主办 出版

2011年 Vol.15 第15卷 No.4 第4期

140°30＇0＂E 141°0＇0＂E 141°30＇0＂E 38°30＇0＂N 38°30＇0＂N 38°0＇0＂N 38°0＇0＂N 37°30＇0＂N 37°30＇0＂N

140°30＇0＂E 141°0＇0＂E 141°30＇0＂E 百种中国杰出学术期刊

Yaogan Xuebao

第 15 卷 第 4 期 2011 年 7 月

目 次

综述 勇气号火星车六年探测征程及科学发现简述...... 邸凯昌，葛之江 (658) 高光谱图像端元提取算法研究进展与比较...... 李二森，朱述龙，周晓明，余文杰 (669) 技术方法 后向投影算法的地理坐标系下的合成孔径雷达成像...... 李杨寰，金添，宋千，周智敏 (686) 基于CFD技术的微波定标源亮温评定方法...... 年丰，杨于杰，王伟 (691) Envisat ASAR ScanSAR-Stripmap 干涉测量研究...... 梁存任，曾琪明，崔喜爱，焦健 (702) HJ-1卫星CCD数据的大气校正及其效果分析...... 郑盛，赵祥，张颢，何祺胜，曹春香，陈良富 (715) 石漠化遥感评价因子提取研究...... 岳跃民，张兵，王克林，李儒，刘波，张明阳 (729) 局部统计活动轮廓模型的SAR图像海岸线检测...... 黄魁华，张军 (743) 强噪声SAR干涉图的等值线中值-Goldstein二级滤波...... 李佳，李志伟，丁晓利，朱珺，汪长城 (758) 一种新的InSAR相位质量图生成方法...... 钟何平，唐劲松，陈鸣 (772) 基于统计混合模型的遥感影像阴影检测...... 夏怀英，郭平 (785) 遥感应用 雪热力模型(SNTHERM)在冰沟流域的模拟和敏感性试验...... 刘誉，蒋玲梅，施建成，张立新，张生雷，潘金梅，王培 (801) 基于高光谱高频组份分形特征的水稻铅胁迫评估...... 刘美玲，刘湘南，曹仕，李婷，吴伶 (821) MODIS NDVI和AVHRR NDVI 对草原植被变化监测差异...... 陈燕丽，龙步菊，潘学标，钟仕全，莫伟华 (838) 决策级融合的多分辨率遥感影像变化检测...... 柳思聪，杜培军，陈绍杰 (854) 简报 用中国环境减灾卫星1号数据评估日本仙台9.0级大地震引发海啸淹没区...... 宫鹏，张晗，张海英，梁璐，王雷 (866) 运用生物地理学理论与遥感影像寻找本·拉登...... Thomas W. Gillespie, John A. Agnew, Erika Mariano, Scott Mossler, Nolan Jones, Matt Braughton, Jorge Gonzalez (869) JOURNAL OF REMOTE SENSING

(Vol.15 No.4 July, 2011)

CONTENTS

Review A brief review of ’s six years of Mars roving and scientifi c discoveries ...... DI Kaichang, GE Zhijiang (651) The development and comparison of endmember extraction algorithms using hyperspectral imagery ...... LI Ersen, ZHU Shulong, ZHOU Xiaoming, YU Wenjie (659) Technology and Methodology A novel SAR imaging method under geographical coordinates ...... LI Yanghuan, JIN Tian, SONG Qian, ZHOU Zhimin (680) A method for evaluating the microwave blackbody’s equivalent brightness temperature by the Computational Fluid Dynamics simulation technologies ...... NIAN Feng, YANG Yujie, WANG Wei (687) ScanSAR-Stripmap interferometry using Envisat ASAR data ...... LIANG Cunren, ZENG Qiming, CUI Xiai, JIAO Jian (696) Atmospheric correction on CCD data of HJ-1 satellite and analysis of its effect ...... ZHENG Sheng, ZHAO Xiang, ZHANG Hao, HE Qisheng, CAO Chunxiang, CHEN Liangfu (709) Remote sensing of indicators for evaluating karst rocky desertifi cation ...... YUE Yuemin, ZHANG Bing, WANG Kelin, LI Ru, LIU Bo, ZHANG Mingyang (722) A coastline detection method using SAR images based on the local statistical active contour model ...... HUANG Kuihua, ZHANG Jun (737) Filtering strong noisy synthetic aperture radar (SAR) interferogram with integrated Contoured Median and Goldstein two-step fi lter ...... LI Jia, LI Zhiwei, DING Xiaoli, ZHU Jun, WANG Changcheng (750) New method of generating phase quality map for InSAR ...... ZHONG Heping, TANG Jinsong, CHEN Ming (766) A shadow detection of remote sensing images based on statistical texture features ...... XIA Huaiying, GUO Ping (778) Remote Sensing Applications Validation and sensitivity analysis of the snow thermal model (SNTHERM) at Binggou basin, Gansu ...... LIU Yu, JIANG Lingmei, SHI Jiancheng, ZHANG Lixin, ZHANG Shenglei, PAN Jinmei, WANG Pei (792) Assessment of Pb-induced stress levels on rice based on fractal characteristic of spectral high-frequency components ...... LIU Meiling, LIU Xiangnan, CAO Shi, LI Ting, WU Ling (811) Differences between MODIS NDVI and AVHRR NDVI in monitoring grasslands change ...... CHEN Yanli, LONG Buju, PAN Xuebiao, ZHONG Shiquan, MO Weihua (831) A novel change detection method of multi-resolution remotely sensed images based on the decision level fusion ...... LIU Sicong, DU Peijun, CHEN Shaojie (846) Short Communications Mapping tsunami damaged area caused by the magnitude 9.0 Japan earthquake using China’s HJ-1 satellite imagery ...... GONG Peng, ZHANG Han, ZHANG Haiying, LIANG Lu, WANG Lei (863) 1007-4619 (2011) 04-651-08 Journal of Remote Sensing 遥感学报

