For the Preparation of GEO Cities Reports

Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports

Training Manual Version 3

Published with nancial assistance from Belgian Government

Belgian Development Cooperation

www.unep.org United Nations Environment Programme Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean United Nations Environment Programme Avenida Morse, Edificio 103. Clayton, Ciudad del Saber - Corregimiento de Ancón P. O. Box 30552 - 00100 Nairobi, Kenya Panama City, Panama Tel.: + 254 20 762 1234 Tel. (+502) 305-3100 Fax: (+507) 305-3105 Internet site: www.pnuma.org/deat1/ Fax.: + 254 20 762 3927 Email: [email protected] e-mail: [email protected] UNEP UNEP www.unep.org Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports

Training Manual Version 3

ep orts es R Cit i f G EO

In collaboration with: ep ara ti on o

or t he pr UNEP gy f

Published by the United Nations Environment Programme et ho dol o M Regional Ofﬁce for Latin America and the Caribbean Copyright © 2009, United Nations Environment Programme and Consorcio Parceria 21 3

This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for educational or non-proﬁt purposes without special permission from the copyright holder, provided acknowledgement of the source is made. UNEP would appreciate receiving a copy of any publication that uses this publication as a source.

No use of this publication may be made for resale or for any other commercial purpose whatsoever without prior permission in writing from the United Nations Environment Programme and Consorcio Parceria 21.

DISCLAIMER

The contents of this publication do not necessarily reﬂect the views or policies of UNEP or contributory organizations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

For further information and details of how to obtain copies of this publication please contact:

United Nations Environment Programme Division of Early Warning and Assessment Regional Ofﬁce for Latin America and the Caribbean Avenida Morse, Ediﬁcio 103. Clayton, Ciudad del Saber - Corregimiento de Ancón Panama City, Panama Tel. (+502) 305-3100 Fax: (+507) 305-3105 Internet site: www.pnuma.org/deat1/ Email: [email protected]

ISBN 978-9962-8942-0-9 Acknowledgements

Like all GEO products, developing the Methodology for the Preparation of GEO Cities Reports was a collective effort. UNEP is grateful for the work of Consorcio Parceria 21, an association of three Brazilian Non-Governmental Organizations with broad experience on matters relating to the environment and urbanization, for leading the technical development of the ﬁ rst version of this manual, and to the Ministry of the Environment of the Government of Brazil for its ﬁ nancial support. We are also grateful for the collaboration of experts from institutions and governments who contributed to preparing this report with their observations during the “Urban Environmental Assessment Workshop: GEO Cities”, organized by UNEP and the government of Mexico City, held in November 2001, and in the workshops in Lima, Peru, in November 2003, and in Havana, in May 2005 (list of experts attached).

We also express our thanks to our colleagues in UN-HABITAT whose experience of

Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports the preparation Methodology for almost 15 years in preparing environmental proﬁ les of cities provided inputs to develop 4 this third version of the manual, and for joining forces with UNEP to help cities, by using this methodology, to develop their integrated environmental assessments (IEA) or GEO reports.

Team of collaborators

United Nations Environment Programme Regional Ofﬁ ce for Latin America and the Caribbean Division of Early Warning and Assessment

María Eugenia Arreola Emilio Guzmán Molina Graciela Metternicht Kakuko Nagatani-Yoshida United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (UN-HABITAT)

Jean-Christophe Adrian Principal Reviewer Consorcio Parceria 21

ISER Instituto de Estudos da Religião (Institute of Religious Studies)

IBAM Instituto Brasileiro de Administração Municipal(Brazilian Institute for Municipal Administration)

REDEH Rede de Desenvolvimento Humano (Human Development Network) Coordination

Samyra Crespo ISER Ana Lucia Nadalutti La RovereI IBAM

Thecnical Team

Napoleão Miranda ISER Alberto Costa Lopes IBAM Laura Valente de Macedo ISER Luiz Penna Franca Consultant Estela Neves Consultant

Contributors and Reviewers Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports the preparation Methodology for

Rosario Gómez 5 Elsa Galarza Anna Zucchetti Genovenva de Mahieu

Revision and preparation of the third version of the Manual

Napoleão Miranda ISER

The english version of the manual was coordinated by:

Graciela Metternicht, Regional Coordinator Division of Early Warning Assessment, UNEP, Regional Ofﬁ ce for Latin America and the Caribbean (ROLAC). Johanna Zisky Granados Alcalá, UNEP, Production Coordination Phil Linehan. Translation into English Rocío Milena Marmolejo Cumbe. Editorial Design Table of contents

Preface...... 11 I. Introduction...... 13 II. GEO Cities methodology...... 16

1.. Focus of the analysis: urban development and its effect on the environment...... 17

2.. Analytical framework: DPSIR matrix...... 17

3.. GEO Cities report structure...... 20

Chapter 1: Introduction to the City...... 24

1.1 Location and relation to other cities...... 24

Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports the preparation Methodology for 1.2 Geography and topography...... 24 6 1.3 Ecosystem and climate...... 24

Chapter 2: Socio-economic and political context (DRIVING FORCES and PRESSURES) ...... 24

2.1 Description of local political and administrative structure...... 25

2.1.1 Local public authority administrative structure...... 25

2.1.2 Characteristics and role of civil society organizations...... 26

2.1.3 The local private sector...... 26

2.2 Analysis of local socio–economic factors...... 27

2.2.1 Urbanization and territorial occupation dynamics...... 27

2.2.2 Demographic dynamics...... 30

2.2.3 Social dynamics...... 31

2.2.4 Economic dynamics...... 32

a) Dynamics of economics...... 33

b) Use of environmental resources...... 34

c) Impact of activity sector on environmental resources...... 34

d) Agriculture...... 35

e) Commerce and services...... 35

2.2.5 Consumption of resources...... 36

a) Energy consumption ...... 36

b) Water consumption...... 36

2.2.6 Atmospheric emissions...... 37 2.2.7 Waste production ...... 37

2.2.8 Sewage treatment and sanitation ...... 39

2.3 Chapter synthesis ...... 40

Chapter 3: State of the environment (STATE) ...... 40

3.1 Local ecosystems ...... 41

3.2 Analysis of the state of the environment’s natural resources ...... 42

3.2.1 Atmosphere ...... 42

3.2.2 Water ...... 43

3.2.3 Land ...... 44

3.2.4 Marine and coastal resources ...... 44 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports the preparation Methodology for 3.2.5 Biodiversity ...... 45 7 3.2.6 Forests and green areas ...... 45

3.2.7 Built-up environment ...... 46

3.3 Chapter synthesis ...... 47

Chapter 4: Impacts of the state of the environment (IMPACT) ...... 47

4.1 Impact on ecosystems ...... 48

4.2 Impact on quality of life and human health (inequality and poverty) ....49

4.3 Impact on urban economy (external causes) ...... 50

4.4 Impact on built-up environment (human settlements) ...... 51

4.5 Impact at political and institutional level ...... 52

4.6 Socio-environmental vulnerability ...... 53

Chapter 5: Urban environmental management policies and instruments (responses)...... 55

5.1 Political-administrative instruments ...... 57

5.2 Economic instruments ...... 58

5.3 Technological instruments ...... 59

5.4 Physical intervention instruments (public investments) ...... 60

5.5 Socio-cultural, educational and public communication instruments ...61

Chapter 6: Future outlooks (SCENARIOS) ...... 61

6.1 Deﬁ nition of emerging themes ...... 62

6.2 Building scenarios: local trends (inertia, the best and worst cases) .. 64 III. GEO Cities Process ...... 70 Stage 1: Institutional ...... 112

1.1 Installation activities ...... 71

1.1.1 Identifying and appointing the local technical team ...... 75

a) Training the work group or local technical team ...... 76

b) Deﬁ ning the basic agenda ...... 79

1.1.2 Training the local team ...... 80 Stage 2: Identifying indicators and information sources ...... 80

2.1 Urban-environmental indicators ...... 80

2.1.1 Indicators: What are they? How should they be used? ...... 81 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports the preparation Methodology for 2.1.2 Brief deﬁ nition ...... 81 8 2.1.3 Criteria to select indicators ...... 82

2.1.4 DPSIR matrix indicators ...... 83

2.1.5 Indicator categories ...... 83

a) Core indicators ...... 83

b) Substitute (proxies) indicators ...... 83

c) Local indicators ...... 84

d) New indicators ...... 85

e) Transversal indicators ...... 85

2.1.6 Territorial dimension of indicators ...... 85

a) GEO Cities assessment and the rural theme ...... 86

b) Matrix of GEO Cities report basic indicators ...... 86

2.2 Data collection and analysis ...... 90

2.2.1 Identify primary data sources and available information ...... 90

2.2.2 Systematize information ...... 93

2.2.3 Establish a local environmental database ...... 95 Stage 3: Preparing the GEO Cities Report ...... 95

3.1 Data and information analysis ...... 95

3.1.1 Identify environmental priorities ...... 96

3.1.2 Assess the state of the local environment ...... 97 3.1.3 Assess responses by government and society ...... 97

3.1.4 Identify emerging themes and scenarios ...... 97

3.1.5 Build scenarios: local trends (inertia, best case, worst case) ....97

3.1.6 Conclusions and recommendations ...... 100

3.1.7 Statistical annexes ...... 100

3.1.8 Bibliography ...... 101

3.1.9 Glossary ...... 101 Stage 4: Disseminating and applying policies ...... 102

4.1 Dissemination strategies ...... 102

4.2 Inﬂ uencing policies ...... 103 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports the preparation Methodology for Stage 5: Continuing the GEO Cities process ...... 103 9 Annexes ...... 104

Annex 1: Indicators ...... 105

Annex 2: Guide to managing bibliographical references ...... 162

Annex 3: Questions guide to prepare the GEO Cities report ...... 164

Annex 4: Work guide for the GEO Cities report workshop ...... 170

Annex 5: Example of indicators used in GEO Cities reports ...... 184

Annex 6: List of participants at workshops on preparing GEO Cities Methodology, version 3 ...... 190

Annex 7: Impact strategy and communication activities ...... 193 Bibliography ...... 198 List of Acronyms

CAMISEA Natural Gas Project in Peruvian Amazon CEROI Cities Environment Report on the Internet CONICET National Council of Scientific and Technical Research (Argentina) Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (Argentina) ECLAC Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean CONAM National Environment Council (Peru) Consejo Nacional del Ambiente (Perú) FTA Free Trade Agreement FTAA Free Trade Area of the Americas

Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports the preparation Methodology for GEO Global Environment Outlook 10 IBAMA Brazilian Institute of Environment and Natural Renewable Resources Instituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente y de los recursos naturales renovables IEA Integrated Environmental Assessment IISD International Institute for Sustainable Development IMAE Environment and Ecology Institute (Argentina) Instituto de Medio Ambiente y Ecología (Argentina) IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change MMA Environment Ministry (Brazil) Ministério do Meio Ambiente (Brasil) NGO Non Government Organization OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and development PARC21 Consorcio Parceria 21 RMSP Sao Paulo Metropolitan Region ROLAC Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean SCOPE Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment SEDAPAL Lima´s Drinking Water and Sewerage Services Servicio de Agua Potable y Alcantarillado de Lima UN HABITAT United Nations Human Settlement Programme UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNEP United Nations Environmental Programme UNESCO United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization UNSCD United Nations Commission for Sustainable Development Preface

The GEO Cities Project is part of the GEO (Global Environment Outlook) series of reports of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP); the series was initiated in 1995 with periodic reports being published on the state of the environment at global, regional, sub-regional, national and urban levels. This initiative led to an important group of reference documents being prepared on the environment including: at global level, Global Environment Outlook (GEO 1, GEO 2, GEO 3, and GEO 4); at regional level, Global Environment Outlook for Latin America and the Caribbean (GEO LAC 2000, GEO LAC 2003 and GEO LAC 2009); at sub-regional level, (GEO Andean, GEO Caribbean, of GEO Cities Reports the preparation Methodology for GEO Central American) and at national level (GEO Peru, GEO Costa Rica, GEO Chile, 11 GEO Brazil, GEO Barbados, GEO Nicaragua, GEO Panama, GEO Bahamas, GEO Cuba, GEO Guatemala and GEO Mexico, among others). Also published are thematic reports: GEO Amazonia and GEO for Youth in Latin America and the Caribbean, a document designed to promote environmental awareness among young people.

The fundamental objective of the GEO Cities Project is to promote better understanding of the interaction between urban development and the environment, providing the region’s local governments, scientists, policy-makers and the general public with reliable and up-to-date information to help them improve urban environmental planning and management. The GEO Cities Project publishes assessments to provide information on the state of the environment, the main factors for change, policies affecting the environment and emerging themes.

This Project is a response to Agenda 21, decisions of the UNEP Governing Council, the Malmö Ministerial Declaration adopted by the Global Forum of Ministers of the Environment (May 2000), the Latin American and Caribbean Initiative for Sustainable Development passed by a Special Session of the Forum of Ministers of the Environment of Latin America and the Caribbean at the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg in 2002, and the Millennium Development Goals, especially Goal 7 “To ensure environmental sustainability”. GEO Cities Project - Background

• The 13th meeting of the Forum of Minister • In 2005 an English version of the of the Environment of Latin America and the Methodology to prepare GEO Cities Caribbean (LAC) (October 2001) requested reports was prepared. UNEP to prepare integrated Environment • In August 2005 the GEO Cities Project was Assessments on urban zones. presented at the Fourth Environmental • In 2001 the Ministry of the Environment of Urban Fair of the Latin American Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports the preparation Methodology for Brazil (MMA) proposed that the Integrated Environmental Authorities. Environmental Assessment (IEA) / GEO 12 • In June 2006 the regional offi ces of UNEP methodology be adapted at city level. and UN-HABITAT jointly organized the • In November 2001 the fi rst workshop was panel on Urban Environmental Planning at held in Mexico City to offi cially put into the Third World Forum held in Vancouver, effect the GEO Cities Project. Canada.

• The fi rst phase of the project began in 2001 • Since it started with 7 pilot cities, 37 with 7 pilot cities: Rio de Janeiro, Manaus, additional cities have been added, making Mexico City, Buenos Aires, Santiago, Bogotá a total of 44 cities. and Havana. • In November 2007 the GEO Cities Project • In November 2003 the second regional was presented in Santiago, Chile, at the GEO Cities workshop was held in Lima, Sixth Seminar of RED (The Network for Peru, with 10 new cities participating. Environmental Management in Latin • In 2003 the fi rst version of the Methodology America and the Caribbean). to prepare GEO Cities reports was • In 2008 the third version of the Methodology published in Spanish to prepare GEO Cities reports was • In February 2004 UNEP’s Regional Offi ce published. for Latin America and the Cafribbean • The methodology to prepare GEO Cities (ROLAC) and UN-HABITAT/ROLAC signed reports is an integral part of the GEO the Environmental-Urban Strategy for Latin Cities Project, initiated by UNEP with America and the Caribbean. technical support provided by Consorcio • In May 2005 the Third Regional GEO Cities Parceria 211, and with fi nancial backing Workshop was held in Havana, Cuba, with by the Ministry of the Environment of 28 cities participating. the Government of Brazil (MMA) and the • In June 2005 UNEP participated with GEO governments of Belgium, Norway and The Cities at the World Meeting on Sustainable Netherlands Cities and Local Agendas 21 organized by UN-HABITAT in Havana, Cuba.

1 Consorcio Parceria 21 comprises the following organizations: Brazilian Institute of City Administration (IBAM), Institute of Religious Studies (ISER) and the Human Development Network (REDEH), all very active locally and nationally on matters concerning the environment and urban development. Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports the preparation Methodology for I. IIntroductionntroduction 13 In Latin America and the Caribbean the concentration of the population in urban areas has intensiﬁ ed in recent decades, making it the developing world’s most urbanized region with three quarters of its population living in cities. Five of the most populated cities in the world are in Latin America: Buenos Aires, Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Mexico City and Lima.

Cities make a signiﬁ cant contribution to a country’s socio-economic development. They are, at all levels, important centres of productive activity and economic growth, playing a primordial social development role. They offer basic services such as drinking water and sanitation, education, health and housing. They are spaces of progress, culture, knowledge and political leadership. However, the speed at which they are expanding has negative effects on the quality of the urban environment and puts at risk their contribution to a country’s socio-economic development.

There has been a marked deterioration of urban environmental conditions in terms of pollution of springs and aquifers, air pollution, deﬁ cient urban waste management, and of

Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports the preparation Methodology for green areas and others that put the population’s health at risk. To this is added the high incidence of natural phenomena that regularly affect the region (hurricanes, cyclones, 14 earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and droughts), all of which have serious implications on how their human settlements are conﬁ gured. The recurrence of these phenomena, combined with economic conditions and institutions so structured that they have limited capacity to prevent and mitigate their consequences, have converted extensive regions and their urban centres into extremely vulnerable zones, both physically and socially.

The conﬂ uence of all these elements results in urban vulnerability and strikes especially hard at the poorest communities that are forced to occupy areas with most physical and environmental risks.

Effective management of the environment and natural resources requires a ﬁ rm information base about the state of the environment. At the beginning of 2003 the Methodology for GEO Cities reports was prepared as a guide for our partners and to help with training on how to successfully develop Integrated Environment Assessments (IEAs) in cities. The GEO Cities reports are based on the GEO Cities methodology that focuses on the environmental tensions inherent in the dynamics of urban development.

The GEO Cities methodology, available as an application manual, is a very useful tool that will strengthen institutional capacities to prepare environmental assessments and reports on cities and that, over the long term, will lead to better urban environmental management and improve the quality of life of their inhabitants.

Based on the IEA / Global Environment Outlook (GEO) reports, the GEO Cities Methodology provides the local GEO technical teams with a guideline on how to use information to assess the state of the urban environment. The purpose of this manual is for the local team to: • Learn the meaning of and how to use the integrated environmental assessment and prepare a report • Become familiar, both in theory and practice, with their components and structure • Learn and practise how to organize and manage evaluation processes and reporting • Exchange views with colleagues through exercises and informal discussions • Know what tools are available to carry out this task

The emphasis of this methodology is on understanding the DPSIR (Driving forces, Pressure, State, Impact, Response) matrix that organizes the way in which the information to prepare the report is analysed.

The methodology takes for granted that sustainable development places new demands on the assessment and on the report, including how to: • Recognise the interactions between environmental conditions and human activities, especially those related to urban development. • Highlight the need for a long-term outlook. • Consider gender equality, and equality among and between different generations.

• Encourage all sectors of society to participate in decision making of GEO Cities Reports the preparation Methodology for

The specifi c objectives of the GEO Cities manual and the training workshops are to: 15 • Serve as a guide for the local technical team to prepare the urban-environmental integrated assessment. • Direct the technical team in their search for scientifi c facts and data about the environment in cities, as well as to communicate with society to promote better management of the locality’s natural resources and about environmental vulnerabilities. • Train the technical team to assess the state of the local environment by analysing the determining factors of urban development and their relationship with ecosystems and natural resources, and about environmental vulnerabilities. • Establish an urban-environmental database to permit continuous follow-up of the state of the environment, based on appropriate urban-environment indicators. • Make it possible to formulate preventive strategies and programmes to help cities deal with environmental risks. • Establish a consensus about the most critical environmental problems in each city by holding a permanent dialogue between the different social stakeholders, including specialists on environmental subjects that involve the local government and society. • Contribute to building technical capacities to prepare and disseminate an integrated assessment of the state of the environment. • Build capacity on how to assess the impact of urban development on different ecosystems. These objectives are dealt with in each chapter of this document. The idea is that, at the end of the process, the local teams will be able to assess the state of their cities’ environment and point out how to solve problems highlighted in the report. It is hoped that, over the long term, the evaluations will support better informed decision making as well as better urban-environmental planning and management to improve the quality of life of those who live in the region’s cities. 16 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports Methodology II. GGEO E O Cities environment andsocialparticipationmechanismsinpreparing publicpolicies,amongothers. occupation, thelocalinstitutionalstructure withemphasisonpublicbodiesthatdefendthe activities, thestructure ofthecity’s socialinequality, themaindeterminingfactorsofland In thisrespect, itisimportanttoknowthecharacteristicsofmunicipality’s maineconomic characteristics oftheurbandevelopmentprocess anditsinteractionwiththeenvironment. of lifecitiesandcausingspecifi c responsesandlocalsociety. bythegovernment ecosystems andleadingtoadeterminedstateoftheenvironment –withimpactsonthequality affects theenvironment becauseoffactorsthatput pressure onlocalnaturalresources and Impact-Response matrix.Thepurposeofpreparinghowurbanization theassessmentistolearn development andtheenvironment isanalysedbyusingtheDrivingforces-Pressure-State- the pointofviewsustainability. IntheGEOCitiesassessmentinteractionbetweenurban point where thenaturalenvironment andsocietymeet” environment; itisa“process ofproducing andcommunicating informationoninteractions,the environmental report that goes beyondtheusualmethodsofassessing the stateof including devisingfuture outlooksforthelocalenvironment, aswellpreparing anintegrated 2 2. Analytical framework:DPSIRmatrix 1. Focus oftheanalysis; urbandevelopmentandits scale isconsidered: environmental which,aswe are aware, cannotbeentirely known. pretend tobeafaithfulcopy ofthetruecharacteristicsbetweenwhatisurbanand is amodeltoorganizetheworkofassessingstatelocalenvironment anddoesnot locality’s responses servetoconfront itsownenvironmental problems. Thematrix,therefore, resources, andthatshouldbeconsidered asthe“causes”ofpresent statesothateach assessment ofthestateenvironment from thefactorsthatexertpressure onnatural is environmental. Alsoseeks toestablishalogicallinkbetweenitscomponentsdirect the instrument todirect thework ofanalysingtheinteractionsbetweenwhatisurbanand whether local,regional national orglobal.TheDPSIRmatrixmustbeseenasananalytical factors thatdeterminethecharacteristicsinfl uencing theenvironment atanyterritoriallevel Pressure-State-Impact-Response (DPSIR) Process” Training manual,secondedition,p.5 UNEP, IISDandEcologist International,2000,Training on integratedenvironmentassessmentand preparingreports”ReportAsses The analysis,therefore, bringstogetherthesocial, economic,policyandterritorial The analyticalframeworkusedintheGEOCitiesassessmentsis The mainpointofthemethodologyisurbandevelopmentactiononenvironment from These questionsrelate tothedifferent processes analysed intheGEOCitiesassessments 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. The matrix’s componentsrespond tothe followingbasicquestions,whateverterritorial effect ontheenvironment effect What canwedotoreverse thepresent situation? What willhappenifwedonottakeactionnow?(Future outlook) What are wedoing?(Response) What istheimpact?(Impact) Why isthishappening?(Drivingforces andpressure) What ishappeningtotheenvironment? (State)

matrix thatdeﬁ nes andrelates thegroup of 2 . Driving forces- sment

17 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 18 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports to relations betweenwhatisurbanandenvironmental. betweendifferentpatterns anthropic actionsandtheenvironment andapplied,inthiscase, between them.Ascanbe seen,theDPSIRmatrixseekstoexactlydefi ne possiblerelationship direction ofeachlocality’s environmental problems. of present actions.Thisraisesthepossibilityofstrategicactionbeingtaken tochangethe environmental conditionsencouraginganalysestobemadeofthepossible consequences of theDPSIRmatrixallowslinkstobeestablished toproject future manifestationsofpresent of future outlooksonthelocalenvironment byassessingitspresent state.Theunderlyinglogic seeks torespond tothequestion: information onpressure tendstobemore readily available.Awareness ofpressure factors to confront environmental problems. Becauseitcomesfrom socio-economicdatabases, consumption orpoverty. From thepolicypointofview, pressure isthestartingpointfrom which are wedoing? environmental governance. reinforced theprincipleofcommon,butdifferentiated, responsibility inthearea ofinternational and opportunitieswithinbetweenregions. Theseandothersocio-politicalfactorshave countries havestableandageingpopulations.There isunequaldistributionofresources population dynamics,mostdevelopingcountries’populationsare stillgrowing, whiledeveloped one region toanother, betweenregions andbetweennations.Forexample:inthearea of institutionalandsocio-politicalframeworks;valuesystems. trade; distributionpatterns; production behaviour;scientifi c andtechnologicalinnovation;economicdemand;market on theenvironment. Keyforces include:thepopulation’s demography; consumptionand They relate tosociety’s fundamentalprocesses thatpromote activitieshavinganindirect impact 3 responds tothequestion: level ofairpollution,soilerosion ordeforestation. Informationonthestateofenvironment work measure howsocietyresponds requires thelocalteamtodomore analysisandinterpretation changes inadministrativestrategiesandproviding informationabouttheenvironment. To on regulation, environmental orresearch costs,publicopinionandconsumerpreferences, or helptoimprove thequality oflifethelocalpopulation.Responsesmayincludeactivities environmental impacts,correct damagecausedtotheenvironment, conservenatural resources reduced foodproduction, increased foodimports,more useoffertilizers,andmalnutrition. urban economy. Forexample,anincrease insoilerosion willhaveoneormore consequences: of lifeandhumanhealth,ontheenvironment itself,onthebuilt-upenvironment andonthelocal UNEP, IISDandEcologistics, 2000 Table 1showstheprincipalelements of eachthematrix’s categoriesandtherelationship Responses tothe: Pressure: The characteristicsandimportanceofeachdrivingforce showsubstantialchangesfrom State: Driving forces: Defi ned beloware theDPSIRmatrixcomponents: Responses Impact: 3 . Theinstrumentsincludedinthismatrixcategory attempt toanswerthequestion: refers totheconditionof environment resulting from pressure; forexample,the istheeffect produced bythestateofenvironment onaspectssuchasquality Thisrefers tounderlyingeconomicandsocialforces such aspopulationgrowth, relate tocollectiveorindividual actionsthatlessenorprevent negative Drivingforces are sometimesreferred toasindirect orunderlyingforces. What willhappenifwedonotactnow? What ishappeningtotheenvironment? Why isthishappening? attemptstodirect theanalysis What as pressure factorsontheenvironment. – whichinthesynchronic outlookare foundintheresponses category–couldbeinterpreted environmental interactionoverthelongterm(diachronic outlook),somefactors inthisnewlogic belong intheresponses category. policies andprogrammes, direct urbanprojects, andenvironmental managementprojects, pressures ontheenvironment. Thisshowsthatinterventioninstrumentssuchasenvironmental defi nition canbegivenofwhetheradeterminedinstrumentisparttheresponses orofthe related todeterminedhumanactionsandenvironmental factors.Inthiswayamore exact at agivenmoment(synchronic outlook)itiseasiertodefi ne thetypeofcomponentsthatare This isparticularlyrelevant inthecaseoffactorsrelated tothematrix’s response dimension. dynamic interactionandforchangesinsomeelementsofthesecomponentstobeconsidered. anthropic action.Thislogical organizationalsopermitsanassessmenttobemadeofthis toconfrontas wellinterventionsbysocietyandthelocalgovernment problems causedby ecosystems andnaturalresources, andtheimpacttheyhaveonhealthnature itself, grouping offactorsthatact ontheenvironment, theeffects produced byhumanactivitieson DPSIR matrixissimplytheanalyticalinstrumentthatpermitslogicalorganizationand Table 1: • • • • • rvn ocsDirect pressures Driving forces social dynamics dynamics occupation Land dynamics economic dynamics demographic dynamics political However, asitisalsonecessary tofollowthemovementordynamicsof theurban- When thestateofenvironment isassessedasa“snapshot”ofenvironmental conditions It isimportanttoshowadegree offl exibility whenconsideringthesecomponents.The matrix Interaction ofurban-environmental componentsintheDPSIR nomto cinInformation Action Information • • • • • • Physical interventioninstruments education andpublicinstruments Communication, socio-cultural, echnological instruments Economic instruments Political andadministrativeinstruments • • • • • • land use solid waste gas emissions consumption energy discharges liquid waste water consumption

Responses • • • • • Environment State ofthe environment built-up biodiversity land water air • • • • • • environment built-up Institutional level political and urban economy human health quality oflifeand ecosystems Impacts on:

19 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 20 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 3. GEO Cities report structure 3. GEO Citiesreport be madeofthestate localenvironment. are includedinthematrixbymeansofdifferent indicators, selectedtoallowanassessment interacting withtheenvironment, are onlypresented indirectly inthematrixsuggested. They on whicheconomicactivitiesare developed. forces thatpropel urbandevelopment:population,economicactivities,andtheterritorialbasis economic dynamics,andterritorialoccupationdynamics. Thesecomponentsare thedriving Cities reports. To doso,accountshould betakenof: Urban-environmental components oftheDPSIRmatrix (see theproposed structure onp.22) and needs,observingtheirphysical-geographic,institutional,economicsocialpeculiarities It isalsoimportanttodefi ne thestructure ofthereport onthebasisofeachcity’s priorities allow thelocalteamtoconstruct,stepbystep,report onthestateofenvironment. others). businesses,civilsocietyorganizations,localpopulation,among state orlocalgovernments, different degrees ofresponsibility ofeachthesocialagentsthatactinlocality(federal, it easiertodetectdiffi culties inimplementingtheresponses givenatlocallevel,delimitingthe document tobeeithercorrected orprojected forfuture action.Adoptingthisoutlookwillmake are adaptedtotheenvironmental problems detected,andthemeasures suggestedinthis its components.Suchawareness willallowanassessmenttobemadeofhowtheresponses public policies;itisimportant,therefore, tobeaware ofthefactorsthatcorrespond toeachof the environment suggestedbythematrixintable1. the environment. reverse thetrend ofpressure detectedearlier, oriftheyunintentionallyplacemore pressure on business placesonnaturalresources orecosystems, andas“negative”whentheycannot example whentheyfunctionaslimitingfactorstotheamountofpressure thepopulationor pressure mechanismsontheenvironment. Thishappensbothinthe“positive”sense,for date, thefactorsthatbelongtoresponses categorymaybeconsidered tobepartofthe relationship, afl ow ofinteractionsovertimeisalwaysassumed.Thisimpliesthat,atalater These factors,eventhoughtheymustbeclassifi ed asacentral partoftheprocess of We fi nd three maincomponents intheurbanizationprocess: demographicdynamics, • • Interaction betweenurbanandenvironmental componentsisthekeytopreparing theGEO Using theDPSIRmatrixasaguidetocollecting,organizingandanalysinginformationwill One purposeoftheGEOCitiesassessmentistohelpindecisionmakingandformulating Finally, theimportancemustbestressed oftheintegratedandsequentialassessment Actually, whenprocesses are mentionedsuchasthosefoundintheurban-environmental be thereport’s objective. The factorsthatmakeuptheenvironment whosestate,qualitativeandquantitative, will the environment, and The urbanizationprocess components neededtounderstandthepressure exerted on

information toprepare thereport. trends overtime.Thethemeofindicatorswillbedealtwithinthechapteronproducing environmental indicators,iscapableofexpressing the behaviouroftherelevant factorsand of life. city, according totheirimportancefortheenvironment’s equilibriumandthelocalpopulation’s quality each locality).Itissuggestedthatmore attentionbepaidtothemostrelevant ecosystemsineach variations interminologyandconceptsusedtodeﬁ ne them(howmanyandwhichecosystems in as theresult oftheinteractionnaturalresources. broad perspectivethatincludeswater, air, soilandbiodiversity;ecosystems,considered Applying theDPSIRmatrixisausefulinstrumentwhich,togetherwithuseofurban- ecosystems,accountmustbetakenoflocaldelimitationsforeachone,giventhe Concerning To analysetheenvironment twocomponentswere considered: naturalresources, from a

21 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 22 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports PRESSURES) Chapter 2:Socio-economicandpoliticalcontext(DRIVINGFORCES Chapter 1:Introduction totheCity Structure –Proposed GEO CitiesReports Chapter 3:Stateoftheenvironment (STATE) 3.3 Chapter synthesis Analysisofthestateenvironment’s naturalresources 3.2 3.1 Local ecosystems 2.3 Chapter synthesis Analysisoflocalsocio–economicfactors 2.2 Descriptionoflocalpoliticalandadministrativestructure 2.1 Ecosystemandclimate 1.3 Geographyandtopography 1.2 Locationandrelation toothercities 1.1 3.2.7 Built-up environment 3.2.7 Built-up 3.2.6 Forests andgreen areas 3.2.5 Biodiversity 3.2.4 Marine andcoastalresources 3.2.3 Land 3.2.2 Water 3.2.1 Atmosphere waste 2.2.9 Solid 2.2.8 Sewage treatment andsanitation production 2.2.7 Waste emissions 2.2.6 Atmospheric 2.2.5 Consumption ofresources dynamics 2.2.4 Economic dynamics 2.2.3 Social dynamics 2.2.2 Demographic 2.2.1 Urbanization andterritorialoccupationdynamics Chapter 7:Conclusionsandpolicyproposals Chapter 6:Future outlooks (SCENARIOS) Chapter 5:Urbanenvironmental managementpoliciesandinstruments(responses) Chapter 4:Impactsofthestateenvironment (IMPACT) 4.7 Chapter synthesis Impactatpoliticalandinstitutionallevel4.6Socio-environmental vulnerability 4.5 Impactonbuilt-upenvironment (humansettlements) 4.4 causes) Impactonurbaneconomy(external 4.3 Impactonqualityoflifeandhumanhealth(inequalitypoverty) 4.2 Impactonecosystems 4.1 6.3 Chapter synthesis Buildingscenarios:localtrends (inertia,thebestandworstcases) 6.2 Deﬁ 6.1 nition ofemergingthemes 5.4 Chapter synthesis Puttingenvironmental policiesandinstrumentsintopractice 5.3 5.2 Urban environmental administrationstructures andtheirenvironmental-urban Identiﬁ withtheurbanenvironment5.1 cation oftheprincipalstakeholdersconcerned 5.3.5 Socio-cultural, educationalandpubliccommunicationinstruments 5.3.4 Physical interventioninstruments(publicinvestments) 5.3.3 Technologicalinstruments instruments 5.3.2 Economic instruments 5.3.1 Political-administrative management andplanningfunctions

23 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 24 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 1.3 Ecosystemandclimate 1.2 Geographyandtopography 1.1 Locationandrelation toothercities on thenaturalresources, causing adeterminedstateofthelocalenvironment. local technicalteamtoidentify localdynamicsandthesocialstakeholders who exertpressure environment canbeunderstood. factors thatconditionthepresent characteristicsoftheinteractionbetween thecityandits included asanannex,oreachtermbeexplained in afootnote. should beavoided.Iftheymustincluded,itissuggestedthataglossaryexplainingthem academics, studentsandthegeneralpublic),asfaritispossibletodoso,technicalterms principal faunaandfl ora, etc. beaches, etc.),rainfallregime, pluviometry, averageannualtemperatures, microclimates, vegetation (woodedareas, pastureland, etc.), (principal elevations,averagealtitude),dominantsoiltypes(sandy, rocky, etc.),dominant city, suchasitshydrology (rivers, lakes,waterbasins,etc.),themainorography components whether itisacapitalcityorthedominantinmetropolitan area, oradormitorycity. that istosay, itsfunctioninthecontextofurbannetworkandsurroundings; forexample, the state,impactsandresponses. or characteristicsofthethemebeinganalysed,thatistosay, thepressures ontheenvironment, present contextinformation;todosoitisimportantpresent therelevant andsignifi cant facts Principal physicalandgeographiccharacteristics, themes: city tomakeitknownreaders ofthereport. To doso,itisproposed toanalysethefollowing The analysismadeinthis chapterisofgreat importance insofarasitwillbeusedbythe This chapter’s objectiveistohistoricallycontextualizelocalurban developmentsothat Note: GiventhattheGEOCitiesreport isintendedfordifferent readers (politicians, Its ecosystemandclimate,describingdominantecosystems(tropical forests, mangroves, Its geographyandtopographypresent thefactorsthatgeographicallycharacterize The city’s locationinthenationalterritoryanditsrelation withthenetworkofsurrounding cities, The analysisofthispointshouldincludeabriefdescriptionfactorssuchas: To betterunderstandthethemesdevelopedinchaptersthatfollow, thischaptershould The presentation oftheGEOCitiesreport mustbegin withageneralintroduction aboutthe (DRIVING FORCESandPRESSURES) Chapter 1: Introduction totheCity,Chapter 1:Introduction Chapter 2:Socio-economicand politicalcontext adopted by the local government andnowbysociety.adopted bythelocalgovernment dynamics expressed inthesetoflaws,norms,regulations, taxsystemandcontrol practices positions intheurbanspace, andare theobject of apermanentregulatory andnormative who wanttoexercise theirstrategicandrelationship resources tobroaden/improve their relative the economicandpolitical interests ofthedifferent local-level groups andsocial stakeholders and thedefi nition ofthepopulationbenefi ting from suchservices.Theseprocesses respond to defi nition ofthelocaltransportstructure; constructionofwatersupplyandsanitationsystems; distribution ofpeopleandactivitiesintheurbanspace; characteristicsofurbanconstructions; social stakeholders(civilsocietyandbusiness). apparatus, aswellbythedynamicsoftheirrelationshipgovernment withotherrelevant extent, bythecharacteristics,scope,intervention capacityandconstitutionofthelocal environment. regulations, normsandcontrol, aswellcontrolling urbangrowth andprotecting the rulesand concerning considering theimportanceofactiontakenbylocalgovernment urbanization andhowiteffects theenvironment. and administrativeelementsnecessarytohaveabroader understandingofthecontextlocal natural resources, improve theenvironment andthequalityoflifepopulation. problems are adequate,andwhatotheractionshould betakentoreduce thepressure on the elementswillbeavailabletoanalysewhetheralready-existing responses tothese ecosystems. each cityandtheimportanceoffactorinrelation totheurbanarea andsurrounding 2.1.1 Localpublicauthorityadministrativestructure 2.1 Descriptionoflocalpoliticalandadministrativestructure Processes thathaveadualdeterminationinterritorialoccupationare: naturalresources use; The growth ofcitiesandtheirinfl uence onlocalecosystemsisdetermined,toagreat To dothis,itisproposed toanalysethefollowingthemes: Characterizing thelocalpolitical-institutionalstructure isaverysignifi cant factorwhen This topicseekstoindicatetheelementsnecessaryanalyselocalpolitical,social • • 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. On theotherhand,oncereasons are identified thatexplainthestateofenvironment, It isimportantthatthoseusingthismethodologymakeanalysesallowthemto: Extending thedetailsofthesefactorswilldependonavailabilityinformationfor resources andformulatingpublicpolicies. Use itasareference whenmakingdecisionsaboutthegrowth ofcities,investing public Understand thepropelling forces, trends andproblems related tolocalurbanization. Resource consumption Economic dynamics Social dynamics Demographic dynamics Urbanization andterritorialoccupationdynamics(landlanduseovertime) Political-institutional dynamics

25 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 26 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 2.1.3 Thelocalprivatesector 2.1.2 Characteristicsandrole ofcivilsocietyorganizations environment andtosolvethe problems itposes. as toanalysetheirpresent orpossiblecontributionstounderstandingthestateoflocal agentsandtheprivatesector.government Thismakesitimportanttobeaware ofthemso other socialstakeholdersinthissector. stand out,asdocommunityrepresentatives, professional associationsandchurches, among organizations(NGOs) In thenewscenarioofdemocracyandparticipation,non-governmental actively participatedinformulating,managing,implementingandfollowinguppublicpolicies. in theurban-environmental interactionineachcity. to identifyinginstrumentsnowavailable,orthatwillbeneededconfront problems detected important stakeholderswhere puttingpressure onthe environment isconcerned. of thelocalprivatesector which,mainlybecauseofitseconomicactivities, isoneofthemost > > d) c) b) a) e) d) c) b) a) Today, theseorganizationsare afundamental counterbalancetothepoliticalpoweroflocal The endofthetwentiethcenturysawcivilsocietybeingstrengthened associalstakeholders For thisreason, weneedtoknowaboutthelocalpolitical-institutionalstructure asanaid To completethestudyofthischapter, itisimportanttoanalysethemaincharacteristics

environment. Funds available inthemunicipalbudgetfor projects the to protect andconserve aswellProtected Plans, Areas Plans. Legislation Th with theirdesired characteristics. Th bodies to collect waste, collect/distribute water, environmental sanitation,etc. related to environmental public orsecretariats, matters; ministries andurbanization Th References thelocalpoliticalandinstitutionalstructure: to describe aff and interests involved, aswellthepos Th other sustainabledevelopmentprojects; 21processes or Agenda inimplementingLocal participate suchorganizations Whether andwillnotbe,eff isnot, decision making stakeholdersinpublicsector includingcivilsociety donot, local publicpolicies;ifthey suchentitieshave mechanismsto defi participation Whether orbusiness; projects withlocalgovernment and social capacity, on andthenumberofpeopleworking Th Th Topics organizations: society for analysing civil eexistence ofEnvironmental anddescription Environmental Administration andLocal instruments urbandevelopmentinduction/regulation eexistence ofMaster UrbanPlans, andadministrativ elocalgovernmental e principal existing social andenvironmental existingsocial eprincipal confl projects thatdevelopinstitutional publicobjective, earea theprincipal ofperformance, themes; andecological onsocial working enumberoforganizations/associations ect thecityanditssurroundings. ective; ition eachofthemadopts.How theseconfl e structure underliningadministrativee structure bodies them;whetherthere are jointenvironmental ictsinthelocalityandstakeholders ne, administer andassess icts

ecosystems’ integrity. to expandtheurbanarea, whichimpliesacertain degree ofdestructionand threats tothe demography andeconomicactivity. urban-environmental relationship. characteristics and,toagreat extent,determinesthesignifi cance andconsequencesofthe occupation) iscomplexandhasaneffect onthesocialstructure atalllevels;thisdefi nes its business behaviourineachcity. understood howimportantitis,whenpreparing theGEOCitiesassessment,toanalyse natural resources onwhichtheiractivityandthecollective wellbeingare based,itcanbe forthesustainabilityof activities isshortterm,orimmediategainwithoutmuchconcern among manyotherreasons. caused bydifferent activities,byair, soilandwaterpollution,bylandbuildingspeculation, are veryoftenassociatedwithenvironmental degradation, whetherthrough deforestation 4 Others 2.2.1 Urbanizationandterritorialoccupationdynamics 2.2 Analysisoflocalsocio-economicfactors each elementandhowithastoberelated toitscorresponding indicators. inheritance oflocal Existing pressure:set ofdynamicsthatacttodeterminethe stateoftheenvironment.Theelements mentionedabovearethehis > • • • It istheadaptationandprogressive incorporationoftheterritory’s environmental resources To analysethepresent interest inurbanizationpressures On theotherhand,takingintoaccountthat,ingeneral,predominant logicineconomic Land occupationisthematerial/environmental expression resulting from theinteractionof • • • • • • • • Indicators: The interactionbetweenthedynamicsofurbanization(demographic,economicandterritorial The themeofentrepreneurs is,almostbydefi nition, controversial sinceeconomicactivities

themes. Th relatedforums to thesethemes; Th represented); Th Topics for localprivate analysis sector epositionstakenbythebusinesssector onthecity’s environmental urbanmanagement eir inﬂ characteristics oflocal eprincipal Extension oftheurbanarea anditsgrow rate Vegetal Cover reduction Land usechangefrom non-urbantourban Motorization index Modal transportdistribution Total volumeofuntreated domesticsewage Area andpopulationoflegal andilegalhumansettlements % ofurbanarea anditsgrow rate uence onurban-environmental themesinthecity, inpublic theirparticipation

business organizations (number,business organizations businesssectors 4 adescriptionmustbegivenof toric

27 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 28 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports following activities: • • • • • • • The followingfactorsshouldbehighlightedwhenmakingtheanalysis: • • • • • • The determiningfactorsoflandoccupationare: • • • • • • • • • Urbanization necessarilyimpliesterritorialoccupationtohaveaphysicalbasisforthe Construction anduseoftheinfrastructure Occupation/production in vulnerable areas anduse networkofcities Including thecityininternational The territory’s physicalandnaturalcharacteristics How civilsocietyorganizationsact isstructuredHow thelocalgovernment andacts The characteristicsoftheeconomy Building drainage,watersupplyandenergyinfrastructure Health andeducation Building placesofworshipandentertainment Preparing landforagriculturalproduction tomeetthe needsofurbanconsumers Hotels andstores Warehouses Building industrialplants Opening streets andavenues and others). Local energyconsumption(mainsources, originoftheenergy, measuringconsumption, Production ofsolidwastes (volume,type,fi nal disposal,principalsources) treatment). Access todrainageservices(volume,socialandspatialdistribution,typesof Water consumption(source, volume,spatialsocialdistribution,uses) Distribution ofthepopulationandactivitieswithinterritory The degree andcharacteristicsofsocialinequity Housing construction > operate anddemandspaces to develop theiractivitiesandattract other enterprises metropolitan ar or thoseinthemostimportant of production processes, stimulates Th urbanexpansion. united byeconomic ofcities, globalization structure intheinternational insertion Local the direction ofstillunoccupied natural areas. in andthatexpand andbuiltonthecity’s America urbanzoneoutskirts so common inLatin Th the interaction ofeconomic social dynamics, thatare theresult market, of ofthelocalproperty andthedynamics violence andcrime) Th of mangroves andreefs. the ecosystem anthropic for isduring action;this, is thecaseofgreater example, fragility Th inthatarea public policy following upandassessing managing, establish thelocalcontrol possibilitiesinformulating, indefi isinstitutionalized which theirparticipation Th the environment. stakeholdersandsectors andhowthesocial interactioncharacteristics ofurbangrowth with toand Environmental defi are Plans important Management suchasUrbanMaster Plans instruments Publicintervention agents. public andprivate to defend theenvironment, aswellcontroland legislation actionby andfollow-up anda How isstructured thelocalgovernment confi ofattraction degree of expansion, ofthepopu Th to services. environment. inequalityisalsoacentral Social component indiff andpressureecosystems andofpopulation dueto urbanization) risks disorganized onthe (presence areas, signifi oflostcities/run-down ofurbanzonepopulation,thecharacteristics ofurbanization to thedistribution determine Th occupation withequallydiff thepressureIf onnature exerted isinevitable,there are many diff

esefactors maypressure exert to create ex ere are otherfactors thatcombine theabove e physical-environmental characteristics ofthe andqualifi oforganization edegree echaracteristics ofthelocaleconomic dynamicsdefi is diff Determining occupation ofterritorial factors guration of how the territory isoccupied. guration ofhowtheterritory erence is due to andthecharacteristics inequalitythathelps thedegree oflocalsocial erent environmental results. cation of civil society organizations and the extent to andtheextent cation ofcivilsociety organizations clusive spaces suchasthegated condominiums inequality and how the local government acts. inequality andhowthelocalgovernment lation of each city and, to a large extent, the lation ofeachcityand,to alargeextent, cant occupation ofsites, deterioration of elements, such as public insecurity (dueto suchaspublic insecurity elements, city’s localitymay howvulnerable determine cts, in particular theexistence ofbodies inparticular cts, eas where large international enterprises eas where enterprises largeinternational ning thelocalenvironmental will agenda ne the rhythm of urban growth, zones ofurbangrowth, ne therhythm isrelevant for largecitiesand/ ne thelimitsanddesirable erent forms of territorial erent forms ofterritorial erences ofhaving access

29 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 30 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports moving from onecitytoanother, andnotfrom ruralareas tourbanareas Another distinctivecharacteristicoftheregion isthaturbangrowth isoftentheresult ofpeople growth ofsmallcities,whichare hometonearly40percentoftheregion’s urbanpopulation. populations of5millionormore. high degree ofurbanprimacywithone-fi fth oftheregion’s urbanresidents livingincitieswith Caribbean, themosturbanizedregion inthedevelopingworld,isalsocharacterizedbya of theworld’s peoplewillreside inurban areas. UrbandevelopmentinLatinAmericaandthe At present halfofhumanity nowlivesincities,andwithinthenexttwodecades,60percent Migration isgenerallyrelated totheconcentrationofeconomicactivitiesinadeterminedarea. how thequalityofwateraffects thequalityoflife. lack ofsanitation.Thiscaseshowstheinfl uence exertedbyenvironmental conditionssuchas it refl ects povertyandsocialinequality, air pollution, thelackofinvestmentsinpublichealthand urban servicessuchas:watersupplyanddrainage,thepublichealthsystem.Therefore, life. Itvariesaccording toeconomic incomelevels,levelofeducation,andaccesstoessential in societieswere stakeholders are organizedaround more traditionalculturalvalues. transformations inthestructure ofcontemporarysociety. However, thesituationisverydifferent defend reproductive rights.Theseprocesses are notonlynatural;theychangebecauseof culture andcustoms,the use ofbirthcontrol methods,activitiesofsocialmovementsthat knowledge. Amongthesubjectiveelementsare: thefamily’s educationallevel,religion, local system andinfrastructure services, includingwomeninthelabourmarket,medicalscientifi c mention maybemadeof:thefamily’s economicincome,thestructure ofthepublichealth number oflivebirths(birthrate)anddeathsperyear(deathrate).Amongtheobjectiveelements some centralprocesses. In fact,thepopulation’s naturalgrowth andrenovation are basedontheinteractionbetween 2.2.2 Demographicdynamics 5 social processes are ofparticularimportance. of societyand,asaconsequence,theurban-environmental relationship. Somenaturaland are twoofthemostimportantfactorsinunderstandinghowurbanizationinfl uences thegrowth the followingtypes: UN-HABITAT,2008 However, oneofthemostdistinctivefeatures ofurbanizationintheregion istherapid The secondprocess –migration –isalsoanimportantfactoringrowing cityurbanization. For example,theinfantdeathrateisameasure ofthepopulation’s conditionsandqualityof There are objectiveandsubjectiveelementswithrespect totherelationship betweenthe • The fi demography,rst, concerning isthenaturaldimensionofbirthrateandmortality. Natural populationgrowth andtheflow ofpopulationtowards aspecific pointoftheterritory • • Indicators • • Migration dynamics:emigration(peopleleave)and immigration(peoplearrive)maybeof Area andpopulationoflegalillegalhumansettlements Population growth vehicles, culturalevents, etc.) Pendular migration(due to activitiessuchas:tourism,dailyfl ow ofworkers,fl ow of Urban-rural migration Rural-urban migration 5 .

by theenvironmental justicemovement serious impactonhuman healthandthequalityoflife,causingproblems denounced the proliferation ofmalaria-transmittingmosquitoes, yellowfeveranddenguefever, thathavea Marginalized groups are generally thefi rsttobeaffected byenvironmental degradationsuchas contributes towaterandsoilpollutiondamages fl ora andfauna(plants, trees, animals). land suitableforhousing. such asdrinkingwatersupply, drainagesystemand domesticwastecollection,andtourban also assessedbytheinhabitants’accesstourban servicesessentialforagoodqualityoflife, between socialclasses,eventhoughtheyare centraltoitsclassifi cation. Socialinequalityis public healthservicesineachcityorstate. environment, exertingpressure onnaturalresources suchassoil,water, vegetalcover, etc. (social process), willdeterminetheinteractionbetweendemographicdynamicsand 6 2.2.3 Socialdynamics Others - Environmental rightsandsustainable development: theaccessto environmentaljustice inLatinAmerica, Mexico,UNEP, 2000 - http://jades.socioeco.org/es/, andthebook, - http://www.scorecard.org/community/es/ej-index.tcl, For moreinformation abouttheenvironmentaljusticemovement, consult: > women, amongothers). of young diff peopleandofthird expected adults, age rate rate, ofthepercentage characteristics (growth absolute numbers)andparticular (growth istheprojection ofthepopu Another instrument in thepopulation. ofyoung forof characteristics peopleorofthird suchas, theproportion adults example, age represented (atfi byages isthe“populationpyrami One oftheinstruments analysis madeinthetext. satellite maps, to the information andthe images helpvisualize charts, graphs, tables, To beemployed: itisrecommended thatgraphic instruments present data, demographic The failure toprovide servicestomarginalizedcitizensputspressure onthelocalenvironment, This informationmaybeeasilyobtainedfrom nationalandregional statisticsinstitutesand For theGEOCitiesassessments,socialinequality goesbeyondtheincomedifferences • • • • • • Indicators Population growth astheresult ofsuchnaturalvariants andgrowth causedbymigration Each onehasparticulareffects onurbanizationandpressure ontheenvironment.

