firstly, based on the classic analytical solution for the frozen temperature field, the model’s ability to solve phase change problems has been validated. In order to analyze the influences of different parameters on the closure time of the freezing wall, we performed the sensitivity analysis for three parameters of this numerical model. The analysis showed that, besides the head difference, the thermal conductivity of soil grain and pipe spacing are also the key factors that control the closure time of the frozen wall. Finally, a strengthening project of a metro tunnel with AGF method in South China was chosen as a field example. With the finite element software COMSOL Multiphysics® (Stockholm, Sweden), a three-dimensional (3D) numerical model was set up to simulate the change of frozen temperature field and groundwater flow field in the project area as well as the freezing process within 50 days.
    [Show full text]
  • Forensics-By-Freezing.Pdf
    Forensics by Freezing Joseph A. Sopko, Ph.D., P.E., M.ASCE Moretrench American Corporation, 100 Stickle Avenue, Rockaway, NJ 07866, e-mail: [email protected] ABSTRACT Subsurface conditions in water bearing unconsolidated soils can often produce difficult construction situations for the installation of secant piles, slurry diaphragm walls and jet grouted impermeable zones. In certain isolated cases, ground freezing has been used to provide temporary earth support and/or groundwater control where these varying unpredicted conditions retard or even prevent construction. The concept of freezing these soils to the state of a strong, impermeable medium not only facilitates excavation, but also permits visual observation of the conditions that created the initial difficulties. This paper presents case histories where ground freezing was used as a remedial technique for slurry diaphragm walls, jet grouted base seals and secant pile excavation support. The paper evaluates the soil conditions and provides a forensic analysis of the cause of the complications that lead to the need to implement ground freezing. INTRODUCTION Artificial ground freezing is a method used to provide temporary earth support and ground water control for deep excavations, typically in water bearing unconsolidated soils, but occasionally in highly fractured rock. Freezing is accomplished by drilling and installing a series of subsurface refrigeration pipes along the perimeter of the proposed excavation. A refrigerated coolant is circulated through the frozen pipes, forming a frozen earth barrier. (see Figure 1). There are different methods of drilling and installing the freeze pipes, as well as two primary methods of refrigeration. One of these methods is referred to as the direct expansion where a cryogenic liquid, such as liquid nitrogen, is pumped into the pipes to vaporize.
    [Show full text]
  • Design of Ground Freezing for Cross Passages and Tunnel Adits
    Design of ground freezing for cross passages and tunnel adits J.A. Sopko Moretrench, A Hayward Baker Company, Rockaway, NJ, USA ABSTRACT: Ground freezing has been used extensively in the last ten years for the construction of transit tunnel cross passages and SEM tunnels, as well as short adits for utility tunnels. Quite often the ground freezing design requirements are more complex than in conventional shafts. The frozen earth structures are frequently located in urban areas where freezing forces against structures and utilities are common. Additional considerations must be given to frost heave and thaw consolidation. This paper discusses the design procedures related to frost action. Case histories are presented that indicate how frost effects can be controlled with heating pipes, coolant control, insulation methods, and in some cases additional structural bracing. A unique project is discussed where building columns required the installation of a jacking system to accommodate the heave and settlement. 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Frost action in soils When water freezes, the volume increases by approximately nine percent. It is often assumed that the volumetric expansion of soil is as simple as estimating the pore volume and concluding that in a saturated soil this volume will expand by this percentage. Experience and laboratory testing have shown that the process is somewhat more complicated. The soil skeleton will expand when pressure in the ice exceeds the overburden pressure required to initiate separation of the soil skeleton. With sufficient ice pressure, the soil skeleton separates and a new ice lens forms (Andersland & Ladanyi 2004). Typically, the formation of ice lenses requires cyclic freezing and thawing as experienced in nature with seasonal temperature variation.
    [Show full text]
  • BAUER Soil Freezing BAUER Soil Freezing Creates a Solid, Load Resistant and Watertight Structure in the Ground – by Turning Groundwater Into Ice
    BAUER Soil Freezing BAUER Soil Freezing creates a solid, load resistant and watertight structure in the ground – by turning groundwater into ice. 2 Soil Freezing Content Freezing Methods ......................................................4 Applications ............................................................... 6 Equipment ................................................................. 8 Soil freezing is a technique for temporary soil reinforce- BAUER Spezialtiefbau GmbH owns a high level know- ment by creating an ice-soil structure in the ground. how and worldwide experience in the various ground The concept is to convert pure water into ice. Freezing freezing fi elds. Frozen ground may be used to create is obtained by circulation of liquid nitrogen or brine in solid, load resistant and watertight structures for tun- closed pipes placed in the ground, or by a combination neling works, cross passages between tunnels, pits of both methods. and shaft excavations and TBM break-in or rescue. Soil Freezing 3 Freezing Methods There are two different freezing but it has high energy and mainte- for freezing the ground – but this methods which can be used for soil nance costs. The indirect method method is also suitable for confi ned freezing. The direct method is freez- is freezing with liquid brine, which spaces. The so-called mixed method ing with liquid nitrogen (lN2). This offers low energy and maintenance is a combination of freezing with liq- method takes a short freezing time costs. It takes around 20 to 30 days uid nitrogen and brine. Freezing with liquid nitrogen – the direct method Nitrogen is maintained in a liquid state in an insulated tank slightly above the atmospheric pressure. At a temperature of -196 °C the fl uid circulates in copper pipes installed in the ground and freezes the soil around the pipes.
    [Show full text]
  • Ground Freezing
    Ground Freezing CT3300 Use of Underground Space Name Student nr. Email Bert Lietaert Maite Santiuste Cardano Alexandros Petalas Dimitrios Baltoukas Klaas Siderius 1 Preface For the cou rse CT3300 “Use of Underground Sp ace” at the Technical University Delft it required to write a report about a subject that has to do with underground construction. As a group we decided to write the report about the subject; Ground Freezing. Ground freezing is a relative young technique of underground construction and is being used more often as a result of increasing complexity in underground construction. As a group we wanted to get a better of the understanding of this technique and the appl ication areas. In Chapter 4 different freezing techniques will be disc ussed and the applica tion area of these different freezing techniques . Chapter 5 discusses the design of a frozen so il body and different influences that should be taken into account. Chapter 6 elaborates m onitoring techniques that can be used and the need of monitoring programs. Chapter 7 discuses the change of ground prope rties during and after freezing. Chapter 8 g ives information about causes of failures related to ground freezing. In Chapter 9 three case s tudies are presente d where grou nd freezing has been used and measurements of these freezing have been made. -2- 2 Contents 1 Preface................................................................................................................................ 2 2 Contents.............................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]