beyond one or two traditional crops the coast and in the extreme western ("monoculture"). Fruits and vege- parts near Lake Victoria. More than tables and livestock often are involved two-thirds of the area is too dry for in diversification programs. Where crop production and is occupied by diversification involves the production herdsmen with cattle, sheep, and of labor-intensive crops, it is likely to goats, and by wild game animals. absorb labor. British explorers and traders entered Such types of farming are often what is now late in the last appropriate for small-scale producers. century. With the building of the main A further advantage is that nutrition railroad line westward across the may be improved. But to diversify country from Mombasa about 1900, properly usually requires a whole new agricultural development and the his- set of technology, particularly with tory of modern Kenya began. respect to marketing and food proc- The British policy of colonizing essing. white settlers in the accessible fertile Thus technological changes in one areas with a temperate climate and es- area can unleash the need for a whole tablishing a '* reserve" of other areas for chain of further changes. These latter African farmers led to the development problems may be more sophisticated of a dualistic system. This consisted of and difficult to solve than the initial a white commercial, export-oriented production problem. farming sector and a black subsistence, food-producing sector. , tea, pyrethrum, sisal, cattle, and dairying predominated in the commercial farm- ing sector. A system of supervising and con- trolling the production and marketing AGRICULTURAL of the major commercial crops, through statutory marketing boards, was initi- DEVELOPMENT ated after World War I. This continues to the present time. IN KENYA Considerable agricultural expansion followed World War II when Britain adopted a policy of encouraging ex- servicemen to settle in the so-called THE DEVELOPMENT of Kenya since White Highlands—mainly from Nai- independence, in 1963, provides an robi westward, into and beyond the encouraging success story. It is the Rift Valley. Most of these new settlers result of pre-independence British poli- entered mixed or general farming with cies, the determination and self-help of , dairying, beef cattle, and pigs the Kenyans, and the effective use of among the principal enterprises. external aid. The United States, cer- In 1946 the Government initiated tain Continental European countries, a 10-year development plan covering private foundations, and the Inter- all aspects of development and spe- national Bank for Reconstruction and cifically directed at African agricul- Development have made significant ture. It is estimated that of the £11 contributions, although the British million allocated to development of have provided the most assistance. Kenya is located on the East Coast of Africa at the equator. It is slightly AUTHOR BENNETT S. WHITE, JR., Spent morC smaller than Texas and has approxi- than 30 years in research and administration mately the same population. Climate in the U.S. Department of Agriculture, interspersed with university teaching and of the coastal area is tropical but the research. He became advisor to the Minister highlands have a temperate climate. for in 1968, under the There are areas of high rainfall along AID program. 307 natural resources in the 1946-55 Agricultural production in Kenya period, more than half was spent in increased between 2.5 and 3.0 percent African areas on land utilization and a year from 1963 to 1968. A severe settlement, conservation, live- drought in 1965 and depressed prices stock improvement, rural water sup- for some exports have held the rate of plies, and tsetse eradication. increase down. Nairobi, Mombasa, Nakuru, and Special interest attaches to the trend other towns grew in size and became in marketed production and to the increasingly modern. Their growth output of small farms. Coffee pro- was based mainly on the handling and duction on small farms rose from 26.3 processing of agricultural products and percent of the total in 1962-63 to over the sale of farm inputs and consumer 60 percent in 1967-68. The share of goods to farmers and their employees. small farmers in tea production in- During the colonial period a sig- creased from less than 1 to more than nificant infrastructure associated with 17 percent. For pyrethrum the share of agricultural development was created. small growers went from approxi- This included efficient railways and mately 25 to nearly 90 percent. harbors, posts and telegraphs, customs Development of production of some and excises on a regional East African commodities illustrates the course of basis, and a regional agricultural re- agricultural development in Kenya. search organization whose research , or corn, is the most impor- program has become increasingly tant staple in the diet of the popula- comprehensive. A generally efficient tion. Nearly all farmers, other than administration of Government con- pastoralists in the most arid and tributed to development. remote areas, devote some part of Many Africans found employment their lands to maize. on European-owned and managed