Graphic presentation ofdata The GINIIndex(socialinequality) % ofthepopulationorhousingunitswithelectricity, byprincipalzones zones % ofthepopulationorhousingunitswithsanitaryservice(drainage),byprincipal zones % ofthepopulationorhousingunitswithdrinkingwaterservice,byprincipal % ofthepopulationlivinginextreme poverty % ofthepopulationlivinginpoverty ve-year intervals) and bygender, facilitatingthegraphic intervals) evaluation ve-year 6 . d” that allows population distribution to be thatallowspopulationdistribution d” lation’s future trends behaviour: theglobal erences inthenumberofmenand , p.227

31 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 32 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 3. 2. 1. 2.2.4 Economicdynamics 6. 5. 4. places heavypressure onthe environment. fauna naturalreproduction areas suchasmangroves andreefs. industries andcompaniesdischargepollutingsubstancesand,incoastalcities,occupylocal building condominiumsinenvironmental protection areas. Ontheotherhand,civilconstruction > • • • two centuries it is evident that, from theterr itisevidentthat, two centuries inthelast andtheCaribbean America inLatin ofurbanization thegrowth weobserve If always suﬀ areas which,ingeneral, Th have thefewest urbanservices. the poorest sectors ofthe population always tend to outlyingorrun-down occupy thecities’ In mostcasestheeconomy isthedeterminingfactorofacountry’s urbandevelopmentand of studentsinformaleducationandthenumberfrequency ofdropouts. The localpopulation’s accesstoeducation,specifyingaverageyearsofstudy, thedistribution on timespenttravellingfrom hometowork,transportavailabilityandconditions. The relationship betweensocialinequalityandthelocaltransportsystem,withemphasis The principallocalhousingmarketcharacteristics. relationship betweenthemandthesupplyofurbanservices. or thatsuffer from themostnegativeeffects ofenvironmental problems, toestablishthe The socialgroups andareas producing mostenvironmental degradationandpollution, they are affected bylocalincome. Social andterritorialdistributionofessentialurbanservices,howtheyinteract Local incomedistribution,specifyinghowitaffects placeswhere peopleliveincities. The followingshouldbeanalysed: For theirpart,therichestsocialgroups putpressure ontheenvironment by, forexample,

Drinking water supply normally associated with water supplynormally Drinking move, amongothers. streetswith narrow andwithnospace for orroom for transport collection vehiclesto heavily –andthecharacteristics etc. slopingground, oftheland:unplanned, hillsides, with thefewest resources, bothbecauseoftheusualdiffi responsible to for thecityareas providing occupied groups bysocial thistypeofservice waste collection, duebothtoLocal thelackofattention bythepublicsector and bodies groups diseasesthantheotherlocalsocial facing thesamepollution. borne oftheseaquaticsystems suff and,ontheother hand,they degradation addingto thepollutionandenvironmental andlakes, bodies ofwater suchasnearbyrivers No access dumptheirwaters to into ontheonehand,they drainage systems sothat, continent. caused bywater pollutionandresulting inhi Signs of social inequalityincities Signs ofsocial er from insuffi ciencies, inquantityandquality,ciencies, of: itorial occupation pointofview,itorial eventoday gh infantdeathratesgh inthe incountries serious infant diseases such as diarrhoea infantdiseasessuchasdiarrhoea serious ismeansthesesectors almost occupyculties onland they -- erfrom more water- and asimilarrelationship with developmentandtheurbanenvironment activity sectorwillincludegroups andorganizationswithbroadly similarinterests andneeds, general economicactivity;thatistosay, adevelopmentactivitycategorywithinthecity. Each biodiversity. overexploits resources, degradestheenvironment orputsecosystemsatrisk,thusendangering and toanalysehowtheyinteractwiththeurbanenvironment. Theprevailing modelusually scale ofdifferent activitiesthatusenaturalresources andhaveanimpactontheenvironment, puts pressure ontheenvironment. Henceitisimportanttoidentifyandassess thetypeand resources, orthosewithaverylong-termreplenishment cycle. causes. Thatmodelisbasedonoverexploiting naturalresources, inparticularnon-renewable the passageoftimeitbecomesunsustainablebecauseenvironmental degradationit extinction offl ora andfauna. to theenvironment; asaresult destructiveeffects are causedsuchaspollutionandthe 7 should bepresented intheorder mentionedandindividually. map. for themainactivitysectors,theirgeographicdistribution shouldbeillustratedwithasimple given; asmallstatisticaltablemaybethebestway oftransmittingkeyinformation.Atleast a great impactonenvironmental resources. Itisrecommended thatprecise descriptionsbe important sub-sectors(chemical,pharmaceutical, steel); inparticulariftheyare onesthatcause the sectorasawholewithoutdescribingindividualenterprisesorsubgroups. environmental administration, mining,industry, housing,transport,agriculture, etc. sectors, itisimportanttoidentifyactivitiesthathelpunderstandthesituation,forexample: categorizing activitysectors.Aslocalcircumstances willberefl ected inthelistofactivity UNCHS-UNEP. Preparing the SCPEnvironmentalProfi le. TheSCPSourceBookSeries:Volume 1,1999 An activitysectorisdefi ned asagroup oforganizationsandpeopleengagedinthesame Nature provides allthegoodsconsumedbysocietyso itisinevitablethateconomicactivity The ecologicalcrisisis,toalargeextent,theresult ofaneconomicproduction model.With In mostcases,fewattemptsare madetoadaptagriculture, industry, businessandservices • • • • Economic activitiesdemandnaturalresources andinteract withtheenvironment by: Once thecity’s activitysectorshavebeensatisfactorilyidentifi ed, thefollowinginformation In somecases,forexampletheindustrialsector, it isveryusefultodescribethemost Each activitysectorwillbedescribedseparately;eachdescriptionshouldconcentrateon Because thesituationisdifferent ineachcity, there isnofi xed ruleforidentifyingand Different typesofpollutinggasemissions Disposing ofsolidandliquidwastes and others Using landforagriculturalproduction, constructions,highwaysandstreets, storage, Consuming rawmaterials 7 .

33 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 34 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports where appropriate, thefollowinginformation: Characteristicsoftheactivitysector a) resources, thatis,ondegradation and/ordepletion. Impactoftheactivitysectoronenvironmental resources c) The lasttwoare considered tobecleanenergysources. employ fossilfuelsandcarbonmineral;and,toalesserextent,nuclear, solarandwindenergy. use comesfrom fossilfuels: petroleum, naturalgasandmineralcarbon;thermo-electricsthat industry isverygreedy. Inaddition toelectricenergy, alargepartoftheenergyforindustrial both quantitativeandqualitativeterms: Useofenvironmental resources b) in thecity. any specialarrangementsmadetolinkthesectorwithenvironmental administrationactivities representative bodies,etc.thatare importantinorganizinghowthesectoroperates.Describe Give abriefdescriptionofthenature andcharacteristicsoftheactivitysectorincluding, Describe ingeneraltermstheimpactofactivity sectorondifferent environmental Describe theavailabilityoftheseenvironmental resources forthesectoraccording to: Energy consumptiondiffers according totheactivityandsupportneeded;production • • • • • • • • Give ageneraldescriptionoftheuseenvironmental resources bythisactivitysector, in Identify groups, institutions,companies,individuals,ministriesorsecretariats, sector • • • • • • General typesofactivitiesinthesector What are theactivitysector’s mainpollutioneffects andhowdotheyaffect different What are themainsupply sources fortheseresources? Inparticular, identifyinput likely future consumptionpatterns? What hasbeentherecent trend inthesector’s consumptionofresources? Whatare What istheamountorapproximate scaleoftheusetheseresources? to theactivity? Important links,ifany, tootheractivitysectors Recent growth ordecline,employment,etc.,inthesector(andsub-sectors,ifany) the formalandinformalsub-sectors Approximate numberofpeopleworkinginthesector;where applicable,separatelyfor environmental resource? Does theactivitysector’s useofresources causeanyobservabledepletionof environmental resources? Are anyparticularinitiativesbeingtakeninresponse totheshortage? Does thissectorcompetedirectly forsupplieswithotheractivitysectors? have beentakentoexpandavailablesuppliesor protect existingsupplies? How readily availableare theresources usedbythesector? Whatspecialmeasures quantity needed? Are there speciﬁ c shortagesofcertainresources orproblems inobtainingthequalityor sources foundinthecityor itssurroundings. What speciﬁc resources are used(water, air, land,minerals, trees, etc.)thatare essential

ecosystem areas, threatening localbiodiversityandfreeing pollutingchemicalproducts. environment: theyrequire spaceforurbanexpansion,occupyingandbuildinginimportant liquid wastesandconsumes energy. hotels and,perhaps,intruding onstill-preserved environmental spaces;itproduces solidand soil andwater, threatening theenvironment andhumanhealth. become biologicalandchemicalvectorsthatmay easilyspread diseasesand polluteboththe by pathologicalagentsinhospitalwastewhich, when freed untreated intotheatmosphere, also produce solidandliquidwastesthatpollutethesoilwaterdamage biodiversity. two aspectsrequire theconstructionofbuildings,stores andshoppingcentres, andsoon, e) Commerce andservices deforestation andpollution. using agriculturaltoxins;forest ﬁ res toclearlandforcultivation;andthreats tospringsfrom deforestation resulting from usingnewlandforagriculture; soilandwaterpollutioncausedby of expansionthemunicipalarea used,etc.Attentionmustbepaidtosuchmattersas: occupied, useofpesticides,growth oftheoccupiedarea, production techniques, rate include: thenumberofpeopleemployed,typesproducts, destinationofproducts, area characteristics tocalculatethepressure itexertsontheenvironment. These characteristics activities. d) Agriculture rivers, lagoonsandseas. that containtoxicorpollutingchemicalproducts; andindustrialwastes(solid)dumpedinto products, forexample:atmospheric emissions(gasesandparticles);liquidwastes/efﬂ uents environmental pollutionis causedbyindiscriminateeliminationofindustrialactivitysub- > • • • • price of energy, shortage, population’s ofenergy,price shortage, access. consumption characteristics: sourcesEnergy of Civil constructionandtransportactivitiesinurbancentres exertdirect pressure onthe Tourism involvesthehotelandotherrelated sectors.Itputspressure onspacebybuilding Some oftheseposeparticularthreats totheenvironment; forexample,pollutioncaused The relationship betweencommerce andservicestheenvironment islessdirect These Where agriculture continuestobeimportant,adescriptionshouldgivenofitsmain In urbancentres, inparticular nearmedium-sizecities,agriculture haslostground toother Liquid andsolidwastesalsocausepressure ontheenvironment. Nowadays, much •

Industrial wastes andinert). non-toxic (toxic, Industrial Discharge of industrial waste/effl Discharge ofindustrial atmosphere’s ozone layer sources, (types, volume); rainAcid producing gasemissionscausethegreenhouse eff Solid wastes volume, (types, fi Analysing industrial pressureAnalysing industrial ontheenvironment on different resources? Have anyprojects orprogrammes beenundertakento alleviatetheimpactofthissector nal destination); uents into bodiesofwater sources, (types, volume); energy consumed, location of industries, consumed, locationofindustries, energy ect and/ordeplete the

35 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 36 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports a) Energy consumption: 2.2.5 Consumptionofresources b) Water consumption in theanalysis. motorization index.Localandregional airqualityisalsotracedbyintersecting theseindicators greenhouse effects andacidifi cation. industrial sectorandtheimpacts,bothregional andlocal,ofemissions gases thatcause impact onlocalairqualityandhumanhealthbytracingadirect linkbetweentransportandthe fossil fuelsbypublicandprivatetransport;thisistomakeacleardistinctionbetweenthe Other isolatedcommunitiesusedieseltogenerateenergy. regional hydroelectric networks;inthesecasesenergyisobtainedbyusingfi rewood andcoal. it ishopedtosupply, itisalsolimited. this typeofenergyisverycostlyand,becausethepossiblediffi culty ofaccesstotheareas deterioration ofwaterqualityduringconstruction.From theeconomicpointofview, transmitting impacts are: lossofcultivable land;imbalancesinwetlands;displacedpopulations;anda on urbanareas. Flooding in areas where barriersare builtaffects localfl ora andfauna.Some in thespiritofKyotoProtocolenergies. thatencouragestheuseoflow-impactalternative large cities.Thepracticewouldalsohelptoreduce greenhouse gasemissionswhichwouldbe fl ares toavoidexplosions. investment potentialismethanegas(CH4)from landfi as lls. Inmostcasesthegasisburnt investments willbeneeded.Intheurbancontext,forcomingdecadesasource withgreat energy overtheshortandmediumterm. the pointofviewclimatechange,willhavetobeusedsatisfygrowing demandfor affects theenvironmental equilibrium.There are indicationsthatothersources, lesscleanfrom global environment. Energyproduction inthesecountries involvestheuseofsoiland,therefore, health andthequalityoflifecitizens,ithasseriousrepercussions onthenationaland Indicators This indicatorshouldalsobeassociatedwiththe urbantransportdistributionmodeland The energyconsumptionindicatorshoulddifferentiate betweentheuseofelectricityand In LatinAmericaandtheCaribbeanmanycitiescommunitiesare notinterconnected to Building hydroelectric plants produces regional environmental impactswithrepercussions However, itscontrolledmayprovide burning energytosupplylocalnetworksalthoughnot Prospects are promising forfurtherstrengthening renewable sources; however, large Urban energyconsumptioninLatinAmericaandtheCaribbeanislinkedtodevelopment, • Indicator • • Annual percapitaenergy consumption Total volumeofuntreated domesticsewage Total waterconsumption

particle material(PM). substances thatdepletetheozonelayer, inparticular chlorofl uorocarbons (CFCs)anddiverse fossil fuels:carbonmonoxide(CO);dioxide(CO warming. Gasesthatmakethebiggestcontributiontothisphenomenonresult from burning truck exhaustsare mainsources ofthegreenhouse gasesresponsible fortheplanet’s global be madeofthepressure onairqualityfrom pollutionsources incities.Motorcar, busand the environment, improve thepopulation’s healthandcounteract poverty inurbancentres. public agendaontheenvironment. transport, recreation, etc.Thatiswhywateroneof thetwoprincipalthemesonworld domestic andsanitary, agricultural,industrial,urbandevelopment,energygeneration,fi shing, unequal distributionbetweendifferent socialgroups andconfl icts aboutitsmultipleuses: of availablefreshwater. and confl icts ariseaboutwhoownsit anditsuse.Thisendangersboththequantityquality and distribute.Also,aspollutionincreases andspringsare affected, waterbecomesscarce that hastobebrought from evermore distantsources, makingitmore costlytocollect,treat ecosystems. of theenvironment allovertheworld.Freshwater isalsoindispensableforallterrestrial part oftheentire planet’s ecosystems;itiscentraltotheanalysismadeassessstate 9 8 2.2.7 Waste production 2.2.6 Atmosphericemissions gases (CO,CO and, insomecases,from agriculture grasslandforplanting.Besidesgreenhouse byburning gases, (O free pollutantsintothe air kilometres away. Theseemissionsalsocontributetoclimatechange andglobalwarming Because thewinddispersesgasesover cities,sucheffectsarefeltnotonlyattheplaceoforiginbutalsoinotherplaces, p In industry the emissionofgreenhousegasesisduetotheusewhatknownasdirtyenergy becauseitcomesfromburningf In industry diseases)orhavenegative effectsonflGas emissionsmaybeharmfultohuman health(cardiorespiratory ora, faunaandecosyste Consideration mustalsobegiventoemissionsfrom fi xed sources, especiallyindustry The steadysupplyofcleanwaterandsanitaryservicesplaysanimportantrole inefforts toprotect Much oftheworldfacesseriouswatershortageproblems, pollutionofwatersources, As thepopulationandeconomicsocialactivitiesgrow sodoesthedemandforwater • • Indicators Urban centres produce themostpollutinggasesinatmosphere. Ananalysis must • • • • Indicators As anaturalresource, waterisessentialforalmostallhuman activitiesandisanindispensable Emission gasesproducing acidrain Motorization Index Modal transportdistribution Atmospheric emissions Solid wastedisposal Solid wasteproduction 3 ); andsulphurdioxide(SO 2 , NO x ), industrialactivity, forexamplemininginurban centres, alsoemits 2 ) 8 . 2 ); nitrous oxide(NO x ), oneoftheozone erhaps hundredsof ossil fuelsthat ms 9

37 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 38 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 10 type andproperly stored, thuscontrolling itsimpactontheenvironment proportion ofthewasteis taken tosanitarylandfi lls where itmaybeseparatedaccording to aquifers, causesseriousdamagetotheenvironment andtothequalityofhumanlife.Asmall collecting andtreating water. Itmayalsocausebiodiversityloss. often dumpedintobodiesofwater, increasing environmental degradationandthecostof like motorvehicles,furnitureanddomesticelectricappliances.Thesetypesofwastesare of urbanwaste.There are usuallyproblems incollectinganddisposingofverylargeobjects norms. Diffi culties indisposingofwasteeachcountryare addedtothoseinapplyingexistinglegal to humanhealth:toxic,corrosive, radioactive,infl ammable, reactive orinfectioussubstances. aluminium andglass,aswellavastarrayofsubstanceshazardous totheenvironment and a problem becauseofgrowing amountsofnon-biodegradable products suchasplastic, the inhabitantsofdevelopedanddevelopingcountries.Thequalitydomesticwasteisalso with somevariationsbetweenthewealthiestpeopleandpoorineachsociety concern. it inthewrong places,are someofthefactorsthat make thewasteproblem amatterofgreat of fi nancial andtechnicalresources tocollectandfi nally disposeofwaste,aswelldepositing See “GEOLatinAmerica andtheCaribbean”op.cit.p.51-53 > • • • for hospitalwaste. Th close to clayey isanotheraltern soils.Burning For landfi safety reasons, sanitary consisting of: Th andworsen thesituation. cause explosions hospitals (infected Th orhazardous material). disposal oftoxic waste from industry, (pesticides),minerals suchasleadandfrom agriculture Grease contaminates thesoilandbodiesofwater. arethey unsafe, attract collectors, including children, garbage for looking away to survive. dumpsare unhealthy,Local sources ofurbanpests(rats, cockroaches andmosquitoes); methods suchasopen-airdumpsordeposits. disposeofuntreated inpoorcountries In general, solidwaste authorities byusingconventional expensive process.expensive of theemissions.Th metals) willbefreed into the atmosphere and Th material. used for particle

Most solidwasteisdisposedofuntreated inopen-airdumpsand,bypollutingthesoiland Infrastructure forwastetreatment isnotalwaysadequate tohandlethevolumeandtypes It iscalculatedthaturbancentres produce anaverage of1kg/percapita/perdaywaste, Accelerated populationgrowth, theexponentialincrease inalltypesofconsumption,thelack

e solution most used by controlled systems is sanitary landfi esolutionmostusedbycontrolled systems issanitary Principal solidwaste fi Principal collecting, burning and storing methanegas. andstoring burning collecting, draining andtreating thegrease, layera waterproof to avoid grease contamination, eashesare toxic andthefi is is done at high temperatures, andfi isdoneathigh above1200°C, nal disposalsites ere is a risk thattoxic ere isarisk substances furans (dioxins, andheavy lls shouldbelocated farfrom areas and with springs esedumpsproduce methanegasthatcould lters of doubtful performance. Th lters performance. ofdoubtful there is also uncertainty aboutthecontentthere isalsouncertainty ative incitieswithlittleavailable space, or Another recurrent risk istheclandestine Anotherrecurrent risk ll withaprotection system 10 . lters shouldbe is is a very isavery marginalized populations maybecomeevenmore socially disadvantaged. fi nancing fortheseservices. budgetsandtherethe capacityoflocalgovernments’ islimitednationalandinternational are financial limitationsonexpandingtheserviceincitieswhere theurbangrowth rateoutpaces system distributionincitiesatboththeterritorialand sociallevels;indevelopingcountriesthere coverage, notenoughtreatment stationsforthevolumeofeffl uents produced, poorcollection threat tohumanhealth,especiallyamongthepoorest peoplelivingincities. caused bypollutingsprings,surfaceandgroundwater, riversandoceans;this isaserious bodies ofwaterandharmingpeople’s health.Oneofthemost commondamagesisthat solid wastes. measure thedegree ofpollutiononbeachesandsalinity. case ofmarineecosystems(costalzonesandislands)theindicatorsmustbebroadened to need toattendthecity’s specifi c needs,itsactivitiesandecosystems.Forexample,inthe confi dence toallhumansettlements. due towatercontaminatedwithfaecalmaterial. in LatinAmericanandCaribbeancountriesisinfantdeathcausedbywater-borne diseases biological contaminationthatcouldaffect humanhealth.Inthatcasethemostfrequent example to waterquality. and inmangroves, andinecosystemsthatshelterurbanpopulationsare directly sensitive important forurbanenvironmental administration,particularlyincoastalzones,onriversides and effl uents inbodiesofwater, salinityanderosion. problems are contaminationcausedbyuntreated domesticdrains,disposalofindustrialwastes matter whenthefocusisonareas withnowaterorsewagetreatment. Themostserious problems. 2.2.8 Sewagetreatment andsanitation The diffi culties mentionedare stillmore severe inthepoorest countrieswhere themost Problems related toeffl uents also includelimitedurbandrainageandsewersystem Serious environmental damage iscausedbydischarginguntreated urbaneffl uents into Diffi culties associatedwithdomestic andindustrialeffl uents are similartothoserelated to Other third type(local)indicators mustbeidentifi ed locallybasedontheadministrator’s Indicators ofwaterquality, alreadyestablished,maybeappliedwithcomplete internationally Disposing ofuntreated domestic effl uents intobodiesofwaterisaserioussource of As aconsequence,havinginformationonfreshwater qualityandavailabilityisvery Although manycitieshavesolvedtheproblem ofaccessingtheresource, itisadifferent In developingcountries,thelackofsanitationisonemostfrequent urban-environmental • • Indicators: the concentrationoffaecalmaterial Quality ofwatersupply, measured bythebiologicaldemandforoxygen,DBOand Total volumeofuntreated domesticsewage

39 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 40 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 2.3 Chaptersynthesis for eachsectorofactivity. atmospheric resources; soil; geomorphology;landuseandoccupation,biodiversity, fauna of water, springs,groundwater, surfacewaterandsea water. etc.);air;local,regional orglobal environmental indicatorsthatinclude:waterresources intheirdifferent manifestations(bodies question. environment evolves,toconsidertheregion according totheecosystemandelementin extend beyondtheirbioregional limits.Itisimportant,whenobservinghowthe stateofthelocal deposits forthewasteproduced byurbanprocesses. refl ect development modelsandtheirelements.Forexample,sources ofnaturalresources or which thecitiesare located,includingtheirconditionsandsupportcapacitywhich, asaresult, overall urbandevelopment. of theenvironment resulting from humanpressure, italsoincludeselementsneededtoanalyse society beingconsidered. Although themethodologyproposed isdesignedtoassessthestate indicators. of theessentialpointstoassessdifferent environmental sectorsandtheir respective What ishappeningtotheenvironment? each city’s environment andthestateof itsecosystems.Thiswillhelptoanswerthequestion: concrete examplesandindicators, itshouldgiveacomprehensive picture or asynthesisof including, amongothers:water, air, soil,biodiversityandthebuilt-upenvironment. Byusing summary ofthemainpointsdealtwith. it isnotmeanttomakeanearlypresentation oftheconclusions,butsimplytogiveabrief reader ordecision-makertoconcentrateonwhatismostimportantineachchapter. However, The growing worldshortageoffreshwater highlights the importanceofanalysingeffl uents Although actionstaken are centred onhumanbeings,theanalysisis of benefi t to The result ofthisprocess maybeseeninthequalityandquantityoflocalecosystemsthat In thiscontext,indicatorsofstatewillhelptodescribe andanalysetheecosystemsin To beginwith,theanalysismusttakeintoaccountdevelopmentmodeloflocal This sectionisatthecentre oftheGEOCitiesassessment.Theanalysispresents adefinition This sectionanalysesthestateoflocalenvironment withrespect toprioritythemes It issuggestedthateachchapterendwithasynthesisofitsmostnotablepointstoallowthe • • • Untreated effl uents mostfrequently dumpedintobodiesofwaterare: population. Hospital wastewithahighpotentialtopolluteandtransmitdiseasesthe these are mainlyoil-combustibles: Industrial effl uents andchemicalsubstancesresulting from production processes; ecological balance; Domestic orsewagewaterdischargingorganicmaterialthatpollutesandaltersthe Chapter 3: State of the environment (STATE)Chapter 3:Stateoftheenvironment activities. that are ofsignifi cance forthelifeofspeciesthatcontribute toeachlocality’s economic support systemsrepresented byecosystemsingeneralcontributetothequalityofurbanlife. ecosystems basedontheircontributionto: context beingstudied,are associatedwithorlinkedtotheecosystemsanalysed. characteristics. Accountshouldalsobetakenofnaturalsystemswhich,whileoutsidethe with naturalboundariessuchaswatercoursesortheregion’s specifi c geomorphological set forthisstudy, whetheramunicipalityormetropolitan area, thatdonotalwayscoincide assessment’s priorities,withoutdisregarding thenotionofaninter-related system. defi ne thefi eld ofanalysisandthevariablestobetakenintoaccountwhenestablishing the 3.1 Localecosystems analysis. are complementary, there isnocontradictionbetweenthequantitativedataandqualitative chosen toprepare theGEOCitiesassessment.Itisimportanttounderstandthat,sincethey indicating thequalitativeeffects thatresult from thequantitativebehaviourof thevariables complexity ofthelocalbiodiversity. species offl ora andfaunasurviveinagivenecosystem,takingintoaccountthewealth coliforms according towaterqualityreferences. Anotherexampleistodeterminehowmany that number, waterisnotconsidered fi t foruseunlessitistreated toreduce thenumber of considered acceptableinwaterforhumanconsumptiontakenfrom aspecifi c river;above parameterscanserveasanassessmentreference.and acceptednationalinternational quality intermsofitselementsandthoseecosystems.To reach thisobjective,defi ned factors. Therefore, anassessmentofthestateenvironment basicallyseekstodetermine The relation betweenbothtypesofvariablesisquitecloseandtheyare bothdetermining the peoplelivinginthesezonesatriskofnaturaldisasters. architecture. Thisanalysisalsoincludesthevulnerability ofurbanareas andtheeffect ithason of theartifi cial urbanenvironment: housing;urbaninfrastructure; equipment;buildingsand (native, exotic,type,presence andquantity);thebuilt-upenvironment thatischaracteristic The focusonecosystemsshouldtakeaccountofthe naturalresources availableinhabitats In eachcitythedescriptionoflocalecosystemsshouldtakeintoaccountitsmostimportant The ecosystemstobeanalysedshouldidentifi ed bymarkingthe territorial boundaries It ishopedthatthedataonecosystemswillgive abetterunderstandingofhowthelife • • • To beginthestateofenvironment assessment process (analysis),itisimportantto The examplescanbemultipliedforallnaturalresources considered inthismethodology, Such parametersare quantitativeindicatorsof,forexample:thenumberoffaecalcoliforms The assessmentofthestateenvironment shouldbebothquantitativeandqualitative. Economic activitiesthatmakelocalurbanlifesustainable. water supply, regulating thelocaltemperature, etc. Environmental servicestheyprovide toimprove thelocalpopulation’s qualityoflife: Recycling theenvironment’s naturalresources: water, air, biodiversity, etc.

41 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 42 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 11 3.2.1 Atmosphere 3.2 Analysisofthestateenvironment’s naturalresources the populationthatdependsontheseresources. the result ofthisinteraction from theenvironmental pointofview, aswellthequalityoflife different ways,forexampleasrawmaterial,anurbanwastesink,orterritorialsupport. assessment willbemore general andcomprehensive. that istosay, eachofthenaturalresources shouldbeanalysedseparately. Afterwards, the quantifi ed andqualifi ed; however, theassessment cannotbeconfi ned tothispoint. environment intodifferent sectorstheenvironmental impactsofurbandevelopmentmaybe in detailhowtheecosystemscansupporturbandevelopmentpolicies.Byseparating reproduce. is tobeguaranteedensure theenvironmental conditions are appropriate forthefi sh to estuary systemsare essentialifthesustainabilityoflocaleconomyanditsinhabitants local airquality gases that maylaterhavesome effect andcausing acidrainandcon regional andglobal plans tomeasurethepresenceofpollutants emittedbytransportandindustry That istosay, emissionsoriginatingonland(exhaust pipesorindustrialchimneysandtheir geographiclocation).Airquality > • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Indicators: Therefore, qualitativeandquantitativeinformationonthestateofresources willshow The naturalresources intheurbandevelopment/environment cyclecanbe included in The reductionist methodshould beusedtobeginassessingthestateoflocalenvironment; In additiontotheindicatorsproposed inthemethodology, theanalysisshoulddescribe For example,inacoastalzonewhere fi shing isthepreponderant activity, goodquality No othernaturalresource isless limitedtoalocalitythantheatmosphere: however, measuring

Type areas ofoccupation inrisk Vulnerability to disasters,bothnatural andhuman-induced. type,useandarea. Land: Urban ﬂ nativeandexotic. Urban fauna: rain,Climate: relative airhumidity, etc. Hydraulic resources ofbodieswater. andthedistribution resources, including existing biological diver resources, includingexistingbiological predominant ecosystems from oftheirphysical thepointofview environments and of andqualitativedescription Quantitative to characterize localecosystemsElements Sources ofatmosphericemissions(compositionthevehicularfl Emissions ofgreenhouse gases Number ofdailyjourneys Sulphur contentoffuels fl Concentrations of(CO,CO Air Quality eet, lengthoftimeoperating,numberpollutingindustries) ora: forests, green areas, typeandquantity. 11 isessentialwhenassessing urbanenvironmental quality andtheinhabitants 2 , NO x , SO x , PM10,PM2.5,lead) sity and the habitats they occupy.sity andthehabitatsthey themainfeatures ofthemunicipality’s eet, sizeofthe alsoincludes centrations of the environment itisavital resource fornaturalcyclesofecosystemrenovation its mainusesare domestic, industrial,energygenerationtransportandevenrecreation. For activities inmanycities theregion, inparticularcoastal cities. not onlysupportsthesurvival ofspecies,butisessentialforthemostimportant economic salty andbrackishwater is alsoimportanttoindicatethestateofgeneral ecosystemthat zones, mangroves, lakes,rivers,etc.). (surface orgroundwater), thetype(freshwater, brackishorsalty),andtheecosystem(coastal as welltothereplenishment capacityofbodieswater. Theanalysisassesses thesource consideration mustbegiventothequalityofwater supply, itsavailabilityandaccessibility, are doubtsabouthowitisdistributedandmanaged. shortages. AlthoughinLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean there isanabundance ofwater, there of waterisanalysed.Manypopulationsinnon-industrializedcountriesare threatened bywater 12 Others 3.2.2 Water health. of gases(CFCs)ortheconcentrationtropospheric ozonethathasadirect impactonhuman ozone-depleting gases,measured byproduction and consumptionoftheﬂ uorocarbon family Vehicular emissionsbearmuchoftheresponsibility forairpollution. production technologiesandchangingurbanactivities,especiallyintheservicessector. their emissionsofpollutingsubstancesintolocality’s atmosphere byusingimproved of particlematerialandmotorvehicleemissions.Inrecent decadesindustrieshavereduced such asMexicoCity, Santiago,andSaoPaulo, American andCaribbeancitiesitisasecondarypriority, withtheexceptionofsomemegacities may evenbefatal. impact onthehealthofchildren andthird-age adults; forexample,respiratory infectionsthat long-term, andperhapsirreversible, consequencessuchasthelossofbiodiversityor quality oflife.Adrop inairqualityhasenvironmental, socialandeconomicimplicationswith biodiversity, humanhealthandlandusechanges Water resources managementhasrepercussions onalltypesofterritoriesandisrelated toenvironmentalthemessuchasclimate Water isanessentialelementforthelife ofspecies,ecosystemsandcities.Asaresource, • • • • • • Indicators Freshwater isthemainsource ofsupplyinLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean.Analysing Urban demandforwaterismostlyindustrialand domesticuse.To assesstheresource, The complexityofurbanenvironmental managementismademore evidentwhenthestate Depending onlocalconditions,otherindexesmaybeadded;forexample,emissionsof The simplestwaytoobtaindirect dataonairqualityincitiesistomeasure theconcentration Although airpollutionisoneofthemostserioussignspoorenvironmental quality, inLatin Drinking waterconsumption Drinking waterdemandcompared toproduction Volume ofleachatesfi Water shortage(frecuency, extension, duration) Quality ofwatersupply Total volumeofuntreated domestic, industrial andminingsewage ltering intoaquifers 12 . change,

43 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 44 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 14 13 3.2.3 Land degraded, bothdirectly andindirectly, bytheexpansionofmaritimetransport. especially sucheconomic activitiesasmarinefi shing andtourism. Ecosystemsare being domestic waste. and alterscoastalsystems’morphologywithconstructions andbydischargingindustrial land useforurbanization,tourismandagriculture. 3.2.4 Marineandcoastalresources c) b) a) territory of16millionkm civil defenceandthehealthsystem’s response capacity. management. and economiccharacteristicspointsoutitsdemandsintermsofurban-environmental gives themunicipaladministratorapanoramathatincludescity’s social,environmental and contaminatedsites.Inthiscase,providing dataonsuchoccupiedandpollutedareas of the“basicbasket”indicators,includinginformationonoccupiedunstableorriskareas landslides, erosion andpollutionofbodieswater. cities, thequalityoflanddeterioratestogetherwithotherecosystemelements,andcauses impacts. Ashumansettlementsexpanduncontrollably towards naturalareas adjacentto and environmental services,suchasdrainage,andforagriculture andurbandevelopment. used, itsdistribution,degree ofpermeability, levelofsolidwastepollutionanderoded areas. Ibid, pp39-45 assess thestateof such resources Since thistypenatural resourceisfoundinecosystems certain cities,thelocalteamshouldintroduce andanalysetheindi The LatinAmericanandCaribbeancoastalzone extends over64000km,withamarine This helpstoprepare amore in-depthanalysisonthemessuchaspoverty, social inequality, To assesstheconditionofurbanland,considerationisgiventomostrelevant aspects deforestation, reduction ofvegetationandpollution. Loss ofbiodiversitydirectly related touncontrolled landoccupationand linked to disposal). producing solidwaste(effect ofdecomposingorganicmaterialinwastewithoutproper fi nal Pollution from chemicalproducts eitherdisposedofdirectly orasthefi nal result ofgrease- of vegetationasthisremoves animportantcontainmentelement. basic physical-chemicalstructure (gradient,porosity andcompaction)aswelltheloss Increased vulnerabilityto natural disasterriskssuchaslandslidesandfl oods duetoits The mostfrequent changesinthestateoflandrelate to: Changes inlanduseforurbanizationcanhaveseriousenvironmental, socialandeconomic As anaturalresource, thelandprovides rawmaterialandsupportforotherbiosphere systems From theurbandevelopmentpointofview, landproblems are revealed byhowthelandis • • Indicators: Pressure isputontheseecosystems byhumanactivities,botheconomicand physical, Human interventiondisturbsthehydrological cycle,destroys naturalbreeding grounds, Polluted sites Percentage ofgeologicalunstable(riskareas) areas occupied 2 14 .Humanactivitieshavecauseditstransformation bychanging 13

cators to local environment. important topayattention tohowtheyare usedand tohowtheiruseaffects thestateof and spare timeactivities.Forcitieswhere forests are asignifi cant economicresource, itis activities suchasthetimber industry, energygeneration,theiron andsteelindustry, recreation hydrological cycle,andcausesthelossoffl ora and fauna. harms alltheregion’s systems.Deforestation increases erosion, puts riversatrisk,disturbsthe making endangered species more vulnerable topic), overfi shing, introducing exoticspecies,pollutingairandwater, occupyingriskareas and also beginswithurbanization. important, fragmentingnaturalforest areas (restricting speciesandlimitingtheir sustainability) mangroves andcoastalecosystems. fi shing, forexample,qualitydependsontheguaranteedenvironmental biologicaldiversityof where there are veryparticularecosystemsaswellmostoftheworld’s tropical forests. untreated sewagethrough thedrainagesystemthat runs directly intothesea. zones. InLatinAmericanandCaribbeancoastalcitiesitisacommonpracticetodischarge urbanization, causesoilerosion andproduce sediments thatare frequently depositedincoastal activities takeplace;theriskincreases whenurbanpopulationssettleinsuchareas. communities. the survivalofinnumerablemarineandaquaticspeciesthatprovide subsistenceforthesame freshwater fl owing intothesea,inhibitsalinization,store andcirculate nutrientsandsupport bays, beaches,andestuariesprotect againstfl ooding, stormsanderosion, fi lter bodiesof estuaries anddamagingtheirecosystems’environmental services.Coastalareas suchas Others 3.2.6 Forests andgreen areas 3.2.5 Biodiversity The useofforest resources is,incertainregions andcities,animportanteconomic factorfor Destroying naturalhabitatsnotonlydamagesresources but,asachainreaction, italso Urbanization posesathreat tobiologicalbiodiversitybecauseof:deforestation (seenext Although itisnationally, regionally andgloballythatbiodiversityconservationismost Biological diversityisassociatedwiththesurvivalofurbancommunitiesandcentres. In Biological diversityisoneoftheprincipalresources inLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean Urban activitiesthatdegradetheenvironment, suchasdeforestation tomakeroom for Vulnerability tonaturaldisastersincreases whenriskareas are occupiedandhuman • • • Transversal indicator • Indicator Cities addtothedegradationofcoastalzonesbyoccupyingmangroves, coralreefs and help theimpactandresponse analysis endangered speciesinthe localenvironment. Itisatransversalindicatorthatwill Extinct orendangered species/knownspecies,measured bythenumberofknown Number ofm Vegetal Cover Reduction ofvegetation 2 ofgreen areas perinhabitant

45 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 46 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports overall analysissothatthisindicatorisassigneditsproper placeinthegeneralassessment. considered tobeapatrimony; itisimportant,therefore, toconsiderotherindicators foran It isanegativeindicatorthatassumesrecognition ofthestatedegradationwhatis environment iscomplex. and qualityoflife(urban landscapeandeffi cient basic infrastructure) analysing the built-up communications structure andothercomponentsof howthecitynormallyfunctions. the localpopulation’s health.Thesamehappenswiththequality ofasphaltpaving,thelocal no breakages inthebasicsanitarynetworktoanticipateimpacton environment and pressures onthelocalenvironment. Itisimportanttoknowwhether, forexample,there are zone andnottoanyotherattributes;itisatheme thatshouldbedealtwithinthechapteron related onlytothestateofurbaninfrastructure andhowitisdistributedinthecity’s urban to beconcentratedinthewealthiesturbanareas. how theexistingvegetablemassisdistributed.Mostofcity’s remaining vegetationtends planting trees inurbanzones,green areas andnativespecies). Therefore, theGEOCitiesreports assessthestateofvegetationinurbancentres (forests, 3.2.7 Built-upenvironment recommends thatcitiesshouldhave12m inhabitant isaparameterofthequalitylifeandhumanhealth:World HealthOrganization likely thatfl ooding, landslidesongradientsandlossofbiodiversitywilloccur. as theBrazilianAtlanticMataregion, ecosystemsare fragmented. occurred inBrazil(FAO 2005).Becauseofurbanization,inmanyareas ofthecontinentsuch South Americasuffered thelargestnetloss(almost 43 000km America, whiletheregion containsover23percentoftheworld’s forest cover(FAO 2005). Important themes concerning thebuilt-upenvironmentImportant themesconcerning are: This indicatorrefers tourban areas withbuildingsofgreat historicorarchitectural importance. Because itinvolvestheeconomy (historicpatrimonydeterioration),socialinequity (migration) It isimportanttoclarifythattheinformationwhich thislast-mentionedelementrefers is • • • • • Indicator: Some 66percentoftheglobalforest coverlossfrom 2000to2005occurred inLatin So thattheindicatoreffectively refl ects thequality ofurbanlife,acheckshouldbemade How tomakeforestry andurbansystemscompatibleisachallengetotheadministration. Green areas directly regulate airquality, temperature andnoise.Thesizeofgreen areas per Removing vegetationandwaterproofi ngthesoilharmsmicroclimate and makesitmore Quality ofbuilt-upenvironment, shownbythestateofconservationurban urban areas. Percentage ofdeteriorated areas (historiccentres orbuildings)inrelation tobuilt-up Urban infrastructure andservices. Quality ofhousing,especiallyforthecity’s poorest population. Cultural, architectural and historic patrimonyofbuildingsandgroups ofbuildings. landscape anditsbuildings. 2 ofgreen areas perinhabitant. 2 / year),ofwhich73percent

assessment whenanalysing qualityoflifeimpacts. economy, politicalandinstitutionallevel,urban vulnerability. Datagiveamore qualitative Quantitative informationisorganizedaccording tosubject:ecosystem,quality oflife,urban this couldhelplegislatorstocalculateenvironmental inﬂ damagescausedbyexternal uences. included tomakethegeneralanalysis,isintended toestimateeconomicandsocialaspects; the actionandinvestmentprioritiestakenbylocal decision-makers.Informationonimpacts, their qualityoflife. inequality thathasasigniﬁ cant effect onthepoorest urbanpopulationsectorsandthreatens is keepingupwiththetimesbecauseofplanet’s climatechanges,aswellthesocial thistheme,environmentalof theworld.Ascanbeseeninsectionconcerning vulnerability responsible formanyproblems inLatinAmericanandCaribbeancities,aswellotherparts the stateofenvironment refers tothethemeofurban-environmental vulnerability thatis environment? on economicactivitiesthatstimulatethecity’s development. of lifecitizens;onthebuilt-upenvironment, buildings,urbaninfrastructure, andsoon; natural ecosystemsandtheirconstitutiveelementsofwater, air, soil,biodiversity;onthequality to takeanintegratedapproach toenvironmental management. demonstrates theconsequencesthatpartialmeasures haveonthecityasawhole.Itwillhelp forces-pressure-state-impact-response structure. urban environment elementsandbetweenthedifferent levelsofanalysiswithinthedriving urban activities. environment conditions,assessingeachelementandtherelations betweenecosystemsand themes related tolocalurbandevelopment. are more abletoidentifywiththequalityofurbanlife, butare more interested inenvironmental rescuing thequalityofbuilt-upenvironment are incontactwiththeinhabitantswhonotonly whose inhabitantsare outoftouchwiththeenvironment. Citiesthatinvestinmaintainingor 3.3 Chaptersynthesis For thisassessmentthefollowing, mostlytransversal,impactindicatorsshould beused: Impact indicatorsare ofhelpwhenmakingastrategicanalysiswhere decisionsidentify It shouldbestressed here thatoneofthecentralpointswhenanalysingimpact This informationwillhelptoanswerthequestion: This assessmentwillbetheinstrumentthatcombinespublicsectorialpoliciesand It isimportanttousetransversalindicatorsestablishtheserelations, bothbetweenthe Chapter 4includesinformationabouttheimpactsstateofenvironment causeson At thisstageoftheanalysisasummaryshouldbepresented onthegenerallocal Neglecting thisaspectinLatinAmericaandtheCaribbeancreates characterlesscities • Biodiversity loss.

hpe :Ipcso h tt fte Chapter 4: Impacts ofthestate environment (IMPACT)environment Whatistheimpactofstate

47 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 48 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 4.1 Impactonecosystems areas tobechangedintocropland. without anysanitarycontrol. Thelocalurbanpopulation’s demand forfoodcausesnatural pollution isdumpingdomestic orhazardous waste intowatercoursesandunsuitablesites protected areas alsohavea direct impactonecosystems. Anothercauseofdamageandsoil activities likeextractingforest products, overfi shing, andillegallysettlingonenvironmentally clearing hillsidesoftrees, anddredging riversandlakes.Insmallercommunities,economic and faunabyremoving vegetation,introducing exoticspecies,levellinglandinrestricted areas, cities avectorofenvironmental impacts. consuming naturalresources suchaswater, minerals,plantsandanimals,makethegrowth of from agriculturaltourban,dumpingwasteandpollutingproducts intotheenvironment, and be datafromsources. nationaland international possible, toensure thatthe analysisgivesacomparativeview, alsotobeconsidered should One impactontheecosystemisimmediateor progressive destructionofnativefl ora Occupation ofnaturalareas, cleared andlevelledtoallowforurbanization,landusechange • • Indicators: • • • • • The impactassessmentwillbeasdetailedtheadministratorrequires. Whenever • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Impact atpolitical-institutionallevel Impact onthebuilt-upenvironment (urbanvulnerability) Impact ontheurbaneconomy Impact onqualityoflifeandhumanhealth Loss oftaxrevenue Incidence ofcardiorespiratory diseases Juvenile crimerate Loss ofurbanattraction Frequency ofdiseasescausedbypoisoningandcontamination:skin,eyes,etc. Cost ofrepairing monumentsandrestoring historiccentres Public healthcostsofwater-borne diseases Microclimate changes Incidence ofwater-borne diseases Deterioration ofhistoriccentres Property valuedepreciation Cost ofworktoprevent andcontainenvironmental risks Frequency offl oods andlandslides Costs, includingwatercollectionandtreatment Microclimate changes Biodiversity loss Impact onecosystems

that causeadrop inproductivity, lowschoolattendanceandhighratesofinfant mortality. at riskofconsumingproducts suchasfi sh andfruit contaminatedwithfaecalmaterial community latrinesandseptictanksystemsthatpollute waterdepositsandputthepopulation open air, intostreams orclandestineconnectionstotherainwaternetwork;they havetouse and drains,mostofthesettlementsinhabitantshave nochoicebuttodisposewasteintothe areas. Duetotheabsenceofgarbagecollectionservices,drinkingwaterdistribution systems to environmental degradation. well asdehydration,are directly associatedwiththepovertyandsocialinequitycloselylinked diseases suchasdiarrhoea,yellowfever, denguefever, intestinalinfections,tuberculosis, as help spread infectiousdisease vectors.Indevelopingcountries,recurrent environmental overcrowded tenements,orshelterswhere precarious buildingorenvironmental conditions degraded areas, orwithno proper urbaninfrastructure; theymayliveinillegalsettlements, small the existenceofsewageditchesandpollutedwatercurrents. by bacteriacausingdiarrhoea),theconditionofbasicsanitationtowhichpeoplehaveaccess, diseases, thosecausedbyairpollution. and urbancleanliness:forexample,water-borne diseases;incasesofcardiorespiratory assessing thestateofenvironment impact. to environmental resources) andthespread ofurbaninequalityandpovertyare centralto physical capacity, makingitmore diffi cult tojoininrecreational activitiesandsportslinked related diseases.Asaconsequence, thenegativeeffects onlabour(weakeningworkers’ city inhabitants. occur inthenaturaldynamicsandoriginalfoodchain;thisleadstolossoffl ora andfauna 15 4.2 Impactonqualityoflifeandhumanhealth(inequalitypoverty) priority problems localauthoritieshavetodealwith. include alltherelevant factorstobetakenintoaccount;theconclusionsshouldpointout the city’s environmentquality An exampleofaconventionalurbanbiodiversity indicatoristhenumberofbirdsorbirdspeciespresent.Thisanimportant This leadstodiseasesfor whichthecosthastobecovered bypublichealthservicesand The maincauseofthesediseasesisthelackbasic sanitaryservicesinthecitiespoorest Water-borne diseasesappear, aboveall,amongpeoplewithfewresources andlivingin Determining factorsinwater-borne diseases are drinkingwaterquality(maybecontaminated Foremost amongdiseases thatharmthequalityoflifeare thoserelated topoor sanitation How humanpressure affects thepopulationisexpressed intheincidenceofenvironment- The qualityoflifeimpactindicatorsmainlyassessthehealthandwell-beingconditions • • • • Indicators In urbanareas modifyingecosystemscausesnaturalareas tobefragmentedandchanges To showtheimpactofurbangrowth onthelocalenvironment, the localanalysisshould Juvenile delinquencyindex Incidence ofdiseasescausedbypoisoningandpollution Incidence ofcardiorespiratory diseases Incidence ofwater-borne diseases measurementof 15 .