A brief review of Spirit’s six years of Mars roving and scientifi c discoveries

DI Kaichang1, GE Zhijiang2

1. State Key Laboratory of Remote Sensing Science, Jointly Sponsored by the Institute of Remote Sensing Applications of Chinese Academy of Sciences and Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100101, China; 2. China Academy of Space Technology, Beijing 100094, China

Abstract: Mars rover Spirit landed in Crater on January 4, 2004. It became a stationary science platform on 26 Janu- ary 2010 after NASA’s efforts to free it from a sand trap had been unsuccessful. During its six years of exploration of the red planet, Spirit traveled 7.73 km and made signifi cant discoveries, e.g. detection of deposits of salts and minerals such as sulfur and opaline silica that only form in the presence of water. This paper presents a brief review of Spirit’s six years of Mars roving and major scientifi c discoveries. In particular, it demonstrates how planetary mapping and remote sensing technologies have been greatly supporting the mission to achieve its science and engineering goals. Key words: Mars rover Spirit, roving Mars, scientifi c discoveries, planetary mapping, remote sensing CLC number: V11 Document code: A

Citation format: Di K C and Ge Z J. 2011. A brief review of Spirit’s six years of Mars roving and scientific discoveries. Journal of Remote Sensing, 15(4): 651–658

1 INTRODUCTION on 26 January 2010. By then, Spirit returned 127000 raw images and 16 color, 360-degree panoramic mosaics (NASA, 2010). The traverse Spirit, the fi rst of the two rovers of NASA’s Mars Exploration length of the mission was originally planned for 600 m to 1 km. Spirit Rover (MER) mission, was launched on 10 June 2003 from Cape actually traveled 7.73 km (odometer reading), seven to twelve times Canaveral Air Force Station, Florida, and landed in Gusev Crater longer than the planned traverse. Though Spirit won’t be roving Mars on 4 January 2004 UTC. The rover functions as a robot fi eld geolo- anymore, it will continue conducting scientifi c explorations at its fi nal gist reading the record that is contained in the rocks and soils at its resting place. For example, by tracking the radio signal from the rover landing site. The primary scientifi c objective of the MER mission long enough, scientists can get clues about the internal structure of is to explore the two landing sites on the Martian surface where Mars, i.e., to distinguish whether its core is liquid or solid. water may once have been present, and to assess past environmen- The following sections present a brief review of Spirit’s six tal conditions at those sites and their suitability for life (Squyres, et years of Mars roving and major scientifi c discoveries. In particular, al., 2004). The complete scientifi c objectives of the mission can be the paper demonstrates how planetary mapping and remote sensing found from NASA’s offi cial website (NASA, 2007). The landing site technologies have been greatly supporting the mission to achieve selected for Spirit is Gusev Crater, a fl at-fl oored crater with a diameter its science and engineering goals. of 160 km. The southern rim of Gusev is breached by Ma’adin Vallies, It should be noted that the current affi liated institutes of the au- a large branching valley that was likely cut by running water. Thus, thors are not part of the MER operations. This review is based on exploration of the landing site was anticipated to provide opportunities the relevant publications of the MER mission and some previous to study fl uvial sediments derived from the southern highlands and work of the fi rst author performed at the Mapping and GIS Labora- deposited in a lacustrine environment (Golombek, et al., 2003). tory of The Ohio State University before 2008. While its nominal mission was designed for 90 sols (a sol is a Martian day, which is 24 h 39 m 35.244 s), the rover functioned ef- 2 INSTRUMENTS AND MISSION OPERATION fectively over twenty times longer. On 1 May 2009 (sol 1893), Spirit APPROACH became stuck in soft soil at a location called “Troy”. After efforts during the past several months to free it from the sand trap had been 2.1 Scientifi c and engineering instruments unsuccessful, NASA designated the rover a stationary science platform Spirit carries an integrated suite of scientific instruments and

Received: 2010-10-29; Accepted: 2011-01-04 Foundation: National High Technology Research and Development Program (863 program) of China (No. 2009AA12Z310), National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 40871202) First author biography: DI Kaichang (1967— ), male, Ph.D., professor and doctoral advisor. His current research interests include planetary mapping and remote sensing, rover navigation and localization. E-mail: [email protected] 652 Journal of Remote Sensing 遥感学报 2011,15(4) tools called the Athena science payload. The payload includes a gamma rays produced by a 57Co source to determine splitting of mast-mounted remote sensing package, an Instrument Deploy- nuclear energy levels in 57Fe atoms. The MI uses the same CCD ment Device (IDD)-mounted in-situ package and magnets (see detectors and electronics as Pancam and can obtain high resolution Fig. 1). The remote sensing package consists of the Panoramic (30 µm/pixel) images of rock and soil surfaces. The RAT can Camera (Pancam) and the Miniature Thermal Emission Spectrom- remove 5 mm of dusty and weathered surface of a rock over a eter (Mini-TES), both supported by the Pancam Mast Assembly circular area 45 mm in diameter so that the exposed fresh mate- (PMA) (Squyres, et al., 2003). Pancam is a high-resolution color rial can be investigated in detail using the in-situ instruments. stereo pair of CCD cameras used for scientifi c investigation of the Along with Pancam and MI, each MER vehicle includes six morphology, topography, geology, etc., of the landing site. Each of engineering cameras (see Fig. 1), all of which share the same elec- its cameras (left and right) has eight multispectral channels with a tronics design and spacecraft interfaces as the Athena science cam- 400-1100 nm wavelength range (Bell, et al., 2003). Both cameras eras (Maki, et al., 2003). The Navigation Camera () is a have an imaging area of 1024 by 1024 pixels and the fi eld of view mast-mounted stereo pair each with a 45 degree FOV and a spectral (FOV) of 16.8 degrees. Pancam has a stereo base of 30 cm, a fo- bandpass of 580—770 nm. Navcam has a stereo base of 20 cm, a cal length of 43 mm and effective depth of fi eld (DOF) of 3 m to focal length of 14.67 mm, and an effective DOF of 0.5 m to infi n- infi nity. Mini-TES is an infrared spectrometer that can determine ity. It is primarily used for navigation purposes and general site the mineralogy of rocks and soils from a distance by detecting their characterization, capable of providing 360° panoramic image mosa- patterns of thermal radiation (Squyres, et al., 2003). Mini-TES is ics and targeted images of interest. The Hazard-avoidance Cameras housed in the body of the rover at the bottom of the PMA, which () are mounted in stereo pairs, one pair on the front end of then acts as a periscope for it. It produces high spectral resolution the rovers’ warm electronics box (WEB) below the solar panel, and (10 cm–1) image cubes with a wavelength range of 5—29 μm, and one pair on the rear end of the WEB below the solar panel. Each angular resolution modes of 20 and 8 mrad. assembly includes two cameras with a 124 degree FOV Once potential science targets are identified using Pancam and and 580—770 nm spectral bandpass. Hazcam has a stereo base of Mini-TES, they will be investigated in more detail using the in-situ 10 cm, a focal length of 5.58 mm, and a DOF of 0.1 m to infi nity. instruments. The IDD-mounted in-situ instruments include an Alpha The Hazcam are used for onboard hazard detection and for select- Particle-X-Ray Spectrometer (APXS), a Mössbauer Spectrometer ing near fi eld target and IDD operations. (MB), a Microscopic Imager (MI) and a (RAT) (see Before launching, all of the Athena science instruments had Fig. 1) (Squyres, et al., 2003). The APXS determines the elemental undergone extensive calibration, both individually and using a set abundances of rocks and soils by exposing Martian materials to en- of geologic reference materials that were measured with all the in- ergetic alpha particles and X-rays from a radioactive 244Cm source and struments (Squyres, et al., 2003; Bell, et al., 2003). All of the MER then measuring the energy spectra of backscattered alphas and emitted engineering cameras had also been calibrated over the fl ight range X-rays. The MB is used to determine the mineralogy and oxidation of temperatures (Maki, et al., 2003). After landing, in-flight state of Fe-bearing phases. It measures the resonant absorption of calibrations have been performed for the science instruments, for