A breakthrough in maize growing plantations, farms, and ranches and in was achieved when research stations European and Asian urban businesses. with both local and overseas support, The great bulk of the African popula- including a USD A/AID Participating tion, however, continued to live Agency Service Agreement, developed largely as self-sufficient farmers. Farm- both high-yielding hybrid varieties for ing and closely related industries the higher rainfall districts and other probably provided the major source of varieties for areas not suitable for employment and livelihood for 80 to hybrids. These, promoted by vigorous 90 percent of the population. extension efforts, have been readily In 1963 there was a smooth transi- accepted by both large and small tion of power from the colonial farmers. administration to the new African Since most maize is consumed at regime. Aim of the new Government home without entering market chan- was to rapidly increase opportunities nels, total output cannot be accurately for the mass of the African population estimated. Government supported in agriculture. At the same time it prices are still above world prices was desired to avoid serious injustices although recently reduced. to the current European landowners, It is now Government policy to maintain overall production, and lay encourage and expand maize output the basis for future increases in output. and to develop a modern system of It is mainly through the movement bulk handling and storage. Kenya is of the small, primarily subsistence, one of the few developing countries farmers and pastoralists into the com- that have recognized that a commer- mercial economy and increases in the cial agriculture requires developed scale and efficiency of their operations marketing facilities. that the Government expects to raise Livestock is a developing industry employment and incomes in the with great potential for expansion. agricultural sector. Since a large percentage of the live- 308 stock are kept by nomadic tribesmen Horticultural crops include more for whom they serve as prestige sym- than 80 products—pineapples, passion bols as well as sources of meat and fruit, cashew nuts, macadamia nuts, milk, it has been difficult to bring and almost the entire range of tem- modern technology to this industry. perate zone vegetables. Improvement in livestock production The Del Monte organization is is dependent on the control of disease, vigorously developing the canned and improvement in breeding and in pineapple business. range and livestock management. Exports of fresh and frozen fruits Dairying and the manufacture of and vegetables to Europe by air are dairy products is a developed industry growing, and it is believed that there but there is room for expansion if are substantial opportunities for fur- consumption can be increased. Lower ther expansion. prices could be achieved by improving The Government looks to the hor- the efficiency of production and mar- ticultural crops as labor intensive keting. This would lead to increased enterprises which offer increased em- demand and improved nutrition in ployment in agriculture, including urban areas. opportunities for diversification in

Inflatable plastic warehouse built for Maize Marketing Board in Kenya. Warehouse holds 5,000 tons of bagged maize (corn). It is portable, moisture proof, and can be fumigated.

Sisal, formerly the second most coffee areas hard hit by the coffee important export of Kenya, has de- berry disease. clined greatly as natural hard fibers In the past few years, prices for have been replaced by synthetics in food crops domestically consumed as world markets, and further declines well as for the traditional export crops are likely. have fallen. In most cases, however, Pyrethrum, used worldwide as a prices appear to be adequate to en- household insecticide, has been threat- courage production, providing that ened in recent years by the develop- efficiency in production and marketing ment of synthetics in several industrial is maintained and improved. countries. The Pyrethrum Marketing For a small country, Kenya has a Board is following a realistic policy of relatively large agricultural research cutting prices, improving processing, establishment. The National Research and encouraging the growing of higher Station at Kitale, source of the new pyrethrin content flowers. corn hybrids, draws support from a Sugar cane production is increasing number of sources including the Brit- upon the and settlement ish, the United States, the Rockefeller projects. A relatively low level of and Ford Foundations, and the Gov- efficiency and a protected market make ernment of Kenya. for comparatively high sugar prices to The Minister for Agriculture, an consumers. aggressive champion of development, 309 is convinced that new research findings proper regard either to the credit are essential if agriculture is to expand worthiness of borrowers or the likeli- and to improve its competitive posi- hood of realization of sufficient addi- tion in world markets. Efforts are tional farm profits to permit loan being made to coordinate research repayment. and establish priorities. Supervision of credit use is one Land ownership