49 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 50 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 17 16 Other causes) 4.3 Impactontheurbaneconomy(external pollution atitsorigin. would betheresult forthewaterauthoritiesiftheyintroduced proper managementtoreduce to sewagewatertreatment, more usersmeanhighertreatment costs.Aneconomicsaving for purposesotherthanhumanconsumption,and meaningthatmuchofitiswasted.As water from evermore distantsources. Inmanylargecities,treated waterendsupbeingused natural resource andontheresponseobligingittoinvestincollecting bythelocalgovernment, pressure ofpopulationgrowth andincreased economic activitiesplacedemandsonthe prevention, environmental educationandwastecontrol.thewatersupply, Concerning the increase collectionandtreatment coststhatcouldbeavoidedwiththerightpolicieson products on urbanoutskirts,2600diedand,becauseofthedrop inexportsofagriculturalandfi shery proper socio-environmental policieswere adopted.InPeruin1991,thecholera epidemic They alsoincrease public healthcoststhatcouldbeavoidedifpreventive measures and labour productivity because ofabsenteeismduetoillness,thusaffecting thecities’economy. basins, pollutionofairwarmspots)orbyworseningriskstohousing. vulnerable zonescauseenvironmental degradation(fl oods, erosion orsoilpollutioninwater general. Thisisshown,forexample,byhowurbanfunctionsandlivingconditionsinthemost waste deposits.Improper handlingthreatens thequality ofurbanlife industrial chemicaleffl uents, grease containedinwastematterorlandfi lls, orclandestinetoxic in pollutionareas withspringsandinairpollution. warm spotsandinfl oods thatresult from thehighextenttowhichurbanlandiswaterproofed, local lifealsoincludethedeteriorationofurbanenvironmental quality, showninpocketsof lagoons orpollutedcoastalregions. they consumeproducts pollutedbyheavymetals,forexamplecontaminatedfi sh from rivers, groups livingclosetoindustrieswhere theylookforwork andwhere illegalplotscostverylittle; on howtheydepositwasteandeffl uents. Thatpracticeharmsthehealthoflowincome Chile. Manizales, Colombia. EnvironmentandDevelopmentseries, EconomicCommissionforLatinAmerica andtheCaribbean.ECLAC.Santi Velásquez, forsustainable L.S.,2001, Urbanmanagementindicatorsforsustainable development,Urban-territorial observatories disposal, perhapscausing aresurgenceofinfectiousdiseases ordiseasesduetopoisoning. controloverthedestination ofthegarbageencouragesimprope harmful ororganicwasteisnotseparated. Thelackofsanitary campaign togetchildrenawayfromthe dumps.Evengarbagecollectioninthosecountriesmaycauseproblemsbecause usuallyto Families wholiveondumpsandseparate toxic,harmfulororganicwasteisoneofthemostserioussocialproblems. UNICEFprom In thespecifi c caseofwater, theimpactofheighteneddemandandpoor waterquality Health problems resulting from byairandwaterpollutionorenvironmental disastersreduce The stateoftheenvironment causesimpactsontheurbaneconomyandproductivity in • • • • • • Indicators Chemical soilpollutionalsoharmshumanhealth.Thistypeofmayoriginatein Finally, theeffects ofurbandevelopmentontheenvironment inrelation tothequalityof Industries are responsible forheavymetalscontamination becausethere isnocontrol Public healthcostsduetodiseasescausedbypollutionofairandsoil. Cost ofrehabilitating monuments andrestoring historiccentres. Cost ofcontainingandpreventing environmental risks. Water collectionandtreatment cost Public healthcostsduetoincidenceofwater-borne diseases Quality ofwatersupply 17 , damageswere closetoUS$1 000million. 16 . r orclandestine development. otes a xic, ago, streets. because ofhealthrisksdue tosoilorairpollution,excessivenoise on thebusiestcity of thecitydeteriorates,apart from thedepreciation ofhistoricbuildingsinsome urbanareas the impactonbuilt-upenvironment ishowthehistoric,culturalandarchitectural patrimony to conservesuchurbaninfrastructure aswatersupplyandenergynetworks. One expression of erosion orsoilpollutionandbyhydrographic andairbasins. it functions,anditsurbanlandscape;theseconditions are affected byeventssuchasfl oods, that mustbeconsidered whenassessingitsstate. combinations andmonuments,oftheinfrastructure itself,andofurbaninstallations ingeneral for itsinhabitantsandtheiractivities.Thisenvironment consistsofbuildings,architectural used toremedy situations that couldhavebeenavoided. recovery workandothersthat maybeappliedtopreventive actionandurbanimprovement are population istorisksthathavesocialcauses.Budgetsforhealth,civildefence,environmental action. Theincidenceoffl oods, landslidesandotherdisastersindicateshow vulnerablethe measures. least vulnerabletotheimpactofdisastersandhavemore effective conservationandrecovery emergencies havelessaccesstosupportservices.Themostdevelopedcountriesare those areas subjecttofl ooding orlandslides;theybecomemore vulnerabletourbanrisksandin risk areas closetohazardous industriesoronunstable land,suchasoutlyingorhillside damages. stop-gap measures endupconsumingresources thatcouldbeusedtoprevent such engineering costssuchasbuildingcontentionbarriers,drainageditchesandothers.These or thoseprone todisasterssuchasfl oods andlandslides,itisaquestionofenvironmental to thelocalitybeingstudiedandisbasedonitseconomy. Information forthetransversalindicatorthatmeasures theattractionofurbanzonesisspecifi c rates andreducing thecapacityofmunicipalitiestoprovide theservicespublicexpects. reductions inthecity’s economicactivityimply, alossoftaxrevenue inturn, duetolowertax whose economicactivitydependsonnaturalresources, ashappenswithtouristiccities.Such 18 Others 4.4 Impactonbuilt-upenvironment (humansettlements) deaths, withoutcounting themedium-andlong-termeconomic impacts. cost ofdisastersin the regionwasbetween$700millionand $3300millionU.S.dollars.Inthelast 30yearsalone,therewer where disastersare mostfrequent.AccordingtotheGEO reportLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean 2000,inthepast30years In LatinAmericaand theCaribbeannaturaldisastersarepart oftheinhabitants’dailylifebecause, afterAsia,itisthereg Degradation ofhumansettlementsincludesdestroying andabandoningbuildings andfailure The impactonthebuilt-upenvironment refers togenerallivingconditionsinthecity, how In developingcountries,thelow-incomemarginalizedurbanpopulationcanonlyinhabit When itcomestotheeconomicimpactofbiodiversityloss,recovering degradedareas The built-uppartofacityhasphysicalandstructuralfunctionsisbasicreference • • • • Indicators: Although naturaldisasterscannotbeavoided,theirimpactmaymitigatedbypreventive The urbaneconomyisalsoharmedbylossofattractionandcompetitionbetweencities Loss ofurbanattraction Incidence offl Property depreciation Deterioration ofhistoriccentres 18 oods,landslides etc oods,landslides ion intheWorld e 45000 annual

51 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 52 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 4.5 Impactonthepolitical-institutionallevel part oftheprocess ofassessingthestatelocal environment. to developclearer measuringinstruments,thismust beevaluatedandmadeapermanent management. affecting thelocalgovernment’s capacitytotakeactiononsustainable urban-environmental ineconomic activitiessuchastourismandservices,industrytrade, of thedownturn They alsocausealossofpublicincomeduetofewer ratesandtaxesbeingcollectedbecause environmental engineeringworksmeanttosolvecontaminationanddeforestation problems. hillsides andriskareas; prevent orcombatsocio-environmental effects thatcausefl oods; and caused bypoorqualitywaterandairthelack ofsanitation;containoccupiedunstable public managementcapacity, theycouldalsoseriouslyaffect localandurbanadministration weight but,becauseoftheneedtoconsiderimportancetheseproblems inrelation tolocal its capacitytoproperly guide localdevelopment. to includesuchmattersasamainstayofitspublicpolicies;thatisprovided itdoesnotaffect attract foreign investment, provide jobsandincrease taxationinthelocality, itis under pressure prompted bythepoliticalneed tocreate conditionsforurbancentres todevelop economically, to becomecentralinurbandynamics. since itmayaffect thecapacity toregulate andinterveneonapolitical-institutionallevel,tends economically activepopulation. view, theanalysisshouldtakeaccountofjoblosses,areduction intradeandthelossofan lose theirattraction,theresult islikelytobenegative.From theeconomicandsocialpointof support sustainabletourism;however, ifpoorurbanenvironmental managementmeansthey to guaranteetheactivitywillcontinue.Citiesmayalsobetouristattractionsorthey Although naturalareas are themainattraction,cities directly dependonenvironmental quality local economicgrowth. diffi culty ofattractingprivateinvestment;oraninfl ux ofbusinessortourismthatstimulates market valueinsomecityareas. Otherimportantimpactsare: lossofurbanattraction; repairing networks,indataontheproperty market that mayindicatethelossofreal estate local; ifthere are nonationalcriteriatheUNESCOprinciples maybeobserved. criteria willbemonumentsofhistoric,culturalandarchitectural patrimony, whethernationalor specifi c urbanenvironment indicatorsinmakingageneralanalysisofthecity. Thedefi nition In spiteofthepossiblediffi culty ofproperly assessingthis impact,andinviewoftheneed Environmental problems increase publichealthsectorspendingto:combatdiseases Environmental themeswill not onlybecomepartofthepublicagendawithgrowing political hasleftenvironmentalIf sofarthecentralgovernment mattersinsecondplacenow, The above-mentionedimpactmayhaveanapparently secondaryeffect butonewhich, • Indicator: In LatinAmericaandtheCaribbeantourismisoneofmaineconomicactivities. The impactontheurbaninfrastructure isnowshownincostssuchasmaintainingand In thiscase,impactindicatorsshouldbelocallydefined andserveasacomplementtoother Loss oftaxrevenue

countries andregions ofLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean natural disasters. making itmore likelythatsucheventswilloccur, andincreasing thepotentialmagnitudeof to maintainurbanenvironmental qualityandreduce theircapacitytoresist disasterswhile example, environmental degradation,pollutingorharmingstrategicnatural systems thathelp such asfl oods, fi res, earthquakes,tropical storms,andvolcaniceruptions. infrastructure andare thosemostaffected byfl oods andlandslidescausedbyrain. unsuited foroccupation,economicallymarginalized,vulnerableandpolluted,withnoproper poorest groups livinginrun-downhousing;thispopulationisbeingpushedtowards areas repercussions onhumansociety must alsobeconsidered. seismic events,aswellsocialfactorslikehumanoccupationofareas atenvironment risk, 21 20 19 4.6 Socio-environmental vulnerability transport, hospitals,shelterandfood,causesmore thantheexpectednumberofvictims. hand inwithhumanpoverty. Duringnaturaldisasters,thelackofsupportinfrastructure, picture hasbeendarkenedbytheaccumulativeeffects ofenvironmental degradationthatgoes quantity oftheplanet’s waterresources protecting theenvironmentanddealwith themesrelatedtoenvironmentalpollution,forestsanddeforestation,aswell astheq The terms“BrownAgenda”,“GreenAgenda” and“BlueAgenda”refertoimportantthemesontheworld’s publicagendaonconserving climate change,asstipulatedbytheInternational PanelonClimateChange(IPCC)initsthirdreport(IPCC,TAR –WGI,2001. Developing countriesareespeciallyvulnerable duetofi nancial, humanandtechnologicallimitationstoprevent andrecoverfro Cf. Velásquez. 2001:13 Table 2summarizestheclearest indicationsofurbanandenvironmental vulnerabilityinthe To theeffects ofnaturaleventsmaybeaddeddisasterscausedbyhumanbeings;for Natural disastersare happenings whosedangerlevelisassociatedwithnaturalcauses Poverty increases vulnerability tonaturaldisasters.Mostaffected bydisastersare the • • • • • • • Vulnerability toenvironmental disastersisnowassociatedwithglobalclimatechange • • • Indicators: Brown Agenda Urban vulnerabilitymaybeaccentuateddueto: occupation, andonactivitiesharmfultotheenvironment. Lack ofeffective regulatory instrumentsandcontrol mechanismsonlanduse and Lack ofpoliticalandinstitutionalwill; Irregular, inadequateandprecarious buildingsandinfrastructure; Accelerated urbanenvironment degradation; The locationofsettlementsinunstableorcriticalareas; and itsintegrationintourbansystems; The complexityandinterconnection ofurbansystems;dependenceontheinfrastructure economically vulnerablegroups; Population livinginvulnerableurbanareas Percentage ofriskareas occupiedandsubjecttofl The percentage ofgeologicallyunstableareas (risk areas) occupied. Economic andsocialconcentrationordiscrimination;ofsocially 20 themesindevelopingcountrieshavebecomemore importantsincethe 19 ,althoughothernaturalfactors,suchasareas subjectto ooding 21

m theimpactof uality and and

53 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 54 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports Table 2: 22 The Caribbean Source: UNEP, 2000:GEO LatinAmericaandtheCaribbean:Panama Environmental;World ResourcesInstitute,World BankStaff onre ra rbesNaturalDisasters Urbanproblems Countries countries Southern Southern America Andean Central Mexico Brazil Cone Vulnerability inLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • High solidwasteproduction Rapid unplannedurbangrowth The poorwithoutbasicsanitation The poorwithinadequatehousing principal cities Proliferation ofshantytownsin disposal Inadequate solidwastetreatment and the largenumberofprivatevehicles Pollution, noiseandtraffi c jamsfrom Rapid unplannedurbangrowth The poorwithoutbasicsanitation The poorwithinadequatehousing. fl ooding intheprincipalcities such ashillsidesandareas prone to unstable vulnerableandriskareas Proliferation ofshantytownsin administration Defi cient hazardous waste disposal. Inadequate solidwastetreatment and Rapid unplannedurbangrowth The poorwithoutbasicsanitation The poorwithinadequatehousing principal cities Proliferation ofshantytownsin disposal. Inadequate solidwastetreatment and Rapid unplannedurbangrowth principal cities. Proliferation ofshantytownsin disposal. Inadequate solidwastetreatment and Rapid unplannedurbangrowth The poorwithoutbasicsanitation The poorwithinadequatehousing principal cities Proliferation ofshantytowns in administration Defi cient hazardous waste disposal Inadequate solidwastetreatment and Rapid unplannedurbangrowth The poorwithoutbasicsanitation The poorwithinadequatehousing principal cities Proliferation ofshantytowns in • • • • • • • • • • • mitigation invulnerableareas lack ofplanning,prevention and frequent hurricanesandfl oods; in vulnerableareas planning, prevention andmitigation landslides andmudslides;lackof hurricanes, fl oods, erosion, volcanic activity drought, erosion, landslides, hurricanes, fl oods, earthquakes, Occupation ofunstableareas High incidenceofnaturaldisasters, Earthquakes andvolcanicactivity, High incidenceofnaturaldisasters: High incidenceofnaturaldisasters: erosion, landslidesandmudslides High incidenceofnaturaldisasters, that purpose draining andthelackofzonesfor constant fl oods duetoinsuffi cient Substantial damagecausedby Growing vulnerabilitytoforest fi res (petroleum). handling ofhazardous substances causing erosion, fl oods; poor Lack ofwaterbasinadministration vulnerable tonaturaldisasters mitigation invulnerableareas Lack ofplanning,prevention and Meteorological events;strong rains natural disasters of unstableareas vulnerableto erosion andmudslides;occupation 22

24 23 are calledkeyactorsorstakeholders.Thepurpose istoseethefullrangeofstakeholdersin organizations withimportant rolesenvironmental toplayconcerning resources; collectively, they development affairs organizations andactivitiesthatdeterminehow thecityconfronts itsenvironmental and on thedynamicsofcity;thatistosay, political, social,administrativeandmanagement Identifi sector taken bydifferent civilsociety, sectorsofsociety–localgovernment, andprivateeconomic regarding allthefactorsinvolvedinstateoflocalenvironment. being implementedtosolvesomeofthediffi culties identifi ed earlierinchapters2,3and4 administrative structure”. analysed inChapter2ofthereport inthesectionon“Descriptionoflocalpoliticaland bearing inmindthattheadministration’s mostgeneralelementsshouldhavealready been concentrating itsattentiononspecific aspectsrelated tocityurban-environmental management, (pressures) thatsocialagentsexertontheenvironment. the peculiaritiesofeachinstrument,aswellhoweffi cient itisinredirecting theactions and cultural)particularofeachone.Thelocaltechnicalteamshouldconsideranalyse in eachcitytendstobequitespecifi c duetoaseriesoffactors(economic,social,political have determinedconsequencesintheurban-environmental interactionprocess. stakeholders, respond tothecity’s different environmental problems, useparticulartoolsand population. either takenseparatelyorintegratedintotheecosystems,andonqualityoflifelocal eliminate theirpossiblenegativeimpactontheenvironmental resources underconsideration, action inthecitytopromote changesinpressure ontheenvironment dynamicstoreduce or now? political urbanization processandtheyneednotberepeated; itsenoughtoreferthemhelp support thissegment’s analy UNCHS-UNEP, 1999 The maincharacteristics ofthesesectorsshouldhavealready beenanalysedinthechapteron contextofthecity’s socio-e This sectionidentifi es thekeylocalparticipants and interest groups –thepeopleand For thatreason thereport examinesthecompositionofsocialstakeholderswithabearing 3. 2. 1. Chapter 5oftheGEOCitiesreport attemptstoanswerthequestion: With thisinmind,thereport shouldcontemplateanalysingtheresponsesWith oractionsbeing The purposeofthechapteronresponses is,therefore, tohighlightactionsor proposals This section,therefore, shouldonlytakeageneralapproach tothecityadministration, This manual’s presentation isgeneral,consideringthathowtheseinstrumentsare used The response instrumentsadoptedhavedifferent formats,are meantfordifferent social That meansassessingtheinterventioninstrumentscreated bythedifferent sectorstaking 23 cation ofkeystakeholders related tothe urbanenvironment Implementing environmental policies. Urban environmental managementstructures andhowtheyfunction. Identifi cation ofkeystakeholders related totheurban environment. todealwithlocalenvironmental problems. policies and instruments (RESPONSES) policies andinstruments Chapter 5: Urban environmental management Chapter 5:Urbanenvironmental 24 .Chapter5is,therefore, dividedintothree sections: What are wedoing sis conomic and

55 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 56 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports a) management: and roles inrelation tothefollowingthree aspectsofurbandevelopmentandenvironmental public sectoraswellthoseinprivatebusiness,NGOs,communitiesandelsewhere. and environmental managementprocesses. Thissection willincludekeystakeholdersinthe the cityandtounderstandwaysinwhichtheynow, ormightlater, affect urbandevelopment c) b) a) c) b) information andthemain areas oftechnicalexpertise availabletocitymanagement. managing, andusinginformation andspecializedknowledge.Itmeans havingaccessto of localurban-environmental administration. management; inotherwords, theinstitutionsandgroups responsible forthedifferent aspects coordinate. how thesystemactuallyworks,anddepartmentsorganizationscooperate dynamic descriptionshouldbegiventoexplainhowtheadministrationfunctionsinpractice, explaining eachdepartment’s responsibilities andhowtheyare related. Inaddition, a administrative structure. An overviewshouldbegivenofthecity’s organizationalstructure, Urban environmental management structures andhowtheyfunction which, whilenotsoexplicit,canbeveryimportant. informal asinthecaseofroles playedbycommunities,NGOsandprivatesectorgroups the caseofkeystakeholdersinpublicsectorwithlegalimplementationresponsibilities, or environmental policies,programmes andprojects. Theirinvolvementmaybe formal,asin making. signifi cant infl uence andanimportantrole toplayinformulatingpoliciesanddecision are themainactorsinthisrespect, privatesectorand communitykeystakeholderscanhave policies andinthedifferent stagesofthedecisionmaking process. Evenifpublicorganizations knowledge andpracticalexperienceare oftenasusefulacademicknowledge. knowledge ismuchmore thansimplythetechnicalskillsoftrainedprofessionals; informal key actorsmaypossessorhaveaccessto.Itisimportanttobeaware thatrelevant anduseful When describingthevariouskeystakeholdersitisusefultodiscussbriefl y theiractivities This refers toorganizationsandgroups responsible for collecting,distributing,analysing, Information, knowledgeandtechnicalexpertise. This meansthebasicstructure andorganizationofthecity’s urban-environmental Organization andstructure. Therefore, thissectionshouldfocusonfourkeyfactors: This sectionshouldfocusonthecity’s urbanenvironmental managementandexplainits therolesThis concerns different keystakeholdersplayinthecity’s developmentandin Policy implementation. This dependsontheextenttowhichvariouskeystakeholdersare involvedindesigning Decision making,policyformulationandcoordination. theinformation,specializedknowledge,andtechnicalexpertisethatdifferentThis concerns Information, knowledge,technicalexpertise. Decision making,policyformulation andpolicycoordination. be describedgenerallyas: activity inmakingpolicydecisionsandformulatingimplementingthem;theselevelsmay different sectorsandareas ofstudy. policies anddecisionsare coordinated. policy toencouragetourism),whoisresponsible andhowthisisdoneand,inparticular, how coordinated individuallyandwithothersimplementedatlocallevel(forexamplea organizations andgroups withdecisionmakingpower. Explainhowthesepoliciesare 5.1 Political-administrativeinstruments management. effectiveness inhelpingtoprotect environmental resources andimprove urbanenvironmental between urbansurroundings andtheenvironment. social stakeholders,usespecifi c toolsandhavedeterminedconsequenceswheninteracting resources. Theseresponse instrumentshavedifferent formats,are designedfordifferent on theenvironment, soto lessen anynegativeimpactsuchpressure placeson environmental already identifi ed inchapters2and3. as wasdoneinchapter3. specifi c activity sectors,specifi c environmental resources, orspecifi c environmental hazards, administration ingeneralratherthangoingintodetailsaboutmanagementarrangementsfor and administersustainableurbandevelopment.Thissectionshouldonlydealwiththecity environmental management systemssoastoimprove localcapacitiestoplan,coordinate Implementing environmental policies d) In describing this section it should be borne inmindthatthereIn describingthissectionitshouldbeborne are dimensionsorlevelsof • • • • Indicators • • • Explain whichorganizationsare mainlyresponsible for implementingpublicpoliciesinthe Policy implementation. Identify thoseinvolvedinformulatingurban-environmental policies,andthemain • • The localtechnicalteammustconsiderandanalyseeachinstrument,aswellits This meansanassessmentisneededoftheinstrumentsbeingusedtoreduce pressure The purposeistohighlightactionsorproposals beingtakentosolvesomeofthediffi culties This sectiondiscussescurrent initiativesandefforts tostrengthen thecities’ urban Operational/technical Management/administrative Number ofenvironmental NGOs Environmental educationprogrammes Local Agenda21activities Regulation oncontrolling emissionsfrom mobileandfi Legislation toprotect springsinplace Urban masterplaninplace Political xed sources inplace

57 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 58 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 5.2 Economicinstruments putting pressure ontheenvironment. are not,orwere not,capableofcreating theproper mechanismstodealwiththeproblems or theyare ineffi and/orgroupscient, itmaybeconcludedthatthelocalgovernment ofsociety question toparticipate,agreater orlesserextentasrequired. Ifthere are nosuchinstruments, really wantstogetresults, itshouldinvitethesectorsinterested inoraffected bythepolicyin needed toimprove thestateoflocalenvironment if,ontheonehand,account istakenof These instrumentsincludeabroad rangeofinitiatives,suchas: Their useandthewayinwhichtheyare employedsuggestthat,ifthelocalgovernment • Indicators • • • • • • • • • • usesthepolicyandadministrativeinstrumentstodefiLocal government ne: Economic instrumentsare veryimportantinpromoting behaviouralchanges. Theyare • Normative/legislative: norms,regulations, laws,local,national,regional andglobal pollution control, health. Policies: environmental protection, urbandevelopment,transport,environmental and howtheyare related tothelocalenvironment. that thepublicsectorisaware ofthedifferent urbandemands,needsandproblems, actions ofinterested localpublicandprivatestakeholders.Suchinstrumentsindicate Political-administrative instrumentsare mechanisms,usuallymandatory, thatdrivethe estimating thebudgetneeded. objectives, goals,andindicators,bydesigningmechanismsinstruments social andenvironmental) thatitishopedtoestablishinthelocalitymadebysetting In theidealcity, theenvironment, themethodandtypeofdevelopment(economic, limits foractiontakenbythedifferent socialsectorsand societyingeneral. be callednegativeaction(supervision,follow-up,control andregulations), establishing sites, aswellproviding thelocalpopulationwithservices)andareas ofwhatmight (investing innewworksandmaintainingrehabilitating urbanandenvironmental Allocating publicresources; thatistosay, establishingpriorityareas forpositiveaction city limits. building normsandobjectivesinurbanenvironmental conservationareas andwithin Preventive and fi warnings Tax systembasedonthepolluter/payeroruser/payerprinciple inplace environmental protection areas. laws, distributionofzonesaccording toeconomicandecologicalcharacteristics, Territorial planning:urbanmasterplans,environmental managementplans,landuse programmes andrelated activities,resources allocated, participatingorganizations. Presence ofLocalAgenda21:bodieslinkedto21,socialparticipation projects, policies, urban-environmental supervisionandcontrol instruments. Follow-up andcontrol: control mechanismstoreinforce standards, lawsandpublic and institutionalaction,multilateralagreements. Institutional: creating ministries orotherenvironmental agencies,programmes, projects commitment termsandapplyingISO14000criteria. urban-environmental laws that havealocaleffect, suchasassigningenvironmental Rules onusingurbanandnon-urbanspace;forexample,byestablishingacceptable nes forviolatingwastedisposalstandards gas emissions,recovered ordegradedareas, recycled material. sector thatmaybeabletochangeenvironmental conditionsthrough: assess environmental pressure causedbydifferent urbanactivities. of newtechnologiesbythepublicsectorthatmaybepositivewhendefi ning newwaysto environmentalgovernment control measures. However, alsotobeconsidered is theadoption market competitionthatdemandstheconstantadditionofnewtechnologies,orbecause of theenvironment. cases where theprocesses are inducedbylocallegislation, regulations orstandards thatwill 26 25 5.3. Technological instruments models andmakecompaniesmore aware oftheenvironment. a precondition forcontractingengineeringservicesandthusencouragechangesinproduction to obtainfi nancing foraproject frominstitutionsorbodies. government imply indirect costssinceitwouldsignifythelossofmarkets,ormakediffi cult forcompanies cost oninterestedgroups, economicorgovernment thelackofanISO14000certifi cate may activities. Althoughthisisavoluntaryinstrumentanddoesnotimposeanydirect economic suitability ofbusinessesandgroups interested inenvironmental conservationandsustainability impose taxesonsociety, buttheymayalsooriginateintheprivatesector. agenciesandindividuals). sectors ofsociety(includinggovernment and, ontheother, thepossibilityisconsidered ofimposingchargesontheeconomicandother their capacitytointerveneineconomicactivityandtheinterested privatestakeholdersprofi ts With respecttoBrazil,inadditionextracting lead,alcoholisaddedtogasoline toreducetheenvironmentaleffectsof usi With municipalities include environmentalprotectionpoliciesintheir ownpolicies. theenvironment receiveabiggercontributionthan thefederalgovernment.Becauseit isaneconomicst to protectorconserve Thestatesormunicipalitiesthat candemonstratetheyhavetak after chargingataxonthecirculationof goodsandservices. The ecologicalICMSisadifferentiated sharing inthedistributionofincreasedresourcesamongmunicipalities.InBrazil itr Products: industrialfi lters, automobilecatalysers, CFC-free sprays,unleaded gasoline. Processes: newtechnologies,solidandliquidwastetreatment, pollutionfrom industrial The analysisshouldfocusontechnologicaladvances adoptedbythepublicorprivate Pressure toacquire newtechnologiesisgreater onprivateenterprisesbecauseof Technological instrumentsare alsoimportant whenassessingresponses aboutthestate • Indicator • • • To makethemostappropriate assessmentofthesetechnologies theyshouldberelated to The analysisofeconomicinstrumentsisdividedinto: Therefore, tousetheISO14000standard onewayforthelocalgovernment istoadoptitas The ISO14000standard, forexample,wascreated intheprivatesectortoassess Economic instrumentsareanditscapacityto generallyassociatedwithlocalgovernment Others: fi nes. Investments insolidwastemanagement Taxes: ecologicalICMS environment. Budgetresources. for territorialoccupationandotheractivitiesthatdonotdamageorprotect the Financial: fundsforactivitiestoprotect and/orconservetheenvironment, subsidies 25 ,taxes,fi scal instruments. efers tothestatus ng fossilfuels en action imulus, 26

59 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 60 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 5.4 Physicalinterventioninstruments(publicinvestments) made ofthenewtechnology’s effectiveness inimproving thestate ofthelocalenvironment. automobile catalysersorCFC-free sprays.Thisinformationwillpermitanassessmenttobe extent pressure ontheenvironment wasreduced thankstotheintroduction ofindustrialfi lters, instruments. also allowanassessmenttobemadeoftheeffectiveness oftheState’s policy-administrative Others measures alsoruntherisk ofputtingpressure ontheenvironment. of landslidesorsubjecttofl ooding. environmental problems causedbyuncontrolled landoccupationof,forexample, areas atrisk networks tocollect,treat and distributewater, orotherworksdesignedtocorrect socio- place ontheenvironment. used bysociety, toreduce inparticularthelocalgovernment, pressure urbanactivities An indicationmustalsobegivenastowhetherinformationisavailableaboutwhat • • • • • • The followingengineeringoperationsandworksshouldbeanalysed: If noaccountistakenoftheconditionsinecosystemwhichtheyare applied,these These are generallysanitary engineeringworkssuchasbuildingdrainagenetworksor The principalmechanismstoimprove thelocalenvironment includephysicalmeasures • • • • • • • • Indicators: • Household connections Access toandqualityoflocalinfrastructure services Investments inwastemanagement Investment inwatersupplyanddrainagessystems Investment inpublictransport Investment inenvironmental recovery Investment ingreen areas Total rehabilitated areas inrelation tototaldegradedareas zone, population benefi ted. conserving riverbanks;resources employed,areas benefi ted distribution intheurban Channelling rivers,clearing watercourses,protecting springswithinthemunicipality, resources, distributioninthe urbanarea, populationbenefi ted. Reducing areas subjecttolandslides;numberof areas benefi ted, contentionareas, deposits, socio-spatialdistribution. Final disposalofsolidwaste;fi nancing, source, typeoftreatment, locationofgarbage relation. Drainage systems;fi nancing, source, socio-spatialdistribution, supply/demand relation. Water supplysystem;fi nancing, source, socio-spatialdistributionsupply/demand even whenfi nance alone isnotagoodindicatorofwhethertheresponse iseffective. Creating andreclaiming green areas, parks,gardens, environmentally protected areas, decontaminating riversandotherwatercourses. infrastructure, connecting to drainagenetworks,collectingandtreating solidwaste, Increasing accesstopublic healthservices;building,expandingandimproving of theanalysismadeand ofhowthedataandinformationare presented in the GEOreport. environment butalsoabouthowitmightevolveinfuture. Indoingsoaccount shouldbetaken such policiesandaction mayserveasresponses notonlyaboutthepresent stateofthe evolution sothatthedifferent socialstakeholderscanformulatepublicpoliciesand takeaction; sectors ofit. urban-environmental aboutqualityoflife,whethertheentire concerns populationorcertain formulating, managingandfollowinguponlocalpublicpolicies,decisionmaking to makepeoplemore aware oftheinteractionsbetweensocietyandenvironment. incompatible withthenaturalcycleofreplenishing environmental resources; theyare alsoused years awiderangeofinstrumentshavebeenusedtochangeconsumptionpracticesthatare supported bytheconstantuseofadvertisingandmarketingresources. Inthisrespect, inrecent irresponsible useoftheenvironment. a consensusonthecentralrole ofenvironmental educationandcommunicationinhalting the environment,developmentorganizations,havenowreached andnationalinternational response instrumentswillhaveaverylimitedeffect. positions withrelation totheproper andsustainable useofnaturalresources, usingother bodies behaveare increasingly usedtodealwithproblems threatening theenvironment. 5.5 Socio-cultural,educationalandpubliccommunicationinstruments In analysingthetypeofresponse thefocusshouldbeon: Such instrumentsincludemechanismsthatencouragegreater socialparticipationin The successandcontinuityofcontemporaryproduction andconsumptionmodelsare Environmental bodiesinvolvedinprotecting organizations,localgovernment andconserving This practiceistheresult ofunderstandingthat,ifsocialstakeholdersdonotchangetheir The objectiveofthischapteristobuildafuture picture ofthecity’s urban-environmental • • • Instruments thattrytopromote changesinhowindividuals,companiesandgovernment • • Indicators • Local agenda21 Environmental education benefi ted. In areas subjecttofl ooding; typesofoperations,resources, areas andpopulation environmental radioandtelevisionprogrammes. informationavailableontheInternet, Use ofinformationtechnologytopromote environmental communication,making use ofnaturalresources, selectivecollectionofwaste,recycling material. Educational programmes and services;environmental education,campaignsonthe sector projects, participating inelectingorganizationsthatprepare environmental audits making andinimplementingpublicpoliciesontheenvironment, state/civil,society/private Civil society participation, incentives to participate in social organizations, in decision Civil societyparticipation,incentivestoparticipateinsocialorganizations,decision Chapter 6: Future outlook(SCENARIOS) Chapter 6:Future

61 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 62 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports the localandglobalenvironment. Second,takingearly actiontoensure adaptation andavoida management: first ofall,raisingawareness amongcitizensabout theinter-relationships between themes thatwillbeimportantwhendefi ning future urbanandenvironmental policies. environmental management.To dothisthelocaltechnicalteammustidentifyemerging a guideforactiontakenbythepublicauthorityandlocalsocietyintermsofcity’s urban- c) b) a) 29 28 27 perhaps, beveryimportantinthe21stcentury: and actsoastoprevent or reduce sucheffects. on thelookoutfor, andanticipates,future environmental effects ofthecity’s present dynamics, measures, isbasedonthe precaution principlethatrecommends thepublicadministrator be Therefore, thestrategyemployedtoidentifycriticalpointsandplanexecutepreventive 6.1 Defi of thecity’s urban-environmental development. The chapterdealswithtwoimportantcomponents:EmergingThemesandFuture Scenarios scientifi c uncertaintydoesnotjustifyfailure totakemeasures toprotect theenvironment important whenmakingtheanalysis. possibility ofuncertaintyandcontroversy aboutwhichemergingthemesshouldbeconsidered of onegeneration’s term;accordingly, lifeexpectancyoragovernment there isalwaysthe two generations.Itisdiffi cult, therefore, torecognize changesintheglobal sceneoveraperiod importance, mayhaveaccumulativeeffects overtimeandsometimesappearaftermore than they are surrounded byuncertaintyandcontroversy. environment. However, whetherproblems oropportunities,acommoncharacteristicisthat also beopportunitiesthatmayappearinthefuture andwouldhaveapositiveimpactonthe long-term effects. These themesalsoincludeenvironmental changescausedbyshort-termhumanactivitywith environmental managementthatwillhaveanimpactoverthemediumandlongterm. to reduce the effectofgreenhouse gases. asalegalbasis forinternationalagreements,suchas theKyotoProtocol, Framework Convention onClimateChange,1992,serves of mediumandlongterm In defi ning theIEA/GEOmethodology (consultPinter, Zahedi andCressman,2000:101)the“emergingtheme”conceptpresupposesa This isarecentconcept thatwasrecognizedinthelastdecade toimplementinter-media orpublicenvironmentpolicies.The U UNEP, IISDandEcologistics International,2000.Training toprepareintegratedenvironmentassessments andreports,Training m There are variousadvantagesintakingaccountofemergingthemesurban-environmental cancer. over themediumandlongtermare unknown.Forexample,leachates,CFCs, cloningand Changes inknownthemesthatnowhavetheright responses butwhoseconsequences competition andlocaldevelopmentlimitsbecause ofenvironmental liabilities. Unexpected changesinlong-establishedthemes. Forexample,tradeandenvironment, use ofpesticidesandhealth. and health,theuseofGeneticallyModifi ed Organisms(GMOs),biodiversityandhealth,the Unexpected eventsandscientifi c discoveries.Forexample,linksbetweenclimatechanges In defi ning theIEA/GEOmethodology One ofthepurposesIEA/GEOreport istoprepare astrategicpanoramatoserveas The IEA/GEOmethodologyidentifi es three categoriesofenvironmental materialthatcould, It isimpossibletopredict all thevariablesinfl uencing changesintheenvironment; however, Environmental changescaused byhumanactivities,andapparently oflittleorno It shouldalsobeconsidered thatemergingthemesare notonlyproblems; theycould nition ofemergingthemes 28 ,emergingthemesare thoserelevant tourban- 27

nited Nations anual thatseek notion 29 .

assessed ontwolevels:already existingproblems, andemergingfuture themes. given tothecity’s mainurban-environmental problems. Suchresponses, therefore, shouldbe is adualresource thatshouldhelplocalpublicpolicydecisionmaking. territory’s naturalresources andecosystems.Thisstage,togetherwiththatonrecommendations, Table 3. some mattersthathavetobefaced. generally gohandinwithurbandevelopmentandthegrowth ofcities.Thefollowingare account ofasyetunsolvedaccumulatedenvironmental problems (environmental liabilities)that And, fi nally, makingscientifi c knowledgeavailabletothepublicadministration. promoting understandingabouthowhumanactivitiesandtheenvironment are connected. crisis. Third, providing betterguidanceaboutresearch andsystematicdatacollection.Fourth, 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. Confl marcation andlandusewillsoonbe reopened dueto attempts to invade coveted landon Confl confl intensify have awater service, diffi andthereal to daily water, agendas right privatization the benefi the needsof100%citizensLimaandCallao; Th company, asanoptionto increase investments inthecostly infrastructure neededto meet Water aboutthenew services SEDAPAL, thewaterbegun and sewage andprivatizing Law tween thegrowing demandfor water and evermore polluted supplies.Adebate hasrecently The definition ofemergingthemesalsopermitsanassessmenttobemadetheresponses Emerging themeswilldependonthespecifi c relation ofthelocalurbansituationto An explanationwillshortlybegivenaboutthescope ofsomethem. • • • • • In thenotverydistantfuture emergingthemeswillbepartofthepublicagendathattakes Environmental impactsofthe Free Trade Agreement Youth participationinenvironmental policies. Business socialresponsibility. fuels. Use ofalternative Water basinmanagementandpayment forambulatoryservices. Confl icts overterritorialdemarcation andlanduse. Confl icts overwatershortages. change duetolocalindustriesemittinggreenhouse gasesintotheatmosphere. Urban vulnerabilityandenvironmental disasters;theeffect onourplanet’s present climate locality’s environmental liabilities. Advantages ofandlimitstocompensationlocaldevelopmentresulting from each Environmental responsibility related tocreating environmental liabilities. Environmental compensationforpollutioncausedbyindustrialactivitiesinthelocality. of lifecausedbyenvironmental pollution. Environmental confl icts related toeconomiclossesanddamagehealthquality Polluted locationsoroldindustrialzonesandtheirimpactonthehealthofecosystems. ict overwaterict shortages: icts over territorial demarcation overterritorial andlanduse: icts GEO LimaandCallaoemergingthemes ts of privatization. Th ts ofprivatization. e international debate aboutwater einternational confl icts abouttheresource inthe capital. Th e city of Lima and Callao faces a critical situationbe- ecityofLimaandCallaofaces acritical ey, however, are notconvinced of culties faced bythosewhodonot Th e debate about territorial de- edebate aboutterritorial icts andthehuman