Pancam(pair)

Rover equipment Deck (Warm Electronics Box underneath) Navcam (pair) Low Gain Antenna UHF Pancam Mast Antenna Pancam Calibration Target Assembly

Capture/Filter High Gain Antenna Megnets

Hazcam (2 pairs, front and rear) Solar Arrays

Instrument Deployment Device

In-situ Instruments(APXS, MB, MI, RAT)

Fig. 1 Spirit rover with scientifi c and engineering payload (Di and Li, 2007) DI Kaichang, et al.: A brief review of Spirit’s six years of Mars roving and scientifi c discoveries 653 example, Pancam has been regularly calibrated using refined A typical drive distance within each sol is 20 m to 50 m, oc- prefl ight-derived calibration coeffi cients, or radiance factor using casionally around 100 m. A long drive usually included a blind near-in-time measurements of the Pancam calibration target and a drive segment and an autonomous navigation segment. The model of aeolian dust deposition on the target as a function of time blind drive allowed the rover to drive a distance effi ciently to a (Bell, et al., 2006). particular location without hazard avoidance systems activated. The distance for a blind drive was determined offl ine on Earth 2.2 Mission operation approach by 3D visualization and mapping using Navcam or Pancam The approach for operating both Spirit and was stereo images. based on translating science objectives into specifi c tasks for the rovers to implement, usually with a cycle of a sol. There are fi ve 3 SIX YEARS OF MARS ROVING basic sol types (Squyres, et al., 2003; Arvidson, et al., 2006) (1) 3.1 The rover traverse Panorama sol: acquire Pancam or Mini-TES panoramic data for remote sensing of the surface around the rover, which are needed to Spirit touched down in Gusev Crater about 12 km east of the establish geologic context and to select candidate targets; (2) Drive center of a predefined landing ellipse. The lander location was sol: move tens of meters in the direction of the selected target or determined using two-way Doppler radio positioning technology area of interest; (3) Approach sol: move close enough to a target in the inertial reference system and transformed to the Mars Body that it can be investigated on the next sol with the IDD-mounted in- Fixed frame as (14.571892°S, 175.47848°E). The lander was also situ instruments; (4) Spectroscopy sol: deploy the IDD and perform localized as (14.5692°S, 175.4729°E) using cartographic triangula- detailed in-situ analyses on a rock or soil target; and (5) ‘‘Scratch tion technique through landmarks visible in both orbital and ground and Sniff’’ sol: use the RAT to expose a rock target surface and images (Li, et al., 2005; Li, et al., 2006). Comparing with the carto- perform some in-situ analyses on it. graphic location, the inertial location was displaced to the southeast Mission operation planning for a given sol started as soon as by 370 m at an azimuth of 116° (Li, et al., 2006). This systematic the previous sol’s data were transmitted to Earth and analyzed. The offset is consistent with the map tie errors between inertial derived Spirit Science Operations Working Group (SOWG) considered coordinate systems and those derived from imagebased coverage of results from the initial data analysis results and implications of the the planet (Arvidson, et al., 2004). new fi ndings on both long term strategies and near term objectives As shown in the first Pancam panorama (Fig. 2), the landing (Arvidson, et al., 2006). Then, SOWG and the rover mobility team site, which was named Columbia Memorial Station (CMS), lies in (for traversing and deployment of the IDD) worked cooperatively a region of dusty, soil-covered, rock-strewn cratered plains. From to develop task sequences that fit power, data volume, and time this panorama, we can also observe remote mountain peaks, which constraints for the upcoming sol. Finally, the sequences were were used in cartographic triangulation of the lander location. Fig. up-loaded to the rover for execution. This cycle was repeated once 3 shows the Spirit rover traverse map from Sol 1 at the landing each sol. center to Sol 1457 at Winter Haven on Home Plate plateau.