is a complex prob- means of compensating for the lack of lem involving the transfer of land managerial experience, which is neces- from British colonists to Kenya citi- sarily characteristic of the farmers zens. The farms are purchased by the entering larger scale or commercial under the operations for the first time. Kenya is Land Purchase Program and Agri- taking measures to reduce losses due cultural Development Corporation, to farm debt delinquency. and resold to Kenyan farmers as large Much of Kenya's land area is still or small farms on liberal, long term occupied, cultivated, and grazed on credit. Much of the financing for this the basis of a variety of tribal, family, has been from loans or grants from the and hereditary rights. The extension of British Government. credit, however, usually requires that Extent of the transfer from European the borrower hold legal title to the to Kenyan ownership is indicated by land. Registration is being pushed the decline in the number of European vigorously, but the task is a formidable owners of mixed farms from between one and hindered by a shortage of four and five thousand in 1963 to an necessary skilled personnel, local op- estimated less than 800 in 1969. The position in some areas, and the prob- general success in maintaining pro- lems of a shifting population. duction on large farms and increasing Of the perhaps 900,000 farmers in output on small farms has already the small-scale sector, only about been noted. 50,000 have received any kind of Although not strictly a matter of public credit. With funds being made expanding agricultural land, the irri- available by international agencies gation schemes are designed to use and other foreign sources, five pro- land more intensively. grams for the extending of credit to There are three major irrigation small holders are to get underway by programs. Total areas cropped rose the early 1970*s. from about 7,000 acres to 9,750 acres Lack of short term credit is one of between 1963-64 and 1967-68. Within the major deficiencies of the credit the same period the number of plot scene. The Government provides guar- holders increased from 1,966 to 2,296. anteed minimum returns in the form Other irrigation projects are being of advances to wheat and maize farm- developed. There are questions as to ers who meet certain specified condi- the favorableness of cost benefit ratios tions to aid them in paying planting for the irrigation plans. Large projects and harvesting costs. require tremendous investments. Kenya has a fairly well developed Land purchase loans are for a system of primary and secondary period of 20 years. Arrears in pay- education, although it is not free. ments are high and many farmers are The payment of school fees is a burden heavily in debt to the Government on low income people. In line with and also friends and relatives. experience in most developing coun- Future land transfer policy must tries, few who have attended school take into account that there are seek careers in agriculture. If unable comparatively few people with the to finance themselves or to qualify for personal financial resources, and tech- a Government scholarship in technical nical and managerial skills, to manage or higher education, they prefer to large-scale mixed farms. In many cases join the ranks of job hunters in urban investments were made hastily without areas. 310 The Government is seeking to train of Agriculture. In 1966, a Develop- farmers for modern commercial agri- ment Planning Division was estab- culture. In 1968 about 40,000 small- lished in the Ministry, staffed mainly scale farmers attended one- to two- by expatriate officers. USDA under week courses in the 30 Farmers Train- an agreement with USAID has fur- ing Centers, strategically located nished from one to three economists throughout the country. The college for this planning activity. for training in large scale farming Two major problems must be graduates about 100 per year. These successfully solved if development is to training programs are useful and continue. Population, increasing at 3.3 staffed by dedicated workers, but are percent a year, already is pressing small in relation to needs. upon available supplies of high poten- General extension covering the tial land. Only drastic reduction in country as a whole is provided by the rates of population growth can avoid Ministry of Agriculture. The extension further fragmentation of land hold- service faces serious problems of ings, and increased movement of trained manpower. This is a typical people to the cities with their attend- problem of the developing countries, ant social, economic, and political often intensified by the withdrawal of problems. Furthermore, population expatriates. growth is a serious threat to Kenya's Fertilizer, seeds, agricultural chem- famous, but already seriously reduced, icals, machinery, and other purchased herds of great game animals—the basis inputs are generally available to the for the important and growing tourist commercial agricultural sector, al- industry. though there are exceptions. Handi- The second major general problem capping development, however, are is reconciling social conflicts. Racial high costs