63 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 64 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 30 6.2 Buildingscenarios:localtrends (inertia,thebestandworstcases) Defi of urbanenvironmental policies according totheirobjectivesandavailability. problems causedbyurban development. must refl ect responses, givenbyboththepublicauthorityandcivilsociety, toenvironmental to builddifferent scenariostobeusedinurban-environmental management. environment; itconsiderscertain trends thatmaynowbedetectedand,amplifi ed, willallowus us thinkabouthowthecity’s dynamicsshouldevolveandtheconsequencesforlocal rigorous. precision anddetailsaboutpossibleresults andmakethescenariomore consistentand cultural infl uences, andchanges;there are alsoquantitative elementsthatprovide greater thus, direct eventsalongsustainablepathsandavoidadverseconsequences. to helpdecision-makersforesee future situationswithdifferent degrees ofprobability and, they present acoherent andmultidimensionalviewofhoweventsoccur. Theyare developed Kartha, Sivan.(2005)SEIPresentations. InWorkshop onNational problems andbebetter prepared to face them. formulating publicpoliciesandactionbasedonth asforeseenexactly inthe diff thatinfuture isnotexpected willperform options.It they policy surrounding uncertainty Important: mechanisms andpayment for thebasinprovides theenvironmental to thecity. services basins inthecountry. Inaddition,itwillrevive thedebate aboutthesearch for recognition tion. Th democratic governability, economic development inbuildingthe withlocalstakeholdersactiveparticipation lot Project (PROCUENCA-Lurín), Pi- Lurin calledRio outbyaninitiative focus isbeingtried withaterritorial management for landmanagement and Callao,anew developmentmodelisbeingpromoted. Th Water services: basinmanagementandpayment for ambulatory interests andcitizensconcerned aboutthequalityoflife inthecity. be putto thetest andthere willbenolackof Th Lima. andth economic-ecological zoningregulations pampas;debated alsoare or theSanBartolo suchasthezonebordering thePachacamacurban outskirts, Sanctuary, theVentanilla sands With thehelpofsimulationstudy,With administratorswillassessthe purposesandprogress For sustainabilitytobefeasibleincities,long-termprocesses andtheprojection ofscenarios Besides beingstimulating,buildingscenariosisanimportantexercise becauseitmakes formulatingscenarios. The otherimportantcomponentofthischapterconcerns The descriptionincludes,amongothers,qualitative elementssuchasbehaviour, values, Scenarios are portrayalsofthefuture basedonsuppositionstoldwithwords andnumbers; nition 30 is programme could become a new territorial management modelfor management otherurban isprogramme could become territorial anew e eff Scenarios are not predictions but they suggest arange are Scenarios ofoptionsto notpredictions reduce suggest butthey the ectiveness of land use instruments ectiveness oflanduseinstruments erent scenarios proposed in the IEA/GEO report. However, report. erent proposed scenarios intheIEA/GEO structural changesinduced bydecentralization,structural pressure from landspeculators, largeproperty e new landuseproposale new for Metropolitan ese possible scenarios allowsustoese possiblescenarios anticipate and social well-beingofthebasin’s andsocial popula- and publicconsultation mechanismswill InPeru, andinLima is new project anincrease in,orevenworseningof,environmental problems detected. to implementthemdonotfavourachievingtheobjectives.Inthiscasefuture scenariowill environmental problems detected,thatsuchresponses are notadequate,orthattheconditions The inertiatrend needs. it permitstheanalysistodeterminehowfeasibleiseachscenario’s economyandfi nancial explaining howthehistoryevolved.Informationoncostsandbenefi ts isalsorelevant since outline thanothers. building themrequires qualitativeandquantitativeinformation. Sometrends willbeeasierto environment. mistaken decisionsmadebysocialagentsworsen oramplifyfactorsthatputpressure onthe responses intoeffect eitherdonothelp,theyplacehard-to-overcome obstaclesintheway, or The worstcasetrend or inthesectorswhichsocialagentsintervene. effect. Inthiscase,thescenarios willproject theoverallimprovement inthelocal environment, responses totheproblems andthere wouldbenoimpedimentstoputtingsuch responses into The bestcasetrend In thiscase,itcouldhappenthat: This trend considersthepossibilitythatnoresponses are formulatedtoconfront the Scenarios are builtbyconsideringthree typesoftrends. The result willbeamixture ofindicators,trends andpotentialgoals,withexplanatorytexts • • • • • • Preparing scenariosimpliesputtingintoeffect possible future visionsusingpresent options; • • In thiscase: The future scenariowillproject aseriousworseningofenvironmental problems. This iswhere there isnoresponse totheproblems, or where theconditionsto putthe In thiscase: This issituationwhereandsocietywouldgiveperfectlyadequate local government Implementation conditionsdonotfavourachievingtheobjectives. The responses are inadequate. Wrong decisionsworsenor amplify factorsthatputpressure ontheenvironment. Implementation conditions donothelporputhard-to-overcome obstaclesin the way. There are noimpedimentstoimplementingtheresponses. problems. No response hasbeenformulated toconfront environmental problems detected. There isnoresponse totheproblems encountered. andsocietywillbequiteadequatetotacklethe Responses bylocalgovernment

65 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 66 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 31 that theregion anditscities mightfollowworldtrends, andtheseare: documents havebeenstructured around thethree mainscenariosthatconsider thepossibility a more precise characterizationtobemadeofeachscenario.InLatinAmericatheIEA/GEO using asetofscenariosbasedonaccentuatingsomethemostoutstandingfactorstoallow Scenarios fortheGEOCitiesreport. management. account asetofelementssothattheymakesenseandare usefulforurban-environmental Kartha, Sivan.(2005), op.cit > > area orbyincentives suchasataxoncarbonemissions. frameworks andinplanningprocesses. theseare inthefi All strengthened regulatory Environmentaleconomic development. costs andbenefi environmental Coordinated objectives. pro-envi areDecisive initiatives taken by thosewho the environment. plannersandlegisl authorities, of governmental bytheprevailing economy.undermined Growing agrowing to corrective exert infl with citizensandconsumer groups, try aff to and sustenance, andthushelpingpeoplecommunities creating enterprises new being, Confi agendas. Th Most oftheworldadoptsvaluesandexpectat The collectionofIEA/GEOdocumentsprepared undertheguidanceofUNEPhavebeen • • • • • • Besides thestepsdescribedabove,tobuildscenariositisstillnecessarytakeinto

ewell-beingofnationsandtheoptimumrole Policies First Markets First chapters should beincludedandanalysedintheretrospective aswellintheprospective The sameenvironmental themeshighlightedinthereport ontheStateofEnvironment Scenarios shouldbelimitedastospaceandtime. context. future andtheviewoffuture, aswellconsidering thestakeholders,eventsand The narrativeshouldincludethepresent state,drivingforces, discussionsaboutthe elements thatcanbeunderstoodandare coherent and consistent. The scenarioistobepresented withanarrativeand,wheneverpossible,quantitative provide anenvironmental windowtohighlightenvironmental descriptionsandpolicies. Scenarios shouldhaveanintegratedapproach tosustainabledevelopmentbutshould Future developmentsshouldconsiderenvironmental implications. ord insurance environmental against problems. investors, andsocial Ethical together dence goes beyond globalization andliberalization to increase dence well- goesbeyond globalization corporative 31 *. ions now prevailing in industrialized countries. countries. ions nowprevailing inindustrialized govern inanattempt and to achievesocial govern of marketforces dominate andpolicy social ronment and anti-poverty actionsbalance ronment andanti-poverty demands continue to overwhelm the power demands continue to overwhelm ators to regulate society, theeconomy and ts are in includedinpolicies, uence but they areuence butthey scal > > • • • • • • Th the future outlook reached ontheneedto basicneedsan satisfy citizens andinvestors indecisionmakingonth and responsible behaviour. corporate Th others andwiththeworldaround themstimul state prevails inwhichradi aboutwhathappens, sustainability, andmore backedbynew equita environmentalA new anddevelopmentparadigm emergesinresponse to thechallengesof

e scenarios analysisteaches: escenarios making. inmindthathavingBear accessible andreliable to information isthekey decision diﬀ mustbetakeninto for accountIt that, environmental aprerequisite governance, for jointbeneﬁ synergies, How betweenen to existinglinks identify preventive measures. andadaptation stakeholderstoday andfor between and agreement many yearsto come.Th andenvironmental thesocial Achieving willrequire objectives great coordination decisions. How totheenvironmental identify impactsofhumanaction,orinaction,onpolicy development. andwillhave 10,20or30years, example implicationsfor theenvironment andsustainable How to contrast possiblehappeningsthatshowwhatwilloccur for overthelongterm, What are analysislessons? thescenarios What Sustainability First erent policiesishaving solidinstitutions. ts (healthandenvironment). ere ismore collaboration betweengovernments, d to achieve personal objectives without harming d to withoutharming achievepersonalobjectives ble institutions and values. A more visionary ble institutionsandvalues.Amore visionary ates and backs sustainability policy measures ates sustainabilitypolicy andbacks cal changesintheway peopleinteract with vironmental matters themes: andsocial emes ofcommon interest. Aconsensus is is includes

67 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 68 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports Table 4. 32 for thesetwocities Source: GEO-Lima and Callao.Levelof“environmentalization” ofthepoliciesunderthreescenarios Economic policy Industrial policy transport policy Environmental housing policy Below anexampleisgivenofGEOLimaandCallao,summarizingthepossiblescenarios programmes policies and Energy and Institutions Urban and “Environmentalization” levelunderthethree scenarios than quality. is onquantityrather for housingtsemphasis and horizontal pattern, is ofanexpansionist ineffective, theview use isnon-existentor environmental land dismantled, urban- Urban plansare increases. has failed.Poverty “trickle down”theory large enterprises.The The benefi ciaries and economic behaviour. agreements defi ne and international The FTA, FTAA offi ces. subsidiary municipal management from weak. Environmental unarticulated and dispersed, administration, Multidistrict sanctions system. and ineffective sectors, poorcontrol regulations insome Environmental transport pilotproject, massive CAMISEA reconversion withthe Low energy Unregulated market programmes. of densifi cation successful repetition and urbanoutskirts, to improve districts control, pilotprojects urban oversightand urban plans,better More articulated halted. view. Povertyincrease environmental pointsof economic, socialand profi table from the ventures inprojects are applied.Joint redistributive policies enterprises, but translational domination by continues and World integration directorates. fienvironmental rst-rank All municipalitieshave metropolitan outlook. administration with Multidistrict control. branches, effective sectors andproductive regulations inall Environmental successful. programmes and massivetransport project reconversion Moderate CAMISEA cnroRfr Sustainability Scenario Reform control ofoutskirts. densifiand cation programmes; urban improvement massive neighbourhood zoning programme, economic-ecological included intheregional and districtplans Metropolitan plan Poverty indecline. productive chains. micro enterprisesand impulse tosmalland added value.Strong and serviceswith on producing goods economic toolsand a widerrangeof designed basedon Development policies central unit. and monitored from a in allurbanpolicies management included Environmental administration. Integrated metropolitan control. included, strong coefficoncept cient sectors developed, New production transport programmes. with alternative project reconversion Strong CAMISEA 32

Social andcitizen sanitation policy Environmental Environmental environmental Investment in quality policy management participation citizenship Patrimony Water and policies policy needs. to otherinterests and as beingsubsidiary environment isseen awareness, the Little citizenship benefactors. and international interest ofprivate monuments inthe Prompt recovery of redoubts. recovery ofecosystem residues, environmental projects onrecycling of pipelinecontrol) pilot Reactive policies(end regulation. privatization withlittle state monopolyor to treat drains, centralized system infrastructure, conventional technology and megaprojects, and investment diversion ofbasins Emphasis onsupply, budgets, LCC). (participatory plansand limited modelsare tried some participationbut are assistentialist, prevails, socialpolicies The free market benefactors. cooperation and dependence onforeign Very low, strong of dailylife. begins tobecomepart the environmental Moderate awareness, programmes. pilot restoration by municipalities, patrimony sites conserve andmanage Urban policyto wetlands). ecosystems (rivers, environmental in recovering symbolic moderate investment pilot projects, Repeat ofsuccessful regulation andcontrol. with moderate Concession ofservices treatment systems. and decentralization on savingwater use, newtechnologies industrial anddomestic projects foragricultural, pilot watersaving Emphasis ondemand, mechanisms. public participation diversifiof cation citizenship, and environmental on empowerment with pilotprogrammes policies prioritized regulation, social Moderate market investment. municipal andprivate Moderate mixed behaviour prevails. awareness, responsible Broad environmental participation. private andcitizen programmes with and conservation Massive restoration an urbanasset. Patrimony becomes coastal zone. wetlands andmarine- and basins,hillsides, corridors (valleys large ecosystem partnerships torecover efflpublic-private uents, minimize residues and programmes to Preventive policies, restructured. or statemanagement regulation andcontrol of serviceswithstrong recycled. Concession water re-used and in effi cient technologies, basins, hugeincrease administration ofwater and integrated of demand,planning Strong management common practice. democracy isa participatory programmes, citizenship and environmental massive empowerment and marketcontrol, Strong regulation and programmes. investment inallpolicies Strong environmental

69 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 70 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports III. Process P GGEO Cities r E o O c e

C s s i t

i e s

reached ontheobjectives and responsibilities inpreparing theGEOCitiesreport. with amandateoraninterest inenvironmental themes.Discussionswillbeheldandagreement pinpoint commonpointsofinterest, thiswillidentifyandmakecontactwithdifferent institutions for thereport’s production. training willbegivenontheGEOCitiesmethodology, andresponsibilities willbeestablished team isdefi ned, stakeholdersidentifi ed whowillbeinvitedtocontributethedocument, institutional conditionstoproduce thereport. Thisisalsothestagewhere the local technical in thismanual,basedonwhatbestsuitsthepoliticalandinstitutionalsituationeachcity. interdependence and,according tolocalcircumstances, inadifferent order thanthatproposed andsociety.both inlocalgovernment the results andproposals tothegreatest possiblenumberofinterested socialstakeholders, different sectorsinpreparing thereport andtodemonstratetheimportanceofcommunicating problems detected. made ofthestateenvironment, andsolutionsdevelopedorsuggestedforthedifferent by thelocalpublicauthorityisneeded,informationmustbecollected,anextensiveanalysis the worldaswell. experience already acquired, notonlyinLatinAmerica andtheCaribbeanbutinotherpartsof allow thelocaltechnicalteamtoproduce thedocumentwhilekeepinginmindprinciplesand 33 Stage 1Institutional to understandthedriving forces andthemaincauses. be abletodiscusswhataction totake,ortheconsequencesofnottakingaction, wealsoneed to knowwhatishappeningtheenvironment inorder tounderstandwhyitishappening.To produces newinformation. and theeconomy. opportunitiesare Learning brought tolightwheninteraction amongthem different socialstrata;theyprobably havedifferent outlooks,alllegitimate,abouttheenvironment to thepublicandorganizations. broader thanthoseoftraditionalenvironmental reports; therefore, theyshouldbemade known Why istheprocess important? 1.1. Installationactivities international Training Manual,2000,Training toprepareIntegratedEnvironment AssessmentsandReports. This sectioniscompletelybasedonthe chapter“Assessmentandproducingreports”inSection1oftheUNEP, IISDand Ecologist An institutionalcollaborationandorganizationframeworkwillbeestablished:inorder to At eachstageofproducing theassessmentactivitiesmustbecarriedoutwithrelative This manualdescribeseachstageoftheprocess. Itseekstoencourageparticipationby To prepare theassessmentandGEOCitiesreport, atechnicalteamoffi cially backed The fi rst, orinstitutional stage,iswhere importantdecisionsare madeabout preparing the Preparing theGEOCitiesreport impliesaseriesofstages thatmustbethoughtthrough to Sequence istheorder ofthekeyquestions(table5)thatguideprocess. First,weneed The technicalteammemberscomefrom different disciplines,organizationsandeven As wehaveseen,theobjectivesofanintegratedenvironmental assessmentreport are 33

ics

71 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 72 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports merits specialattentionby allthoseinvolved,thepublicauthorityinparticular. given thatmaterialconditionswillbecreated toenabletheentire worktodevelop.Thisstage to continuewithitinspiteofanydiffi culties that might crop upalongtheway. other hand,itisessentialthatcivilsocietysectors involved withtheworkmakeacommitment information neededtoanalyseurban-environmental thelocality. questionsconcerning Onthe human, technicalandfi nancial resources forthework; theyshouldalsoallowaccesstothe effective supportfrom themunicipalauthority, oritssubordinate bodies,inmakingavailable signifi es thatthepossibilityofhavingasuccessful GEO Citiesoutcomedependsonreceiving in particularofthoseeachcitywhoare directly involvedwithenvironmental themes.This include thepoliticalwilloflocalpublicauthorityandcommitmentcivilsociety, GEO Citiesreport topreparing executivesummaries. preparing simpleposters, dissemination tables,leafl ets, CDroms, andgatheringdataforthe family of action taken. as wellensuringthattheassessmentwillresult inresponses beinggivenandappropriate different sectors(publicandprivate)toparticipateinpreparing asatisfactory assessment, questions havelinkstoeconomicandsocialthemes.Inthisoutlookitisnecessaryforthe to enhancethequalityofassessment.Finally, itis scientifi c knowledge.Discussion,constructionandanalysisbythedifferent disciplinesallhelp integrated environmental assessment itiscrucialtohavethesupportofdifferent branchesof both theprocess andthequality ofpolicydecisions. Involving different stakeholderswillgiveabetterunderstandingofthethemesandimprove information, aswellhelpingtoclarifytheirpositionsandinterests aboutagivenproblem. that thedifferent stakeholdersinaninteractiveprocess promote exchangeofknowledgeand basic principles:itisparticipatory, multidisciplinaryandmultisectorial. participate throughout theprocess; theparticipantsmight seethisasachallange. how thereport istobeprepared shouldbeclarifi ed sothatgroups withdifferent interests can involving peoplewhosetaskthisis,aswellthosewhomightbeaffected bytheresults. to ensure thatthereport’s observationsandrecommendations infl uence decisionmakingisby between societyandtheenvironment sothatneededchangescanbemade.Thebestway between keyorganizationsandindividualsare vitalforsuccess. along professional, bureaucratic, religious orpoliticallines.Confi dence, trustandcooperation people whousuallydonotworkasateam;inthisrespect there isahighpotentialfortension disciplines andorganizations.Therefore, italsorequires bringingtogetherorganizationsand assessment requires linkinginformationandinsightusually scattered across awidevarietyof The othercomponentsof thisstageare analysedbelow. For thesereasons, theinstitutionalstageofGEOCitiesprocess isofvitalimportance The mostimportantconditionstoensure thesuccessofGEOCitiesreport process Another attributeoftheGEOprocess isthatitassociatedwiththeproduction ofa One ofthemaincharacteristicsGEOCitiesprocess isitsperspectivebasedonthree Clarity Appropriation Cooperation dependsonthecapacityofteamtoworktogether. Integratedenvironmental multiproducts . Itisimportantthat,from thebeginning,uncertaintiesandsuppositionsabout . Theobjectiveofthisreport istoincrease knowledge abouttheinteraction asameanstoreach awider audience.Suchproducts rangefrom Multidisciplinary multisectorial becauseenvironmental meansthattomakean Participatory means general. leave thedooropenfor continuous dialoguebetweentheinterested partiesandsocietyin communication between scienceandpolitics.Thisisparticularlyimportant becauseitcan trained onenvironmental questionstoleadandintegratetheanalysisinto thereport. throughout thewholeprocess. Ontheotherhand,suchinstitutionsshouldhaveprofessionals to havetheleadershipofinstitutionscapable of mobilizingdifferent socialstakeholders understand theneedforalong-termcommitment. conditions, andthroughout thewholeprocess; itis,therefore, importantthatallparticipants Who willadminister?participate? process. Table 5: The assessmentandthe integratedreport are toolsthatmaybeused tofacilitate Conducting theprocess requires technicaland/orpoliticalcapacities.Forthisitisimportant The organizationalstructure shouldfunctionbothinthefirst stagethatstudiesenvironmental Table 5isagraphicdescriptionofthesequencestagesforeseen fortheGEOCities GEO CitiesProcess

73 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 74 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports models; forexample,thatshowninTable 6. Some countrieshavehadsuccessfulresults forprocesses ofthistypewithdifferent institutional 35 34 information maybescattered andthereport mayappear uncoordinated. cases informationontheenvironment maybewelldevelopedandorganized.Inothercities have experienceofscientifi c research andofsystematicdatagatheringplanning;inthese be consistentwiththebroader institutionalframeworkofthecityorcountry. Somecities being synergeticratherthancompetitive.Itisimportantthatthereport’s institutionalcontext about outlookswhich,whiledifferent, are alsopertinent,theseefforts shouldbeconsidered as guaranteed amore importantrole. are notdominatedbytheoutlooksorinterestssocialgroups oflocal governments, mustbe defi ned inaccordance witheachcity’s institutionalconditions when preparing theGEO Cities report maybequitefl exible, itsformmustbeveryclearly published environmental assessments In whichinstitutionalenvironment? preparation istobehandledproperly, thenthenumberofparticipantsmustbelimited. UNEP, IISDandEcologisticsinternational,2000, Training toprepareIntegrated EnvironmentAssessmentsandReports.Training Training manual.UNEP, IISDandEcologisticsinternationalLtd.Op.cit Local governments may: Local governments As there are nofi xed rules,manyvariationsmaybefoundintheinstitutionalframework. Nevertheless, asthisprogrammereports dealsmainlywithgovernment thatinformthepublic It isimportanttokeepinmindthat,whiletheframeworkorinstitutionalenvironment used • • • In recentorganizationsandinstitutionshave yearspublicorganizations,non-governmental A participatoryprocess shouldresult inlinkingscience andpolitics.However, ifthereport’s Hire organizationorauniversitytoprepare anon-governmental theGEOCitiesreport. for preparing assessments andreports. Establish anindependentagencyresponsible forinformationontheenvironment, and Use an existing government department. Use anexistinggovernment 34 However, sothatthereport andtheassessment 35

manual. interested inbeingpartofthetechnicalteam. 1.1.1 Identifyingand appointingthelocaltechnicalteam e) d) c) b) a) regulations. responsibility.is usuallyagovernment Thelegalmandatemustbeclearlybackedbylawsand out thetaskare takeninto accountaspartofthesocialorganizationscore infrastructure; this produce theexpectedresults. Thisrequires thatthelegalmandateandcapacitytocarry What isthelegalmandate? Table 6. concrete caseoninstitutionalconditionsineachcity. Choosing oneortheotherinstitutionalstructure willdependontheassessmentmadeineach Both modelsare pertinentandallowanintegratedurban-environmental report tobeprepared. Botanical NetworkandtheTransdisciplinary Centre ofEnvironmental StudiesandDevelopment. Environmental StudiesandDevelopment,theMinistryofHousingUrbanism,LatinAmerican Housing andUrbanism,theLatinAmericanBotanicalNetworkTransdisciplinary Centre of public andprivatebodiesinthecityincludingChileanConstructionChamber, theMinistryof Catholic UniversityofChileisresponsible fortheprocess. Taking partwere representatives ofdifferent This report adoptedanother institutionalstrategyinthattheUrbanStudiesInstituteofPontiﬁ cal Montevideo. the responsibility oftheCoordinator oftheEnvironmental EducationGroup oftheMunicipality of CanelonesandSanJosé,bothwithintheMontevideometropolitan area. Theprocess was and theUniversityofUruguay. Joiningtheteamtoowere techniciansfrom theMunicipalAuthorities also includedwere representatives ofenvironmentalist NGOs,theNationalEnvironment Directorate, of theGEOCitiesreport, expandedtheoriginalteambyaddingtechniciansfrom different areas; annual environmental reports onthecityofMontevideo,andinkeepingwithbroader character The cityauthorities,takingadvantageofateammunicipaltechniciansresponsible forpreparing advisory groups. Finally, theauthorityprepares participation by thewayforconsultationsandexternal Legislation maypromote exchangeofdataandharmonizationreport initiatives. and supportrole toprepare the report atsub-nationaland locallevels. different Forexample,anationalagencymayperform acatalytic sectorsofgovernment. It isrecommended thatlegislationincludeadiscussiononenvironmental reports between the reports. preparing thestatistics,national orlocalfollow-upprogrammes andtheagenciespresenting A jointworkingmethodmaybeestablishedbetweenthenationalorlocalauthorities contribute tothereport. Legislation mayincludethedegreeagenciesthat ofcollaborationbetweengovernment One ofthemostimportant stepsintheprocess istoidentifythesocialstakeholders Assessment andreporting are complextaskswhich,unlesscarriedoutcorrectly, willnot reports: Examples ofinstitutionalstructures insomeGEOCities GEO Montevideo. GEO Santiago

75 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 76 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. GEO CitiesProject. Training theworkgroup orlocaltechnicalteam a) Table 7: planning andexecution. This setsoutthebasicstepsestablishedtotrainworkgroups incitiescovered bythe the budgetandfreeing theneededresources. between planningthestagesofprocess andcityadministrativeplanning; forexample, Establish termsofreference foreachgroup’s activitiesthatincludedefi ning therelationship Identify theappropriate specialiststojointhelocalteamandworkinggroups. to studyspecifi c questions thatincludesuchmattersasgarbage,health,andsoon. priorities, analysingcertainquestions,preparing anoverallview;ortheymaybeestablished These workinggroups will begivenresponsibility forsettingtaskssuchas:establishing Establish aworkinggroup structure underthesupervisionofGeneralCoordination. plans. and integratetheresults of thedebates,research anddrawinguptheaction planor Create ordesignaGeneral Coordination toregulate andguidethegeneralplanning effort, campaign toarouse interest andgainsupport. body (thecity)startstheprocess withthestakeholders.Itshouldincludeaneducational Determine thescopeofplanninganddefine itsobjectives.Thisshouldbedonebywhatever • • • • • • They canbegroups of: The interested groups (Table 7)are individualsandorganizationswillingtoparticipatein Communications media Enterprises andtheir Excluded: peoplewithoutaccesstobasicurbanservices. Social movements; Experts; peoplewithspecifi c knowledgeabouttheserviceanditsenvironment. system. Interested peoplewhowillbeindirectly affected bytheimpactofserviceorits Users; peoplewhouseandare directly affected byservices. Suppliers; peoplewhocontrol andadministerservices. oenmnsRlgosOgnztosIndigenousgroups ReligiousOrganizations Governements representations Interested groups (stakeholders) GsTaeUin Unaffi liated cities Trade Unions NGOs Representatives ofpolitical nvriisYouth groups Universities parties Associations ofinhabitants poor ormarginalizedareas GEO Citiesreport: Structure oftheLocalTechnical Team The organizationmaybeasdescribedfollows Communications Working Groups: Local Technical Drafting Team: The followingisapossiblecompositionofthegroup ofpeopleinchargeproducing the or Technical Specialists Advisers: Group of Team: Team: the stateoflocalenvironment according tothePSIRmatrix. to disseminatenewsaboutthemainelementsofdiagnosis madeon to improve eachcity’s urban-environmental management, isalsoessential perhaps useitasaninstrumentfordiscussionwithlocal publicauthorities the report isprepared, if societyistoaccepttheGEOCitiesreport and about theprocess andkeepingthemuptodateaboutitsprogress. Once three peopleresponsible forinformingthedifferent localsocietysectors desirable, althoughnotobligatory, toestablishasmallgroup oftwoor ConsideringthattheGEOCitiesprocess shouldbeparticipatoryitis be responsible forediting,stylecorrection andfi nal drafting. The fi nal review ofthedocument shouldbedonebyonepersonwhowill consultants andworkinggroups inorder toproduce anintegratedreport. arranged documentthatincludesthecontributionsofdifferent team ofnomore thanthree membersbeestablishedtoprepare alogically texts thatcontributetothereport’s analysis,itisimportantthatadrafting Although theworkinggroups andconsultantsmay, andshould,produce report. a temporarycontracttomakespecifi c contributiontotheGEOCities theme, havenoconnectionwiththelocaltechnicalteam,andare given are capableofmakingadetaileddiagnosisaboutparticularproblem or Professionals withrecognized technicalorscientifi c competences who propose urban-environmentalist policiesforthelocality. on: Water, Biodiversity, Emerging Themes,andScenarios,aswellto signifi cance forthereport. For example,workinggroups maybeformed collecting relevant dataandinformationaboutspecifi c themesof They willbesetupforeachofthethematicsub-setstousedwhen improving localurban-environmental management. and willhelptheGEOCitiesprocess tocontinueineachlocality, aswell team. Thiswillallowtechnicalcapacitatestobeinstalledintheinstitutions important thatatleastonememberofthemunicipalitybeincludedin not havethequalifi ed technicalpeoplerequired, althoughitisconsidered may becontractedtogetherwithaNGOoruniversityifthelocalitydoes about urban-environmental problems ineachlocality. Thistechnicalteam members isimportanttoensure thepresence ofdifferent pointsofview to prepare theGEOCitiesreport. Thediversityofthistechnicalteam’s organizations, consultants,academicsorscientistswhowillbeasked It mayincludemembersofdifferent publicbodies,civilsociety

77 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 78 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports cause. to succeed,itisindispensable that,throughout the process, more interested groups jointhe Selecting GEOCitiesassessmentparticipants Table 8: 36 Training Manual. Op.Cit.) Adapted from Environment Canada,1992–(SeeTraining onintegratedenvironmental assessment andreporting. semi-independent government body government Ibid, p.20 > > 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1 yeo gnyPsil datgsPossibledisadvantages Possibleadvantages Type ofagency Each citywillhavethechancetodesignate local team.IftheGEOCitiesProject is

independent, represent. Th Th contribute. Th Th political willto act. Th Th Th Sectors withspecifi system. Sectors whoseinterests are indirectly aff suppliers. Service users. Service Under-represented groups. Whenever possible, try to ensure the participation of: to ensure theparticipation try possible, Whenever e inclusionofcredible withthegroups together they individualsororganizations einclusion ofsectors neededto implement any project. may withwhichindividuals andorganizations knowledgeandexperience eabilities, edesired of inclusion. degree andindividualswiththe einclusionofthelargestpossiblenumberorganizations ofthe work to bedone. epurpose efollowing shouldbeconsidered associates: whenselecting Agency: Existing Most CommonInstitutionalLevels c knowledge of the service or of the service environment. oroftheservice c knowledge oftheservice • • • • • • • • groups ofinterest. andscientifigovernmental c Creates linksbetweennon- effectiveness. Potential forinnovationandmore Has adistinguishedpublicplace. Autonomous. Access todataandinformation.. collaboration. More localgovernment Existing regional worknetworks. agencies. Limits proliferation ofspecial orofthe ected bytheimpactofservice • • • • • • • • • 36 report. No authoritiesassociatedwiththe Potential uncertaintyofresources. Lacks regional networks. access toinformation. changes. government The process maybeindanger if Bureaucracy. Tends toprotect thestatusquo stakeholders orinterested groups Limits participationbyotherpublic body. •Not recognized asindependent Requires formalpowerto have to usethetermsofreference todefi ne roles, responsibilities andcommitments. Preparing termsofreference andofcommitment basic agendawhichshouldinclude: report tobepresented ata seminar where thematerial willbemadeknowntothepublic. for theteammembersandparticipatingconsultants. needed toreach afi nal result andensure theworkwillcontinue. results andhowtoobtainthem. Defi negative effect onthequality oftheworkandcausetensionswithingroup. diffi cult anditwilladdtotheproject’s costs.Furthermore, thetimerequired couldhavea estimated timeisverylong,forexamplemore thanayearandhalf,participationwillbe and contentofactivitieswiththeirrespective tasksandthetimeneededtocarrythemout. Programme ofactivities reviewed toensure theyare beingcompliedwithandare uptodate. b) Defi The termsofreference include: Once thescopeisdetermined,socialstructures defi ned andidentifi ed, thenextstepis One wayofreconciling thecontributionsofdifferent socialstakeholdersistodefi ne a The final goalistoestablishacontinuouscityassessmentprocess andpublishaGEOCities An intermediategoalcouldbetoholdtechnicaldiscussions andmethodologyworkshops The goalsmaybeintermediateorfi nal; giveaprecise descriptionofthetypeassistance The goalsandtheprogramme ofactivitiesare theteam’s guidelines;theydescribeexpected It isveryimportanttobeasprecise aspossiblewithrespect tothetimerequired. Ifthe Plans theworkandmonitorsprogress. Shouldincludeallthestagesandindicatetype These termsofreference shouldbeassignedbythelocalteammembersandperiodically • • • • • • • nition ofgoals(products andprocesses) Joint activities. activities. Agreements onhowtointegrate theresults oftheprocess inthecity’s planning Resources thateachparticipant mayprovide. Decision methods,includingsettlingconfl icts. agreements. Rules onsharinginformationusedintheprocess, includingconfi dentiality Information tobeprovided andtheprogramme ofcontributions. Participants’ roles, includingspecifi c activitiestobecarriedout. ning thebasicagenda

79 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 80 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 1.1.2 Training thelocalteam 2.1 Urbanenvironmental indicators Identifying indicatorsandinformation Stage 2. Training hasfourcomponents: a unitandimproves theirability toproduce thereport on themesrelating tolocal environmental assessment. on theirfi elds ofinterest including:GEOreports, GEOCities methodologyandspecifi c studies Production anddistributionofpublications. b) components andthestage oftheprocess inwhich theyare tobeused. indicators, willdependontheobjectivesdefi ned foreachtechnicalteam. used intheGEOCitiesProject, andtakenfrom thepre-established group ofurban-environmental phenomenon oritsperformanceintimeandspace tobeassessed. seen asscientifi c instrumentsthatallowadescriptiontobegivenofthecharacteristics a the GEOCitiesreport. interaction betweenurbandevelopmentandtheenvironment andthefeatures andrangeof environmental problems andthisdemandsaminimum ofconceptualstandardization. Technical trainingandpublicpolicyworkshops a) in thismethodology: to applyitassessthestateoflocalenvironment. There are twoapproaches totraining Making informationreadily availabletoallmembersofthetechnicalhelpsthemworkas To prepare thereport properly, allmembersoftheteamneedtohaveaccessinformation Table 10presents thisgroup ofindicators according totheconceptual defi nition oftheir The typeofindicatorstobeselecteddependson whatisbeingassessed.Theindicators The GEOCitiesProject usesindicatorsasthebasisforanalysis.These canbe • • • • The trainingworkshopsensure abasiclevelofunderstandingthefactorsinvolvedin By defi nition, thetechnicalteamhasawiderangeofknowledgeandexperience The GEOCitiesreport methodologyrequires anapprenticeshipwhatitisandhow tolearn especially onthemesrelated tourbanareas andtheenvironment. Discussing theprocess of formulating,managingandfollowinguppublicpolicies, Establishing astrategytoinvolvedifferent sectorsintheprocess. Managing techniquestocollectandanalysedatainformationforthereport. indicators. Managing theGEOCitiesmethodologyincludinguseofDPSIRmatrixand sources between different phenomena The mainfunctionsofindicators,asdefi ned inthepublicationSCOPE, are to: point outphenomenaofinterest andquantify, measure andcommunicateimportantinformation. programme. Desirableindicators are variablesthatsummarizeorsimplifyrelevant information, environment. and processes foreconomic, urbanandsocialdevelopmentthathaveanimpactonthe agencies toproduce indicators toassessthesustainabilityofpolicies,programmes, actions problems providedorganizationsandgovernment that,inturn, theimpetusforinternational socially andeconomicallyfairbalancedsociety. development indicatorscapableofmeasuringtheadvancesmadetowards anenvironmentally, by therecommendation inChapter40ofAgenda21ontheneedtocreate sustainable Cities report. reliable. Thatiswhysomeare proposed here asinstrumentstobeusedinpreparing theGEO regularly andsystematicallyand,becausetheyhaveabetterdegree ofcomparison,are more global institutions,theycoverabroader rangeofenvironmental situations;theyare applied indicators, likethoseproposed byindependentresearchers, isthatastheyare adoptedby for EconomicCooperationandDevelopment(OECD).Theadvantagethesehaveoverother as theUnitedNationsCommissionforSustainableDevelopment(UNCSD)andOrganization way tomeasure it. 37 2.1.2 Briefdefi 2.1.1 Indicators:Whatare they?Howshouldtheybeused? most usefulinshowinghow effectively publicbodies perform. and thefeatures andtrends ofurban,environmental, economic, andsocialmatters.Theyare scientifi c andtechnicalinformation; theyalsoinformaboutpublicpolicyobjectivesandgoals and forurbandevelopmentplanningenvironmental administration. and todailylife.Furthermore, indicatorsare indispensableforwell-informeddecisionmaking a varietyoffunctionsthathelptoreach thedifferent objectivesapplicabletoscience,politics Sustainable Development B.Moldan&S.Billharzeds.,1997, Wiley, UK Scientifi c CommitteeonProblems oftheEnvironment(SCOPE),1997:SustainabilityIndicators:Report of theProjectonIndicato Agenda 21functionedastheimpellingforce inidentifyingenvironmental themesand The importanceofincludingindicatorsinenvironmental assessmentswasstrongly backed Indicators are packetsofinformationthathelpustounderstandthecomplex interaction • • • • • Indicators are essentialcomponents forassessmentsofasustainabledevelopment There isawiderangeofliterature ontheindicatorsoriginally created bysuchorganizations In there isadetaileddescriptionofeachindicator, thejustifi cationforusingitandtheproper Indicators provide societyasawhole,wellcertainsocialsectors,with statistical, Anticipate future conditions andtrends. Provide information. earlywarning Assess conditionsandtrends inrelationto goalsandobjectives. Compare placesandsituations. Assess conditionsandtrends. nition 37 . Byorganizingandsynthesizinginformation,indicators perform rs for

81 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 82 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports features oftheinteractionbetweenurbandevelopmentandlocalenvironment. They alsoserveasareference frameworkforthe technical teamsbyillustratingthemain give decision-makersquickaccesstoreliable informationonthestateoflocalenvironment. Table 9. 2.1.3 Criteriatoselectindicators 39 38 are available,there islittleusefulinformation Workshop inGhent,Belgium,“IndicatorsofSustainableDevelopment forDecision-Making”,publishedbytheFederalPlanningOffi Adriaanse, Albert,1995:“TheRoleofISDs andtheirPotentialAggregationintheInformationHierarchy”,published thefi na “Indicators ofSustainableDevelopment forDecision-Making”,publishedbytheFederalPlanningOffi ce, Belgium. Reporting ontheEnvironmentincontext ofSustainableDevelopment”,Publishedinthefi nal document oftheWorkshop inGhe SCOPE (Scientifi c Committee onProblemsoftheEnvironment),1995:“EnvironmentalIndicators–ASystematic ApproachtoMeasuri Measurement Importance / Transversal / Other criteria Prepared byTeixeira, I.,1998 Some principlesmustbeobservedwhenselectingindicatorsgiventhat,althoughmanydata useful tothe congruence understood Analytical universal Available Reliable rtraShould... Criteria Polical Easily user Criteria toselecturban-environmental indicators 39 are neededtoselectindicatorsfortheGEOCitiesreport. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • analyses thathelptounderstandhowphenomenabehaveovertime Be orbecomeavailableand,preferably, present historicalterritorial time, allowcomparisonstobemadebetweendifferent localsituations. abouttrendsBe usedtolearn ofdifferent phenomenaand,atthesame Be created bytechnicallyreliable institutionswithrecognized capacity Be technicallyandscientifi cally credible. comprehension andinformation. Be transparent, thatisbeunderstoodbyuserswithdifferent levelsof Allow alluserstohavesimilarinterpretations andperceptions. Be periodicallyupdatedaccording toappropriate procedures. Be dulydocumentedandofrecognized quality. Be orbecomeavailableonareasonable cost/benefi t basis. about theirvalidity. consensus models,andonaninternational Be basedoninternational Have scientifi c andtechnicalfoundations. Correctly refl ect publicpolicypriorities. importance. Be applicabletonationaland/orregional environmental materialofnational Provide comparisons. abasisforinternational Be sensitivetochangesintheenvironment andrelated humanactivities. trends. Have aneasy-to-understandpresentation thatclearlyshowslong-term pressure ontheenvironment andsociety’s response. Provide arepresentative picture ofenvironmental conditions,ofthe 38 . Theessentialpurposeinselectingindicatorsisto l documentofthe ce, Belgium ce, nt, Belgium, ng and limited exchanges with international institutesqualifilimited exchangeswithinternational ed toprepare anduse urban-environmental b) Proxy indicators impact andresponse factors. to pressure andstatefactorsoftheenvironment; toalesserextent,theyare related tothe Indicators produced byorganizationssuchasOECD,UNCSDandICLEIare principallyrelated which theassessmentcannotbeproperty carriedout. local environment. Theseare related totheessentialelementsneededanalyseit,without a) Core indicators important theyare forthereport (Table 12). 2.1.5 Indicatorcategories 2.1.4 DPSIRmatrixindicators Table 10: possible solutions. of theenvironment andcomprehend thedynamicsofdegradation,itsdifferent effects and to bemade. should showthesamelogical-causalrelation thatallowsthereport’s integratedassessment indicators intheDPSIRmatrix. reference fortheindicatorsusedwhenpreparing theGEOCitiesreports. Pressure anddriving Response indicators Impact indicators Forces indicators Because ofthescarcity oftechnicalandfi nancial resources, insuffi cient datacollection, Most oftheindicatorsproposed here already existandarerecognized. internationally The indicatorsintheDPSIRgroups are thecore indicatorsusedtoassessthestateof Environmental indicators are dividedintofi ve categoriesaccording tohowspecifi c or The matrix This formatenablesustobetterunderstandtherole ofindicatorsinassessingthestate As shownintheexample,oncepressure indicatorisdefi ned, theotherindicators The exampleintable11,appliedtowater, showsthelogicalintegrationbetween State indicators Charactristics oftheDPSIRmatrixindicators Driving Forces -Pressure –StateImpactResponse(DPSIR) on environmental resources. problems, especiallythose related tothepressure humanbeingsplace bodies andenterprisesorindividualstoaddress environmental and regulation measures civilsociety takenbythelocalgovernment, Allow anassessmenttobemadeofimprovement, protection, limitation urban vulnerabilityandthepolitical-institutionallevel. human interests, suchasquality oflife,urbaneconomy, ecosystems, Designed todiscoverhowthestateofenvironment affects different public policiesfortheproblems detected. amount ofresources available.Theseindicatorsare usedtoformulate how urbanpressure ontheenvironment affects itsqualityandthe Describe theconditionsandqualityoflocalenvironment. Show and societymustacttopreserve andimprove theenvironment. Describe whatcausedtheproblems onwhichthelocalgovernment isthe

83 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 84 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports use ofsuchindicatorsshouldadhere tothefollowingtwogeneralprinciples: characteristics sothatthereport more clearlyshows those thatare specifi c tothelocality. The c) Local indicators indicators maybefound. allow indicatorstobesubstitutedwhennecessary. There areaddresses alsoInternet where should beused.Table 7presents a“basketofindicators”aslistdifferent sources thatwill must beclearabouttheirobjectives. no core indicatorsavailableorwhentheyare notup to date.To use them,thetechnicalteam prepare theenvironment report foreachcity. Theproxy indicatorsare usedwhenthere are approximate ideaofthefeatures andtrends oftheissueonwhichinformationisrequired to state oftheenvironment indicators. indicators, andotherreasons, suffi cient andreliable dataare notalwaysavailabletoproduce Table 11: 2. 1. Biodiversity The technicalteamsare free toincludeorcreate indicatorsthatrefl ect localecosystems Only thetechnicalpeopleresponsible forpreparing the report maydefi ne whichproxies It isrecommended, therefore, thatanumberofProxy indicatorsbeprovided togivean model theybelong:pressure, drivingforces, state,impactorresponse. precisely defi ned, andanindicationshouldbegivenabouttowhichurban-development They shouldbeclearlydescribed.Theirusehastojustifi ed, thewaytheyare calculated attitude whendealingwiththeproblem. understand thephenomenonandmightmakeitmore diffi cult forthemtoadoptapractical as thismightconfuseusers.Beingbombarded withinformationwillnothelpthemto They shouldbereally necessary forthereport. Usingalotofindicatorsisnotrecommended lmn PSIRdimensionindicators Element Water Land Air Example oflogicalintegrationthePSIRindications domestic sewage of untreated Total volume cover Reduced vegetal production Solid waste emissions Atmospheric rsueSaeIpc Response Impact State Pressure water faecal materialin concentration of index; DOBand Water quality eea oe idvriyls Investments in Biodiversityloss Vegetal cover Incidence of Polluted sites Incidenceof Air quality borne diseases borne Increase inwater- contamination by poisoningand diseases caused diseases cardiorespiratory systems water distribution treatment and collection, in drainage, Investment green areas management solid waste Investment in sources fi xed andmobile emissions from and control of Regulation of theconclusionsreached withthemethodemployed. range thaninthecaseof onlyonecity, andthatanotebeincludedadvising ofthelimitations whole. Inthelattercaseit isrecommended thatthe indicators beusedwithabroader territorial the mostimportantcityof themetropolitan area, orthatitrefers tothemetropolitan region asa one particularcityandnotbyaclusterofurbancentres. it isdiffi cult todeterminewhatextenttheenvironment istheproduct ofpressure exertedby and suburbanzonesgrow, thiscreates cityboundaries.Insuchcases confusionconcerning where urbanlimitsare diffi cult todefi ne. the assessment.Thisisaproblem ofparticularinterest forurbancentres inmetropolitan zones 2.1.6 Territorial dimensionofindicators urban developmenthasontheenvironment. the environment andmaking cleartherelationship betweennaturalresources andtheeffect matrix. Transversal indicatorsreduce thetotalnumberofindexes,makingiteasiertoassess used toanalysemore than oneenvironmental resource inanyofthedimensionsDPSIR must bekeptinmindthattheyare allintegratedandactinrelation tooneanother. water, atmosphere, soiland biodiversity, tomakeiteasierassesseachofthem.However, it e) Transversal indicators explains whynewindicatorsare needed. there maybegreat variationsintheenvironmental effects causedbyurbangrowth, andthis andsocietyrespondhow localgovernment toenvironmental problems. following theirdirection. Theindicatorsproposed by GEOCitiesincludeagroup focussedon they makeitnecessarytocreate newindicatorscapableofkeepingpacewiththeirrhythmand d) New indicators Table 12. Transversal It couldalsohappenthattheinformationavailable tomaketheassessmentonlyrefers to In contemporarysocieties,urbanizationusuallyextends beyondcitylimits;asperipheral The teamsshouldpaymuchattentionandgivespecial care tothearea tobecovered by For thatreason, someindicators proposed here are transversal;thatistosaytheymaybe The GEOCitiesmethodologyseparatestheenvironment intoitsconstituentelements: As citiesare locatedindifferent ecosystemswithdifferent environmental characteristics; Urban conditionsandhowtheyinteractwiththeenvironment undergoconstantchanges; aeoyDefi Category indicator Proxy Local Core New Indicator categories Indicator already existsand isconsidered essentialtoanalysetheenvironment. matrix dimensions. Used toassessmore than oneenvironmental resource inanyoftheDPSIR environment assessment. Suggested fortheGEOCitiesmethodologytohelpwithstateof each locality. Specifi c andconsidered necessarytounderstandthespecifi c characteristicsof May replace thecore indicator, althoughitsreference qualityisnotthesame nition