Fig. 2 A mosaic of the fi rst 360 degree Pancam panorama (Image credit: NASA/JPL/Cornell)

Spirit egressed from the lander on Sol 12. Detailed remote Spur of the Columbia Hills on Sol 157 and the subsequent remote sensing and in situ measurements of the rocks Adirondack and sensing and in situ investigations revealed that Hills rocks have Humphrey were performed starting on Sol 15 and Sol 51 respec- been extensively modifi ed by aqueous processes (Arvidson, et al., tively, revealing that the rocks were derived from olivine-bearing 2006). Spirit ascended to the summit of Husband Hill on Sol 580 basaltic rocks (Arvidson, et al., 2006). Spirit was then commanded and began a remote sensing campaign of the surrounding terrains to traverse onto the ejecta deposits of the Bonneville Crater (about from its high vantage point, including looking into the Inner Basin 210 m in diameter), hoping to fi nd evidence for preplains aqueous for safe paths to descend to Home Plate. Along the path, a number processes by searching for material excavated by the Bonneville of rocks, outcrops and deposits were examined in detail. event from beneath the basaltic plains rocks. In situ investigation of the The next phase of the mission was the descent into the Inner Bonneville rim region and remote sensing of the crater fl oor showed Basin and the drive to Home Plate. Along the path, the rover tra- only basaltic rocks similar to those previously found on the plains. versed to the edge of the dark ripple field and conducted remote The next phase of the mission was the long drive across the sensing and in situ measurements of these materials. Fig. 4 shows plains to the Columbia Hills, which are clearly embayed by the the detailed rover traverse map at Home Plate and the last position basaltic plains materials and thus are older than the materials at (Sol 1893) at “Troy”. Spirit reached Home Plate on Sol 746. After the landing site. During the traverse to the Columbia Hills, Spirit detailed measurements of some outcrops and a fl oat rock, the rover conducted remote sensing observations for Missoula and Lahontan drove east south through the valley between the eastern edge of craters and associated ejecta deposits. The rover reached the West Home Plate and the western side of Mitcheltree Ridge. Due to the 654 Journal of Remote Sensing 遥感学报 2011,15(4)

Fig. 3 Spirit traverse map (Sol 1457) (Image credit: NASA/JPL/Cornell/MSSS/OSU)

north to perform remote sensing and in situ work on the finely layered outcrops on the western side of Mitcheltree Ridge and to the east of Home Plate. After detailed remote sensing and in situ measurements of the strata exposed on the eastern fl ank of Home Plate on sols 1205 to 1220, an outcrop identifi ed as silica-rich from Mini-TES observations was then examined. Then, after an approxi- mately 60 sol period waiting out the low solar energy conditions associated with a southern hemisphere dust storm, Spirit was com- manded to approach and ascend onto Home Plate and obtain meas- urements designed to characterize the rocks on the top of Home Plate and rocks on the South Promontory. After an evaluation of the possibility and risk for a traverse to Von Braun hill (about 120 m to the south of Home plate), a decision was made to drive to the northern fl ank of Home Plate to fi nd north-facing slope to survive the third winter season. Spirit reached the site Winter Haven on Fig. 4 Spirit traverse map (Sol 1893) (Image credit: NASA/JPL/ Cornell/University of Arizona/OSU) Sol 1408. After the winter season, Spirit drove down side of Home Plate and drove west then south around Home Plate and performed fact that Spirit was located at about 15° S, the rover needed to park targeted remote sensing and in situ observations. On Sol 1893 (May on north-facing slopes for the solar panels to get enough sunshine 1, 2009) Spirit became stuck in soft soil at “Troy”. in order to survive the local winter. The intent was to drive to the northern slopes of McCool Hill (over 400 m to the southeast of 3.2 Rover localization and topographic mapping Home Plate) to fi nd locations for the rover to spend its second Mars Localization of the rover and mapping the landing and travers- winter. However, after the front right wheel drive motor had failed, ing areas with high accuracy is of fundamental importance to traversing to McCool Hill became very diffi cult. Thus, the vehicle support science and engineering operations. Rover localization was was commanded to drive to the northeast slope of Low Ridge, conducted at several levels with different accuracies (Li , et al., which also provided suffi cient north-facing tilt for the rover to sur- 2005, 2006). Within each sol cycle, the onboard dead-reckoning vive the winter season. localization (based on IMU and wheel odometry) was regularly Spirit spent sols 805 to 1037 at the Low Ridge site during its performed, supported irregularly by Sun-fi nding techniques to im- winter campaign phase. Next Spirit was directed to drive back prove the attitude knowledge (Ali, et al., 2005). In areas where the DI Kaichang, et al.: A brief review of Spirit’s six years of Mars roving and scientifi c discoveries 655 rover experiences slippage caused by traversing loose soil or steep those discoveries. Instead, only some most significant discover- slopes, the onboard visual odometry (VO) technique was applied to ies are introduced below. These discoveries include understanding reduce position errors accumulated by the dead-reckoning localiza- of the geology, mineralogy, aeolian activity, aqueous activity and tion (Chen, et al., 2006; Maimone, et al., 2007). It automatically atmospheric condition of the landing site. With these discoveries, matches and tracks point features between consecutive stereo images it has been confi rmed that water was long standing on the surface and determines the change in position and attitude. VO was only of Mars long ago; this directly contributes to meeting the primary performed in these diffi cult areas due to the fact that the onboard scientifi c objective of the mission. VO processing can take two to 3 min per image pair on MER’s 20 Upon entering the West Spur region, the composition of soils MHz RAD6000 CPU, which reduces the amount of distance that and rocks changed dramatically from basaltic plains to heavily can be driven each sol when using VO (Cheng , et al., 2006). degraded rocks. By examining the rocks along the traverse in the Researchers at The Ohio State University (OSU) performed bundle Husband Hill region, various evidences of the existence of signifi - adjustment (BA)-based rover localization and topographic map- cant aqueous activity were found, including mineral alterations, salt ping since the landing of the two rovers in January 2004 (Li, et al., in the soil in an amount reaching the highest values ever observed 2005, 2006; Di, et al., 2008a). Rover traverse maps (see Fig. 3 and on Mars and rocks with signifi cantly elevated sulfur, chlorine, and 4) were generated wherever the rover stopped and took Navcam bromine signatures (Cabrol, et al., 2005; Arvidson, et al., 2006). or Pancam images. BA was able to correct signifi cant localization In March 2006, during its drive to McCool Hill, Spirit's wheels errors, e.g., as large as 10.5% at a location along the traverse to the unearthed a small patch of light-toned material informally named summit of Husband Hill (Di, et al., 2008a). BA-based rover locali- “Tyrone”. Pancam and Mini-TES investigations revealed that the zation was performed on Earth. Efforts have been made to integrate light-toned disturbed soil had a salty chemistry dominated by iron- VO and BA with the expectation of achieving high effi ciency and bearing sulfates, suggesting the past presence of water (Arvidson, full automation (Li , et al., 2007; Di , et al., 2008b). et al., 2008). This material could be a volcanic deposit formed Once the rover data were transmitted to Earth through the Deep around ancient gas vents or could have been left behind by water Space Network, the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) Multi-mission that dissolved these minerals underground and evaporated when Image Processing Laboratory produced mosaics, linearized (epipo- they came to the surface and evaporated (NASA, 2005). lar) images, range maps, and other products within a few hours to During a drive on Sol 1148 (March 27, 2007), Spirit’s inopera- support rover navigation and science operations (Alexander, et al., tive right front wheel excavated light-toned soil deposits in Eastern 2006). Topographic products, such as DTM, orthophoto, and 3D Valley between Home Plate and the Mitcheltree/Low Ridge complex. models, were routinely generated by the OSU team using Pancam Fig. 5 shows an approximately true-color image of the soil deposits and Navcam images along the traverse (Li, et al., 2005, 2006; Di, taken by Pancam on Sol 1158 (NASA Planetary Photojournal ID: et al., 2008a). Special topographic products, such as north-facing PIA09403). Measurements of Mini-TES on Sol 1172 indicated the slope maps and solar energy maps, were developed to meet the spectral features of these deposits associated with opaline silica. needs of selection of location for the rover to park and survive the The rover then drove to the soil and used APXS to further inves- Martian winter. Mapping with multi-site panoramas and wide- tigate the deposits on Sols 1189 and 1190. APXS observations baseline stereo images based on the bundle adjustment technology discovered that these patches of disturbed, bright soil are about were applied and significantly extended the mapping capabilities 90 weight percent SiO2 (Squyres, et al., 2008). These silica-rich of single-site panoramas (Di & Li, 2007). High resolution orbital materials were interpreted to have formed under hydrothermal con- images (e.g., MOC and HiRISE images) had been used for topo- ditions and therefore to be strong indicators of a former aqueous graphic mapping of the Spirit rover landing site (Kirk, et al., 2003; environment. This discovery is important for understanding the past Li, et al., 2006) and were also as base maps for rover localization habitability of Mars because hydrothermal environments on Earth during mission operations. The high precision topographic prod- support thriving microbial ecosystems. ucts and rover localization information played signifi cant roles in traverse planning at critical locations, e.g., ascending to the summit of Husband Hill, descending to Inner Basin, driving to Home Plate, and fi nd safe locations for the rover to survive three winter seasons.