of distribution due to the and tribal conflicts are a threat to smallness of the total market, the political stability. thousands of small farmers, and the At the time of independence, most long distances. The Ministry of Agri- of the responsible positions in Govern- culture is planning a study of costs ment were held by Europeans and in and margins in the marketing of farm business and trade by Europeans and supplies. Asians. During the past few years there Kenya has long had a railway has been considerable Kenyanization system and extensive port facilities at (in practice mainly Africanization), Mombasa. Both are expected to be especially in the civil service. improved and extended in the future. Due to the shortage of skilled per- For a developing country the road sonnel, the important role played by system is quite good, although farm to expatriates is recognized. Yet there is market roads in some areas leave much continuing pressure to replace ex- to be desired, especially during rainy patriates with Kenyans. The country seasons. also desires maximum economic devel- The Government is giving high opment. Here are two objectives which priority to development of roads, but are not entirely compatible. government revenues have been in- Tribalism is also a major social adequate to maintain and improve all problem. the road system. The World Bank is The tribe or the clan was the first making a loan to Kenya for road unit beyond the family which drew improvement. together for protection and advance- Overall responsibility for develop- ment of group interests. With increas- ment planning is lodged in the ing population and widening interests, Ministry of Economic Planning and clans or tribes tended to band into Development. The initiation of pro- confederations, usually of people of posals relating to agriculture, how- similar ethnic background. ever, is a responsibility of the Ministry In a strong national state, tribal 311 loyalties and interests must be sub- early 60's, the fertile Mekong Delta ordinated to those of the nation. produced enough rice to meet Viet- Kenya is made up of more than 50 namese needs and provide exports distinct tribes, ranging in size from a averaging 200,000 tons a year. few thousand for the smaller up to Yields were above average for more than 2 million for the largest. tropical Asia, but use of fertilizer However, tribalism is weakened as and other modern inputs was very a society becomes increasingly com- limited. This was understandable be- mercialized, urbanized, and interde- cause the rice varieties used—though pendent, and as people move about developed and selected through years more and more. In the meantime, it of careful Vietnamese effort—did not is a source of economic, social, and respond well enough to fertilizer to political rivalries and tensions. make its use profitable at existing Development has characterized farm prices. It often just didn't pay Kenya's history, but it is still a poor farmers to modernize. country. The average per capita As long as the war remained limited, income is in the neighborhood of one this traditional technology met the hundred dollars a year. The people of needs of the Vietnamese people. But Kenya are expecting rising levels of the war's sharp expansion in 1965 living and are working hard for them. reduced rice acreage by over 10 per- cent, created a serious rural labor shortage, and inflated urban rice demand. Vietnam dropped quickly from self- sufficiency and became, in 1967, the world's largest rice importer. Most of these imports—one-sixth of the U.S. rice crop—were shipped to Vietnam RICE REVOLUTION as part of our food aid program. Such rice imports were indispen- BRINGS PROGRESS sable to Vietnam, providing needed food and preventing unmanageable FOR VIET PEASANT price increases that could have de- stroyed the economy. But they were clearly not a long-run solution, and in that same year the governments THE WORD "REVOLUTION" must be one of South Vietnam and the United of the most commonly used nouns in States agreed to place top priority on the English language. We have revo- restoring Vietnam's rice output. lutions in politics, in warfare, in One reason for this decision was economics, in technology. We have Vietnam's increasing rice deficit. But the Red Revolution, the Black Revo- there was another, perhaps stronger lution, and now the Green Revolution motivation. Up to that point the in Asian agriculture. economic benefits of the country's Yet if by revolution we mean a "war prosperity" had gone almost rapid and fundamental change in a exclusively to urban areas. The Gov- particular human institution or activ- ernment of Vietnam sorely needed ity, it is not too strong a word to to do something for 11 million rural describe the changes in how farmers people if it was to deserve the alle- are growing rice in a number of Asian countries. Prominent among these is Vietnam. AUTHOR MAC DESTLER, now on leavc from Rice is Vietnam's '*staff of life," USDAj has served as Acting Asia Coordina- filling over 80 percent of her cul- tor for the former International Agricuhural tivated land. In the late 50's and Development Service.

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