85 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 86 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 13-b and13-c. MatrixofGEOCitiesreport basicindicators b) suggested oradopted,theurban-environmental relationship modelreferred toanditslevel. included isabriefdiscussionontheimportanceofeachindicator, thecalculatingmethod integrated urban-environmental assessmentwithinthecontextofGEOCitiesProject. Also theruralthemeandeffectconcerning onthelocality’s urban-environmental problem. make ananalysisbasedonqualitativedatatoleaveevidenceofthemostimportantquestions reliable andup-to-datequantitative information,itissuggestedthatthetechnicalteamatleast with markets(local,national,regionalandsocialconﬂ orinternational); icts. Intheabsenceof on biodiversity, theuseofagriculturalinputs–fertilizers,defensives,etc.);theirrelationship the naturalresources (demandforwaterandland,theireffect onvegetalcover, theirimpact (degree ofconcentration, size ofholdings);principalproducts andhowtheyare related to such as:theruralpopulationdynamics(growth andmigration);thestructure oflandownership among otherpossibleelementsforanalysisconsidered intheassessmentshouldbethemes locality’s ruraldynamicsastheyrelate to itsurban-environmental dynamics.Inthisrespect, the corresponding themes andindicatorsneededtoincludeintheGEOCitiesassessment environmental interaction. has tobeconsidered intheGEOCitiesassessmentwhenmakingananalysisofurban- municipalities havearuralarea signiﬁ cantly largerthantheurbanarea and,therefore, this an administrativepointofview, tobethecity’s territorialboundaries.Thisisbecausemany of theworld,theirurbanareas donotnecessarilycoincidewithwhatare considered, from dynamics. with animportantruralarea withintheframeworkoftheirsocio-economicandenvironmental GEO Citiesassessment.Thisplacestheproblem ofhowtoprepare thereport forlocalities GEOCitiesassessmentandtheruraltheme a) process. necessary tosupportthemunicipalauthorityinitsactivitiesduringurbandevelopment in questioneachlocality. Theassessmentanditsreport should,therefore, covertheareas This isbecauseitsterritorialrangemayvarydependingontheurban-environmental interests technical team,thatdeterminetheterritorialarea tobecovered bytheGEOCitiesassessment. The basicindicatorstodeveloptheGEOCities reports are summarizedinTables 13-a, In Annex1adetaileddescriptionisgivenoftheindicatorssuggestedtoprepare the When thatisthecase,itsuggestedlocaltechnicalteamincludeintheiranalysis For manymunicipalitiesinLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean,aswellotherregions An importantquestiontobeconsidered isthenotableurban-environmental biasinthe It shouldbeemphasizedthatitisthecityandmunicipalauthorities,togetherwithlocal Table 13 – a: Matrix of the basic indicators for the GEO Cities report – PSIR

Biodiversity /Fauna and Water Air Land Built-up Environment Flora Indicator Source Indicator Source Indicator Source Indicator Source Indicator Source

• Reduction of UNSCD • Reduction of vegetal UNSCD • Reduction of UNSCD • Reduction of vegetal UNSCD • Population CEROI vegetal cover cover vegetal cover cover growth UNSCD UNSCD • Urban settlements UNSCD • Legal and illegal urban UNSCD • Legal and illegal • Legal and illegal • Gini index (social CEROI area and settlements area and urban settlements urban settlements inequality) population population area and area and population • Acid rain CEROI population • Land change from CEROI • Land change from CEROI • Land change from CEROI producing gas non-urban to urban non-urban to urban • Land change CEROI non-urban to urban emissions Pressure from non-urban to • Population growth CEROI • Population growth CEROI • Population growth CEROI urban • Gini index (social UNSCD • Gini index (social UNSCD • Gini index (social CEROI • Population growth OECD inequality) inequality) inequality) CEROI CEROI • Gini index (social UNSCD • Total volume of • Atmospheric inequality) untreated sewage emissions CEROI • Solid waste PARC21 • Water consumption CEROI • Distribution production per capita • Motorization index PARC21 • Solid waste PARC21 • Energy consumption CEROI disposal per capita

• Extinct or OECD • Extinct or endangered OECD • Extinct or OECD • Extinct or OECD • % of OECD endangered species, known endangered endangered species, deteriorated species, known species species, known known species areas (historic species species centres and • Air quality CEROI • Vegetable cover CEROI State buildings) in • Water shortages OECD • % of geologically PARC21 relation to (frequency, unstable areas at the total local extension, duration risk constructed area • Quality of water UNSCD • Contaminated CEROI supply sites

87 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 88 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports

Table 13 – b: Public and private institutions that are potential producers of data for the report

Biodiversity /Fauna and Water Air Land Built-up Environment Flora Indicator Source Indicator Source Indicator Source Indicator Source Indicator Source Ecosystem Ecosystem Ecosystem Ecosystem Ecosystem

• Biodiversity loss • Biodiversity loss • Biodiversity loss • Biodiversity loss Urban economy

Urban ecosystem Urban economy Urban economy Urban economy • Property

Impact (Effects on eachofthe followingaspects) depreciation. • Public health cost • Property • Public health cost of water-borne depreciation. • Cost of rehabilitating diseases • Cost of preventing monuments and and containing historic centres environmental risks Political- institutional level Political- Political- Political- Political- institutional level institutional level institutional level institutional level • Loss of taxes. • Loss of urban • Loss of urban • Loss of urban • Loss of taxes. • Loss of urban attraction attraction attraction • Loss of urban attraction attraction Quality of life • Depreciation of Quality of life Quality of life Quality of life Quality of life historic centres. • Incidence of water- • Incidence of cardio- • Incidence of • Micro-climate • Juvenile crime rate borne diseases vascular diseases diseases from change poisoning and pollution. • Population in vulnerable urban areas. • Incidence of ﬂ oods, landslides, etc. Table 13 – c: context information

Biodiversity /Fauna and Water Air Land Built-up Environment Flora Indicator Source Indicator Source Indicator Source Indicator Source Indicator Source

• Environmental • PARC21 • Environmental • PARC21 • Environmental • PARC21 • Environmental • PARC21 • Environmental • PARC21 education education education education education • Number of • PARC21 • Number of • PARC21 • Number of • PARC21 • Number of • PARC21 • Number of • PARC21 environmental environmental environmental environmental local Response (existence andeffectiveness of instruments) environmental local level local level NGOs local level NGOs local level NGOs level NGOs NGOs • Local Agenda • CEROI • Local Agenda • CEROI • Local Agenda 21 • CEROI • Local Agenda 21 • CEROI 21 Activities 21 Activities Activities Activities • Local Agenda • CEROI • • Investment in PARC21 • Investment in • PARC21 • Investment in • PARC21 • Investment in • PARC21 21 Activities environmental environmental environmental environmental • Investment in • PARC21 recovery recovery recovery recovery environmental • Urban master • PARC21 • Urban master • PARC21 • Urban master • PARC21 • Urban master Plan • PARC21 recovery Plan in place Plan in place Plan in place in place • CEROI • CEROI • Urban master • PARC21 • Investment in • CEROI • Investment in • Investment in • Investment in • CEROI Plan in place green areas green areas green areas green areas • Regulation • PARC21 • Investment in • CEROI • CEROI • Investment in and control solid waste green areas of ﬁ xed and management • Legislation • PARC21 mobile sources • Total areas • OECE to protect emissions rehabilitated in springs in • Investment in • PARC21 comparison to place public transport degraded • Preventive • PARC21 • Polluter/payer • PARC21 User/payer tax notices and system ﬁ nes for violating waste • PARC21 • Investment in disposal norms drainage networks and drains

• Domestic • CEROI relations

89 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 90 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports produced ortheinstitutional characterofeachthem,assetoutbelow: These informationsources maybeclassifi ed according totheterritorialrangeofdata 2.2.1 Identifyprimarydatasources andavailableinformation 2.2 Datacollectionandanalysis Cities report. qualifi es themassources from whichtoobtain theinformationneededtoprepare theGEO environmental managementlaws.Someinstitutions haveexperienceinproducing datathat andsocietyto interveneinformulatingnecessaryurban- that enableslocalgovernments Range –local,national,regional institutions andinternational institutions ineachlocalityand/orcountry. material tobeanalysedwillconsistofsecondarydatathathavealready beenprepared by to limitationsoftimeandresources, andtechnical diffi culties ingatheringprimarydata,the that istosay, newinformationthatwasnotavailablewhentheproposal wasevaluated.Due team hasapermanentsource toconsult. institutions, thefi rst taskistocollectandorganizeitinadatabasesothatthelocaltechnical of information.Itisnecessary, therefore, to: > this is the case even when they arethis isthecaseevenwhenthey predispose aswellfrom organizations; agencies private entitiesandnon-governmental government Mention ismadeofthegeneral diffi what can be considered to be a pertinent report] what canbeconsidered to beapertinent andproduced beobtained data [thisallowedtheSaoPaulo GEOtechnical team to prepare having otherinformation thatisunclassifi lackofinformation data, use mainlysecondary intends to report theGEOCities to eventhough stress that, itisimportant In thiscontext dissemination ofinformation among publicbodiesandsocietyingeneral canbeachieved. allowing publicaccess showsthere to isstillalongway it, to gobefore better exchange and obstaclesset aswellthevarious is kept, Th is to say, for where acontext aboutthemunicipalityofSaoPaul data needto beseparated. information isavailable onlyonthearea of physically accessible Anotherpointto orhadnotbeenorganized. bementionedisthatmuch Problems were encountered wasunavailable whenmostofthedata becauseitwasnot Information with which to formulate, manage and assess policies has become an instrument Information withwhichto formulate, manageandassesspolicieshasbecome aninstrument The first steptoguaranteethequalityofworkisidentifyavailableinformation sources. Except inspecialcases,thetechnicalteamisnotexpectedtoproduce primarydata, As theinformationneededtoprepare thereport ismostlikelydispersedamongdifferent • • • Preparing anassessmentanditsGEOCitiesreport implies managinganenormousamount

e precarious and disperse manner in which a large part ofinformation ontheenvironment e precarious anddispersemannerinwhichalargepart GEO SaoPaulo experience GEO ofinformation gathering –Example Create adatabase. Systematize information. Identify sources. culties in obtaining secondary data andinformation from data secondary culties inobtaining theSaoPaulo (RMSP);that Metropolitan Region ed orinsuﬃ by some agencies’ operational proceduresby someagencies’ in thought to for beessential thought thework(oreven d to assistandmostofthemcollaborate. cient) requires thatsomeprimary

international. state institutionsdependingontheterritory’s politicaldivision;nationalor, toalesserextent, sought from institutionsthatproduce datacovering a largerterritory;theymayberegional or done incitieswithafi nancial andtechnicalstructure toproduce thistypeofinformation. produce dataandreports onthecity, forexamplemapsandaerialphotographs.Thiscanbe the stateoflocalenvironment. Informationmustfi rst ofallbesoughtfrom institutionsthat Table 14: Local andnational communications and multilateral and/or bilateral Governmental Governmental Organizations When localinstitutionsdonothaveadequateand/orreliable data,theinformationmustbe How theinformationisuseddependsonspecifi c purposesoftheworktobedoneon organizations Trade Unions Associations International International Foundations Government Government Universities institutions Research Business agencies bodies media Non- ofdataforthereport Public andprivateinstitutionsthatare potentialproducers (employment, wages,income). and/or qualifythatprovided byotherbodiesrepresentative ofbusiness economic andsocialsituation.Theirinformationtends tocomplement They have,orcanproduce, specifi c informationaboutthecity’s pressure factors. activities thatallowsananalysistobemadeofeconomicdynamicsand They have,orcanproduce, specifi c informationonlocaleconomic produce informationandothermaterialthatmaycontainrelevant facts. NGOs are themostimportantsocialinterventionstakeholders.Theyall university public. information from academicstendstocirculate amongarestricted technical staff showascientifi c slant;theyare aprime source, although to producing informationandtoscientifi c research, andwhose In developingcountriesacademicinstitutionscontinuetobededicated • • • • • • therefore, are animportantsource forconsultation. fi nance research andprovide trainingonproducing informationand, Although theseorganizations donotusuallyproduce these data,they such resolutions anduseinformationaboutthesituationineachcountry. resolutions.the basisofinternational Theysupervisecompliance with They provide fi nancial resources, prepare projects andtakeactionon counterpart toinformationcollectedfrom otherlocalsources. Newspapers, magazines,televisionandradiomayserve asa city’s urban-environmental problems. Information Sources onpublicopinionandthelocalperception ofthe complement orclassifyoffi cial data. Public orprivate,producing socio-environmental informationto a criticalcomparisonwithoffi cial data. Public andprivateinstitutionsthatfi nance research and mayestablish example, healthandeducationagencies. Responsible forformulatingandadministeringpublicpolicies; policies. Responsible forinformationusedtoformulatelocal-levelpublic Population Census. National statisticsoffi ces responsible forpreparing theNational

91 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 92 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 2. 1. Table 15: 4. 3. are, inorder ofimportance: enables thelocalsituationtobeanalysed. which isbasedondatagathered atlocalorsub-local(household)level;theresulting dataset subdivided andmakingitusefulinlocalassessments.Anexampleisthepopulationcensus combining itwithlocally-basedinformation.Inprinciple,thisallowstheinformationtobe technical teamandpotential users. preparing thereport, ascale of,forexample,1:10,000beusedthatiseasilyunderstood bythe urban expansionandthelocation oftheterritory’s vulnerablepoints,Itissuggested that,when Well organizedinformationwitheasy-to-assimilatevisual information,especiallyondeforestation, Available cartographydataandinformation. technological andsocio-culturalinterventioninstruments. This informationshouldbeidentifi ed bytakingintoaccount political-administrative,economic, Information onresponses fromandsocietytoenvironment thelocalgovernment problems. services, theecosystemitselfandhumansettlements. Information onhowthestateofenvironment isaffecting people’s health,environmental Information ontheimpactofstateenvironment hasonthequalityoflife. made ofthestatelocalenvironment. hydrological, geomorphologicandenvironmental characteristicsandallowanassessmenttobe Information aboutenvironmental resources (water, atmosphere, soil)thatindicatetheterritory’s Information onprincipallocalsystems. environment suchaswaterconsumption,wasteproduction etc. economy andoccupationoftheterritory, socialinequalityandfactorsthatputmostpressure onthe Information onthepolitical-institutionalstructure, therole ofsocialorganizations,thepopulation, Information onlocalurbanpolitical,socialandeconomiccontexts. on theDPSIRmatrixand/oragroup ofsimilarindicators,calculatedinthesameway. therefore, tochoosesources thatusethesamemethodologiesasGEOCities based diffi cult tocompare informationcompiledbyusingdifferent methodologies;itisbetter, The methodologyusedtoproduce theinformationgreatly infl uences thedata.Itisoften costly ortootechnical,itisbettertolookforanothersource. available through theelectronic media,facesbureaucratic orpoliticalobstacles, andis team andforpossibleusersofthedocument.Ifinformationishard toaccess,isnot Ease ofaccesstoandavailabilityinformationisveryimportantforthereport’s technical environment. of publicpoliciesandtheefforts ofsocietytoreverse trends thathaveanimpactonthe negative overthelongterm.Thisisofspecialinterest, forexample,inassessingtheresults the phenomenastudiedevolvedand,thus,todefi ne whetherthatevolutionwaspositiveor The existenceofahistoricdataseriesthatallowscomparisonstobemadeandshowshow recognized professionals inthefi eld. This,clearly, canonlybedecidedatlocallevel. can bemeasured bytheinstitute’s traditionofproducing datathat are notquestionedby great detail,takingintoaccountthereport’s objectivity. Reliabilityisneverabsolute,butit Reliability oftheinformation.Thisisvitalandlocalteammustassessinformationin There are othervariablesthatserveasabasisforchoosing sources ofinformation.These It mustbekeptinmindthatinformationfrom thesedifferent levelsisoftentheresult of Context information international institutionsandindicatorsproposedinternational bytheGEOCitiesmethodology. with environmental naturalresources (water, atmosphere, soil,biodiversity). references about50indicatorsoftheDrivingForces-State-Impact-Response (DSIR)structure Collecting datafrom theCore Indicatorsmatrix (fi describe howurbanareas andlocalecosystemsevolved. b) b) a) 2.2.2 Systematizeinformation Table 16: The matrixiscomposedofamixture ofglobally-recognized indicatorsusedinimportant The reference forcollectingdataistheCore Indicatorsmatrix(Table 13)thatcross- Present itbyfi lling intherespective spacesinthematrix. Compile informationrelated totheindicators. Once sources are identifi ed, thefi rst stepistocollectthecontextdata,orthosethat Compiling contextdata Diagram ofGEOCitiesReport rst level)

93 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 94 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports team maychooselocalindicatorstodothis typical ofeachcity, sothatitsparticularfeatures appearinthefi nal document.Thetechnical Besides thealready-mentioned indicators,thiswillprovide theopportunitytoincludeinformation assessing thestateofenvironment, touseinformationanddataspecifi c tothelocality. Selecting andcompilinglocalindicators(third level) methodology usedandthedegree ofreliability ofthe indicators. results from usingthem.Inthatcase,itwillbenecessary tospecifythesource ofthedata, indicators usedasproxies andpresent thesource andmethodologyusedinthedefi nition that most appropriate substitutes.Whateverthesolution,technicalteammustpointout documents andelectronic sitesoftheproducing institutions toassesswhethertheyare the not exactlythesameasoriginalindicators. these makeitpossibletoarriveatafairapproximation ofwhatisbeinganalysed,althoughit differ from thatdescribedhere. Inthesecasesthetechnicalteamwilluseproxy indicators; the indicatorwillnotbeproduced bylocalinstitutions;atothers,thewayitisproduced will Compiling proxy indicators(secondlevel) 2.2.3 Establishalocalenvironmental database 2. 1. Defi acceptance ofthedocument. specialists, andholdingpublicmeetings;doingsowillvalidatetheindicatorfacilitatefi nal combines theuseoffocusgroups, suchasjoiningrelevant urban-environmental groups with consultation tobefeasibleitisrecommended thataparticipatorymethodologybeapplied their informationismore likely tobereliable. analyses. so astoenablethetechnical teamtofollowuponcollectingtheinformation tofacilitatelater proposed forthereport. The datashouldbearrangedaccording tothedocument’s chapters is hopedtoreach byincludingtheminthestateoflocalenvironment assessment. methodology used,thepossibledegree ofreliability ofthenewindicators,andobjectiveit enough relevant knowledgetogeneratenewreferences. by professionals withexperienceinproducing indicatorsandcombiningdata,aswellwith if notintendedforpublication,shouldbecompiled. Inthiscase,theteamshouldbeassisted Two methodsmaybeusedtoselectthelocalindicators: The GEOCitiesreport alsoseekstoencouragethetechnicalteamsineachcity, when The proxy indicatorsmaybeproduced locally;however, thelocalteammustcheck The informationontheGEOCitiesindicatorswillnotalwaysbefoundatlocallevel;times Social groups maybeinterested inaprocess suchastheGEOCities.For apublic Public consultation Local institutionsare tobepreferred because,astheyhavelocalexperienceandknowledge, Consult localsources The databaseorganizes information,according to thedifferent themes,intheformat As already mentioned,adescriptionshouldbegivenofthesource ofthedata, Finally, datacorresponding totheindicatorssuggestedbytechnicalteam itself,even ning andcompilatingdatarelating tothenewindicators mind thelocalgovernment’s economicandhumanresources limits. promoting improvements totheenvironment. Perhapsthebeststrategytofollow istokeepin the different sectors.Defi ning prioritiesdoesnotmeanjettisoninglessurgentdecisionson To beginwith,theproposal istofocus on themostrelevant andimmediateactiontakenby towards andsociety. creating mechanismsforlocalgovernment earlywarning andsociety.local government Itshouldalsoseektoleadenvironmental bodiesandinstitutions well astheopportunitiesmostlikelytobesuccessfulforshort-andmedium-terminterventionby contents. objectives: improvingthe mainrisksandemergingthemesconcerning stateofenvironment. tables. Thisalsoallowsanassessmenttobemadeofthefuture outlookforcities,indicating database maybetransformedintoadatabank,makingitpossibletoprepare graphsand 3.1.1 Identifyenvironmental priorities 3.1 Dataandinformationanalysis theGEO CitiesReport Preparing Stage 3. One oftheexpectedresults istosetprioritiesdealwiththecity’s environmental problems. After thishasbeendone,thetechnicalteamcanbegindraftingreport. The report shouldhelptoidentify themostsignificant environmental prioritiesineach city, as Chapter 2containsadetaileddescriptionofthemethodologythisanalysisandits • • • • • The analysisofthedataandinformationcompiledinprevious stageshouldmeetfi ve programmes suchasExcelandAccess,ifthedataidentifiWith ed canbequantifi ed, the Building future scenarios. Defi ning emergingthemes; Assessing theresponsesandsociety; ofgovernment state; Preparing theassessmentonstateoflocalenvironment andtheimpactsofthat Identifying environmental priorities;

95 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 96 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports build scenariosthatserve asenvironmental management tools. and thecity’s productivity goals.Analysingtheresulting cost-benefi t relation mayalsohelpto defi ned forurbanenvironmental managersanddecision-makers. environment, identifyingimplementationstrategiesinaccordance withinterests andpriorities changes. sustainable developmentplanwhich,ifimplemented, wouldimplyprofound political andsocial management. which tobasedecisionmakingwhenplanning urban developmentandcityenvironmental 3.1.2 Assessthestateoflocalenvironment 4. 3. 2. 1. and privatestakeholders. diffi therelationship culties typicalofthistypedocumentaswellothersconcerning withpublic Because theGEOCitiesRiodeJaneiro report wasthefi rst oftheseriestobeprepared, itfaced 4. 3. 2. 1. 10. 9. 8. 7. 6. 5.

The informationshouldinclude dataonproductive potential, availabilityofphysicalspace The process studiestheconsequencesofpublicpolicyoptionson stateofthe It isnecessarytoapproach thetechnological,environmental andeconomicfeasibilityofa Assessing thestateoflocalenvironment hastechnicalandpolicyelementson

GEO RiodeJaneiro report. Differences inconceptualandtechnicaldefi nitions ofindicatorsandthemestobeadoptedinthe approached onsomethemes. Diffi organizations culty inconsulting,andevenabsenceof,communicatorsgovernment to makingavailableandanalysingrequested data. NGOs,business,universities,civil society)as Little participationbykeystakeholders(government, Pilot studyprepared totestarecently-conceived methodology. More informationondeterminedthemesincomparisonwithothers. Lack ofsomehistoricdatabases,makingcomparisonsandtrend analysisimpossible. Lack ofdatabasesystematizationformanythethemesdealtwith. historic seriesandcompare different databases. Dissimilarity inmethodologiesadoptedtocollectinformation,makingitimpossibleanalysea of actiontaken. Discontinuance ofanorganization’s programmes andprojects makingithard toassesstheresults availability. Discontinuance ofsequentialdata,whetherastocollectionoranalysis,andeven orbydifferentgovernment, authorities. Dissimilarity ofsomedataproduced betweendifferent organizationsat the samelevelof branches. Duplication ofinformationindependentlyproduced bypublicbodiesindifferent government Diffi culty inidentifyingtheoriginalsource ofdatainthepublicbodyconsulted. information. Diffi culty ofobtainingsomedatafrom publicbodies:delaysinsupplyingandcollecting GEO RIODEJANEIRO-COMMUNICATION PROBLEMSWITHTHE LOCAL LIMITATIONS ONPREPARING THEREPORT DATA COLLECTIONLIMITATIONS AUTHORITY ANDCIVILSOCIETY availability will assessthedirection of urbanenvironmental policiesdependingontheirobjectivesand uncertain. to exactlyforetell thefuture butseektosuggestarangeofoptionsmakepolicyless business, toenvironmental problems causedbyurbandevelopment.Scenariosdonotpretend and scenariosprojected that refl ect responses, whetherbycivilsociety, apublicauthorityand/or explore different outcomesofpoliciesandenvironmental changes. impact oftheirdecisions.GEOscenariosare notpredictions; theydepictpossiblefutures and decision-makers canalsogetaclearer picture ofwhattomorrow mightbringand ofthelikely to defi ning future environmental policies.Byexploringanarrayofpossiblefuture scenarios, For mediumandlongtermplanning,itisimportanttodiscussthemesthatmaybecentral economic, socio-cultural,educational,publiccommunicationinstruments,andthelike. multilateral environmental agreements, aswellan analysisofnationalandlocallegislation, to theirsuccessfulimplementation.IntheGEOCitiesreport thissectionincludesananalysisof It provides informationoncurrent legislationprojects, identifi espolicydefi cienciesaswellbarriers 40 3.1.5 Buildscenarios:localtrends (inertia,bestcase,worstcase) 3.1.4 Identifyemergingthemesandscenarios 4. 3. 2. 1. 3.1.3 Assessresponsesandsociety bygovernment Polestar fromtheStockholm EnvironmentInstitution.http://www.sei.se/sustain/activities.html#overview QUEST softwareof Envision SustainabilityTools and theSustainableDevelopmentResearch Institute Threshold 21world modeloftheMillenniumInstitutehttp//:www.igc.apc.org/millenium/t21/index.html sites: There aredifferentsoftwaremodelsand toolstostrategicallyplanandanalysescenarios.Moreinformationisavailable atthe > 2. 1. 9. 8. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. With thehelpofstudiescarriedout,andwithsimulationsserving asabasis,managers With For sustainabilitytobefeasibleincities,itisassumedthatlong-termprocesses willbeprepred An importantpartoftheGEOreports istoidentifyemergingthemesandfuture scenarios. Defi ning bestpolicyoptionsandconsiderhowsuchpoliciesneedtobemodifi ed. responses onusingtheselectedperformancecriteria. Assessing theeffect (intendedorunintended,positivenegative)ofidentifi ed policiesand Selecting performancecriteriaforthepoliciesandresponses identifi ed. issues. Identifing andlistingcurrent policiesandresponses aboutthemostimportantenvironmental The sectionprovides asystematicdescriptionoflocalenvironmental policiesandresponses. Suggested stepsinpolicyandresponse analysis:

Diagnose the causesandconsequences thatresultDiagnose inaspecifi Defi Draw conclusions abouteachresult inthepossiblescenarios. aholisticapproachAdopt scenarios; whenpreparing Defi development objectives; Identify possibleresults, problems andprobable obstaclesinreaching sustainable Defi options; Identify publicpolicy Defi Steps to scenarios Steps build ne theenvironmental problem anditsbasis(policiesactions); ne alternative obstacle management strategies; obstaclemanagement ne alternative pathsthatmayne alternative leadto the desired objectives; andgoals (polic ne theobjectives 40 . ies) to achieve a given result; ies) to achievea given c state oftheenvironment; followingInternet

97 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 98 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports or failtotake,onthecity’s environmental problems. how feasibleistheeconomy, andthefi nancial needsofeachscenario. texts. To beeffective indecisionmaking,theseanalysesshouldbesimplebutplausible. information ismore useful. options. Buildingthemdemandstheuseofbothqualitativeandquantitativeinformation. > • • • • and with external specialists and special guests, namely: guests, andspecial specialists and withexternal Institute were (IMAE), and workshops heldwithmembersoftheEnvironment andEcology oftheneedforBecause collective refl These scenariosshouldhelpdecision-makerstoassesstheimpactofactiontheytake, • • • The scenariosare builtonthree typesoftrends: Information oncostsandbenefits isalsorelevant becauseitallowstheanalysistodetermine The result willbeamixture ofpotentialindicators,trends andgoalswithexplanatoryhistoric The descriptionofsometrends maybelessuncertainand,inthiscase,quantitative Preparing scenariosimpliessettinginmotionpossibleviewsofthefuture basedonpresent forests", and"Impactsofurbansprawl "Urbanpatrimony" Th expansion". Th environment: urbanpatrimony). state oftheenvironment (air, water, soil,localecosystems, biodiversity andbuilt-up Two workdays to discusstherelationship betweenthecentral themesof pressure and vulnerability, soilandsolidwaste. problems water analysed atthesemeetingswere: supply, drinking fl Four meetingsto workontheproposal interdisciplinary for theindicators. Environmental 2000). (Pinter andothers, Reporting" ManualonIntegrated Environmentalcontained inthe“Training and Assessment by speciality, basedontheGEOmethodology bydocumentsprepared supported byIMAE, reports andhowto present thepartial general to meetings discussthemethodology Eight REPORT –PREPARING THE AIRES BUENOS GEO ree micro-workshops onthefollowingree ecosystems, micro-workshops biodiversity themes: and "Local worsen orincrease pressure factorsontheenvironment. hard-to-overcome obstaclesintheway, orwhere mistakendecisionsbysocialagents or where conditionstoimplement theresponses makenocontributionorevenput The bestcasetrend detected willbecomeworse. objectives. Inthiscase,thefuture scenariowillproject thattheenvironmental problems be therightones;orthatconditionstoimplementthemwillnothelpreach the how toconfront detectedenvironmental problems; thatanysuchresponses willnot The worstcasetrend agents. state ofthelocalenvironment inallsectorsthatmightsuffer from interventionby social from beingimplemented. In thiscase,thescenariowillproject animprovement inthe be perfectlyadequatefortheproblems andthere are noobstaclestoprevent them The inertiatrend isconsidered asthepossibilitythatthere willbenoresponses about iswhere theresponses andsocietywould bylocalgovernment iswhere there isnoresponse totheproblems confronted, ections in preparing this report, anumberofmeetings ections inpreparing thisreport, od, riverside oods, eobjective of as awhole. them. Theconclusionsmay beorganizedbyfollowingthechaptersofreport orofthework environmental problems, their impactandresponses andthepoliciesproposed todealwith team willbeready todraft recommendations andconclusionstoguidedecision-makers. 3.1.6 Conclusionsandrecommendations • • participate success, thatthecommunity itisessential andthoseresponsible for environmental policies isto bea ofenvironmentaltechnical iftheundertaking proposals insupport management, thatthedocumentsprepared Considering AiresGEO Buenos project. for are thisreport Th The conclusionsinclude a syntheticviewoftheoriginsandfeatures ofthecity’s existing The conclusionsshould: • • • • Once thefourobjectivesofinformationanddataanalysishavebeenmet,technical ese workshops and meetings were andmeetings acontribution eseworkshops fi alsoprepared It the peace andparticipation. aNGOwhosemissionisto preventChange), andsolveconfl CambioDemocrático bytheFundación wasarranged (Th It Aires. ofBuenos oftheCity ofthe Government Plan andtheStrategic Urban Planning information. Th spheres whodebated,and non-governmental madecomments andpresented up-to-date Th to review andvalidate onwhichto adraft basethefi report experts together Workshop: Aires" Integrated ofBuenos to Environmental bring oftheCity Assessment Finally, Aires ofBuenos collaboration, withIMAE the"GEOCity organized UNEP-ROLAC, action. weaknesses andfuture priority Responses received were assessedasto biodiversity, localecosystems localesandthebuilt-up environment: urbanpatrimony. Two meetingsto assessenvironmental policiesre National UniversityofLujan. Salvador. invited Also were Research membersof theCONICET course degree from the theNationalAires Aires; (UBA); Academy ofMedicineBuenos andtheUniversityof dealt withwere invited from: theCentral Soci from andspecialists diff technical experts problems seeninthecityandrevise existingenvironmental policies.Government wasto onrecommendations agree these workshops abouthowto respond to theprincipal nal report. e workshop wasattended byrelevant eworkshop andothersfrom citystakeholders, governmental are dealtwith,oriftheyare ignored. Include abriefanalysisoftrends detected,indicatingtheconsequencesif problems effectiveness oftheresponses given. Assess theconditionsthateitherassistedorimpeded thetechnicalandpolitical detected. Describe theimpactofresponses, andofhowtheywere adaptedtotheproblems most signifi cant features ofthestatelocalenvironment. Identify theprincipalfactorsofurbanpressure onenvironmental resources andthe e workshop was supported bytheSecretariat oftheEnvironment wassupported eworkshop and achievements and/or strengths, obstaclesand/or achievementsand/orstrengths, erent institutionsconcerned withthethemes methodological documentandtheworkshop’s methodological ety ofArchitects; the to consolidate the methodology for the to consolidate themethodology lated to thethemesof air, water, soil, eFoundation for Democratic icts bypromoting aculture of University of Buenos University ofBuenos nal report. nalreport.

99 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 100 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 3.1.9 Glossary 3.1.8 Bibliography 3.1.7 Statisticalannexes wish todofurtherresearch onatheme(seeAnnex2). edition number. or country, theyearofpublication,cityorcountry oforiginthebookinquestionandits should includethecompletenameofauthor or theinstitution,title,publisher, thecity produce themostup-to-date dataonthesubject,aswellitshistory, ifany. sequence asthechaptersofreport. Themethodologyusedshouldalsobeincludedto the mostimportantdatainstatisticalinformation. is noneedtoreproduce alltheinformationcollected;technicalteamshouldonlyinclude charts, shouldbeseparatedfrom thosethatmaymakethereport harder tounderstand. There of understandingorlevelinclusion,datapresented inthebodyofreport astablesor analyses are based.To thiseffect, whileitisbeingdrafted,becauseoftheirimportance,ease social, policyandculturalconditionssuitabletoapplythesuggestedpolicies. to pressure factors,environmental conditionsandimpactsshouldalwaysbeincluded. will haveonthequalityoflife,ecosystemandurbaneconomy. Theexpectedresponses indicating howapplyingthemwillhelptochangeenvironmental conditionsandtheimpactthey policies describedinthereport. describe action,instrumentsandinstitutionalfi nancial resources neededtoexecutethe the localenvironment. Theproposals shouldestablish objectivesandgoals;theyshouldalso prepared ofurban-environmental policyproposals designedtochangeconditionsthataffect understanding andtopreparing theglossary. understand. Areview ofthedocumentbythird partiescanhelptoidentify any obstaclesto of aglossarytechnical terms,acronyms andconcepts maymakeiteasierforthereader to It isimportanttoincludeallinformationsources forthedataconsultedtohelp thosewho The bibliographywillinformthereader where tofi nd thedataandinformationpresented; it For easeofuseandlinkage,itisrecommended thatthestatisticsbepresented inthesame In thesectiononannexesreport shouldincludethestatisticalinformationonwhich • • • • • These recommendations mayinclude: Furthermore, recommendations shouldbemadetofacilitate orcreate institutional,financial, It shouldbeshownthatthepoliciesproposed are directly related tothereport’s analysis, As aresult ofthejointconsultationbetweeninterested socialstakeholders,alistshouldbe Technical languagemaybeanobstacle tounderstandingthereport; therefore theinclusion the localgovernment’s technicalrangeandthusinformitsurban-environmental efforts bodiesorinstitutionstobroadenThe needforexchangeswithnationalorinternational Ensuring civilsocietyparticipationinformulatingpublicpolicies. The creation ofspecifi c urban-environmental interventionbodies. budgetwillbespentonsocio-environmentalHow thelocalgovernment action. The needtoprovide bettertechnicaltrainingforinterested socialstakeholders. Mexico team. by thetechnicalteamresponsible fortheGEOLimaandCallaoreport andtheGEOCityof and privateschools,aswellmakingthereport availableontheInternet. agencies,public universities andtradeunions,thelocalparliament, nationalandinternational radio interviews,distributingcopiestopublicand private bodies,tocivilsocietyorganizations, and proposals, andtoincrease thelikelihoodthatitsrecommendations willbe adopted. involved initspreparation. disseminate it,stimulatingitsbroadest possibleusebycitizensandpublicbodiesnotdirectly and sustainabledevelopment.Forthistobethecase,strategiesmustdefi ned onhowto 41 4.1. Disseminationstrategies Disseminatingandapplyingpolicies Stage 4 Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities,andthreats > • • • • • • • The followingboxespresent thestructure oftheGEOreport communicationprocess used Media toemployinclude:disseminationseminars, collectiveinterviews,televisionand A documentlikeGEOCitiesneedsmechanismstoconfi rm thelegitimacyofitsanalyses The report maybeacatalyst forsocialmobilizationonthequestionofenvironment

Make aSWOT thatananalysisbemadeofenvironmentalit issuggested problems. To basisthatissuffi provide aninformative andanalytical awareness. the cityincomparative Th terms. of airandwater, etc). Th (e.g. quality astopoverty,region indicators ofhumandevelopment, coverage ofservices, orthe Provide graphs thecitywithothercitiesofsimilarsizeincountry comparing conditioned andmeasured. intheMDG.Many andnationalpoliciesare international priority the themesgiven Development Goals(MDG);howthecityunderstudyshouldbeclassifi indicators oftheMillennium andanalysesocial inview thethemeofpoverty Highlight at aglance. monitored bythemunicipalityand/oruniversi aminimumbasketofenvironmentalSuggest in chapter. Th themainindicators chapter mentionedinthat withatablesummarizing End every offi asectionbeincludedonthequali suggested associated withthequalityofoffi oftheuncertainties In view Advice onimproving thereport: Advice cial information withthat fromcial unoffi ismay thenbecome atool to consult quickly data. 41 analysisoftheenvironmental system. management atisto say, to to ofbenchmarking helpto makeakind defi is serves for purposes ofcommunication andpublic for purposes isserves cial but rigorous and recognized sources. butrigorous andrecognized cial ty andavailability ofinformation, comparing ty/NGO to showthestate oftheenvironment dicators thatmay besystematically cient to makerecommendations, information, itis cial ed according to ne 101 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 102 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports > > public authority or other local social stakeholders orotherlocalsocial public authority sothat itcanbeunderstood mustbeadapted andused whendealingwiththe language for publicfor thepopulationingenerallanguage, thedocument– –animportant aswell andscientists, technical experts documents to thediff usedinthedissemination the language ofadapting stressing the importance isworth It than 50suburbanmunicipalities. to coverMexico with20millioninhabitantsandmore thewholeMetropolitan City Zone theGEO extending well asonotherprocesses inparticular publicpolicies, thatstrengthen with academicinstitutionsandthepublicsector, advances may bemadeon research as aresult ofalltheseprocesses,As initiatives collection ofmapsavailable maptechan important to thepublicbymeansofits digital wasalready of2006thegeotext making atthebeginning ontheInternet, report Mexico City andto inadditionto makeitsimpactsmore acomplement, puttingtheGEO widereaching, As as asource ofinformation to prepare itsHumanDevelopmentReport. 21proposal, andthe United NationsAgenda Th HABITAT), andatnationalseminarson theuseofurbanland. from theUnited Nations withsupport HumanSettlementsProgramme (UN- Observers Presentationsworkshops. have alsobeenma of diff Th relevant impactssuchas: Th Group Web, andGEA MCallao,CONAM MML, –Environment report DayTV (Caretas)Commitment withnationalmagazine Environmental fairs San Isidro ECOFORUM National ECODIALOGUE Survey Citizen Patrimony Water andtransport Air Waste use,green areas andbiodiversity Land Commitments withselected media Press Release

e Ministry oftheEnvironment asabasicinputto prepare usedGEOMexico City eMinistry itsLocal are anditsgeotext includedintheworkandapprenticeships report eGEOMexico City continues to ereport bedisseminated several years after theprocess withvery began, GEO LimaandCallao:Communication (dis GEO GEO Mexico City GEO erent academicinstitutions) atparticipatory Mexicangroups (publicandprivate erent publics to which the GEO Cities report isaddressed. erent report Eventhough publics to whichtheGEOCities decision-makers, understandamoredecision-makers, technical Development Programme (UNDP)alsousedit have been suggested so that, incollaboration sothat, have beensuggested de at national meetings of the Local Urban de atnationalmeetingsoftheLocal semination and incidence process)semination andincidence the evolutionoflinkthatexistsbetweenpressure factorsandthelocalenvironment. therefore, willallowananalysistobemadeofsustainability, theeffect ofactiontakenand development hasonecosystemsandnaturalresources. andlocalsocietyonenvironmentalthe government questionsandaboutimpacturban central instrumentincitymanagement. management as,forexample,whenarevision ismadeofthelocalUrbanMasterPlan,a assessment bedoneatthesametimeasdecisionsare madeaboutlocalurban-environmental two orthree years. important torecommend to decision-makersthattheGEOCitiesreports beprepared every the technicalteam.To followuponhowthecitiesare administeringtheenvironment, itisvery public authorityandotherlocalstakeholders.Thisstageisalsobeyondtheresponsibility of reports thatuseaharmonized methodologyandasetofindicatorsfordecisionmakingbythe environment isassessed, and alsoasabasistoprepare periodicstateofthe environment on eachcity’s politicalandinstitutionalcircumstances specialists, andthusextendthereach oftheproposals; thesepossibilitiesobviouslydepend This measure canpromote afruitfulexchangeamong decisionmakersandsocio-environmental responsible forpublicpoliciesanddecisionmakingaboutthestateoflocalenvironment. decidesotherwise. political government management policies.Thistaskisnotusuallytheresponsibility ofthetechnicalteamunlessits participation instrumentwhenitcomestolocalurban-environmental management the report, eachofthemwiththeirownpublicinmind,thusmakingitamore powerfulsocial Stage 5 ContinuingtheGEOCitiesprocess Stage 5 4.2. Inﬂ Continuity willhelpwhencreating archives onenvironmental cityassessments and, By doingthis,theGEOCitiesreport couldbecomeastimulusforchangeinattitudeby To doso,itisrecommended that, wheneverpossible,therevision oftheGEOCities For thatreason, thetechnicalteamshouldestablishacollaborationstrategywiththose UNEP’s GEOCitiesProject intends tousethisreport todeﬁ ne howthestateof The GEOCitiesprocessenvironmental endswiththeinclusionoflocalgovernment It is,therefore, particularlyrelevant tousethedifferent communicationsmediatodisseminate uencing policies 103 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 104 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports I. Introduction Annexes

Annex 1:Indicators • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Juvenile delinquencyindex Incidence ofdiseasescausedbypoisoningandpollution Incidence ofcardio respiratory diseases Incidence ofwater-borne diseases Microclimate changes Biodiversity loss areas. Percentage ofdeterioratedareas (historiccentres orbuildings)inrelation tobuilt-upurban Vegetal Cover response analysis species inthelocalenvironment. Itisatransversalindicatorthatwillhelptheimpactand Extinct orendangered species/knownspecies,measured bythenumberofknownendangered Polluted sites Percentage ofgeologicalunstable (riskareas) areas occupied Water shortage(frecuency, extension,duration) Quality ofwatersupply Air Quality Solid wastedisposal Solid wasteproduction Emission gasesproducing acidrain Atmospheric emissions Total volumeofuntreated domesticsewage Total waterconsumption Annual percapitaenergyconsumption The GINIIndex(socialinequality) Area andpopulationoflegal andillegalhumansettlements Population growth Vegetal coverreduction Land Usechangefrom non-urban tourban Motorization index Modal transportdistribution Investment in water supplyanddrainages systems Investment in public transport Investment inenvironmental recovery Investment ingreen areas Total rehabilitated areas inrelation todegradedareas Access toandqualityoflocal infrastructure Investments inwastemanagement Preventive andfi warnings nes forviolatingwastedisposal standards Tax systembasedonthepolluter/payeroruser/payerprincipleinplace Number ofenvironmental NGOs Environmental educationprogrammes Local Agenda21activities Regulation oncontrolling ofemissionsfrom mobileandfi xed sources inplace Legislation toprotect springsinplace Urban masterplaninplace Population livinginvulnerableurbanareas Loss oftaxrevenue Incidence offl oods, landslidesetc Property depreciation Loss ofurbanattraction Cost ofrehabilitating monumentsandrestoring historiccentres. Cost ofcontainingandpreventing environmental risks. Water collectionandtreatment cost Public healthcostsduetoincidenceofwater-borne diseases RESPONSES PRESSURE IMPACT STATE 105 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports the preparation Methodology for