4 SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERIES

Previous orbital analyses of Gusev Crater have shown a com- plex geologic history that includes potential modifi cation by mass wasting, fluvial activity, volcanism, and extensive aeolian (i.e., wind) processes (Golombek, et al., 2003). Using Spirit’s remote sensing and in situ measurements of rocks and soils, scientists have made numerous new scientifi c discoveries about the geology, aeolian activity, atmospheric condition and aqueous processes at Gusev Crater (Squyres, et al., 2004; Arvidson, et al., 2006, 2008; Crumpler, et al., 2005; Golombek, et al., 2006; Cabrol, et al., Fig. 5 Pancam image showing silica-rich soil 2006). This section does not intend to give a complete review of (Image credit: NASA/JPL/Cornell) 656 Journal of Remote Sensing 遥感学报 2011,15(4)

In December 2005, Spirit examined a strange looking outcrop, called Comanche, along its route down from Husband Hill to the Inner Basin. Fig. 6 is a false-color image taken by Pancam on Sol 689 (December 11, 2005). It took more than four years for a group of scientists to confi rm that magnesium iron carbonate makes up about one-fourth of the measured volume in Comanche based on Fig. 8 A frame of a movie of dust devil acquired by Spirit’s Navcam combined analysis of APXS, MB and Mini-TES data (Morris, et (Image credit: NASA/JPL) al., 2010). While previous evidences suggest wet and acidic envi- ronments that were less favorable as habitats for life, the substan- Spirit captured several dust devil events in 2005, providing the tial carbonate deposit in the outcrop Comanche indicates that a past best look of the wind effects on the Martian surface as they were environment was wet and non-acidic, possibly favorable to life happening. As an example, Fig. 8 shows an image of a 21-frame (Morris, et al., 2010). movie of dust devil acquired by Navcam on sol 486 (May 15, 2005) at a location close to the summit of Husband Hill (NASA, 2005). The event occurred during a period of 9 minutes and 35 seconds beginning at 11:48 a.m. local Mars time. By analyzing the images, it was found that dust devil was about 34 meters in diameter and about 1.0 km away from the rover. The dust devil traveled in a northeasterly direction with a speed of about 4.8 m/s and covered a distance of about 1.6 km (NASA, 2005).