106

PRESSURE INDICATORS trolleybuses, busesandmicrobuses andnon-motorizedvehicles data are unobtainable,informationmaybecollectedonthenumberofprivate cars,trainsand Data ontransportmodalitiesare generallyobtainedfrom specifi c transportsurveys.Ifdetailed Other comments/context None. Goals, reference values usingnon-ecologicaltransport. Minimize thenumberofjourneys Objectives set. OECD, 1997.Betterunderstandingourcities:Therole ofhumanindicators,EEAindicator EF, 1998.Urbansustainabilityindicators fortheimprovement oflivingandworkingconditions. http://ww2.unhabitat.org/programmes/guo/documents/urban_indicators_guidelines.pdf UNCHS. Methodological resources reference Trend graphs,barcharts,pie charts,(indicatingparticipationofeachmodality). Possible timeandspaceformats on foot,motorcycle, private cars,train,metro, etc. Percentage (%)inrelation inthecityby:bicycle,buses,minibuses, tothetotaldailyjourneys Measurements andunits This indicatorshouldbemeasured everyyear. means. vehicles, trainsortrolleybuses, busesormicrobuses, motorcycles, bicycles,onfoot,other This indicatorismeasured according totransportmodality: percentageinprivate ofjourneys How isitidentifi accidents, reduced productivity andthepopulation’s generalfrustration. more space,reduces traffi c andsavesenergy. Traffi c jamsare associatedwithairpollution, Various meansoftransportputpressure ontheenvironment. Collectivetransportprovides Justifi Defi Modal transport distribution Modal transport Type ofindicator: Resource: Source: Category: nition ofcore indicatorspressure indicators cation: Whatdoesitmeanandwhyisimportanttomeasure it? CEROI Core Biodiversity, land,atmosphere, built-upenvironment ed? Informationneeded PRESSURE 107 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 108 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports How isitidentifi to a“fl oating” populationorbeingdriventoothercities. consideration mustbegiventothepresence ofasignifi cant numberofautomobilesbelonging indicator iscalculatedbythetotalnumberofauthorizedlightvehiclesincity. Inlargecities of informationneededtoimplementtherationaluse ofcitytransportsystems local populationmakesofmotorcarsasameans of transport,isonetheimportantsources in order tobeaware ofitsimpact.Themotorizationindex,byindicatinghowmuchusethe the increasing useofmotorcarsinlargecitiesmakesitindispensabletodevelop mechanisms drives theeconomyinmanyindustrializedcountries, thepressure ontheenvironment dueto Although ofgreat economicimportance,andtakingintoaccountthattheautomobile industry Other comments/context Local sources forBogota,SaoPaulo,MexicoCityandSantiago. Application examples referenceNo international values. Goals, reference values incidence ofrespiratory and cardiovascular diseases. Help tocontrol pollutioncaused bymotorvehiclefuelsincities,reduce airpollutionandthe Objectives region managementagencies. Look forresearch studiesbyoriginanddestination,generallycarriedoutcityormetropolitan Methodological resources reference Graphs, tablesandtrend charts. Possible timeandspaceformats Number ofcarsperinhabitant. Measurements andunits Number ofcars/inhabitantsinthecity. Includecarsfrom othercitiesbeingdriveninthecity. combustion thatistheprincipalsource ofCO The intensityofmotorcaruseincitiesisonethemainpressures onairqualityduetothe Justifi Motorization index Type ofindicator: Resource: Source: Category: cation: Whatdoesitmeanandwhyisimportanttomeasure it? Consorcio Parceria 21 New Biodiversity, land,atmosphere, built-upenvironment ed? Informationneeded PRESSURE 2 , SO 2 , NO X andothergreenhouse gases.The on thedifferent environmental resources considered intheGEOCitiesassessment This isconsidered asatransversalindicator, usefultoanalysethepressure ofurbanactivities Other comments/context No reference valuesordefi ned goals. Goals, reference values urban area bytheaddition ofnon-urbanland. Determine thepressure exertedontheenvironment anditsresources duetothegrowth ofthe Objectives Assessment” htt://reports.eea.europa.eu/92-826-5409-5/en An approximate exampleof thisindicatormaybefoundinEurope’s Environment “theDobris Methodological resources reference Graphs, maps,aerialphotos,high-resolution satelliteimagesandtrend charts. Possible timeandspaceformats Area inkm Measurements andunits Area (km How isitidentifi to affect theenvironment’s balance. agricultural landwithoutartifi cialhumanintervention)replaced byhumanoccupationthattends a setofdataeveryyearonallnewlandoccupancyshowingthenon-urbanarea (green areas, plots, building,constructingengineeringinfrastructure, etc.).Itwouldbeofinterest toobtain non-urban tourban.Thisistheresult ofhumanactivities,legalandillegal,ontheland(dividing One oftheprincipalpressures ontheenvironment incitiesisthechangelandusefrom Justifi Land use change from non-urbantourban Land usechangefrom Type ofindicator: Resource: Source: Category: cation: Whatdoesitmeanandwhyisimportanttomeasure it? 2 ) includedintheurbanarea inthepastyear, compared tothetotalurbanarea. 2 . Consorcio Parceria 21 New, transversal All ed? Informationneeded PRESSURE 109 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 110 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports Area inkm Measurements andunits year oranyotherperiod). the qualityoflifeincities. of thedegree ofreduction whencalculatingtheeffects ontheenvironment andtheimpactson services isobtainedfrom vegetalcover, itisoftheutmostimportancethataccount betaken the pressure ofurbanactivitiesontheenvironment. Asaverybroad rangeofenvironmental Controlling thereduction ofvegetalcoverineachcityisonethemainmeasures toreduce Other comments/context No goalsorreference valueforthisindicator. Goals, reference values other formsofvegetationthreatened byhumandevelopment. Help toprotect andconserve naturalresources bycontrolling thedestructionofforests and Objectives un.org/esa/sustdev Sustainable Development,FrameworkandMethodologies”,availableforconsultationatwww. An approximate example ofthisindicatormaybefoundinthedocument“Indicators Methodological resources reference Graphs, maps,aerialphotos,high-resolution satelliteimaginesandtrend charts. Possible timeandspaceformats Wooded area (km How isitidentifi This indicatorisdirectly related totheindicatoron stateofvegetalcover. and becomesanimportantindicatorofthepressure citiesplaceontheenvironment. and othertypesofnaturalvegetationisonethemainconsequencesurbandevelopment different pollutantsandinfluences thelocaltemperature. Reducingthearea occupiedbywoods complex andvariedfl ora andfaunabiodiversity;ithelpstoconservespringsthesoil;fi lters The land’s vegetalcoverhasanimportantfunctionintheenvironment becauseitcoversa Justifi Vegetal coverreduction Type ofindicator: Resource: Source: Category: cation: Whatdoesitmeanandwhyisimportanttomeasure it? 2 . Consorcio Parceria 21 New, transversal Biodiversity, land,water ed? Informationneeded 2 ) orothertypeofnaturalvegetationdeforested inadeterminedperiod(or PRESSURE highest level,around 9.7billionby2050inthescenario calledSecurityfi rst.(UNEP 2007) GEO 4scenariosestimate thatglobalpopulationwillcontinuegrowing, anditwillreach its 1.6% for1987–1997.There are largeregional differences ingrowth rates.(WHO2009) than adecadeago.Theaverageannualgrowth ratewas1.3%for1997–2007 compared with A recent report mentionsthattheworld’s populationcontinuestogrow butataslowerrate Other comments/context Prague population: Application examples references.No international Goals, reference values, settlements. Harmonize acity’s annualgrowth withits environment and,ingeneral,thesituationofhuman Objectives Set. UNEP, 2007.GEO-4:GlobalEnvironment Outlook. OECD, 1997.BetterUnderstandingOurCities:TheRoleofUrbanIndicators.EEAIndicator WB, 1998.SustainableDevelopmentIndicators. UNCHS http://ww2.unhabitat.org/programmes/guo/urban_indicators.asp Methodological resources reference Graphs showingtrends, maps. Possible timeandspaceformats Total numberofinhabitants. Measurements andunits Number ofcitiesoveradeterminedperiod(2-10yearsrecommended). How isitidentifi growth ofpopulation. Over time,theincrease ordecrease inpressure ontheurbanenvironment accompaniesthe contamination ofacityanditssurroundings andairpollutionduetotransportindustries. the environment includingtheexploitationofnaturalresources suchaswaterandsoil,the Urban population,aswellpopulationdensity, isanindicatorthatmeasures pressure on Justifi Population growth Type ofindicator: Resource: Source: Category: cation: Whatdoesitmeanandwhyisimportanttomeasure it? CEROI Core, transversal All ed? Informationneeded PRESSURE 111 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 112 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports km Measurements andunits inhabitants. infrastructure,local government andlocalhealthcare, amongothers human lifeandeconomic lossesfrom naturaldisasters, theinfantmortalityindex,costof into consideration.Onthe otherhand,thisisrelated tootherimportantindicatorssuchas and theenvironment, evenwhenillegallandoccupancybythewealthiestgroups isalsotaken This indicatorisagoodexampleofhowinequality may haveperverseeffects onthepopulation Other comments/context No reference valuesforthisindicator. Goals, reference values environment resources. population groups, aswellofthepressure thesesettlementsexertonthevariouslocal Allows ameasurement to be madeofthelevelmarginalizationlivingconditionslarge Objectives consulted at:http://ww2.unhabitat.org/programmes/guo/urban_indicators.asp specifi cally theUrbanIndicatorProgramme (UIP)andtheLocalUrbanObservatory. Itmaybe This indicatorcomesfrom theUnitedNationsHumanSettlementsCentre (UN-HABITAT), and Methodological resources reference Graphs, tables,maps,trend charts. Possible timeandspaceformats Justifi Urban residential area inkm How isitidentifi on unauthorizedterritorieswithoutservicessuchasdrainage. marginalized peopleliveintheseareas; there are alsobetter-off groups inthesamesituation centres andgarbagecollection.However, itshouldbemadeclearthatnotonlypoorand springs andoccupyingveryvulnerableareas withoutsuchbasicservicesasdrainage,health pressure onnaturalresources andtheenvironment, deforesting woodedareas, polluting of citiesare overcrowded andlanduseisinadequatetotallyuncontrolled; thisputsstrong marginalized andprecarious anddonotmeetbasichumanneeds.Settlementsontheoutskirts Settlements characterizedasillegallandpossessionwithunauthorizedbuildingsare generally settlements andpopulation oflegalandillegalhuman Area 2 Type ofindicator: Resource: Source: Category: , numberofinhabitants. cation: Whatdoesitmeanandwhyisimportanttomeasure it? UNCSD Core, transversal. All ed? Informationneeded PRESSURE 2 occupiedbylegalandillegalsettlementsthenumberof incomes. Africa.TheOECD providesall thecountriesinsouthern informationondeveloped countries’ This indexisdiffi cult tomeasure inpoorcountries.TheWorld Bankdevelopsareference for Other comments/context The World BankusestheGiniindexasareference. Application examples development indicatorsmaybeconsidered. Since itisacompoundandrelative index,thepercapitaincome,GDP, andothereconomic Goals, reference values Measure thepopulation’s incomeorinequalitylevel. Objectives www.worldbank.org/data reference.Absolutely nointernational TheWorld Bankprovides some reference data Methodological resources reference patterns. Depending onincome,itmaybeappliedtohouseholds,populationgroups, orconsumption The measurement maybe takenlocallyornationally, dependingonhowincomeismeasured. Possible timeandspaceformats inequality andonerepresents themaximumpossibledegree ofinequality. It isanindexwithoutaspecifi c dimension,itvariesfrom zero toonewhere zero represents no Measurements andunits receives thesame. orotherrelatedpatterns variables,andthehypotheticaldistributioninwhicheachperson It isanindexofthedifference betweenmeasuringtheactualincomedistribution,consumption How isitidentifi pressure urbandevelopmentplacesontheenvironment. poorest groups are distributedintheurbanzone,areliable measurement maybemadeofthe those thatexertthemostpressure. Oncethelocality’s Giniindex isknown,aswellhowthe made toprove whatisundeniableor, inotherwords, thatthepoorest areas oflargecitiesare environment cannotbeestablished,asagrowth of populationindicatoraneffort mustbe must bemeasured. Althoughanautomaticcorrelation betweenpovertyandpressure onthe the environment exertedbythedifferent socialclasses,populationdistributioninthelocality income distributionhasimportantconsequencesonterritorialoccupationandpressure on This indicatorisofparticularimportancetoassesssustainabledevelopmentinequality. Since Justifi The GINIIndex(socialinequality) Type ofindicator: Recourse: Source: Category: cation: Whatdoesitmeanandwhyisimportanttomeasure it? UNCSD Core, transversal All ed? Informationneeded PRESSURE

113 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 114 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports energy source used. For theindicatortobeeffective inmeasuringlocalair pollution,theanalysismustdescribe quality. the transportsector, togive amore precise assessmentofthecities’globalcontribution toair To assessenergyconsumption,thisinformation mustbecompared withconsumptiondatain on hydraulicresources. hydroelectricity, energyconsumptionmayreach anunsustainableleveland,puttingpressure productive activitiesthatcausetheemissions.Evenwhen,asinBrazil, matrix isbasedon greenhouse gasemissionssuchascarbondioxide(CO based onfossilfuels,suchasmineralcarbon,natural gasandpetroleum derivatives, produces in theenergymatrixLatinAmericaandCaribbean countries.Electricitygeneration In general,electricityisproducedfossil fuels,althoughthisusehasasmallershare byburning Other comments/context http://www.iisd.org/measure/compendium/DisplayInitiative.aspx?id=1346 The RegionalMunicipalityofHamilton-Wentworth, 1996, Application examples No correspondingpatterns. international Goals, reference values Reduce thecity’s energyconsumption. Objectives Bank Publications,USA. WB, DevelopmentDataGroup, 1999.World DevelopmentIndicators1999onCD-ROM.World Set. OECD, 1997BetterUnderstandingourCities:TheRoleofUrbanIndicators,EEAIndicator Methodological resources references To indicatetrends, numericaldatamay bepresented intablesorcharts. Possible timeandspaceformats GWh /percapitaannum. Measurements andunits City population,amountofenergyconsumedinGWh. How isitidentifi from transportenergyconsumptionasitisdirectly linked tocombustion. may bedividedaccording tothesector:industrial,commercial, andhousehold.Itisdifferent related ofconsumption,development,airqualityandatmosphericemissions.It tothepattern This indicatormeasures theaverageannualconsumptionofelectricenergyperpersonandis Justifi Annual per capita energy consumption Annual percapitaenergy Type ofindicator: Resource: Source: Category: cation: Whatdoesitmeanandwhyisimportanttomeasure it? UNCSD, OECD,CEROI Core Atmosphere ed? Informationneeded PRESSURE 2 ). Electricityconsumptionislinkedto every year water andsanitationinurban areas inBrazilcauses approximately 8500premature deaths In NorthAmericaaverage cityuseis7timeshigherthaninAfrica.Itestimated thatlackof On average,peopleindeveloped countriesuse272litres ofwaterperday;inAfrica53litres. http://ceroi.net/ind/display.asp?indID=20 Other comments/context id=591 http://www.bestpractices.org/database/bp_display_best_practice.php?best_practice_ City ofTargoviste, Rumania:Production andconsumptionpatterns. http://www.ceroi.net Percentage ofwaterconsumedbydifferent sectorsinArendal (Norway). Application examples Local programme goals. Goals, reference values Harmonize waterconsumptionwithavailableresources. Objectives Conditions. EF, 1998.UrbanSustainabilityIndicators fortheImprovement ofLivingandWorking ICLEI, http://www.iclei.org Set. UNCHS,1995.MonitoringHumanSettlements:ABridgedSurvey, IndicatorProgramme. OECD, 1997.BetterUnderstandingOurCities:TheRoleofUrbanIndicators,EEAIndicator Methodological resources references Trend charts,graphs. Possible timeandspaceformats Average waterconsumption (litres /dayperson). Measurements andunits supply network.Theresult isdividedbythenumberofdaysinayear. By relating annualdomesticwaterconsumptiontothenumberofinhabitantsconnected How isitidentifi of drinkingwater, paidforbytheconsumer. related tothequalityofcity’s supplysystem;totalconsumptiongenerallyincludeslosses consumption, ismuchhigherincitieshigh-incomecountries.Thismaybeanindicator consumption, hygiene,laundry, gardening, etc.).Water consumption, likeotherformsof Per capitalwaterconsumptiondependsonavailabilityprice,climateanduses(human Justifi Total waterconsumption Type ofindicator: Resource: Source: Category: cation: Whatdoesitmeanandwhyisimportanttomeasure it? CEROI Core Water ed? Informationneeded PRESSURE

115 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 116 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports month, oryear:m sewage. Being aware ofthedegree of organiccontaminationisthefi rst stepinreducing pollutionfrom Other comments/context No reference valuesforthisindicator. Goals, reference values access tothelocaldrainagenetwork. Measure thepollutioninbodiesofwatercausedbylackproper treatment, ornothaving Objectives asp Treated Sewage www.iclei.org: Volume ofSewage http://ww2.unhabitat.org/programmes/guo/guo_databases. www.ceroi.net: Wastewater Treatment. Other approximate usesof thisindicatormaybefoundin: Methodological resources references Graphs, tables,mapsandtrend charts. Possible timeandspaceformats Percentage oftotalvolume ofdrainedsewage. Volume ofsewagedisposedinagivenperiod,byday, bymonthoryear:m Measurements andunits sewage andthepercentage ofthetotalvolumesewageproduced inthecity. of sewageperperson.Theindicatormaybeexpressed asthetotalvolumeofuntreated Alternatively, accountmaybetakenofanyinformationavailableontheaverageannualvolume services, from information about thetotalconsumptionofwaterfordomesticuseineachcity. may becalculatedbyconsideringthepopulationwithoutsewagecollectionandtreatment On average,50%ofallthewaterconsumedpercapitabecomessewage.Thisindicator How isitidentifi consumption; therefore, thepressure onnaturalresources inthecitiesmustbemeasured. diseases, theproliferation oftoxicalgae,andincreasing thecostoftreating waterfordomestic the environment andqualityoflife,aswellonthepopulation’s health,causingwater-borne gravity, andpollutesurface,groundwater andseawater. Thispollutionhasaseriousimpacton Untreated sewageandrainwaterare generallydrained off intowaterbasinsbytheeffects of Justifi Total domesticsewage volumeofuntreated Type ofindicator: Resource: Source: Category: cation: Whatdoesitmeanandwhyisimportanttomeasure it? Consorcio Parceria 21 New Water, biodiversity ed? Informationneeded 3 /day, m PRESSURE 3 /month, m 3 /year. 3 /day, m 3 /

Total emissionsintonnespercapitayearofa)SO How isitidentifi motor vehicletransport,andtotheconcentrationofindustries. fi xed sources directly linkedtoenergyconsumption,environmental policies,urbandensity, materials, monumentsandhistoricpatrimonysites.Itiscausedbyemissionsfrom mobileand Air Pollutionaffects humanhealth(acutelyandchronically), vegetation,buildings,construction Justifi and theCaribbean.http://www.worldbank.org/wbi/cleanair/infocenter/index.htm instrument toprevent newemissionsandtorestore air qualityinurbanareas in Latin America The World Bankprogramme “CleanAirInitiativeinLatinAmericanCities” developedan Application examples greenhouse gasesbyatleast5%belowthe1990levels,forperiod2008-2012. Reduce thetotalofemissionscausedbyhumans inequivalentsofcarbondioxideand Kyoto Protocol withtheUnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange. The KyotoProtocol goalsfornaturalemissions(nocityhavebeenestablished). Goals, reference values Reduce emissionstotheminimum. Objectives conditions. EF, 1998.UrbanSustainabilityIndicators fortheImprovement ofLivingandWorking http://www.sustainable-cities.org/ indicators/ Environment, 2000.Towards aLocalSustainabilityProfi le –European CommonIndicators. EC, Directorate GeneralEnvironment, Working Group oftheExpertGroup ontheUrban pdf UNCHS, http://ww2.unhabitat.org/programmes/guo/documents/urban_indicators_guidelines. Methodological resources references Graphs, trend charts,column graphs. Possible timeandspaceformats capita /peryear). CO Measurements andunits emissions isusuallydividedbythemainmobileandfi xed sources ofemissions. Atmospheric emissions 2 Type ofindicator: Resource: Source: Category: (tonnes/percapitayear).NO cation: Whatdoesitmeanandwhyisimportanttomeasure it? CEROI Core Atmosphere ed? Informationneeded PRESSURE x (tonnes/percapitayear).SO 2 ; b)NO x ; c)CO 2 . Theinventoryof 2 (tonnes/per 117 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 118 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports To calculateemissionspercapita,thetotalof:(a)SO How isitidentifi fl ora andfauna. and changesinthechemicalcompositionofsoilsurfacewaters,theyalsoaffect and NH and NH and NH pressure onthequalityofurbanair. ThepollutinggasesSO substances released intotheatmosphere. Emissions from fi xed andmobilesources put Total emissionspercapitaandhectare ofNH Measurements andunits equivalent; (Aeq=totalaciditycausedbyacidcomponentsanddepositedperhectare). as thetotalpopulation,mustbeknown.Acidsubstancesmaymeasured asanacidity Arendal, Norway:http://www.ceroi.net/reports/arendal/ Application examples WHO maybetakenasreferences. Reduce totheminimumsources ofpollutionandimprove airquality. Goalsestablishedby Goals, reference values quality. Reduce emissionsfrom fi xed andmobilesources tocomplywiththedemandforcleanair Objectives EEA, 1998.Europeans Environment: TheSecondAssessment. EF, 1998.UrbanSustainabilityIndicators fortheImprovement ofLivingandWorking Conditions. UNCHS, UrbanIndicatorsGuidelines:BetterInformationforCities,EEAIndicatorSet. Methodological resources references Graphs, trend charts,column graphs. Possible timeandspaceformats Total emissionspercapitaandhectare ofSO Total emissionspercapitaandhectare ofNO Sulphur oxides(SO Justifi Emission gases producing acidrain Emission gasesproducing Type ofindicator: Resource; Source: Category: cation: Whatdoesitmeanandwhyisimportanttomeasure it? 3 3 3 perhectare) perhectare) perhectare) CEROI Core Atmosphere ed? Informationneeded x ), nitrogenous oxide(NO PRESSURE x ) andammonium(NH 3 x x (tonnesvs.capita,Aeq,depositofSO (tonnesvs.capita,Aeq,depositofSO (tonnesvs.capita,Aeq,depositofSO x , NO x x andNH , (b)NO 3 ), are examplesofacid 3 x y(c)NH produce acidrain 3 aswell 2 2 2 , NO , NO , NO 2 2 2

Solid wasteproduced (m Total solidwasteproduced (tonnes/inhabitant /year). Measurements andunits should bemeasured annually. amount produced percapita,thetotalnumberofinhabitantsmustbeknown.Theindicator Whenever possible,thisindicatorshouldbemeasured byweightandvolume.To calculatethe How isitidentifi as industry, commerce, healthinstallations,tourism,transport,andfamilyunits. and unsustainablelifestyles.Solidwasteisproduced byeconomicanddomesticsectorssuch Solid wasteproduction increases annuallyduetothe growing population,defi cient services Justifi health benefi ts tobehad whenthecommunityparticipates Management ofsolidwasteindevelopingcountries hasshownthere are manysocialand The indicatoronlyconsiderssolidwaste. Other comments/context jcci.org Jacksonville, Florida,“PerCapitaTons ofSolidWaste DepositedinCityLandfi lls”. http://www. Application examples No reference values. Goals, reference values Reduce theamountofwaste. Objectives Set. UNCHS,1995.MonitoringHumanSettlements:ABridgedSurvey, IndicatorProgramme. OECD, 1997.BetterUnderstandingOurCities:TheRoleofUrbanIndicators,EEAIndicator Methodological resources references Graphs, tablesandtrend charts. Possible timeandspaceformats Solid waste production Solid wasteproduction Type ofindicator: Resource: Source: Category: cation: Whatdoesitmeanandwhyisimportanttomeasure it? CEROI Core Soil, water ed? Informationneeded PRESSURE 3 /inhabitantyear). 119 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 120 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports instruments for reducing thepressure ofurban centres ontheenvironment. dumps orclose toinhabitedareas. Control andmanagementare some ofthemostimportant waste, theyare oftenignored andasignifi cant partofthewasteisdisposed ofinopen-air Even thoughthere are strict lawsaboutdisposalofindustrialwaste,specifi cally hazardous Other comments/ / Good practices:Waste andurbanclearinginBarcelona. http://www.mediambient.bcn.es Application examples No reference values. Goals, reference values reuse. the incidenceofdiseasebydecreasing production atsource andencouragingrecycling and To prevent atmospheric,waterandsoilpollutionbypoorsolidwastedisposalreduce Objectives Conditions. EF, 1998.UrbanSustainabilityIndicators fortheImprovement ofLivingandWorking ICLEI, http://www.iclei.org Set. UNCHS,1995.MonitoringHumanSettlements:ABridgedSurvey, IndicatorProgramme. OECD, 1997.BetterUnderstandingOurCities:TheRoleofUrbanIndicators,EEAIndicator Methodological resources references Graphs, maps,trend charts. Possible timeandspaceformats produced). dumps andotherwise(tonnes/inhabitant;m % oftotalwasteproduced). Solidwastecollectedandimproperly disposedofingarbage Uncollected andimproperly disposedof(tonnes/inhabitant;m waste collectedorrecycled (tonnes/inhabitant;m Solid wastecollectedanddisposedofinsanitarylandfi lls (tonnes/inhabitant;m Measurements andunits or volumemaybeusedandthepercentage ofthetotalweightproduced. disposed of)indifferent waysdividedbetweenthetotal numberofinhabitants.Unitsweight The indicatormaybecalculatedfrom thetotalwasteproduced anddisposedof(ornot How isitidentifi harmful tohumans. waste disposalputsgreat pollutingpressure ontheland;itcontaminatesaquifersandis directly associatedwiththecity’s capacitytoproperly disposeof garbage.Improper solid Solid wastedisposalisoneofprincipalurbanproblems. Mitigatingitsnegativeimpactis Justifi Solid wastedisposal Type ofindicator: Resource: Source: Category: cation: Whatdoesitmeanandwhyisimportanttomeasure it? CEROI, Consorcio Parceria 21 Core Soil, water ed? Informationneeded PRESSURE 3 /inhabitant, %oftotalwasteproduced). Solid 3 /inhabitant, %oftotalwasteproduced). 3 /inhabitant,%oftotalwaste 3 /habitante, Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports the preparation Methodology for

121

STATE INDICATORS 122 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 3.4 Defi http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs313/en/index.html More informationonWHOguidelinesavailableat: NO WHO GuidelinesforEurope 2005 Goals reference values Reduce atmosphericpollutionanditsharmfuleffects onhealth,waterandsoil. Objectives cities.org/indicators/ Towards aLocalSustainabilityProfile –European CommonIndicators. http://www.sustainable- Environment, 2000. EC, Directorate GeneralEnvironment, Working Group oftheExpertGroup ontheUrban Assessment. OECD, 1999.AdvancedAirQualityIndicatorsandReporting:MethodologicalStudy EEA, 1998.AssessmentandManagementofUrbanAirQualityinEurope. WHO, 1997.HealthyCitiesIndicators:AnalysisofDatafrom Citiesacross Europe. pdf UNCHS. http://ww2.unhabitat.org/programmes/guo/documents/urban_indicators_guidelines. Methodological resources references Graph andtrend charts Possible timeandspaceformats each standard intheabove-mentioned list(numberofyearlyviolationsthestandard). Number ofdaysperyearwhentheairqualitystandard monitored inthecitydoesnotmeet Measurements andunits should becalculatedeveryyear. mean, 500ug/m as todeSO Number ofdaysinwhichtheWorld HealthOrganization(WHO)orlocalstandards are exceeded How isitidentifi health, vegetation,constructions,monumentsandculturalpatrimony. and concentrationofindustries.Concentrationspollutantshaveserieseffects onhuman linked toenergyconsumption,environmental policies,urbandensity, motorvehicletransport Air qualityisnegativelyaffected byemissionsfrom fi xed andmobilesources andisdirectly Justifi Air Quality 2 Type ofindicator: Resource: Source: Category: (200ug/m cation: Whatdoesitmeanandwhyisimportanttomeasure it? nition ofcore indicators:Stateindicators 2 , O CEROI Core 3 3 Atmosphere , 1hour),CO(30mg/m , CO,NO 3 ed? Informationneeded 10minutes),O STATE 2 , blacksmoke,suspendedparticles(MP)andlead(Pb).Thisindicator 3 (100ug/m 3 , 1hour, 10mg/m 3 8-hourmean),lead(0.5 mg/m 3 ,8 hours),SO 2 (20ug/m 3 , 1year). 3 , 24hours be appliedinanalysingsalt waterquality Therefore, thesameindicator usedtoassessthestateofenvironment inthesecitiesmay and seasthatare usuallyimportantsources ofrecreation andfoodsupplyforcoastal cities. Although reference ismade todrinkingwater, faecalmaterialpollutionisalsofound inoceans Other comments/context htm Quality ofwatersupplyinPrague:http://www.ceroi.net/reports/prague/issues/Water/state. Application examples WHO; nationalstandards. Goals, reference values the environment. Combat drinkingwaterpollutionanddamagetohealth(infantmortalityduediarrhoea) Objectives Food andHealthOrganizationoftheUnitedNations(FAO). United NationsCentre for Human Developmentsforsettlements(UN-Habitat). World HealthOrganization (WHO). Methodological resources references Graphs, trend charts. Possible timeandspaceformats days whenstandards are exceeded. Microbiological quality:(% of samplesanalysedwiththeresults offaecalmaterial).Number Measurements andunits ml abovezero andthetotal numberofsamplesanalysed. as arelation betweenthenumber ofwateranalysesmadeandtheresults offaecalmaterial/100 authorized testingagenciesandinstitutions.Themicrobiological qualityofwaterismeasured results are generallyfoundinthecompetentauthorities’ laboratoryrecords orinthosekeptby Microbiological testingofwatertodetectEscherichiacoliandstreptococcus bacteria.The How isitidentifi pollution inthewaterorsupplynetworksignifi es ahealththreat. water suppliedtocommunitiesmeettheirbasicneeds.Itidentifi es localitieswhere faecal recommended bytheWorld HealthOrganization(WHO). Theindicatorassessesthequalityof Percentage offreshwater withconcentrationsoffaecal materialbacteriaabovethelevels Justifi Quality ofwatersupply Type ofindicator: Resource: Source: Category: cation: Whatdoesitmeanandwhyisimportanttomeasure it? UNCSD, CEROI Core Water ed? Informationneeded STATE

123 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 124 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports necessary to considersomeglobalvalues region andfrom citytocity. Themostimportant reference islocal,although perhapsitwillbe of theresource, according togeographicandclimate conditions, variesgreatly from region to Water usealso dependsonculturalcharacteristics,habitsandcustoms. Thenaturalavailability Other comments/context No systematizedexamples fortheurbanenvironment. Application examples reference valuesavailablefrom localandregional water supplyagencies. Agenda 21,chapter18;WHO,dataonwater supply andconsumptionpercapita;local Goals reference values water usebeapplied. integrated waterbasinadministration.TheOECD recommends thepolluter-payer principlefor waste andtheineffi cient useofsupplyandtreatment technology, recycling effl uents and The objectiveistoguaranteesustainablemanagement oftheresource, implyingreducing Objectives OECD, KeyEnvironmental Indicators,2001. Methodological resources references Tables andgraphstoindicatechangesovertime,from yeartoyear. Possible timeandspaceformats and percentage ofthepopulation affected bysupplymeasured overagivenperiod. Index calculatedonthebasisofannualwatershortages;durationinnumberdaysperyear Measurements andunits this resource. of thelocalwatersupplybasin.Chargesforshouldalsobeconsidered whenanalysing quality, thepopulationwithaccesstowatersupplyandtreatment, intensityofuseandthesize information shouldbeassociatedwithpressure andresponse indicatorsthat assesswater over agivenperiodshowhowmuchwaterisavailableforthecity. Althoughquantitative,this for administrationperformandusersbehave.Water supplypoliciesandhowtheyare applied the localorregional water supplyauthority. Itisalsorefl ected inhowauthoritiesresponsible sources, includingthoseoutside theurbanterritory, andinformationmaybeobtainedfrom intensity anddurationofwatershortages.Theindicatordependsontherelation tosupply To assessthestateofwaterintermsquantityandavailability, accountistakenofthefrequency, How isitidentifi of waterresources incities. To guaranteesustainableadministrationitisessentialtoavoidoverexploitation anddegradation on humanhealth. water anditsconsequences:shortages,salinizationincoastalareas, droughts andtheimpact abouthydricresourcesThe mainconcern intheurbanenvironment istheineffi cient useof Justifi Water shortage (frequency,Water shortage extension,duration) Type ofindicator: Resource: Source: Category: cation: Whatdoesitmeanandwhyisimportanttomeasure it? OECD Consorcio Parceria 21 Core Water ed? Informationneeded STATE % ofriskareas measured inkm Measurements andunits for thisindicator. information isnotavailable,geologicalmapsofthecitymayalsobeagoodsauce Aerial photographyisanimportantinstrumenttodefi ne riskareas ineachcity:Ifthistypeof How isitidentifi be usedtoassesthevulnerabilityrisksofnaturaldisastersinlocality. therefore, maygiveanideaoftheexistingnaturaland social risksinagivenlocality. Itmayalso events suchaslandslidesandfl oods, puttingthelivesofinhabitantsatrisk.Theindicator, occupation ofriskareas, thatistosay, areas thatare veryvulnerabletodestructivenatural Accelerated urbangrowth withhighlevelsofsocialinequality, isusuallyaccompaniedby Justifi sustainable developmentinurbancentres to naturaldisastersisanimportantcontribution toreducing socialinequality andtobuild Reducing socialandenvironmental risksbyloweringtheoccupationratein areas vulnerable Other comments/context No reference valuesestablished;newindicator. Goals, reference values Cooperate toreduce social andenvironmental vulnerabilityinthecity’s riskareas. Objectives Area andpopulationofauthorized andunauthorizedurbansettlements. Human andeconomiclossescausedbynaturaldisasters. UNCSD –Consultindicatorsthatmeasure similarproblems. Methodological resources references Maps, graphsandtrend charts. Possible timeandspaceformats areas) occupied areas) (risk of geologicallyunstableareas Percentage Type ofindicator: Resource: Source: Category: cation: Whatdoesitmeanandwhyisimportanttomeasure it? UNCSD, Consorcio Parceria 21 New Land, water, biodiversity, built-upenvironment ed? Informationneeded STATE 2 . 125 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 126 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports use ofpesticidesasanindirect pollutionindicator. broad rangeofsources andtypesofexistingpollution;itmightstillbehelpfultomeasure the of soilandenvironmental contamination.Pressures are diffi cult todistinguishconsideringthe Indicators onthenumberofspacesandcleaning programmes saylittleabout theproblem As pollutedspacesmaycauseseriousproblems theymustbecontinuously monitored. Other comments/context 75/439, art.4);prohibit the disposalofprintedcircuits inanywaynotenvironmentally safe. of residual oilsand,when thatisnotfeasible,ensure theirsafedestructionorstorage(Dir.. batteries containinghazardous substances(Dir. 91/157,art.6);ensure combustionisfree effective networkofwaste disposalinstallations(Dir. –Table, art.5);separatelydisposeof In Europe dispositionsin force inthisrespect are meantto:implementanintegratedand Goals, reference values Decontaminate spacesandimprove theenvironment. Objectives html http://www.environment.gov.au/soe/2001/publications/theme-reports/settlements/appendix. New SouthWales Environment Protection Authority, NSWStateoftheEnvironment Methodological resources references Trend charts,maps,graphs. Possible timeandspaceformats Polluted spaces(total,newandrehabilitated, numberofspaces,area). Measurements andunits Number andarea ofspacesrecognized aspolluted(total, newandrehabilitated). How isitidentifi affects humanhealthandtheenvironment itselfand causes biodiversityimpoverishment. The indicatorshows,eventhoughindirectly, thelevelofpollutioninenvironment. Pollution Justifi Polluted sites Type ofindicator: Resource: Source: Category: cation: Whatdoesitmeanandwhyisimportanttomeasure it? UNCSD, CEROI Core Water ed? Informationneeded STATE

d) c) b) a) undetermined be thosethreatened withextinctionandare classifi ed asthoseindanger, vulnerable,rare and According totheWorld Conservation Uniondefi nitions endangered speciesare understoodto Other comments/context Environment. InstituteforUrban International Urban Development:IndicatorsofPatterns. United NationsConventiononBiodiversity(Rio,1992) EEA,1997.IndicatorsforSustainable locally. No specifi goalsorreferencec international values.References are establishedregionally or Goals, reference values pressure. Reduce thedangeroffl ora andfaunaspecies disappearingasaresult ofurbanenvironmental Objectives OECD, 1997.BetterUnderstandingOurCities:TheRoleofUrbanIndicators,EEAIndicatorSet World Resources Institute(WRI) World ConservationUnion (IUCN) Methodological resources references Graphs, tablesandtrend charts. Possible timeandspaceformats local fl ora andfaunaspecies. Percentage oflocalendangered faunaandfl ora species,every5or10years.Total numberof Measurements andunits indicators b)andd)showthemostendangered classes. Sub-indicators a)andc)provide ageneralviewofthesituationplantsandanimals.Sub- Calculations shouldbemadeof: corresponding localspecies.Theindicatorrefers to species offl ora andfauna. to bemadeoflocalendangered speciesandtheinformationcompared withthenumberof and whosestateisperiodicallymonitored orassessed.Foreachclass,acalculationhas A selectionmustbemadeofallthelocalspecieswhosenumberknown(orcanestimated) How isitidentifi diversity. Birds incitiesare goodindicatorsofbiologicaldiversity. one ofthethree mainlevelsofbiodiversity;theothersare ecosystemsdiversityandgenetic Number ofendangered speciesasapercentage ofknown localspecies.Speciesdiversityis Justifi Extinct or endangered species/knownspecies Extinct orendangered Percentage ofeachclass endangered vertebratespecies. Percentage ofvertebratespecies; totalofallclasses. Percentage ofendangered speciesofeachclassplants. Percentage ofendangered speciesofplants;totalallclasses. Type ofindicator: Resource: Source: Category: cation: Whatdoesitmeanandwhyisimportanttomeasure it? UNCSD, OECD,CEROI,Consorcio Parceria 21 Core, transversal Biodiversity ed? Informationneeded STATE 127 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 128 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports mainly landusechanges,pollution,andtheintroduction ofexoticspecies the inhabitants’qualityoflife.Pressure onbiodiversitycomesfrom different interrelated sources, Green spacesinurbanareas are extremely importantfor recreation and,ingeneral,toimprove Other comments/context “The Green CityofSeville”,Spain:http://www.bestpractices.org Application examples No specifi goalsorreferencec international values. Goals, reference values Provide thenumberandpossible extensionofacity’s green areas. Objectives Set OECD, 1997.BetterUnderstandingOurCities:TheRoleofUrbanIndicators,EEAIndicator World Resources Institute(WRI) World ConservationUnion (IUCN) Methodological resources references Graphs, tables,andtrend charts. Possible timeandspaceformats Surface (ha)andpercentage ofthetotalcityarea ineachcategoryofvegetalcover. Measurements andunits ecosystems (forexample:rainforests, mangroves, savannahs). cities withsignificant extensionsofnaturalforest, adistinctionmaybemadeamongtheexisting Surface (ha)andpercentage ofthetotalcityarea in each categoryofvegetalcover. Insome How isitidentifi for avariedurbanfauna. fi ltering andretaining rainwater, placinganaturalcontrol onfl oods, andproviding thehabitat district provide anessentialenvironmental serviceby making themicroclimate more agreeable, urban environment role. Intropical countries,green areas adjacenttoorwithintheurban Forests withnaturalorplantedvegetation,parks,green areas andspaces,performaprimary Justifi Vegetal cover Type ofindicator: Resource: Source: Category: cation: Whatdoesitmeanandwhyisimportanttomeasure it? UNCSD, CEROI,Consorcio Parceria 21 Core, transversal Biodiversity, land,water, atmosphere ed? Informationneeded STATE functional elementsaffected bythedeteriorationofbuildingsandinfrastructure. It ismostimportanttoincludeintheassessment on thequalityofurbanlifeaestheticand Other comments/context No establishedreference values Goals, reference values quality oflife. Reduce deteriorationofthebuilt-upenvironment andhelptoimprove theurbanpopulation’s Objectives Graphs, maps,trend charts. Possible timeandspaceformats % constructions(relative number andtotalnumber) % ofthearea (km Measurements andunits urban socio-economicinformation. research undertakenbyacademicorinstitutionalsources responsible forpreparing general local urbandevelopmentplans,from censusescarriedoutbythelocaladministrationorfrom to calculatelandandproperty taxes.Thesedatamaybeobtainedbyconsultingavailable Percentage ofdeterioratedbuilt-uparea; ifinfrastructure isincludeditwillserveasabasis How isitidentifi taken toimprove conditionsandthequalityoflifeurbancentres’ inhabitants. be aware ofthedegree ofdeteriorationbuildings andinfrastructure sothatactionmaybe by theinhabitantsandlocalauthoritiestypeofactivitiesincities.Itisimportantto Definition ofthepercentage ofthebuilt-uparea inpoorconditionbecauseoflackmaintenance Justifi or buildings) in relation tobuilt-upurbanarea or buildings)inrelation (historiccentres of deterioratedareas Percentage Type ofindicator: Resource: Source: Category: cation: Whatdoesitmeanandwhyisimportanttomeasure it? Consorcio Parceria 21 New Built-up environment, land ed? Informationneeded 2 deterioratedandtotalbuilt-up). STATE 129 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports the preparation Methodology for

130

IMPACT INDICATORS measures toprotect localbiodiversity. begin collectingdatatogivethepublicauthorityand localsocietyenoughinformationtotake Although there isnoexperienceinmakingthismeasurement atlocallevel,itisimportantto This isanimportantinstrumenttoassessthequality oftheenvironment following urbanization. Other comments/context characteristics. No establishedreference values;theindicatorisnewandadaptstolocalenvironment’s Goals, reference values Reduce theimpactandthreat ofurbandevelopmenttolocalbiodiversity. Objectives Commission (UNSDC). state indicatorsandiscommonlyemployedbytheUnitedNationsSustainableDevelopment This indicatorisanapproximation ofthenumberextinctandknownspeciesgiveninearlier Methodological resources reference Graphs andlocalizationmaps. Possible timeandspaceformats Number ofspeciesfl ora andfauna. Measurements andunits past andpresent mustbe known. To makethiscalculationthenumberandvarietyofcity’s speciesoffl ora andfauna,both species; itisalsotheirsignifi cant reduction ordisappearancewithoutbeingextinct. kept. Theconceptofbiodiversitylossasitisusedhere doesnotonlyrefer totheextinctionof the momentassessmentismadecompared toearlierperiodsforwhicharecord hasbeen The indicatorrefers toanumberofthelocalenvironment’s fl ora andfaunaspecies notfoundat How isitidentifi assessment tobemadeofeachecosystem’s sustainability. of biodiversity(numberandvarietyfl ora andfaunaspeciesintheenvironment) allowsan The risktobiodiversityisanexcellentindicatorofenvironmental quality. Consequently, theloss Justifi 4.7. Defi Biodiversity loss Type ofindicator: Sphere: Resource: Source: Category: cation: Whatdoesitmeanandwhyisimportanttomeasure it? nition ofcore indicators:Impactindicators Consorcio Parceria 21 Ecosystem New, transversal Biodiversity ed? Informationneeded IMPACT

131 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports Microclimate change

Resource: Biodiversity Sphere: Quality of life Type of indicator: IMPACT Category: New Source: Consorcio Parceria 21

Justiﬁ cation: What does it mean and why is it important to measure it? Public perception about the climate is important because people relate their quality of life directly to the environment. The quality of urban life, linked to a city’s microclimate, is directly affected by emissions of polluting gases from industry and motor vehicles, by the lack of green areas and by soil waterprooﬁ ng.

How is it identiﬁ ed? Information needed Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports the preparation Methodology for By monitoring the temperature in different parts of the city differences are seen that may be associated with the quality of the local physical environment. Rainfall, temperature and relative 132 air humidity indexes are data collected locally that should be recorded over time and may help when analysing microclimate changes.

Measurements and units Temperature variation in °C and relative air humidity.

Possible time and space formats Graphs and tables showing variation over time during similar periods in different years. When making an environmental quality analysis of the city, they should be associated with data on green areas, built-up and paved areas, and episodes of ﬂ ooding.

Methodological resources reference None.

Objectives Make the public more aware of the impact the environment has on the quality of urban life. Make the authorities more sensitive to the need to improve the urban environment by, for example, planning green areas and encouraging the use of environmentally friendly building materials.

Goals, reference values None.

Other comments / context Although the data may be objective, such as temperature or degree of humidity, the notion of environmental comfort is subjective. The use of these indicators in analysing environmental quality in a city should be associated with other indicators, such as the motorization and air pollution index the poorest populationgroups. combat thesediseaseswould helptoreduce social inequalityandimprove the qualityoflife water-borne diseases.Investmentsingoodqualitywatersupplyanddrainagesystems to sources andchildren comingincontactwithpollutedwater, thusincreasing theincidenceof water supply ofdrinkingwaterandtodrainage,almostalways implyingpollutionofalternative groups. Themostmarginalizedgroups liveinunhealthyconditionswithlimitedaccesstoa Water-borne diseasesrefl ect thesocio-economicinequalitybetween different population Other comments/context Organization standards. No reference values;inthecaseofinfantmortality, reference ismadetoWorld Health Goals, reference values Improve thepopulation’s qualityoflife. Objectives No references toothermethodologicalresources; newindicator. Methodological resources reference Trend charts,tablesandlocalization maps. Possible timeandspaceformats when theyappeared. Number ofpeopleaffected bywater-borne diseasesaccording todiseasetypesanddates Measurements andunits population. Data provided bylocalpublic healthagencies,classified bythetypeofdiseaseandaffected How isitidentifi improve theconditionoflocality’s watersupply. diseasessothatmeasuresborne maybetakentoimprove thequalityoflifeand,indirectly, to by pollutedwater. Therefore, itisimportanttofollowup,atlocallevel,theincrease inborne- urban life.Oneofitsmainmanifestationsisinfantmortalityassociatedwithdiseasescaused is oneoftheprincipalwater-borne diseasevectorswithanegativeimpactonthequalityof polluted byorganicmaterial,specifi cally faecalmaterial,andusedfordomesticconsumption, The stateofwaterhasimmediateeffects onthelocalpopulation’s qualityoflifeandhealth.Water Justifi Incidence of water-borne diseases Incidence ofwater-borne Type ofindicator: Sphere: Resource: Source: Category: cation: Whatdoesitmeanandwhyisimportanttomeasure it? Quality oflife Consorcio Parceria 21 New, transversal Water ed? Informationneeded IMPACT 133 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports Incidence of cardiorespiratory diseases

Resource: Water Sphere: Quality of life Type of indicator: IMPACT Category: New, transversal Source: Consorcio Parceria 21

Justiﬁ cation: What does it mean and why is it important to measure it? It is now known that air pollution has repercussions on the health and quality of life of city inhabitants. Frequent exposure to elements such as carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, ozone and others, brings with it an increase in cardiorespiratory diseases, mainly in the elderly and children.

How is it identiﬁ ed? Information needed Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports the preparation Methodology for Information about the number of different cardiorespiratory diseases and their increase due to air pollution may be obtained from public health agencies. 134 Measurements and units Number of people affected by cardiorespiratory diseases, indicating the type of disease, the age of those affected, and the connection with increased air pollution.

Possible time and space formats Trend charts and tables.

Methodological resources reference No references from other methodological resources; new indicator.

Objectives Reduce the impact of air pollution on the local population’s quality of life and health.

Goals, reference values Consult the World Health Organization’s reference values.

Other comments / context The impact of air pollution goes beyond the immediate effect on the inhabitants’ quality of life and health; climate changes caused by rising temperatures indicate the importance of controlling their causes. Nevertheless, since such changes are accumulative and only become evident after many years, their effect on human life is even greater “The GlobalBurden ofDisease”(GBD)http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/burdenofdisease/ cancer. dump wasdetectedbecause ofthenumberdeathsitcausedinlocal populationfrom Canal intheUnitedStates1960s).InBrazil, thecaseofcaesiumpollutioninagarbage Cases ofsoilpollutionare generallyepisodic(seeBhopal,India,1984and thecaseofLove Other comments/context None. Application examples referenceNo international values. Goals, reference values planning. Reduce theriskofdiseasebyimproving livingconditionsbymeansofurbanenvironmental Objectives Literature. SEPA 2000.Environmental IndicatorsinCommunityPlanning:APresentation ofthe Methodological resources reference Trend charts. Possible timeandspaceformats Number ofcasesdiseasesper100000inhabitantsinagivenperiod. Measurements andunits the stateofGoiasinBrazil. pollution tocausedeath;however, itcanoccurfrom caesiumpoisoning,ashashappenedin indicator maybesubdividedtorelate tospecifi c typesofillnesses. Itisveryunusualforsoil Number ofcasespoisoningsper100000identifi ed asbeingduetosoilpollution.This How isitidentifi pollution indicatethequalityofurbanplanningandmanagement. environment. Casesofdiseasescausedbypollutionandpoisoningduetosoilwater This indicatorprovides basicinformationonthepopulation’s healthinrelation tothephysical Justifi pollution Incidence ofdiseasescausedbypoisoningand Type ofindicator: Sphere: Resource: Source: Category: cation: Whatdoesitmeanandwhyisimportanttomeasure it? Quality oflife CEROI, Consorcio Parceria 21 Core Land ed? Informationneeded IMPACT 135 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports Juvenile delinquency index

Resource: Built-up environment Sphere: Quality of life Type of indicator: IMPACT Category: New Source: Consorcio Parceria 21

Justiﬁ cation: What does it mean and why is it important to measure it? The juvenile delinquency index reveals a community’s state of social health and its degree of security. Poverty, drugs and environmental degradation are contributing factors to a poor quality of life which, in turn, leads to urban violence. Families without a strong structure, a lack of schools and suffering from hunger, also cause an increase in juvenile delinquency.

How is it identifi ed? Information needed Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports the preparation Methodology for Juvenile delinquency refers to offences committed by people less than 18 years of age. Statistical information is offi cial and provided by local authorities and the police. Such offences 136 may be classifi ed as serious or minor; these data and the information on the relevant population are collected annually.

Measurements and units Number of cases per year of juvenile delinquency over a given period (2-10 years).

Possible time and space formats Graphs, tables y trend charts.

Methodological resources reference Sustainable Seattle, 1998. Indicators of Sustainable Community. http://www.scn.org

Objectives To reduce the number of juvenile delinquency cases per year in a given community.

Goals, reference values None.

Application examples Some international organizations like UNICEF provide comparative data on valence. Sustainable Seattle, 1998. Indicators of Sustainable Community, page 52 http://www.scn.org

Other comments / context Juvenile delinquency indexes also indicate future scenarios about a community’s safety. Violence affects the quality of life of all the inhabitants and is identifi ed by citizens as one of most serious urban, political and social problems. Although the quality of the environment is related to violence, this is linked to a set of social, cultural and economic factors (such as inequality, the illiteracy index, unemployment and the population in unauthorized settlements) so that the authorities must take an integrated approach to deal with the problem. To adopt violent crime as a reference may reduce the distortion margin for comparative effects This indicator, adapted fordifferent impacts, shouldbeusedforair andwaterresources Other comments /context No establishedreference values; newindicator. Goals, reference values represented bythenegativeimpactofstatewater. To contributetotheresources ofthelocaleconomybyshowingeconomicweight Objectives No references ofothermethodologicalresources; new indicator. Methodological resources reference Graphs, tablesandtimecharts. Possible timeandspaceformats comparison. international diseases; theunitofmeasurement isthelocalcurrency whichisconvertedintoU.S.dollarsfor The objectiveistoincrease thebudgetsofpublicauthoritiesandbusinesstofi ght these Measurements andunits business interests, toobtain thesedataandcalculatelossesduetodiseases. However, itisimportanttomakeaneffort inthisrespect, togetherwithassociationsrepresenting These dataare more diffi cult toobtainbecausecostsofthistypeare notusuallyreported. made. knowing howthelocalbudgetisdividedunderdifferent headingswhenthecalculationisbeing relation tothepresence orincrease ofthecity’s water-borne diseases.Thismeans,therefore, The indicatorisbasedonfollowinghowthepublicauthority’s localhealthcostsevolvein How isitidentifi due todayslostthrough sickness. For theirpartbusinesses,andothereconomicactivitiesinthecity, alsosuffer losses this impliesincreasing health sectorresources. such asdiarrhoeaorleptospirosis, aswellproviding more teststodefine thetypeofsickness; must betakensuchasincreasing medicalconsultationsorsupplyingmedicinesforsicknesses different typesofwaterpollution.Ifthepublicauthority istoconfront thisproblem, measures to identify, inthecaseofwaterresource, lossesfrom water-borne diseasesthatresult from economic lossesbecauseoftheimpactonlocalpopulation’s health.Thisindicatorseeks The stateoftheenvironment maycostmunicipaladministrationsandbusinesssignifi cant Justifi diseases Public healthcostsduetoincidenceofwater-borne Type ofindicator: Sphere: Resource: Source: Category: cation: Whatdoesitmeanandwhyisimportanttomeasure it? Urban economy Consorcio Parceria 21 New Water ed? Informationneeded IMPACT

137 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports Water collection and treatment costs

Resource: Water Sphere: Urban economy Type of indicator: IMPACT Category: New Source: Consorcio Parceria 21

Justifi cation: What does it mean and why is it important to measure it? Water pollution, its wasteful or improper use, and the constantly increasing demand for the resource, together with the growth of the urban population, shows the need to increase local availability of good quality water and to guarantee a suffi cient supply. This demands large amounts of fi nancing because, for many cities, water is not available from nearby sources but must be brought from aquifers at long distances or to which access is diffi cult; because water courses are generally polluted, the water must be treated for human consumption. All these Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports the preparation Methodology for factors require large investments if the quality of life and the health of the population are to be preserved, and if a large number of economic activities are to be made possible. 138 How is it identifi ed? Information needed In principle, the data needed for this indicator should be available from public water supply, control and monitoring bodies and, where the local water system is privatized, from private enterprises.

Measurements and units Increased costs in local currency.

Possible time and space formats Trend charts and tables; the costs are compared in 5-10 year periods.

Methodological resources reference Other indicators that may give an approximate idea of the problem can be found in: www.ceroi.net : Investment in water supply systems (response indicator) www.iclei.org : Volume of water available (pressure indicator)

Objectives Reduce the loss of resources invested in water collection and treatment by controlling leaks, rationalizing water use and improving its quality.

Goals, reference values No reference values; new indicator.

Other comments / context It is important to indicate, in local public fi nances, the impact caused by improper use, by the growth of demand and by water pollution period covered bytheanalysis. This isalocalindicatortocompare datawithlocalreferences thatdependonafollow-upthe Other comments/context None. Goals, reference values costs duetolackofplanningontheuseandoccupationurbanland. Reduce costsrelated totemporary solutionsandreport environmental, social andeconomic Objectives None. Methodological resources reference Tables ofannualspending,graphstoshowlong-termtrends overagiventimeperiod. Possible timeandspaceformats Absolute valuesandpercentage ofcostsinthebudgetforenvironmental work. Measurements andunits Budget informationfrom competent localandregional authorities. How isitidentifi channelling ravines,buildinglandfi lls anddams. is onlyatemporarysolution;thesecontentionmeasures are, forexample:workongradients, occupation ofriskareas incities,spendingonengineeringworktoprevent andcontainrisks Because ofthelacklanduseplanningandaninstitutionalincapacitytocontrol illegal Justifi risks environmental Cost ofcontainingandpreventing Type ofindicator: Sphere: Resource: Source: Category: cation: Whatdoesitmeanandwhyisimportanttomeasure it? Urban economy Consorcio Parceria 21 New Biodiversity ed? Informationneeded IMPACT 139 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports Cost of rehabilitating monuments and historic centres

Resource: Built-up environment Sphere: Urban economy Type of indicator: IMPACT Category: New Source: Consorcio Parceria 21, CEROI

Justiﬁ cation: What does it mean and why is it important to measure it? Population growth worsens the impact on the built-up and natural environment. In cities, deterioration of monuments and historic centres reveals the lack of environmental quality and institutional capacity to administer land occupation and use. This indicator is related to deterioration of urban property due to corrosion caused by acid rain, or the growing disorder and urban land tremors due, for example, to the increase in the number of buses, motor cars Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports the preparation Methodology for and trucks in certain areas of the city.

140 How is it identiﬁ ed? Information needed Number of historic buildings, annual cost of repairing monuments and restoring historic centres, local administration’s budget.

Measurements and units Variation of recovery costs in relation to the budget, in absolute values and percentages.

Possible time and space formats Graphs, tables and maps.

Methodological resources reference Local Government Management Board, 1994. The Sustainability Indicators Research Project: Indicators for Local Agenda 21 – A Summary. United Kingdom. UNESCO.

Objectives Conserve and protect monuments and historic centres to reduce the number of buildings at risk and improve environmental quality

Goals, reference values No international goals.

Application examples The historic centre of Salzburg: http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/784 Historic centre of Havana, Cuba; Parati and Ouro Preto, Brazil.

Other comments / context Cities and towns on the World Heritage List: http://www.unesco.org application islocalanddependsonnationaleconomic reference values This indicatormaybedividedtoassessdistricts orzoneswithinanurbanparameter. Its Other comments/context None. Goals, reference values poor environmental quality andloseseconomicvalue. Relate thechangeofactivityandspacecharacteristicagivenareahas which,inturn, Objectives references.No international Methodological resources reference Tables andtrend charts. Possible timeandspaceformats over agivenperiod. The numberofproperties for saleinrelation tothenumberofproperty operations inayear Measurements andunits through direct surveys. Data maybefoundonthelocalproperty marketinlocalandregional tradeassociationsand How isitidentifi life inagivenlocality. economic activityandlanduse.Theyaffect thesocial,environmental andeconomicqualityof of agivencityorzone.Theseare qualitativeindicatorsthatmeasure therelation between Property supplyanddemandchangesinproperty pricesmayreflect thechangeofvocation Justifi Loss ofurbanattraction Type ofindicator: Sphere: Resource: Source: Category: cation: Whatdoesitmeanandwhyisimportanttomeasure it? Political-institutional Consorcio Parceria 21 New Land ed? Informationneeded IMPACT 141 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports Property depreciation

Resource: Land Sphere: Urban economy Type of indicator: IMPACT Category: New Source: Consorcio Parceria 21

Justiﬁ cation: What does it mean and why is it important to measure it? Property speculation, added to the lack of urban planning, leads to frenzied and predatory urbanization and harms the inhabitants’ quality of life by overburdening the urban infrastructure and destroying work areas and resources. Property price indicators, as well as differences in price per square metre, depending to the area, may reﬂ ect the city’s environmental degradation. These are qualitative indicators that measure the economic relation between land use and quality of life in a given locality. Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports the preparation Methodology for

How is it identiﬁ ed? Information needed 142 The indicator comes from an analysis over a period of time of a given area considering such matters as trafﬁ c and noise that affect the quality of city life. The information depends on the history of how prices per square metre differ in selected areas.

Measurements and units Variation in percentages of the relative cost per square metre ($/m2) of urban plots.

Possible time and space formats Consideration should be given to time periods of 10 years, or according to the speciﬁ c situation where prices have changed signiﬁ cantly because of land use changes.

Methodological resources reference No international references.

Objectives Relate the loss of economic value to poor environmental quality.

Goals, reference values None.

Other comments / context This indicator may be subdivided to assess districts or regions within the urban parameter. Its application is local and depends on national economic reference values human vulnerability indicators onwaterandresponse linkedtoprotecting areas withspringsare alsorelated to authorized andunauthorizedsettlementswith thesocialinequalityindicators.Thestate This indicatorisdirectly associatedwiththepressure indicatorontherelation between Other comments/context None. Goals, reference values prevented withproper planningandadministration. Reduce thenumberofvictimsandconsequencesdisasterswhoseimpactscouldbe Objectives None. Methodological resources reference Tables, mapsandgraphs. Possible timeandspaceformats Number ofaccidentsinriskareas peryear, measured overagiventimeperiod. Measurements andunits Data obtainedfrom localauthorities,civildefenceandpublicworksdepartments. How isitidentifi undertaken bytheauthorities. generally haveconsequencesininverseproportion tohowmuchplanningandpreparation is harmful tohumanhealthandcauseindirect environmental losses.Naturalphenomena impacts forthepoorest people.Lossesare immediate anddirect, mediumandlongterm, Floods andlandslidesongradientsfollowingheavyrainshavedirect, indirect andsecondary Justifi Incidence offl Type ofindicator: Sphere: Resource: Source: Category: cation: Whatdoesitmeanandwhyisimportanttomeasure it? Urban vulnerability Consorcio Parceria 21 New Land ed? Informationneeded IMPACT oods, landslides,etc. 143 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports Loss of tax revenue

Resource: Land Sphere: Political-institutional Type of indicator: IMPACT Category: New Source: Consorcio Parceria 21

Justifi cation: What does it mean and why is it important to measure it? The loss of tax revenue is the result of a structural defi ciency in urban management, as well as of the change in the profi le of activities or spatial characteristics of the given city or region. When there is much informal commercial activity, besides prejudicing public administration it also harms legal trade, resulting in bankruptcies or in owners abandoning their businesses. The lack of infrastructure, maintenance and poor environmental quality may also lead to urban degradation and consequent loss of tax revenue. Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports the preparation Methodology for

How is it identiﬁ ed? Information needed 144 Budget information provided by local authorities.

Measurements and units Percentage of taxes from the predominant activity, tourism for example, from year to year in a given city or area.

Possible time and space formats Trend chart.

Methodological resources reference None.

Objectives Revitalize degraded areas by showing the damage caused by urban deterioration.

Goals, reference values None.

Application examples Look for urban revitalization examples (Puerto Madero, Argentina; Harlem, USA, Havana, Cuba Pelourinho, Brazil).

Other comments / context The objective data on the municipal budget are used in the analysis to show the existence of external environmental and urban factors. fl oods, landslidesandothernaturaldisasters– furtherexacerbatedbyclimatechange. every 10non-permanent housesincitiesdevelopingcountriesare locatedinareas prone to to becomeenvironmental refugees. Itisestimatedthatinadditiontosealevelrise,34of vulnerable areas whichare ill-equippedforadaptation,with1billionlivinginslums,andlikely of alllargecitiesare locatedonthecoast.Mostofworld’s urbanpopulationresides in More thanhalfoftheworld’s populationnowliveswithin60kmofthesea,whilethree quarters Change%20Adaptation.pdf http://www.unhabitat.org/downloads/docs/5883_19704_Cities%20and%20Climate%20 Other comments/context None. Application examples None. Goals, reference values Reduce urbanvulnerabilitytonaturalorhuman-induceddisasters. Objectives World Bank,UNCHSand UNDP fornationalandregional data. Methodological resources reference Graphs, mapsandtables. Possible timeandspaceformats year, andhowthesenumbersvaryovertimeinagivenperiod(2-10years). Absolute numberofinhabitantsinrisksituationsrelation tothetotalpopulationinagiven Measurements andunits are obtainedfrom localauthorities. Number ofpeoplelivinginrisklocalitiessuchasongradientsandpollutedsites.Thesedata How isitidentifi avoid themore seriousconsequencesofvulnerability. Identifying risksituations,assessingtheirimpactsandinstitutionalresponses, mayhelpto There isaclearrelationship betweenvulnerabilityand itsimpactandeconomicdevelopment. Urban vulnerabilityisassociatedwiththecity’s physical,socialandeconomicconditions. Justifi Population livinginvulnerableurbanareas Type ofindicator: Sphere: Resource: Source: Category: cation: Whatdoesitmeanandwhyisimportanttomeasure it? Quality oflife Consorcio Parceria 21 New Land ed? Informationneeded IMPACT

145 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports the preparation Methodology for

146

PRESSURE INDICATORS Guarantee plannedurbandevelopmentthatincludesquestionsabouttheenvironment Objectives None. Methodological resources reference Information abouttheexistenceanddateoflocalimplementation. Possible timeandspaceformats This isaqualitativeindicatortobeusedwhendiagnosingtheurbanenvironment. Measurements andunits Local authorityandnationallegislation. How isitidentifi environmental resources. use andoccupation.Meanwhile,itshouldbeassociatedwithotherresponses tospecify The UrbanMasterPlanpresupposesforregulating aconcern already institutionalizedland Justifi Defi Urban masterplaninplace Type ofindicator: Resource: Source: Category: nition ofcore indicators:response indicators cation: Whatdoesitmeanandwhyisimportanttomeasure it? Consorcio Parceria 21 New, transversal All ed? Informationneeded RESPONSE 147 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 148 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports on qualityandquantityofwaterhoweffl uents are treated This indicatorshouldbeassociatedwithindicatorsonillegaloccupationandsettlement, Other comments/context The existenceofstandards andcontrols doesnotaloneconstituteareference value. Goals, reference values by controlling occupationin areas withsprings. Guarantee qualityofurbanwatersupply, aswellpreserving biodiversity, airandsoilquality Objectives Methodological resources reference. Maps andgeographicalinformationsystems Information aboutthedateofnational,regional andlocalimplementation. Possible timeandspaceformats This isaqualitativeindicatorindiagnosingtheurbanenvironment. Measurements andunits Information onlegislationandcompetentenvironmental control authorities. How isitidentifi on thecity’s environmental andnaturalresources quality. The existenceofnationalandlocalregulations andhowtheyare appliedhasadirect impact Justifi Legislation to protect springsinplace Legislation toprotect Type ofindicator: Resource: Source: Category: cation: Whatdoesitmeanandwhyisimportanttomeasure it? Consorcio Parceria 21 New Water ed? Informationneeded RESPONSE must bemeasured according standards tonationalandinternational The existenceofstandards andcontrol measures aloneisnotareference value.Airquality Goals, reference values Guarantee urbanairqualitybycontrolling industrialandtransportemissions. Objectives Information aboutdatesofnational,regional andlocalimplementation. Possible timeandspaceformats This isaqualitativeindicatortodiagnosetheurbanenvironment. Measurements andunits Information onlegislationandcompetentenvironmental control bodiesandauthorities. How isitidentifi repercussions oncityairquality. The existenceoflocalandnationalregulations andhowtheyare appliedhavedirect Justifi fi mobileand emissionsfrom Regulation oncontrolling inplace xed sources Type ofindicator: Resource: Source: Category: cation: Whatdoesitmeanandwhyisimportanttomeasure it? Consorcio Parceria 21 New Air ed? Informationneeded RESPONSE 149 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 150 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports LA21 document:http://www.iisd.org/rio+5/agenda/agenda21.htm on implementingLA21. 21st century. Theplanincludesaspecialmandate for authoritiestoact,beginningin1996, In June1992UNCSDadoptedAgenda21asaglobal sustainabledevelopmentactionforthe Other comments/context http://www.unchs.orgSustainable citiesandlocalgovernment: A21L enDurban:http://ceroi.net/reports/durban/index.htm Application examples local level. The RioConference of1992 decidedthatLA21processes shouldbeimplementedgloballyat Goals, reference values Implement theLA21process inthecityanditslocalcommunities. Objectives ICLEI, 1998.www.iclei.org Methodological resources reference Tables andgraphs. Possible timeandspaceformats Number ofactivities. Measurements andunits Record thecity’s localactivities.Maybedefi ned intheLA21tableasaactivity. How isitidentifi (such asaudits,indicatorsandobjectives). includes settingspecifi cgoals,implementingmeasures, followingupandmakingassessments focus onaplan,programme orsetoflong-termsustainableactivities.Thiseffort community andinterested groups are involvedenvironmentally, economicallyandsociallyto the Local Agenda21(LA21)isanagendaforthe21stcenturyinwhichlocalgovernment, Justifi Local Agenda21activities Type ofindicator: Resource: Source: Category: cation: Whatdoesitmeanandwhyisimportanttomeasure it? CEROI Core, transversal All ed? Informationneeded RESPONSE detected inthestateofenvironment astimepasses The subjectmustbeassociatedwithaction,behaviourandattitudeswhichare, inturn, That thesubjectisinstitutionalizeddoesnotmeanithasbeenincludedinlocalpublicpolicies. Other comments/context management. Stimulate environmental awareness andpublicparticipationinthecity’s environmental Objectives Existing long-termactivitiesexpressed ingraphsandtables. Possible timeandspaceformats response indicators. This isaqualitativeindicatorusefulinmakingananalysisassociatedwithotherstateand Measurements andunits in theformalschoolcurriculum. environmental educationsuchascampaigns,movementsandenvironmental themesincluded Local, regional andnationalauthoritieshavedataonlegislation,standards andactionon How isitidentifi been integratedintopublicpoliciesandthedailylifeofcity’s inhabitants. existence ofenvironmental educationmechanismsandactionsshowshowthesubjecthas responsibility forenvironmental qualityisshared andcitizens.The betweengovernment Environmental educationisthekeytogoodenvironmental managementsolongasthe Justifi Environmental educationprogrammes Environmental Type ofindicator: Resource: Source: Category: cation: Whatdoesitmeanandwhyisimportanttomeasure it? Consorcio Parceria 21 New, transversal All ed? Informationneeded RESPONSE

151 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 152 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports Chap. 23). when implementingalltheAgenda21objectives,directives andmechanisms(Agenda21UN, Genuine participationbyandinterest ofallsocialgroups inthedecisionsare fundamental Other comments/context Increase participationinand transparency ofdecisionmakingprocesses. Objectives ICLEI, 1998.www.iclei.org Methodological resources reference Trend chart,graphs,tables. Possible timeandspaceformats NGOs /10000people Measurements andunits Number ofgroups, dividedingroups of10000people, involvedinlocalgovernment. How isitidentifi of NGOsisanindicatorpublicparticipationandcommitment. decision making,astheyare alsovitalforsuccessfulLocalAgenda21processes. Thenumber Society’s participationandinterest are importantforlocaldemocracy andtransparency in Justifi Number of environmental NGOs Number ofenvironmental Source: Category: Type ofindicator: Resource: cation: Whatdoesitmeanandwhyisimportanttomeasure it? CEROI Core, transversal All ed? Informationneeded RESPONSE processes Increase thecostofpolluting toencouragetheadoptionofcleantechnologiesand Objectives USA. ICLEI, 1998.GlobalTomorrow Coalition, 1993.Walter Corsao:MeasuringUrbanSustainability. Methodological resources reference Graphs andtables. Possible timeandspaceformats Local “green” taxsystem(percentage). Measurements andunits Data are obtainedfrom municipalitiesandcompetent environmental control authorities. How isitidentifi of cleanprocesses andtechnologies. effective theenvironmental itis.Itservestointernalize costofpollutionandstimulatetheuse principle. Legislationandtaxcollectionshowtheimportanceofapplyinghow The applicationofpreventive measures includesa tax systembasedonthepolluter-payer Justifi principle inplace Tax systembasedonthe polluter-payer/user-payer Type ofindicator: Resource: Source: Category: cation: Whatdoesitmeanandwhyisimportanttomeasure it? CEROI, Consorcio Parceria 21 Core Water ed? Informationneeded RESPONSE 153 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 154 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports solid waste. Reduce solidwasteproduction, minimizeandreduce risksofenvironmental pollutionfrom Objectives Graphs andtables. Possible timeandspaceformats Number ofeventsperyear. Measurements andunits Data obtainedfrom localenvironmental control authorities. How isitidentifi responsibility. The existenceofwastedisposalcontrol mechanismsimpliesinstitutionalizingthemandjoint Justifi waste disposalstandard andfi warnings Preventive Type ofindicator: Resource: Source: Category: cation: Whatdoesitmeanandwhyisimportanttomeasure it? Consorcio Parceria 21 New Land ed? Informationneeded RESPONSE nes forviolatingthe listed separately training. Investmentsin theseareas, aswellbeing includedinthetotalvalue,shouldbe initiatives linkedtorecycling andotheractivitiesrelated towastemanagement innovationsand different scales,onselective collection,recycling, environmental education, supportfor Possible investmentstoimprove themanagementsystemmayinclude programmes, on Other comments/context Good practices:wasteandurbanstreet cleaninginBarcelona. http://www.mediambient.bcn.es Application examples Improve themunicipalwastemanagementsystem. Objectives Conditions. EF, 1998.UrbanSustainabilityIndicators fortheImprovement ofLivingandWorking UNCHS, 1995.MonitoringHumanSettlements:ABridgedSurvey. Set. OECD, 1997.Betterunderstandingourcities:TheRoleofUrbanIndicators.EEAIndicator Methodological resources reference Graphs, tablesandtrend charts. Possible timeandspaceformats managed, percentage ofmunicipal income). Investments inwastemanagement(totalvalue,unitvalue=total/volumeof Measurements andunits the city’s incomeandtothetotalvolumeofwastehandled. The indicatoriscalculatedasthetotalinvestmentinwastemanagementservicesrelation to industrial hazardous waste asthisistheresponsibility ofthesources themselves. services tocollectanddisposeofthecity’s garbage.Thisindicatordoesnotincludemanaging In general,thecostofwastemanagementincludestotalspentonpublicandprivate How isitidentifi at risk. the environment, addstothelossofproductivity, harmstheeconomyandputsurbanattraction development; poormanagementcausesasignifi cant worseningofhealth,qualitylifeand waste isanimportantfactorthatdefi nes themunicipality’s commitmenttourbansustainable Urban domesticwastemanagementislocalauthorities’responsibility. Thecostofmanaging Justifi Investments inwastemanagement Type ofindicator: Resource: Source: Category: cation: Whatdoesitmeanandwhyisimportanttomeasure it? UNCSD Core Land, waterandbiodiversity ed? Informationneeded RESPONSE 155 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 156 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports issues/housing/state.htm Household connection,inPrague,CzechRepublic.http://www.ceroi.net/reports/prague/ Application examples Let theurbanpopulationbecomelessfrustrated. Objectives Trend chartsandmaps. Possible timeandspaceformats collection from households (totalnumberandpercentage ofhouseholds). Households connectedtothewatersupplynetwork(totalnumberofhouseholds).Garbage Measurements andunits garbage collection. Percentage ofservicesprovided tohouseholdsthrough thewatersupplynetwork,drainsand How isitidentifi serious impedimenttoproductivity andcausefrustrationinnationalusers. developing countrieslimitedaccessorthepoorqualityofinfrastructure servicescanbea Local servicesqualityandreliability are normallyassured inindustrializedcountries,but Justifi services Access toandqualityoflocalinfrastructure Type ofindicator: Resource: Source: Category: cation: Whatdoesitmeanandwhyisimportanttomeasure it? CEROI Core, transversal All ed? Informationneeded RESPONSE Area rehabilitated (km Measurements andunits Area inkm How isitidentifi Degraded cityareas beingreurbanized forotheruses. Justifi No reference values Goals, reference values Restore affected spacesandbuildings. Objectives Institute fortheUrbanEnvironment. International Indicators. EEA, 1997.SustainableUrbanDevelopmentIndicators:Patterns Methodological resources reference Maps, trend charts,graphs. Possible timeandspaceformats Area rehabilitated (percentage oftotalcitysurface). degraded areas tototal Total inrelation areas rehabilitated Type ofindicator: Resource: Source: Category: cation: Whatdoesitmeanandwhyisimportanttomeasure it? 2 , percentage oftotalurbansurface. CEROI Core Land ed? Informationneeded 2 ). RESPONSE 157 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 158 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports not replaced bybuilt-upor waterproofed areas. It isimportanttoguaranteethatspacesare preserved andmaintained,toensure theyare Other comments/context green area percityinhabitant. for thecommunities’healthandurbansustainability. TheWHOrecommends 12m2of No goalsorquantitativereference values,butaccesstogreen areas isconsidered important Goals, reference values Improve green areas andpublicparksincities. Objectives Graphs, tablesandtrend charts. Possible timeandspaceformats Percentage (%)ofannualinvestment inrelation tototalmunicipalbudget. Measurements andunits annually anda2-10yearperiodshouldbetakenintoaccountforlong-termassessment. Investment madeinmaintaininggreen areas inrelation tothecity’s GDP. Itshouldbemeasured How isitidentifi inhabitants’ qualityoflife. for thecity’s environmental quality. Theseare importantforrecreation thathasaneffect onthe Investments mustbemadetomaintainandimprove green areas, parksandpublicgardens Justifi Investments in green areas Investments ingreen Type ofindicator: Resource: Source: Category: cation: Whatdoesitmeanandwhyisimportanttomeasure it? CEROI Core, transversal All ed? Informationneeded RESPONSE communities hadaneconomicimpactofmore thanUS$2000million spaces andabandonedindustries,hascreated more than6400jobs;inaddition,thepilot The UnitedKingdomBrownfi eld programme, that basicallyseekstorehabilitate commercial Other comments/context Institute fortheUrbanEnvironment. International Indicators. EEA, 1997.SustainableUrbanDevelopmentIndicators:Patterns Goals, reference values Reduce thenumberofdegradedareas andrecover thequalityofenvironmental resources. Objectives Graphs, mapsandtables. Possible timeandspaceformats Value ofinvestmentsinlocalcurrency orinU.S.dollarsagivenyear. Measurements andunits may becompared withthecity’s budget.Mayalsoincludeprivateinitiativeinvestments. Data obtainedfrom themunicipalityandreclamation investment programmes; totalvaluesthat How isitidentifi Investments indegradedurbanareas andthosebeingrehabilitated forsustainableuse. Justifi Investments in environmental recuperation Investments inenvironmental Type ofindicator: Resource: Source: Category: cation: Whatdoesitmeanandwhyisimportanttomeasure it? CEROI, Consorcio Parceria 21 Core, transversal All ed? Informationneeded RESPONSE 159 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 160 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports improvement ofregional orurbantransportinfrastructure (UNHABITAT 2009) analyzed experiencedhighgrowth ratesasadirect result ofthediversifi cation, expansionor were byandlargethemostimportantcontributortocitygrowth. Fortypercentofthecities per centofthecitiesanalyzed.Investmentsintransport infrastructure (roads, ports,airports) and related investments(oreconomicdevelopment),are themaindriversofcitygrowth in78 world. Itshowsveryclearlythatspatialinfl uences ofmacroeconomic andindustrialpolicies A recent report analyses245citiesthatare experiencingthefastestgrowth inthedeveloping Other comments/context Strasburg tramway:http://www.eaue.de/winuwd/76.htm Application examples Improve users’accesstopublic transportandthequalityofservicesprovided. Objectives Indicators forLocalAgenda21–ASummary. UnitedKingdom. ManagementBoard,Local Government 1994.TheSustainabilityIndicatorsResearch Project: Methodological resources reference Trend charts,tablesandgraphs. Possible timeandspaceformats percentage ofmunicipalincome). Investments inpublictransport(totalvalue,percentage ofvaluespentonpublicroads, Measurements andunits Investments inpublictransportrelation tothetotalspentonpublicroads. How isitidentifi these pressures. human healthproblems. Investmentsinpublictransportshowwhatisbeingdonetoreduce The impactontheurbanenvironment causedbytraffi c isdirectly related toairpollutionand Justifi Investments inpublictransport Type ofindicator: Resource: Source: Category: cation: Whatdoesitmeanandwhyisimportanttomeasure it? CEROI Core All ed? Informationneeded RESPONSE programmes Women should,therefore, take afullandactivepartinwatersupplysanitation also responsible forhouseholdchores, hygiene,thefamily’s healthandsanitaryarrangements. Throughout theworlditismainlytaskofwomentocollectandhandle water. Theyare Other comments/context investment: ElAltoProject inLaPaz,Boliviahttp://www.bpdws.org/spanish/prj_lapaz.htm Increasing accesstowater andsanitaryservicesinmarginalizedurbanareas byprivate Application examples references.No international Goals, reference values Improve municipalwatersupply anddrainagesystems. Objectives Trend charts,graphs. Possible timeandspaceformats treatment =costoftreatment system/populationserved,percentage ofmunicipal income). network increase =totalvalue /numberofhouseholdsservedbythenetwork,unitcost Investment indrainagesystem(collectionandtreatment systems)(totalvalue,costofcollection households served,percentage ofmunicipalincome). Investment inwatersupply(totalvalue,incremental value=total/numberofadditional Measurements andunits should bemeasured everyyear. Investment inwatersupplyanddrainagerelation toeachcity’s federalincome.Thisindicator How isitidentifi the cityplacesonimproving itswatersupplyanddrainagesystems. sewage isanabsolutenecessityforlifeandhealth.Thisindicatormeasures theimportance is themunicipality’s responsibility. Supplyingdrinkingwaterwithnodangerofpollutionfrom Providing basicsanitarysystemsthatincludewatersupply, collectionandtreatment ofsewage Justifi Investments inwatersupplyanddrainagesystems Type ofindicator: Resource: Source: Category: cation: Whatdoesitmeanandwhyisimportanttomeasure it? CEROI, Consorcio Parceria 21 Core Water ed? Informationneeded RESPONSE 161 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 162 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports distinguished asfollows:Chacaltana2003aand2003b. Rodríguez andothers. andMolina),itispreferableexample: Rodríguez,Seminario,Astorne toquoteitasfollows: in thereference (Morón, CasasandCarranza2002).Ifthere are more thanthree authors (for “Velarde andRodríguez(2001)conclude...” example: (Schuldt2004),(Velarde andRodríguez2001)or, “Schuldt(2004)maintainsthat...”; A. Managingbibliographicreferences inthebody ofthedocument Annex 2:Guidetomanagingbibliographicreferences 42 caso delFondodeInversión enTelecomunicaciones Jorge enelPerú”,inFernández-Baca, When anarticleorchapter ofabookwrittenbyseveralauthorsisquoted: Creation”, ofFinance.Vol. inTheJournal 45.Nº1.Pp.49-71. When anarticlepublishedinacademicmagazine isquoted: Centre. para elestudiodelcasoperuano,1988-2004. Lima:UniversityofthePacifi c Research When itisabook: B. Presentation oftexts in theBibliography Guide bytheFondo EditorialoftheUniversityPacifi c ResearchCentre Each bibliographicreference shouldincludeatleast the followinginformation: When worksbyanauthorpublishedinthesameyearare quoted,theyshouldbe When adocumenthasbeenwrittenbythree authors,thethreeare surnames included The systemwillbeusedwhere thereference andyear. ismadewiththesurname For Bonifaz, JoséLuisy A.Bonifaz(2004).“Serviciouniversalentelecomunicaciones: el Gorton, GaryandGeorgePennacchi(1990). “Financial IntermediariesandLiquidity Schuldt, Jürgen(2004).Bonanzamacroeconómica ymalestarmicroeconómico. Apuntes Below are someexamples ofhowtopresent informationinthebibliography: • • • Name and surname oftheauthororauthors.IfitwasauthoredName andsurname byaninstitution,the in italics,andthepagesonwhicharticleappears. the author, thedateofpublicationandtitlearticle,namenewspaper place ofpublication.Ifanewspaperarticleisbeingquoted,pleaseincludethename Other informationthatshouldbeincludedisthenameofpublisher, theyearand Chilean Experience. language’s spellingisrespected; forexample: ADecadeofEconomicChange.The Ensayos sobre laeconomía peruana.IftheworkhasbeenwritteninEnglishthenthat an articleisquoted,onlythefi rst word ofthetitleappearsincapitalletters;forexample: should begiven,aswellthenameofauthororeditor. Whenthetitleofaworkor the reference istoanarticleorchapter, thetitleofpublicationinwhichitappears commas ifitisadocument,report orpresentation thathasnotbeenpublished.When The reference titlemustappearinitalicsifitisacompletepublication;betweeninverted complete nameshouldappearandnotonlytheabbreviation oracronym. 42 the fi nal bibliography). professional orexpertinvited byGEO: When thefi or expertinvitedbyGEOCities. When thefi 2003. (Makereference tothetitleoftextordocumentinfi nal bibliography) GEO team: When thefi document: When thefi de interés”. Santiago,Chile. Mimeo. When theyare unediteddocuments: Conferencethe SecondInternational onForeign Trade, Atlanta,Georgia,UnitedStates. When theyare unpublishedconference orseminar documents: LabourOrganization. document. Lima:International Investigación EconómicaySocialReddePolíticasEmpleo. costeña”, inGarcía, Norberto(ed.).PolíticasdeempleoenPerú.Lima:Consorcio de When thequoteisfrom anauthororpublisherpreviously quoted: (ed.). Experienciasderegulación enelPerú.Lima:UniversityofthePacifi c Research Centre. (In thiscasethetitleofINDEDCdocumentconsulted musthavecompletereference in Source: Prepared byCeballos forFAU-UNT, 2005.BasedonINDEC,2001. Source: Prepared byCeballosforFAU-UNT, 2005. Prepared inhouseFAU-UNT, 2005. BasedontheMunicipalityofSanMigueldeTucumán, Source: Prepared inhouseFAU-UNT, 2005. Meller, P. andA.Solimano(1984).“Inestabilidadfi nanciera, burbujasespeculativasytasas Domínguez, R.andP. Salinas(1992).“Lasventajasdellibre comercio”. Articlepresented at ------(1999).Elpotencialdegeneraciónempleolaagriculturaperuana.Working Jaramillo, Miguel(2003).“Políticasderecursos humanosparalaagriculturacomercial gure ortablewasprepared specifi gure ortablewasprepared onthebasisofadocumentconsultedby gure ortablewasprepared bytheGEOtechnicalteamforthisspecifi gure ortablewasprepared basedonadocumentconsultedby cally forthisdocumentby aprofessional c 163 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 164 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports City context PHYSICAL CONTEXTCHAPTER Suggested questionstobeanswered intheGEOCitiesreport Annex 3:Questionsguidetoprepare GEOCitiesreport Historic evolutionofurbanization SOCIO-ECONOMIC ANDPOLITICALCHAPTER Demographic dynamics 43 • • • • • • • • • • • • groups? What isthepopulationcomposition byage the migrantpopulation? What are theprincipalplacesoforigin of thearrivingmigrantpopulation? density? Whatistherelative importance What istheevolutionofpopulation according tomunicipalitiesorparishes? What isthepopulationconcentration rural area? is itsdistribution,according tourbanand What isthesizeofpopulation? changed landuse? What are theprincipalforces thathave pressure theyexert. relative importanceofthese zonesandthe city land?Thisismeanttoestablishthe housing) whatpercentage occupies production, generalservices, tourism, Of eachofthezonespresented (industrial land? What are theprincipalactivities oncity How haslandusechanged? in thecityandgeographiccharacteristics? What istherelation betweenecosystems Elaborated byRosarioGómez andElsaGalarza Brief accountofthecity’s history. land relief, climate? What are thegeographiccharacteristics, urban area andaruralarea? city’s generalcharacteristics?Hasitan Where isthecitylocated?Whatare the usin Indicator Questions Indicator Questions Indicator Questions

• • • • • • • • • • • • • Population growth ratebetweencensuses. % ofurbanarea and%of rural area intwo city. Identify principalnaturalecosystemsinthe intensity ineachperiod(m (temperature range).Rainyseasonand Type ofclimatethroughout theyear City’s altituderanges. municipalities, pinpointingthecity. extension. Includemapofthecountryby importance withrespect tothemunicipality’s City’s territorialextensionanditsrelative 60; andover 60. example: under15years, between15and % ofpopulationaccording toage,for Migrant populationgrowth rate. parishes. Population densityin principalcity average. Evolution ofpopulationdensity, city to notedifferences. population. Considertwoextreme years % ofurbanpopulation,rural convenient years. Between 1970and2008,orthemost rate. Extension oftheurbanarea anditsgrowth show thechangeinlanduse). years (forexample,1970and2008)may Map ofterritorialoccupationintheextreme extreme years. 3 /sec average). 43

Provision ofbasicservices Socio-economic dynamics • • • • • • • • • characteristics Explain publictransportservice school dropout? Are there contrasts?Whatistherateof How hastheilliteracyrateevolved? What abouteducationservices? environment? associated withthequalityof the city’s population?Are anyof them What are themaindiseases thataffect What abouthealthservicesprovision? covered. with lessthan50%offamiliesorhouseholds with more than90%coverage andothers in theinnercity?Thatistosay, inlocalities (drains)? Isthere adifference incoverage of drinkingwater, electriclight,sanitation What isthecoverageofbasicservices city? What are themaincausesofpovertyin extreme povertyandindigence. poverty? Distinguishbetweenpovertyand What isthestateofpopulationlivingin usin Indicator Indicator Questions Questions • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • material (PM10). total suspendedparticles, particulate % ofthepopulationwithelectriclightby worse, orisunchanged. years toshowwhetherithasimproved, is zones. Ifpossible,compare twoextreme sanitation service(drains)byprincipal % ofthepopulationorhouseholdswith is unchanged. show whetherithasimproved, isworse,or If possible,compare twoextreme yearsto drinking watersupply, byprincipalzones. Gini index. % ofthepopulationinextreme poverty. Growth rateofemissionsastotype(CO Average ageofpublictransportvehicles. public service. according totypeofvehicle:privateuseor Growth rateofautomobilenumbers School dropout rate. Growth rateofschoolagechildren. Number ofstudentsperteacher. Illiteray rate:trend. and acutediarrheicdiseases. Growth rateofacuterespiratory diseases over time. Number ofhealthestablishmentspertype Number ofinhabitantsperbed. Number ofinhabitantsperdoctor. improved, isworse,orunchanged. extreme yearstoshow whether ithas principal zones.Ifpossible,compare two % ofthepopulationorhouseholdswith % ofpopulationlivinginpoverty. 2 ,

165 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 166 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports Local environment political-administrative structure Economic dynamics Water STATE OFTHEENVIRONMENTCHAPTER • • • • • • • per cubicmetre? Hasthispricegoneup? supplied insidethecity? Whatistheprice who donothaveaccess? Where iswater water? Howiswatersupplied tothose does thepopulationhave todrinking domestic use, whataccess Concerning uses? industrial, energy, agriculturalandother order ofimportancebetweendomestic, What isthewaterusedfor? years? Isitapermanentfl ow? has beentheaverageflow volumeinrecent city? Isunderground waterused?What supply? Whatwaterbasinssupplythe What are thesources ofthezone’s water such institutions? the maincompetencesandattributionsof between institutionsidentifi ed? Whatare What coordination mechanisms are there environment? institutions are involvedin managingthe political-institutional structure? Whatcity What isthepresent city management or foreign market. destination oftheproduction? Homeand/ economic impacts?Whatistheprincipal in termsofusingnaturalresources or How doalltheeconomicactivitiesfunction engaged inthesemainactivities? of workers.Whatpercentage oftheEAPis defi ned byvalueofannualsalesornumber large, mediumorsmall.Thesizemaybe Number ofenterprisesaccording tosize: What are thecity’s maineconomicactivities? usin Indicator Questions Indicator Questions Indicator Questions • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Water basinsthatsupplythecity;annual Make afl owgram ofalltheinstitutions Growth rateofprincipalactivities’sales For forests, indicatetheforest area trend. home marketandforforeign markets. % ofeachactivity’s production forthe LPG, etc.Between1990and2008? of thecompositionproduct: diesel, In thecaseofarefinery detailsmaybegiven environmental deterioration(e.g.oilspills). Inventory ofeventsthatcaused value peryear. Period1990-2008?. Growth rateofproduction volumeand identifi ed. % ofEAPengagedinmainactivities trend. values between1990and2008?.Analyse Volume ofwatertreated. heavy metals,coliforms, among others). Content ofpollutantsin sewage(DBO, use. Volume ofsewage according totypeof Price ofdomesticdrinkingwater. Coverage. sewer system use. Balancebetweendrinkingwaterand Demand forwateraccording totypeof average fl ow. and itscoordination withother institutions. management unitinthecity’s municipality Make afl owgram oftheenvironment how theyinterrelate. involved inmanagingtheenvironment and Land Air Biodiversity • • • • • • • • • • • • Number ofhousingunits andinhabitants becoming more intense? happen? Are theyrecurrent and are they fl oods, others?Inwhatseasondothey Landslides causedbyrain,earthquakes, What are themostfrequent urbanlandrisks? What isthelandusedfor? is there perinhabitant? how bigare they?Howmuch green area How manycitygardens are there, and offer? Whatistheirstateof conservation? big are they?Whattypeof services dothey How manypublicparksare theyandhow each area? the cityarea? Whattypes offaunainhabit What isthevegetalcoversurfacewithin Does itaffect aparticularcity zone? is it? industrialpollution,whattype Concerning polluted byvehicularcongestion? transport? Are somecityzones particularly gasoline orpetroleum orpublicprivate the vehiclefl eet anoldone?Doesituse pollutionbymotorvehicles,is Concerning fossilfuels?Isgasused? burning or fi xed? Doesindustrygetenergyby What are theairpollutionsources --mobile compared topoor zones. City zoneswithwell-built constructions in riskareas. polluted bysewage? into theseaorrivers?Are beaches How manyeffl uents are dumpeddirectly What isthesewagetreatment capacity? What typesofwastedoesitcontain? rain andindustrial:howmuchisgenerated? thedomesticdrainagesystem, Concerning usin Indicator Questions Indicator Indicator Questions Questions usin Indicator Questions

• • • • • • • • • • • Air pollutionindicatorsbytypeofindustry. service); age. Number ofvehicles(privateorpublic compared tostandards. Air pollutionindicatorsinrecent years Number ofinhabitants. Number ofinformalorpoor settlements. Number ofearlierdisasters anddamages. years andtheirintensity. List ofearthquakesorﬂ oods inrecent Map ofzonesatrisk. M Density perlocality(district)withinthecity. Number andsizeofpublicgardens. Number andsizeofpublicparks. forests, wetlands,etc. %ofurbanlandcovered by green areas, Changes inlandusehectares. 2 /inhabitant.

167 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 168 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports Marine coastalresources Built-up environment Solid waste • • • • • How are thecity’s buildingspreserved? infrastructure deterioration. Historiccentre. urbanizations. Degree ofurban compared topoorzones. Model City zoneswithwell-builtconstructions the systemcostmunicipality? types ofwasteincluded?Howmuchdoes capacity: landﬁ lls, dumps,etc.?Are all What isthedisposalsystem;itsstorage for garbagecollection? recycling systems?Whatprice ischarged barrows, ordirect dumping?Are there systemstodisposeofwaste: alternative Is allthecitygarbagecollected?Are there Which typeproduces themostvolume? domestic, industrial,hazardous, etc.? produce peryear?Whattypeofwaste: What volumeofsolidwastedoesthecity been affected? have hydrobiological speciesandﬁ shing marine coastalzonetodeteriorate?How Have economicactivitiescausedthe usin Indicator Questions Indicator Indicator Questions Questions

• • • • • • Number ofinformalorpoorsettlements. Volume ofeachtypewasteproduced. Number andvolumeofﬁ sh speciesfor dumps, others. Number ofcontrolled sanitarylandﬁ lls, Waste production compared tocollection. consumption. buildings compared tototal buildings. good condition.Numberofdeteriorated % oftotalcityarea with buildingsin Number ofinhabitants.