5 SUMMARY

This paper presented a brief review of Spirit’s six years of Mars roving and some signifi cant scientifi c discoveries. Science-driven mission design, powerful scientifi c instruments, effective mission Fig. 6 False-color Pancam image showing carbonate-rich outcrops operation approach, and close cooperation among science and (Image credit: NASA/JPL/Cornell) engineering team members have contributed to the unprecedented The layered plateau “Home Plate” (about 90 m in diameter) achievements during rover surface operations. In supporting the was extensively studied by Spirit rover. Textural observations and mission operations, planetary mapping and remote sensing technol- geochemical considerations suggest that Home Plate is an explo- ogies played a signifi cant role in traverse planning as well as sci- sive volcanic deposit. It is composed of clastic rocks of moderately entifi c investigations. The experiences of the Spirit rover mission, altered alkali basalt composition, enriched in some highly volatile particularly the mission operation approach and various supporting elements (Squyres, et al., 2007). As shown in a false-color Pancam technologies, are valuable for future Mars or lunar rover missions. image taken on Sol 751 (Fig. 7), the coarse-grained lower unit likely represents accumulation of pyroclastic materials, whereas REFERENCES the fi ner-grained upper unit may represent eolian reworking of the same pyroclastic materials (Squyres, et al., 2007). The presence of Alexander D A, Deen R G, Andres P M, Zamani P, Mortensen H B, Chen bomb sags (white arrow in Fig.7) confi rms the hypothesis of Home A C, Cayanan M K, Hall J R, Klochko V S, Pariser O, Stanley C L, Plate’s volcanic history. Thompson C K and Yagi G M. 2006. Processing of Mars Explora- tion Rover imagery for science and operations planning. Journal of Geophysical Research - Planets, 111(E2): E02S02. Ali K S, Vanelli C A, Biesiadecki J J, Maimone M W, Cheng Y, Miguel San Martin A and Alexander J W. 2005. Attitude and position es- timation on the Mars exploration rovers. Proc. of the 2005 IEEE Conference on Systems, Man and Cybernetics Arvidson R E, Anderson R C, Bartlett P, Bell J F III, Blaney D, Chris- tensen P R, Chu P, Crumpler L, Davis K, Ehlmann B L, Fergason R, Golombek M P, Gorevan S, Grant J A, Greeley R, Guinness E A, Haldemann A F C, Herkenhoff K, Johnson J, Landis G, Li R, Lin- demann R, McSween H, Ming D W, Myrick T, Richter L, Seelos F P IV, Squyres S W, Sullivan R J, Wang A and Wilson J. 2004. Lo- calization and physical properties experiments conducted by spirit at Gusev Crater. Science, 305(5685): 821–824 Arvidson R E, Ruff S W, Morris R V, Ming D W, Crumpler L S, Yen A S, Squyres S W, Sullivan R J, Bell J F III, Cabrol N A, Clark B Fig. 7 False-color Pancam image showing a bomb sag (arrow) on C, Farrand W H, Gellert R, Greenberger R, Grant J A, Guinness E Home Plate (Image credit: NASA/JPL/Cornell) A, Herkenhoff K E, Hurowitz J A, Johnson J R, Klingelhöfer G, DI Kaichang, et al.: A brief review of Spirit’s six years of Mars roving and scientifi c discoveries 657

Lewis K W, Li R, McCoy T J, Moersch J, McSween H Y, Murchie exploration rover mission. ASPRS 2006 Annual Conference, Reno, S L, Schmidt M, Schröder C, Wang A, Wiseman S, Madsen M B, Nevada, May 1–5 Goetz W and McLennan S M. 2008. Spirit Mars rover mission to Di K C, Wang J, He S, Wu B, Chen W, Li R, Matthies L H and Howard the Columbia Hills, Gusev Crater: mission overview and selected A B. 2008b. Towards autonomous Mars rover localization: op- results from the Cumberland Ridge to Home Plate. Journal of erations in 2003 MER mission and new developments for future Geophysical Research-Planets, 113: E12S33 missions. International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Arvidson R E, Squyres S W, Anderson R C, Bell J F III, Blaney D, Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, 37(B1): 957–962 Brückner J, Cabrol N A, Calvin W M, Carr M H, Christensen P R, Di K C, Xu F L, Wang J, Agarwal S, Brodyagina E, Li R X and Mat- Clark B C, Crumpler L, Des Marais D J, de Souza P A Jr, d’Uston thies L. 2008a. Photogrammetric processing of rover imagery of C, Economou T, Farmer J, Farrand W H, Folkner W, Golombek the 2003 mission. ISPRS Journal of Photo- M, Gorevan S, Grant J A, Greeley R, Greeley R, Grotzinger J, grammetry and Remote Sensing, 63(2): 181–201 Guinness E, Hahn B C, Haskin L, Herkenhoff K E, Hurowitz J A, Golombek M P, Grant J A, Parker T J, Kass D M, Crisp J A, Squyres S Hviid S, Johnson J R, Klingelhöfer G, Knoll A H, Landis G, Leff W, Haldemann A F C, Adler M, Lee W J, Bridges N T, Arvidson C, Lemmon M, Li R, Madsen M B, Malin M C, McLennan S M, R E, Carr M H, Kirk R L, Knocke P C, Roncoli R B, Weitz C M, McSween H Y, Ming D W, Moersch J, Morris R V, Parker T, Rice Schofi eld J T, Zurek R W, Christensen P R, Fergason R L, Ander- J W Jr, Richter L, Rieder R, Rodionov D S, Schröder C, Sims M, son F S and Rice J W Jr. 2003. Selection of the Mars exploration Smith M, Smith P, Soderblom L A, Sullivan R, Thompson S D, rover landing sites. Journal of Geophysical Research-Planets, Tosca N J, Wang A, Wänke H, Ward J, Wdowiak T, Wolff M and 108(E12): 8072 Yen A. 2006. Overview of the Spirit Mars exploration rover mis- Golombek, M P, Crumpler L S, Grant J A, Greeley R, Cabrol N A, sion to Gusev Crater: landing site to Backstay Rock in the Colum- Parker T J, Rice J W Jr, Ward J G, Arvidson R E, Moersch J E, bia Hills. Journal of Geophysical Research-Planets, 111: E02S01 Fergason R L, Christensen P R, Castaño A, Castaño R, Haldemann Bell J F III, Joseph J, Sohl-Dickstein J N, Arneson H M, Johnson M A F C, Li R, Bell J F III and Squyres S W. 2006. Geology of the J, Lemmon M T and Savransky D. 2006. In-fl ight calibration and Gusev cratered plains from the Spirit rover transverse. Journal of performance of the Mars exploration rover panoramic camera Geophysical Research-Planets, 111: E02S07 (Pancam) instruments. Journal of Geophysical Research-Planets, Kirk R L, Howington-Kraus E, Redding B, Galuszka D, Hare T M, 111: E02S03 Archinal B A, Soderblom L A and Barrett J M. 2003. High- Bell J F III, Squyres S W, Herkenhoff K E, Mark J N, Arneson H M, resolution topomapping of candidate MER landing sites with Mars Brown D, Collins S A, Dingizian A, Elliot S T, Hagerott E C, Hay- Orbiter Camera Narrow-angle Images. Journal of Geophysical Re- es A G, Johnson M J, Johnson J R, Joseph J, Kinch K, Lemmon M search-Planets, 108(E12): 8088 T, Morris R V, Scherr L, Schwochert M, Shepard M K, Smith G H, Li R X, Archinal B A, Arvidson R E, Bell J, Christensen P, Crumpler L, Sohl-Dickstein J N, Sullivan R J, Sullivan W T and Wadsworth M. Des Marais D J, Di K, Duxbury T, Golombek M, Grant J, Greeley 2003. Mars exploration rover Athena panoramic camera (Pancam) R, Guinn J, Johnson A, Kirk R L, Maimone M, Matthies L H, Ma- investigation. Journal of Geophysical Research-Planets, 108(E12): lin M, Parker T, Sims M, Thompson S, Squyres S W and Soderb- 8063 lom L A. 2006. Spirit rover localization and topographic mapping Cabrol N A, Farmer J D, Grin E A, Richter L, Soderblom L, Li R, Herk- at the landing site of Gusev Crater, Mars. Journal of Geophysical enhoff K, Landis G A and Arvidson R E. 2006. Aqueous processes Research – Planets, Special Issue on Spirit Rover, 111: E02S06 at Gusev crater inferred from physical properties of rocks and Li R X, Di K C, Howard A B, Matthies L H, Wang J and Agarwal S. soils along the Spirit traverse. Journal of Geophysical Research- 2007. Rock modeling and matching for autonomous long-range Planets, 111: E02S20 mars rover localization. Journal of Field Robotics, 24(3): 187–203 Cheng Y, Maimone M W, Matthies L H. 2006. Visual odometry on the Li R, Hwangbo J W, Chen Y H and Di K. 2008. Rigorous photogram- Mars exploration rovers. IEEE Robotics and Automation, Special metric processing of HiRISE stereo images for Mars topographic Issue (MER), 13(2): 54–62 mapping. International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Crumpler L S, Squyres S W, Arvidson R E, Bell J F III, Blaney D, Ca- Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, 37(B4): 987–992 brol N A, Christensen P R, DesMarais D J, Farmer J D, Fergason Li R X, Squyres S W, Arvidson R E, Archinal B A, Bell J F III, Cheng Y, R, Golombek M P, Grant F D, Grant J A, Greeley R, Hahn B, Crumpler L, Des Marais D J, Di K, Ely T A, Golombek M, Graat Herkenhoff K E, Hurowitz J A, Knudson A T, Landis G A, Li R, E, Grant J, Guinn J, Johnson A, Greeley R, Kirk R L, Maimone Maki J, McSween H Y, Ming D W, Moersch J E, Payne M C, Rice M, Matthies L H, Malin M, Parker T, Sims M, Soderblom L A, J W, Richter L, Ruff S W, Sims M, Thompson S D, Tosca N, Wang Thompson S, Wang J, Whelley P and Xu F, 2005. Initial results A, Whelley P, Wright S P and Wyatt M B. 2005. Mars exploration of rover localization and topographic mapping for the 2003 Mars rover geologic traverse by the Spirit rover in the Plains of Gusev exploration rover mission. Photogrammetric Engineering and Re- Crater, Mars. Geology, 33(10): 809–812 mote Sensing, Special issue on Mapping Mars, 71(10): 1129–1142 Di K C and Li R. 2007. Topographic mapping capability analysis of Maimone M W, Cheng Y and Matthies L H. 2007. Two years of visual Mars exploration rover 2003 mission imagery. the 5th International odometry on the Mars exploration rovers. Journal of Field Robot- Symposium on Mobile Mapping Technology (MMT2007), Padua, ics, Special issue on Space Robotics, 24(3): 169–186 Italy Maki J N, Bell J F III, Herkenhoff K E, Squyres S W, Kiely A, Klimesh Di K C, Wang J, Agarwal S, Brodyagina E, Yan L, Li R and Matthies L M, Schwochert M, Litwin T, Willson R, Johnson A, Maimone M, H. 2006. New photogrammetric techniques used in the 2003 Mars Baumgartner E, Collins A, Wadsworth M, Elliot S T, Dingizian A, 658 Journal of Remote Sensing 遥感学报 2011,15(4)

Brown D, Hagerott E C, Scherr L, Deen R, Alexander D and Lorre Marais D J, d’Uston C, Economou T, Farmer J, Farrand W, Folkn- J. 2003. Mars exploration rover engineering cameras. Journal of er W, Golombek M, Gorevan S, Grant J A, Greeley R, Grotzinger Geophysical Research-Planets, 108 (E12): 8071 J, Haskin L, Herkenhoff K E, Hviid S, Johnson J, Klingelhöfer G, Morris R V, Ruff S W, Gellert R, Ming D W, Arvidson R E, Clark B C, Knoll A, Landis G, Lemmon M, Li R, Madsen M B, Malin M C, Golden D C, Siebach K, Klingelhöfer C, Schröder C, Fleischer I, McLennan S M, McSween H Y, Ming D W, Moersch J, Morris R Yen A S and Squyres S W. 2010. Identifi cation of carbonate-rich V, Parker T, Rice J W Jr, Richter L, Rieder R, Sims M, Smith M, outcrops on Mars by the Spirit rover. Science, 329(5990): 421–424 Smith P, Soderblom L A, Sullivan R, Wänke H, Wdowiak T, Wolff NASA. 2005. Spirit’s wind-driven traveler on Mars (Spirit Sol M and Yen A. 2004. The spirit rover’s athena science investigation 486). [2010-10-20]. http://marsrovers.nasa.gov/gallery/press/ at gusev crater, Mars. Science, 305(5685): 794–799 spirit/20050527a.html Squyres S W, Aharonson O, Clark B C, Cohen B A, Crumpler L, de NASA. 2007. Mars exploration rover mission objectives. [2010-12-21]. Souza P A, Farrand W H, Gellert R, Grant J, Grotzinger J P, Hal- http://marsrovers.nasa.gov/science/objectives.html demann A F C, Johnson J R, Klingelhöfer G, Lewis K W, Li R, NASA. 2010. Curriculum Vitae - Spirit, Mars Exploration Rover A. McCoy T, McEwen A S, McSween H Y, Ming D W, Moore J M, [2010-6-21]. http://marsrover.nasa.gov/spotlight/20100126a.html Morris R V, Parker T J, Rice J W Jr, Ruff S, Schmidt M, Schröder Squyres S W, Arvidson R E, Baumgartner E T, Bell J F III, Christensen C, Soderblom L A and Yen A. 2007. Pyroclastic activity at Home P R, Gorevan S, Herkenhoff K E, Klingelhöfer G, Madsen M B, Plate in Gusev Crater, Mars. Science, 316(5825): 738–742 Morris R V, Rieder R and Romero R A. 2003. Athena Mars rover Squyres S W, Arvidson R E, Ruff S, Gellert R, Morris R V, Ming D W, science investigation. Journal of Geophysical Research-Planets, Crumpler L, Farmer J D, Des Marais D J, Yen A, McLennan S M, 108(E12): 8062 Calvin W, Bell J F III, Clark B C, Wang A, McCoy T J, Schmidt M Squyres S W, Arvidson R E, Bell J F III, Brückner J, Cabrol N A, E and de Souza P A Jr. 2008. Detection of silica-rich deposits on Calvin W, Carr M H, Christensen P R, Clark B C, Crumpler L, Des Mars. Science, 320(5879): 1063–1067

勇气号火星车六年探测征程及科学发现简述

邸凯昌1，葛之江2

1．遥感科学国家重点实验室，中国科学院. 遥感应用研究所，北京. 100101； 2．中国空间技术研究院，北京. 100094

摘 要：勇气号火星车2004年1月4日成功着陆古谢夫撞击坑。2009年5月1日，勇气号陷入一个命名为“特洛伊”的松 软的沙坑。由于多次尝试从深陷的沙坑中解救勇气号失败，2010年1月26日NASA宣布勇气号不再行使而变成静止科学 观测站。.在6年的探测征程中，勇气号行驶了7.73.km并且取得了诸多科学发现，例如发现了只有在水环境才能生成的 盐类沉积物以及含有硫和蛋白石的矿物质沉积。本文简要综述勇气号6年漫游火星表面的征程以及重大的科学发现，特 别展示了行星制图与遥感技术在实现火星车探测的科学和工程任务中发挥的重要作用。 关键词：勇气号火星车，漫游火星，科学发现，行星制图，遥感 中图分类号：V11. . . 文献标志码：A

引用格式：邸凯昌，葛之江．2011．勇气号火星车六年探测征程及科学发现简述．遥感学报， 15(4):.651-658 Di K C and Ge Z J. 2011. A brief review of Spirit’s six years of Mars roving and scientifi c discoveries. Journal of Remote Sensing, 15(4): 651–658 启功先生创刊题名

140°30＇0＂E 141°0＇0＂E 141°30＇0＂E 38°30＇0＂N 38°30＇0＂N

38°0＇0＂N 38°0＇0＂N 封面说明 About the Cover

37°30＇0＂N 37°30＇0＂N 日本海啸引发海水倒灌淹没范围图

140°30＇0＂E 141°0＇0＂E 141°30＇0＂E Tsunami Submerged Areas Triggered by the March 11, 2011 Sendai Earthquake

2011年3月11日，日本东北部海域发生里氏9.0级地震并引发海啸，造成重大人员伤亡和财产损失。遥感科学国家重点实验室利用中国环境 减灾卫星1号的多光谱成像数据，对日本东北部受灾区进行了海啸灾情监测。受灾范围主要分布在日本东北部近海岸带的低洼陆地，面积达 308.7 km2，即使在海啸退潮后的第3天，仍有177.3 km2陆地淹没在海水中。本次工作展示了中国自主研发卫星在应对全球突发事件时的数 据获取能力和信息提取潜力。面对大的灾害和突发事件，遥感技术至今尚未做到根据需要获取任何时间、任何地点的数据，发展地球观测技术 还需长期不懈的努力。 The magnitude 9.0 Japan earthquake occurred on March 11, 2011 has caused a devastating tsunami. The tsunami pushed widespread flooding over the coast of eastern Japan. China's HJ-1 satellite was designed for monitoring environmental change and disasters. We used two HJ-1 CCD scenes over Sendai and its surroundings, one before and the other 3 days after the earthquake to monitor the disaster. The areas affected by the tsunami mainly locate in the low-lying regions in the coast of eastern Japan, with a total area of 308.7 km2. After the tsunami, a total area of 177.3 km2 is still submerged in seawater. The simple analysis indicates that data obtained from China's Environment and Disaster Monitoring Satellite HJ-1 can be used in tsunami damage assessment. Undoubtedly, China's global monitoring ability has improved a lot. But when confronted with the disasters caused by this extremely large earthquake, it is clear that there is a long way to go for satellite based remote sensing to achieve what has been said - anywhere and anytime when the technology is needed.

(Bimonthly, Started in 1997) 第15卷 第4期 2011年7月25日 Vol.15 No.4 July 25, 2011

Superintended by Chinese Academy of Sciences Sponsored by Institute of Remote Sensing Applications, CAS. The Associate on Environment Remote Sensing of China Editor-in-Chief GU Xingfa Edited by Editorial Board of Journal of Remote Sensing Add: P.O.Box 9718, Beijing 100101, China Tel: 86-10-64806643 http://www.jors.cn E-mail: [email protected] Published by Science Press Printed by Beijing Beilin Printing House Distributed by Science Press Add: 16 Donghuangchenggen North Street, Beijing 100717, China Tel: 86-10-64017032 E-mail: [email protected] Overseas distributed by China International Book Trading Corporation Add: P.O.Box 399, Beijing 100044, China