RESPONSES CHAPTER • • • • • • • • What istheextentofcitizenparticipation What strategieshavebeendevelopedby What strategieshavebeendevelopedby Explain therole ofenvironmentalist NGOs, Identify theprincipalmechanisms What are themainsources offi nancing What are theprincipalinstruments usedin results. the programmes andaction?Principal have theyadvanced?Whobenefi ts from they beenimplemented?To whatdegree environmental deterioration?Howhave the localauthoritytorespond tothecity’s the city’s environmental deterioration? What policiesare inplacetorespond to others). quality, waterquality, green areas, among their numberandsphere ofaction(air effective citizenparticipation. developed bythemunicipalitytopromote type ofactivity, overtime. management? Howmuchfi nancing by for thecity’s urbanenvironmental concessions, settingpollutionstandards). occupation masterplans,licences,area local environmental management? (Land effective havesuchproposals been? made? Iftheyhavebeenactedon,how problems? Whatproposals havebeen and response tothecity’s environmental results. the programmes andaction? Principal have theyadvanced?Whobenefi ts from they beenimplemented?To whatdegree environmental deterioration?Howhave business andNGOstorespond tothecity’s usin Indicator Questions • • • • • • • • • • incentives offered. Successfactors. incentives offered. Successfactors. cover. environmental themeofinterest. activity. management, according totypeof urban environmental management. Growth rateofglobalfinancing formunicipal fi rst applied,lessonslearned. improving theenvironment. care fortheenvironment. Number ofneighbourhoodcommitteesto Principal instrumentsused,typesof Principal standards andtheproblem they Number ofNGOs,according totheirmain Financing structure ofurban environmental Identifying theprincipalinstruments:date Inventory ofproposals by citizenson Number ofpublicenvironmental hearings. Principal instrumentsused,typesof 169 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 170 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports and thepressures thatinteractwiththeotherelements. the elementsthatare defi ned inmostdetail(seeoutline).Theseare, basically, drivingforces and theseare beingapplied nationallyandglobally. constant improvement have resulted inadditionsbeingmadetotheconceptualframework regional, national,local),it iscontinuouslybeingenrichedandimproved. Itsdynamicsand Given thattheGEOmethodologyisconstantlybeingappliedonitsdifferent levels(global, questions, according tothe MethodologyforthePreparation ofGEOCitiesReportsmanual. and couldalsobethecausesofenvironmental problems. the consequencesofpolicies,whetherintentionalorunintentional,maybedispersedovertime that haveaninfl uence ontheenvironment. Itisimportanttoincludethisassessmentbecause environmental conditions. However, thesereports needtoincludeanassessmentofpolicies What isanintegratedenvironmental assessment? conceptual pressure-state-response framework. today. Environmental questions inGEOare analysedbyusingasystemicapproach anda examining aseriesofpotentialfuture results ofpossiblepolicydecisionsthatmaybetaken policy prioritiesbasedonpastandpresent experiences.GEOusesascenariosapproach by economic, environmental andpolicyquestions,italsoattemptstoimaginefuture optionsand stakeholders, politiciansandscientists. build aconsensusaboutpriorityactionsandquestionsresulting from adialoguebetween stakeholders aswellexpertsindifferent disciplines related todevelopment.Theaimis development. Thisreport isproduced asaparticipatory effort involvingtheprincipal themes. making onsustainabledevelopment,theyincludeanassessmentofpoliciesandemerging they gobeyondatraditionalstateoftheenvironment report and,asanintegralpartofdecision 1- Theproposal onindicatorsforGEOreports Annex 4:Work guidefortheGEOCitiesreport workshop 44 Reporting. Prepared onthebasisofPinter, L.,Zahedi,K.,andCressman,D(2000): Training ManualonIntegrated EnvironmentalAssessment Below anoutlineofthenewconceptualframework ispresented withabrief explanation of GEO Citiesreports are basedontheGEOCitiesmethodologyandrespond to sixbasic Traditional reports onthestate oftheenvironment havebeenveryusefulinindicating GEO isanintegratedreport becausenotonlydoesitobservethelinksbetweensocio- The objectiveoftheIEA/GEOreport istopromote effective actiontoachievesustainable The distinctivecharacteristicoftheIEA/GEO(GlobalEnvironment Outlook)reports isthat Assessment oftheenvironmental indicatorsproposal and 44

and analyse proposals indicators Develop Identify integrated environment assessment.Thefollowingisadiagramofthisframework: These interactionsmaybecategorizedas: communicate relevant policy informationonkeyinteractionsbetweenenvironment andsociety. fi gure: 45 Scales ofthesixGEOquestions model. Driving forces,PressureStateImpactResponse (DPSIR)wasdevelopedasamoredetailedalternativetothePressure StateRespo These categoriesare thebasiccomponentsofDPSIRframework • • • • An integratedstateoftheenvironment assessmentisaprocess toproduce and The integratedenvironment report askesthesixquestions summarizedinthefollowing Identify priorities,pressures anddrivingforces Society’s responses totheseresults. Impacts onthequalityoflife,economyandecosystems The resulting stateorcondition oftheenvironment Driving forces andthepressures humanbeingsplaceontheenvironment 6. Whatcanwedotoreverse thepresent situation? 5. Whatwillhappenifwedonottakeactionnow? 4. Whatare wedoingandhoweffective isit? 1. Whatishappeningtotheenvironment? Scales ofthesixGEOquestions 3. Whatistheimpact?(Impact) 2. Whyisithappening? (Future outlook) 45 thatunderliesan environment assessmennt assessment traditional Scenarios Assess Policy Impacts nse (PSR) Assess 171 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 172 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports sought tothefollowingquestions: will haveabearing. therefore, itisveryimportanttoclearlyidentifythemgiventhatontheresponses as landusechange,climatechangeandnaturalphenomena. refer topropellers ofdirect change, thatistosay, mainlyphysical,chemicalorbiologicalsuch population growth, consumptionandproductionamongothers;Pressures, patterns, however, (economic andsocialforces andthepolitical-institutionalforces thatunderliethem)suchas forces refer todifferent typesofprocesses thatpropel indirect changesintheenvironment point whendealingwithenvironmental problems. environment: drivingforces andpressures. From thepoliticalpointofview, eachisastarting services theyprovide. Inthis respect, twoelementsare identifi ed thatinfl uence changestothe to identifyandunderstandthedriversorforces thatcausechangesinecosystemsandthe Drivers ofdirect change (Territorial occupation, Natural phenomenon) The chapterondrivingforces describesfi ve principalcomponentsonwhichresponses are Both elementsare considered tobecausesthatexplainenvironmental changesand, It shouldbemadeclearthat,according totheterminologyofGEOmethodology, driving To designinterventionsthatincrease positive andminimizenegativeimpacts,itisessential Climate change PRESSURES (Demographic, social,economic,political,institutional, Science, Technology andInnovation,cultural Scenarios andemergingthemes traditional knowledgeaspects) Drivers ofindirect change DRIVING FORCES FUTURE OUTLOOK Environmental policies Biodiversity, Forests, physical intervention (policy, economic, RESPONSES Administrative technological, Urban zones Water, Land, instruments) structure, STATE (poverty, health,access to basicneeds,social - Naturalenvironment - Economicactivities - Humanwellbeing Vulnerability IMPACTS relations) Components andbasicquestionstodevelopthepressures: Components andbasicquestionstodevelopthedrivingforces c. b. a. e. d. c. b. a. As topressures, thefollowingcomponentsandbasicquestionshavebeenestablished:

aspects environmental Policy- events phenomena Natural Climate change use Change inland (STI) innovation technology and Science, aspects Economic Social aspects aspects Demographic opnnsBasicquestions Components Basicquestions Components • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • this trend changetheenvironment? What isthecitypopulation’s structure andgrowth trend? Howdoes environment? affects theamountofnaturalresources andthequality ofthe How hastheincidenceofsuch phenomenaledtobehaviourthat What are thecity’s principalnaturalphenomena? Who havebeenmostlyaffected? How doesclimatechangeaffect urbanecosystems? in theenvironment? conditionedthechange Howhastheterritorialoccupationpattern territory intheregion? What are theprincipalfactorsthatconditionoccupationof What hasbeentheterritorialoccupationprocess? How isSTIarticulatedinnationaleducationprogrammes? generators andusers? What are thecoordination mechanismsbetweenthecity’s STI ¿What isthetrend? conserve ecosystemsandtheirservices? What are thecriteriaforallocatingandspendingfundsbudgetedto and theirservices? What policy-institutionalfactorsconditiontheuseofecosystems action? What inﬂ uence doespublicparticipationhaveonlocalenvironmental they provide? What are themostusedregulatory frameworks?Whatincentivesdo provides incentivestotakeaction? Is there aneffective andefﬁ cient localenvironmental policythat environmental aspects? integrated approach? Dothey takeaccountofeconomic,socialand Do thesectorialandlocalenvironmental policiesappliedhavean growth strategy? Do thecity’s developingindustrialsectorshaveacleantechnologies Do theleadingproductive sectors havesustainablegrowth plans? What isthecity’s economicgrowth model? education? Is environmental education anongoingprocess ingeneral the qualityandquantityofnaturalresources? Do thepopulation’s (energyandwater)affect consumptionpatterns the environment? How doesthepopulation’s povertyencouragebehaviourthataffects 173 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 174 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports environment inthecityofSanJoséCostaRicawithrespect tothefollowingthemes: 2- AnalysisoftheStateenvironment information. opinion, consumers’preferences, changeinmanagementstrategiesandenvironmental Responses maybe:regulatory action,spendingontheenvironment oronresearch, public negative environmental impacts, correct environmental damageorconservenatural resources. model theseeffects are partofthe socio-economic conditions.IntheDPSIR(DrivingForces-Pressure-State-Impact-Response) state oftheenvironment will affect humanhealth,wellbeingandqualityoflife,ecosystems above, forexamplethelevelofairandwaterpollution,soildegradationdeforestation. The as startingpointstoapproach environmental questions. consumption andpoverty. Pressures ontheenvironment are considered from apolicyoutlook public knowaboutthestateofenvironment anditsindirect effects. Until now, different workinggroups havemadeanearliersurveyofthestate State Response • • Driving forces andpressures • costs, changesinconsumption responses: legislation,new instruments, environmental conditions: waste,com- preferences, international Air Solid waste • • Water: Collective andindividual technologies, economic Human activitiesand consumption, others Responses by merce, population, Sewage andsanitation Access toandwatersupply conventions, others. refers totheconditionof the environment resulting from thepressures mentioned Response society Pressure corresponds tosociety’s collectiveor individual actiontoreduce orprevent are generallyunderlyingforces suchaspopulationgrowth, “impact” Resources Information Pressures . Itisimportantthatdecision-makersandthe - Built-upenvironment - Atpolitical-institutionallevel - Urbaneconomy - Ecosystems - Healthandqualityoflife Impacts on: State orconditionofthe land, naturalresources, environment: air, water, human settlements Responses by Impact State society

the problems asshowninthefollowingexample: Exercise Nº1 3- Dothefollowingexercises topropose indicators bythemes assessment. by different institutions(UNCSD,ICLEI,OECD,and others) foranintegratedenvironmental guide andyoumayamplify itsspectrumofindicators. identify theindicatorsfor eachoneofthemasshowninthefollowingexample. Thislistisa Once youhaveidentifi ed thestateof theproblem, pressures, impactandresponses, then Exercise Nº2 Identify yourcity’s mainenvironmental problems bysub-systemand causes.Thenprioritize Annex 4containsalistofbasicindicators(pressure, state,impact,response) prepared • • • • • Now takethefi rst prioritythemeanditscauseidentify theimpactandresponses. Natural sub-system Built-up environment Forests Biodiversity Coastal resources Soil Identify theprincipalenvironmental problems inLimaandCallao WATER SOIL AIR • • • • • • • sources groundwater andsurface Quality ofwaterfrom Principal environmental Bad smellsinthecity High noiselevels the air(Callao) High concentrationofleadin carbon monoxide particulate materialand High concentrationof Lead inthesoil(Callao) pesticides inthesoil High concentrationsof Soil pollutionfrom solidwaste problems andtheir priorities • • • • • • • • • • • mineral warehouses Environmental liabilitiesof Use ofpesticidesinagriculture Poor solidwastemanagement Gases andeffl uents emissions Industrial fi sh production commerce, airplanes,etc. Noise from industries, mineral warehouses Environmental liabilityof Poor transportmanagement vehicles Badly maintainedmotor groundwater sources Overexploitation of Poor watermanagement Demographic growth Population concentration Dumpinguntreated sewage Availability ofwater Pressures /Causes

175 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 176 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports The policycontext and themeanstobeusedachievethem. decisions takenbyapoliticalstakeholderorgroup ofstakeholdersonselecting objectives 1- Whatisapolicy? environmental questions? Exercise Nº3 Element Water Ways inwhichpoliciesmaybedeveloped: According tothemanualusedprepare theGEOreports, apolicyissetofinter-related What are wedoingaboutit? Thatis,whichofthepoliciesnowinforce attempttodealwith What ishappening?Thatis,howdopoliciesaffect thestateofenvironment? Assessing environmental policies helpstoanswertwoquestions: • • Soil Air urgent, reactive policies: to establishedandunderstood frameworks; habitual decisions: environmental emergences; pollution Air sources and ground surface water from Quality of pollution Soil problem Priority situation economic Country’s growth rate phafi c Demogra- growth Population Driving Forces mostpoliciesare theresult ofroutine decisionsmade according Indicators ofDPSIRdimension forexamplepolicies taken quicklyinresponse to sources and fi xed from mobile emissions Atmospheric year sewage per domestic of untreated Total volume production Solid waste rsueSaeIpc Response Impact State Pressure Pb, SO PM2.5, CO, (PM10, pollutants tion of Concentra- water matter in faecal pH, nitrites, DBO, DBQ, quality: water Index of CO sites Polluted 2 , NO 2 , x ) diseases borne of water- Incidence diseases respiratory of cardio- Incidence pollution. and poisoning from of diseases Incidence year) plants ($/ treatment collection, networks, in drainage Investment sources and fi xed from mobile of emissions and control Regulation disposal. and fi nal collection ($/year): management waste in integrated Investment and ananalysis: continuously assessedandmodifi ed. Thefollowing isonemethodofmakinganassessment 2- Stepsinanalysingandassessingpolicies environmental policiesand betweenenvironmental andothertypesofpolicies. policy existsinisolation;itisimportant,therefore, toconsidertherelations between various Relations betweenthepolicies explained. press conferences, laws,amongothermedia.In contrast, implicitpoliciesare notclearly are thoseclearlyannouncedinministerialspeeches,legislativedeclarations,regulations, Step3: Step2: Step1: Policy attributes: Because environmental conditionsandsocio-economicprioritiesevolve,policies mustbe Since thedrivingforces-pressure-state-impact-response modelwasdevelopedno There are different policylevels: Policies maybeatanypointbetweentheseextremes. Examplesofexplicitpolicies • • • • • • environment. independent orintegratedwithotherpolicies evolutionary orrevolutionary reactive orproactive explicit orimplicit undefi general orspecifi c decision makingprocess. policies thathaveahighpoliticalprofi le anddonotalwaysfollowtheconventional Assess selectedpolicies. Identify performancecriteriaforselectedpolicies. Identify andlistpresent policiesandlegislationwithsignifi cant effects onthe ned areas: ned Example: Require pollution certifi cates forprivatevehicles Example: Reduceemissionofgreenhouses gases Example: Subsidizevehicularfl eet modernization thosemidwaybetweenexceptionalandhabitual;theseare rare Example: Agreement onClimate Change Provincial -Regional Transnational National Local 177 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 178 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports Different categoriesofpoliciesare: effects. Itisimportant,therefore, tobeaware ofpolicyimplications. to create adverseenvironmental effects, whileothersmighthaveunexpectedbutbenefi cial Many policiesthatappeartobeunrelated tothethemeofenvironment havethepotential economic andsocialpoliciesthatseektorespond tothemostcriticalenvironmental problems. place and,atthisstage,thepurposeistoidentifyandassessmainpresent environmental, What typesofpoliciesare there andwhichofthem shouldbeanalysed? effects ontheenvironment: Step 1:Identifyandlistpresent policiesandlegislationwithsignifi h) g) f) e) d) c) b) a) Criteria toselectpoliciesforinclusioninthe analysis In thisanalysis,tobepractical,weshouldselectarelatively smallnumberofpolicies. Diagnosing thestateofenvironment isthebasisforassessingpoliciescurrently in participation, rulesandregulations related togenderequality. Social policies:labourlaws,sanitaryandwork safetyregulations, support forpublic better administrativepractices. Standards andvoluntaryinstruments:localAgenda21,ISO14000,responsible care, networks (nationalandregional). conferencesjournalism, andseminars,environmental curricula,information and database at vulnerablegroups (forexample: women,youthorindigenousgroups), environmental Raising awareness about educationpolicies:publicconsultations,measures directed systems toguaranteedepositsandtheirlaterreturn,pricestructure, ecologicallabelling. to assignresponsibilities, fi nancial instruments(forexample,loanstoenvironmental funds), Economic instruments:taxes,subsidies,tariffs (forexample,usertariffs) andfi nes, systems measures). standards, prohibitions, limits,licences(forexample,control andleadership orextreme Legal instruments:environmental legislation,theobligationtoassessenvironmental impact, resources fortheenvironment, green taxes. National fi scal andTreasury Departmentpolicies:allocatingbudgetandothergovernment development indicators. development andgivingthemsupport;helpingtoprepare asetofnationalsustainable the establishmentofnationaladvisorygroups dedicatedtoimplementingsustainable departments toprovide reports onhowsustainabledevelopmentstrategiesare executed; decisionsobliging National sustainabledevelopmentpolicies:maybegovernment environmental laws. regional environmental andsustainabledevelopment groups ororganizations;international mechanisms:bilateralormultilateralagreements;International commercial agreements; • • • Affecting thehealth,incomeandwellbeingofalarge numberofpeople; Link withenvironmental prioritiesidentifi ed inthediagnosis; Relevance forthepublic and fordecision-makers; cant link withspecifi c policies. identifying crucialenvironmental themes,selecting the indicatorsandcriteriacreating the changes ifthosewhoare toimplementthemare involvedinpreparing theanalysis,from changes where andwheneverneeded.Itiseasiertoadoptarecommendation forpolitical desired results. Example:offi cial developmentassistancewillbe0.4percentofGDP. Determined byapolicyand/ortechnicalprocess thattakesaccountofpast performanceand uses. keep theperformancewithincertainestablishedlimits.Example:qualitystandards fordifferent environmentalconcerning procedures orcharacteristics.Apolicyissuccessfulifithelpsto policy shouldhelptoraisethelevelofknowledgeaboutenvironment. identify thisrelevant performance measurement aspartoftheassessment.Example: not includeaspecifi c performancemeasurement, theassessorshouldobtain amandateto rule defi ned inageneralwayandoftenformallyaccepted.Ifthe defi nition oftheprincipledoes system tothelimitorbeyond.Example:afi shery’s maximumsustainableperformance.A change inhowasystembehaves.Apolicyisassessedaccording toitscapacitybringa another sub-section. households connectedtothesanitarysysteminsub-sectionX,compared tothevariablein documented forthesamevariableinanotherjurisdiction.Example:highestpercentage of examples ofcriteriacategoriesare: comparison betweentheplannedordesired achievementandtheactualachievement.Some relate tospecifi c indicatorsordefi ned periods).Inessence,thesecriteriaprovide abasisfor complies withgeneralprinciples)to“specific andquantitative”(forexamplewhentheobjectives variables. view. Policiesare generallydesignedwithoutprecise objectivesorwithcriteriaunrelated tothe that helptoassesstheresults from anenvironmental andsustainabledevelopmentpointof Step 3:Assessselectedpolicies Step 2:Identifyperformancecriteriaforselectedpolicies. Goals related topoliciesthatincludethosestipulatedinlegal agreements: Standards: Limits: Benchmark: Criteria (ofperformance)mayrangefrom “generalanddescriptive”(forexampleifthepolicy The fi nal objectiveofassessingpoliciesis toinfl uence decisionmakingandinitiatepolicy Once anumberofhighprioritypoliciesare identified, thenextstepistodeterminecriteria • • • • • Originality ofthepolicyinitiative. Provide easyandfeasiblesolutions; Have thepotentialtocausedisorder orconfl ict; Are related tothecountry’s obligations; international are irreversible; Responding toaphysicallysevere environmental situation thatchangerapidlyand/or bearinmindthevalueofakeyvariablethatcausesfundamentalandirreversible Properties andregulations, acceptednationallyand/orinternationally, Comparisonofavariableinmyjurisdiction,withthebestperformance

179 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 180 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports problem youare investigating. Exercise Nº3 mentioned above. Exercise Nº2 those mentioned. respond totheproblem youare investigating.Listotherpoliciesthatmayaffect theresult of Exercise Nº1 thematic area: 3- Dothefollowingexercises toidentifyandassessenvironmental policiesinyour another. beings. Apolicymaybegoodwithaparticularenvironmental impactorcriterionbutnotwith of howpoliciesandnaturalfactorsinteract,somewhichcannotbecontrolled byhuman policies canexistinisolation;anyenvironmental trend willbetheresult ofthecombination of agivenpolicybasedonrelevant performancecriteria.Neitherenvironmental themesnor Propose threelocalorregional alternative policies(Metropolitan Area) torespond tothe Identify thefactorsthatfacilitateandthosehinderimplementationofpolicies Identify three policiesbeingdevelopedlocallyorregionally (Metropolitan Area) thatseekto Assessing policiescentres oncomparingtheactualperformanceandwhatisexpected the environment canbetreated independently? recommend? failures. Exercise Nº5 (-); Highintensity(H)orModerate(M). on three otherkeyenvironmental conditions,andassess theimpacts(Benefi cial (+)orHarmful responses tothatstate.Determinetheoriginalintentionofthesepolicies,identifytheirimpact and three policiesthathaveaffected thestateof environment orthatare suggestedas area ofstudy. To dothis,youshouldchosethree pressures thatare affecting theenvironment, Exercise Nº4 In thespecifi c area youare workingon,doyouthinktheresponses tothepresent stateof Based ontheresponse to theprevious exercise, whatpriorityaction would you In relation tothepoliciesselected intheaboveexercise, identifytheirmainsuccessesand Complete theactionimpactmatrixbasedonexampleinAnnex2thatrelates toyour 181 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 182 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports responses? linked? Cantheimpactsbelimitedtocity? groups, indigenousgroups, politicalparties). sector, NGOs,communicationsmedia,religious organizations,universities,tradeunions,youth in theDPSIRDrivingForce-Pressure–State–Impact-Response private model(government, With whatotheraspects(social,economic,environmental) wouldyourelateWith these In thespecifi c caseofservices,withwhatotherregions ofthecountryistheirsupply Concerning thespecifiConcerning c themeyouare working on,whatstakeholderswouldbeinvolved Environmental education Investment inenvironmental management and applyinnovations Business socialresponsibility Information they effective? Whichare theprincipalcontributions? (public hearings),principalcontributions? Citizen participation instruments (taxincentives)? Local urban-environmental regulations management? Howare theyimplemented? Institutional Other questionstocomplementtheexercise Awareness campaigns(solid waste,waterquality) Educational programmes Origin ofinvestmentfunds. Use ofcleantechnologies. Principal programmes andprojects, andamountsallocated. Relation betweenprivateandpublicsectors.Coordination mechanisms. Principal activities(linkwiththelocalitytomitigatedamageenvironment) Develop Identify andassessthecity’s environment policies. How isinformationdisseminated?Whousesitandforwhat? Is there anurbanenvironment informationsystem?Howisorganized? Are there coordination mechanismswiththeprivatebusinesssector?Whatare they?Are Are there normsthatencouragecitizenparticipation?Whatare theprincipalmechanisms Is there harmonybetweennationalandlocalurbanenvironment norms? Do thenormsconcentrateoncontrol instruments(supervisionandfi nes) oreconomic Which existingstandards haveactivelyencouragedurbanenvironment management? Identify thenormativegapsthatprevent effi cient environment management. establishstrategiestoimproveHow doesthelocalgovernment urban-environmental Are publicpersonneltrainedtomanagetheseunits? Is there coordination betweentheseunits?Whatmechanisms are used? Have localpublicinstitutionscreated newenvironmental managementunits? 183 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 184 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports P rsue S tt (I)Ipc (R)Response ( I)Impact (S)State (P) Pressure Table 1 GEO LimaandCallao Annex 5:ExampleofindicatorsusedinGEOCitiesreports urban services Demography and accessto Infrastructure Economy and poverty Indicators usedinGEOLimaandCallao (P) (P) (P) (P) (P) (P) (P) (P) (P) (P) (P) P) Total indicators:12 Total indicators:16 (P) (P) (P) (P) (P) (P) (P) (P) (P) (P) (P) (P) (P) (P) (P) (P) (P) (P) (P) (P) (P) (P) (P) (P) (P) (P) (P) (P) GDP ($) Distribution ofsocio-economiclevelsbycones Monthly income($) Disparities insocio-economiclevels(%) Poverty (%) Informal employment Unemployment rate(%) Sector where theheadofhouseholdisemployed(%) EAP inSMEs GDP share oftertiarysector(%) GDP share ofsecondarysector(%) GDP share ofprimarysector(%) Incorporation ofdistricts(numbernewdistricts) Population inhumansettlements(%) Native languageofmetropolitan population(%bytypeoflanguage) outsideLima(%) Population born Population over65years(%) Population between30and65years(%) Population between15and29years(%) Population under15years(%) Composition ofpopulation:men-women(%) Global fertilityrate(children/woman) Population density–inhab/km New inhabitantsperyear Population growth ratebetween censuses(%) Population growth rate(%) Evolution ofpopulationinLimaandCallao:nationallevel(%) Total metropolitan population(Numberofpeople) Continuity ofdrinkingwater service(hours/day) Population receiving intermittentservice(%) Maintenance andreplacement ofpipes(typeand%) Water anddrainagenetwork(Km) Drinking wateranddrainagenetworkcoverage(%) Cycling pathsnetwork(Km) (%and type) Purpose ofjourneys Metropolitan (Numberofjourneys/day/inhabitant) journeys Metropolitan road network(Kmandtype) Length ofstayinprovisional housing(years) Improvised housing(%) Degree ofhousingunitsconsolidation(%andtype) Socio-economic dynamics Demographic Dynamics 2 P rsue S tt (I)Ipc (R)Response ( I)Impact (S)State (P) Pressure information and urban services and accessto Infrastructure management Vulnerability citizenship Education, Water and drainage Health Local (P) (R) (R) (R) (R) (R) (R) (P) (P) (P) (P) (P) (P) (P) (I) (I) (I) (I) (I) (I) (R) (R) (R) (R) (P) (P) (P) (P) sector) (P) (P) (P) (P) Total indicators:3 (R) (R) (R) Total indicators:6 Total indicators:3 (P) (P) (P) Total indicators:13 Total indicators:18 (P) (P) Cost ofnaturaldisasterincidents($) Incidence ofphenomenatechnologicalorigin(%andtype) Damage caused/phenomena($materiallossesanddeaths) Number ofvulnerablepeopleatrisk Housing unitsatrisk(number) History ofearthquakes(magnitudeandintensity) Surface waterresources storagecapacity(millionsofm Illiterate men(/100inhabitants) Illiterate women(/100inhabitants) Illiteracy rate(/100inhabitants) Average yearsofstudy(years) Population attendingschool(typeand%) School centres (number, typeand%) Students enrolled (number) Price ofwaterfrom thenetwork Population withwaterservicelessthan6hours/day(%) Water notcounted(%) Total demandforwater(m Differences inconsumption levelsbetweendistricts(litres/socio-economic Volume ofwaterconsumed(litres/inhab/day) Unitary waterproduction (litres/inhab/day) Operating wells(number) Medical services(numberofbeds/inhabitant) Medical attention(numberofinhabitantsperdoctor) Health sectorestablishments(numberandtype) Volume ofwaterproduced andaquiferexploitation(m Treatment plantsnominalproduction capacity(m Local government initiatives(typeand%) Local government Private enterpriseinitiatives(typeand%) Initiatives byNGOs(typeand%) Environmental informationprogrammes andprojects (typeand%) Citizen awareness programmes andprojects (typeand%) Environmental educationprogrammes andprojects (typeand%) Educational instruments(typeand$) Formalizing property (number ofplotsformalized) Investments inhousingprogrammes (type,$andbenefi ciaries) Norms, plans,etc. Environmental managementcontrol instruments(typeand$) Capacity formationinstruments(typeandnumber) Policy andadministrativeinstruments(type) Socio-economic dynamics Natural sub-system 3 /sec) 3 /sec) 3 /sec) 3 ) 185 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 186 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports P rsue S tt (I)Ipc (R)Response ( I)Impact (S)State (P) Pressure Water and drainage Air (S) (S) (P) (P) (P) (P) (P) (P) (P) (P) (P) Total indicators:41 (R)Education (R)Sewage (R) (R) (R) (I) (I) (I) bacteriological quality(%) (I) bacteriological quality(%) (I) (I) (I) (I) (I) (I) (I) (S) (S) (S) samples) (S) (S) (S) (S) toxic metals(mg/L) (S) (P) (P) (P) (P) (P) (P) (P) (P) (S) Economic costofmonitoringwater($) Cost ofdepollutingwater($) Economic costoftreating wateranddrains($) Persons atriskfrom waterfromtruckswithunacceptable cistern Persons atriskfrom drinkingwaterfrom wellswithunacceptable Quality ofgroundwater samples(%ofacceptablesamples) Incidence ofdiseasestransmittedbyfood(number) Incidence ofdiseasescausedbypollutedseawater(number) Incidence ofgastro-intestinal diseases(number) Incidence ofwater-borne diseases(numberandtype) Children affected byADDs(number) Emissions oftotalsuspended particles(ug/m Emissions bytypeofindustrial vehicles(%) Water defi cit: production versusdemand Levels ofaquiferexploitation(m Sanitary qualityofbeaches(NMPthermotolerantcoliforms/100ml) Drinking waterqualityfrom groundwater sources (%ofacceptable Drinking waterqualityindistributionsystem(%ofacceptablesamples) Evolution ofgroundwater exploitation (m trucks Chlorine samplesincistern Concentration ofDBO5(mg/L),thermotolerantcoliforms(NMP/100ml), Emissions ofsulphurdioxide (ug/m City’s mostimportantindustrial sectors(%) Age ofvehiclefl eet (years) Number ofinformalvehicles Number ofpublictransportvehicles Total numberofvehicles Evolution ofautomotivefl eet (typeofvehicles) Growth rateofautomotivefl eet Concentration ofnationalvehiclefl eet (%) Concentration ofnationalindustrialproduction (%) Population withaccesstodrinkingwateranddrainagenetwork(%) Total volumeoftreated sewage(m Industries thatcomplywithindustrialdrainageregulations (%) Industrial establishmentsdischargingintothedrainagenetwork(number) Collectors (number) Treatment plantsoperating(number) Treated sewage(%andvolume) Domestic sewageproduction (m Drinking watercoverageprojections ($) Technological physicalinterventioninstruments(typeand$) Policy andadministrativeinstruments(type) treatment projections ($) and informationinstruments(type$) 3 /sec) 3 /sec) 3 /month) 3 /) 3 /years) 3 /) P rsue S tt (I)Ipc (R)Response ( I)Impact (S)State (P) Pressure Biodiversity and green areas Patrimony Land Air (I) Economiccostofpatrimony recovery ($) (I) Affecting factorsandtheirimpactonpatrimony(types) (S) Conditionofpatrimony (S) Vegetal cover(hectares) (S) Identifi ed marine-coastalspecies:faunaandfl ora (number and type) (S) Identifi ed landspecies:faunaandfl ora (numberandtype) (S) Numberandarea ofnaturalecosystems(hectares) (I) (I) (I) (I) (I) (I) (I) (I) (I) (I) (I) (I) (I) (decibels) (S) (S) (%) (S) (S) (S) (S) Total indicators4 Total indicators:14 (R) (R) (R) (I) (S, (S) (S) (S) (P) (P) (P) (P) (P) Total indicators:33 (S) (S) P) Size ofcity(km Information andeducationinstruments(types$) Physical interventioninstruments(typesand$) Economic instruments(typesand$) Policy andadministrativeinstruments(types) Economic costofairpollution:effects onpublichealth($) Economic costofairpollution:operationalcosts($) Economic costofairpollution:monitoring($) Children affected byARIs Deaths causedbyairpollutionregistered inLimaandCallao(number) People whodiefrom ARIs (number) People whodiefrom airpollution (number) Incidence ofARIs(%) Asthma incidence(%) Reduction ofwetlandsarea (hectares) I) Reductionofagriculturalarea (%andhectares) Noise levels at Jorge Chavez international airportandsurroundingNoise levelsatJorgeChavezinternational areas Noise levelsonmainavenuesinmetropolitan Lima(decibels) Contribution toproducing pollutants bytypesofmobileandfi xed sources Vehicle andindustrialemissions(%) Inventory ofvehicleemissions(tonnes/year) Concentration ofsedimentablesolidpollutants(tonnes/km Plots formalizedinrisk,archaeological andnaturalreserves zones(number) General landuseclassifi cation (typesand%) Total urbanlandarea (hectares) Carbon monoxideemissionsof(ug/m Emissions ofnitrogen dioxide (ug/m Factories inindustrialzones(%) Urban area occupiedbyindustries(%) Extension ofagriculturalland(hectares) Extension ofurbanland(hectares) Urban area growth (hectares) Information, educationandcitizenshipinstruments(types and$) Physical interventionandtechnologicalinstruments(types and$) Policy andadministrativeinstruments(types) Built-up Sub-system 2 ) 3 /) 3 /) 2 /month) 187 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 188 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports P rsue S tt (I)Ipc (R)Response (I)Impact (S)State (P) Pressure Patrimony Energy Total indicators175 Total indicators:6 (P) (P) (P) (P) (P) (P) Total indicators:6 (R) (R) (R) Effi ciency inenergyuse(typesand%) Number andcapacityofhydroelectric powerstations Electricity consumption(kWh/inhabitant/day) Energy consumptioninthecitycompared tonationalproduction (%) Energy reserves andconsumption (%andtypes) Principal energysources (% andtypes) Information, awareness and educationinstruments(typesand$) Physical interventioninstruments(typesand$) Policy, administrativeinstruments(types) 2. GEOSaoPaulo 22. 21. 20. 19. 18. 17. 16. 15. 14. 13. 12. 11. 10. 9. 8. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. 23. 22. 21. 20. 19. 18. 17. 16. 15. 14. 13. 12. 11. 10. 9. 8. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. Description ofthe83environmental indicatorsproposed forthecityofSaoPaulo Investment inpublictransport waste Recovering recyclable materialsfrom solid Investment insolidwastemanagement Investment inwateranddrainage Rehabilitating degradedareas Recovering erosion andlandslidesareas blockages Recovering areas atriskoffl ooding and Household harmony untamed animals Control ofvectors,synanthropic faunaand Control ofdangerous cargocirculation Control ofemissionsfrom noisesources Atmospheric emissionscontrol Environmental taxation organizations Environmental non-governmental Environmental education Local Agenda21 Legislation toprotect springs Municipal masterplan Occurrences harmfultofauna Agrochemicals use Potentially pollutingactivities Mobile telephoneuse Radio transmissions Electric energyconsumption Electric energytransmission Consumption offuels Motorization Modal transportdistribution Atmospheric emissions Solid wastedisposal Solid wasteproduction Sewage andrainwaterdestination Water consumption Reduction invegetalcover High-rise buildingsfavoured Expansion ofurbanizedarea Authorized andunauthorizedsettlements Municipal humandevelopmentindex(HDI-M) Social inclusion/exclusionindex Income inequalityindex(Gini) Population growth anddensity Fines forinfringingenvironmental norms Rehabilitating andfreeing wildanimals Creating andmanagingconservationunits Increasing vegetalcover Response Pressure 18. 17. 16. 15. 14. 13. 12. 11. 10. 9. 8. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. 19. 18. 17. 16. 15. 14. 13. 12. 11. 10. 9. 8. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. 19. Recreation areas accessibility Conservation unitsandrelated areas Urban speciesdiversity Urban arborisation Vegetal cover patrimony conservation Historic, environmental and archaeological pollution Visual Electromagnetic pollution Noise pollution Earthquakes andtremors Polluted areas Erosion andblockageareas Areas atriskoffl ooding andlandslides Water shortage Quality ofwatersupply Surface andunderground water quality Acid rain Air quality Loss ofbiodiversity Juvenile vulnerabilityindex Loss ofurbanattraction Property depreciation environment andarchaeological patrimony Costs ofconservingandrestoring historic, transmitted byanimals Public healthcostsduetodiseases Public healthcostsofwater-borne diseases Public healthcostsofairpollutiondiseases Groundwater leveloverfl ow treatment Cost ofwatercollection,pipingand Microclimate changes Health risksfrom pollutedareas Occurrences offl oods andlandslides Deaths from diseasestransmittedbyanimals Incidence ofdiseasestransmittedbyanimals pollution Deaths from diseasesassociatedwithwater Incidence ofwater-borne diseases pollution Deaths from diseasesassociatedwithair pollution Incidence ofdiseasesassociatedwithair animals. Synanthropic faunaanduntameddomestic Impact State 189 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 190 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports Instituto Brasileiro deAdministracaoMunicipal(IBAM) Mr. AlbertoCostaLopes Directora deDesarrilloUrbanoyMedioAmbiente.Rio deJaneiro, Brazil Mrs. AnaLuciaNadaluttiLaRovere Secretaría deMedioAmbienteyRecursosNaturalesMexico,D.F. Mexico Director GeneraldeAcuerdos yCooperaciónInternational Mr. HugoCésarGuzmán Santiago deChile,Chile RegionalMetropolitanoIntendente delGobierno de Santiago Dr. SergioGalileaOcón San Salvador, ElSalvador Alcaldía deSanSalvador Jefe delaUnidadTécnica delaSubgerencia deSaneamientoAmbiental Mr. OscarEmilioFlores Alonso, La Habana,Cuba Poder PopulardeArroyo Alcaldesa) Naranjo (Vice Vicepresidente delaAsambleaMunicipaldel Mrs. Mercedes CostaRodríguez Centro deinvestigaciónen GeografíayGeomática“Ing.JorgeL.Tamayo”, A.C. Miss JulietaVelasco Centrogeo Centro deinvestigaciónen GeografíayGeomática“Ing.JorgeL.Tamayo”, A.C. Miss MaríaNájera Centrogeo Centro deinvestigaciónenGeografíayGeomática“Ing.JorgeL.Tamayo”, A.C. Mr. Alejandro Mohar Regional Offi ce LAC DevelopmentResearchInternational Center(IDRC) Mr. FedericoS.Burone, RegionalDirector Construambiente Mr. OrlandoAltamirano,Director List ofparticipants Mexico City, 27-29November2001. GEO Citiesmethodology, version3 Annex 6:Listofparticipantsatworkshopsonpreparing Secretaria deQualidadeAmbientalnosAssentamentos Humanos,MMA.Brasilia,Brazil Mrs. IzabellaTeixeira, Director del DepartamentoAdministrativo delMedioAmbiente(DAMA).Bogota,Colombia Profesional delaSubdirección AmbientalSectorial City ofBogotaMayor’s Offi ce Ing. JesúsMiguelSepúlveda CEIBA. MexicoD.F., Mexico Mr. JoséLuisSamaniego Chile Instituto deEstudiosUrbanoslaPontifi cia UniversidadCatólicadeChile.SantiagoChile, Mrs. SoniaReyes Instituto NacionaldeEcología.MexicoD.F, Mexico Coordinator ofPresidential Advisors Mrs. Irene Pisanty Manitoba,Canadá InstituteforSustainableDevelopment(IISD).Winnipeg, International Senior Project Manager Dr. LászlóPintér ofCityBuenosAires,Government BuenosAires, Argentina Dr. AugustoPaz UN-HABITAT –RegionalOffi ce forLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean.RiodeJaneiro, Brazil Mr. Patiño Fernando Secretario MunicipaldeDesenvolvimiento eMeioAmbienteSEDEMA.Manaus,Brazil Manaus CityGovernment Mr. JoséRoqueNunesMarques Instituto paraelDesarrollo, AC.MexicoD.F, Mexico Mr. IvánMoscoso Universidad delSalvador Instituto deMedioAmbienteyEcología(IMAE),Vicerrectorado deInvestigaciónyDesarrollo Dr. GenovevadeMahieu,Director ISER –InstitutodeEstudioslaReligión.RioJaneiro, Brazil Mrs. LauraValente deMacedo Parceria 21 Mr. NapoleaoMiranda Parceria 21 Mrs. SamyraCrespo 191 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 192 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports Division ofEarlyWarning andAssessment Mrs. MaríaEugeniaArreola Regional Coordinador, Division ofEarlyWarning andAssessment Mr. KavehZahedi Regional Offi UNEP /GRIDArendal CEROI Project Manager Mr. MortenWasstol UNEP /GRIDArendal Dr. NickolaiB.Denisov, Programme Manager Dirección deImpactAmbientalyRiesgo.Mexico Arq. MiguelAngelTéllez Trevilla Dirección GeneraldeGestiónAmbientaldelAire. Mexico Miss MaríaCristinaRuizRamírez Dirección EjecutivadeCoordinación Institucional Miss LuzElenaGonzález Mr. RobertoFernández Secretaria delMedioAmbiente.MexicoD.F, Mexico Dr. ClaudiaSheinbaum United NationsEnvironmental Programme ce forLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean(UNEP/ROLAC) Difference betweenimpactstrategyandcommunicationactivities together withthelocalteam,willberesponsible forapplyingthisimpactstrategy. arrangement) andundergoconstantmonitoringassessment.Thelocalcoordinator, When? Why wastheassessmentmade? being prepared. Thenthefollowingquestionsmustbe keptinmind: fromtype thatmayhavefailed,learn theerrors madeandmakesuggestionsforthereport monitoring andassessmentprogramme. initiativeand,insomecases,partofabroadera voluntarygovernment central Why? for exampleinGEOCities. is adynamicprocess thatidentifi es andanticipatesdesired changesintheIEA/GEOprocess, public policieswhereorcitizenprioritiesmaychangeundergomodifi government cations. It progress Bydefi beingmadeonkeyaspectsorconcerns. nition itisproactive withrespect to What isanimpactstrategy? Annex 7:Impactstrategyandcommunicationactivities The impactstrategyshouldbeappliedfrom thebeginningofIEAprocess (institutional What relevant eventsare happeninginthecity/country? Who isparticipatingintheassessment? What happenedtoearlierassessments? In eachofthesecasesitisimportanttoknowaboutanyprevious initiativesofthesame In manycities/countries,IEA/GEOreports are aconstitutional mandate;inotherstheyare An impactstrategyconsistsofstepstakentoensure theworkdonewillresult inreal Audience Purpose Period it progresses then monitored andadjustedas the assessmentprocess, and Developed atthebeginningof other stakeholders and thosewhohaveaccessto Small group ofkeystakeholders change identify itsrole asanagentfor It ismeanttocausechangeand matsrtg Communicationactivities Impact strategy known fi ndings andrecommendations are at theendofstrategywhen it isusuallyimplementedalmost As itispartofanimpactstrategy, Mass audiences fi ndings andrecommendations To ensure peopleunderstandthe 193 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 194 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports fi gure: Steps inanimpactstrategy What are thekey There are fi ve mainstepsinpreparing animpactstrategy, ascanbeseenin thefollowing 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. messages? External Monitor,External adjust ifnecessary. Monitoring andimproving. Determinewhethertheimpactstrategyisworkingand infl uenced. Managing opportunities.Makethisknowledgeavailabletothosewhoneedbe Managing knowledge.Collectandanalyseinformationfortheassessment. opportunities tocontactthem. Managing relationships. Identifykeystakeholdersyouwishtoinfl uence andlookfor Creating apremise forchange.Whatshouldbetheassessment’s impact? workshops, newsarticles, What opportunitiesare there? Publications, Step 5 Step 4(How?) conferences and etc. presssing themes? What are the decision-makers.infl uences, media, peopleworkingwith Changes youwishthe assessment tomake Identify connections, Step 2(Who?) NGOs, etc. Step 1 Know-how tobeacquired from theassessmentand process? Are theyadding importance, legitimacy Who isinvolvedinthe and credibility to the how itwillbemade Step 3(What?) decisions andimprove and decision-makers assessment? Other infl uences on environmental assess policy In short: unit cost. Effi ciency ofcommunication: Thisobeystheconceptofreaching themaximumnumberofpeopleper interpreted, remembered foralongtime,andshouldtriggerappropriate action. Effectiveness ofcommunication:Themessagesshouldbereceived bythetargetaudience,correctly be madebetweentheconceptsofeffectiveness andeffi ciency. Communication effectiveness andeffi Examples ofothermore commontargetgroups: it issuggestedthatyou: have tobeinfl uenced andwhoreceive keymessagesfrom theGEOprocess. Inthisrespect, Target groups • • • • • • • • • • • • • • In thisrespect, inthecommunication andsubsequentimpactprocess, adifference must As apartofcommunicationactivitiestargetgroups mustbedefi ned, keystakeholderswho Media Indigenous groups Industry andbusiness Schools anduniversities General Public organizations(NGOs) Non-governmental Researchers andanalysts Politicians Consider spokespersons group? considered inthisanalysis.Are youthepersonbest suitedtoreach acertaintarget Consider itsreach andcredibility. Thosewhotransmitmessagesshouldalsobe Analyse theaudience’s characteristics Prepare specifi c messages foreachgroup Government planners Government Differentiate betweenusersofinformationandthose whotransmitit Communication =Signifi ciency cance +Number 195 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 196 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports action leadstoknowledge. become more frequent andoftengointhetwodirections of:knowledgecausesaction;and connections between“awareness intensive”and“actionmanagement functions is atitspeakandcontinuesthrough theconsequentdeclineinattention.During thisperiod, instead ofsimplypromoting participationbyindividualsorisolatedgroups ofstakeholders. be solved.Effective managementofemergingthemeswillbeanincentive to formcoalitions on whichacommonunderstandingoftheproblem canbereached, aswellhowitmight form coalitionsand,byworkingtogether, toprovide animpetus.Thesecoalitions are thebasis added. Iinthisphaseofaparticulartheme’s evolution,itisimportant torecognize theneed to leadership intheinstitutionsalready partofthemovementandnewinstitutionswillneedtobe attention. Duringthistimeofpublicandpoliticalattention,there willbeanewdefi nition of will becomeinvolvedandparticipate. theme isperceived. During thisperiodoflowattention,itisimprobable thatnewinstitutions capacity toconfront newthemes, mostlybecauseofhistoriccircumstances andastohowthe by relatively lowpublicattention, there isagradualincrease insomeinstitutions insociety’s research, monitoringandmakingassessments.Afteranextendedperiod,characterized principal functionalchangeisthegradualincrease inscientifi c andanalyticalcapacitythrough themes, andtheenvironment isnoexception: on action. to pinpointwhere thereport willbeusefulbyproviding newinformationandrecommendations part intheinitiativesproposed. Knowingthattheprocess isunderthepublicradarwillalsohelp touched uponintheGEOreport. Thelevelsofattentionwillencouragestakeholderstotake is importanttobeaware oftheattentioncyclesmostpressing themesand,ofcourse, Attention cycles Communication activities Phase 3. Phase 2 Phase 1. The bibliographyshowsthere are three importantphasesofpublicattentionpaid todifferent When preparing andimplementingtheimpactstrategycommunicationactivities,it The followingactivitiesare suggested: • • • • • • • • Atlas Calendars Posters Newspapers Bulletins Periodic reports nkeythemes Executive summary Report . Thefollowingperiod,markingthesecondphase,isarapidincrease inpublic Athird phaseofinteractionsisassociatedwiththeperiodwhenpublicattention Duringthefi rst phase,before thethemeattractsmuch public attention,the rne:Electronic/digital products Printed: • • • • music) andverbal(graphs,videos, Visual Web site CD-ROM Internet Presentations 100 20 40 60 80 0 Thefollowingfi gure summarizestheattentioncycle:

Level ofattentionpercent of scientiﬁcandanalytical Gradual development hs hs Phase3 Phase2 Phase 1 training

Coalitions

Intensive as to knowledge Intensive as to action 197 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 198 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports Portugal. Estudios 4,Dirección GeneraldeOrden Territorial yDesarrollo Urbano, DGOTDU,Lisbon, Partidario, M.R.,1990, 2000: Indicadores deCalidad delAmbienteUrbano–Colección para laElaboracióndeAgenda21Brasileña,Ministry oftheEnvironment, Brasilia,Brasil. y deRecursosNaturalesRenovables–IBAMA, 2002: CiudadesSustentables–Subsidios Secretaría deMedioAmbiente,Consorcio Parceria 21eInstitutoBrasileñodeMedioAmbiente (ECLAC) UnitedNations,ECLAC.Santiago,Chile. and DevelopmentSeriesNo.21,EconomicCommission forLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean American andtheCaribbeanRegionalPlanofAction onHumanSettlements,Environment Mac Donald,J.andSimioni,D.,2001:Urban Consensus. Contributionsfrom theLatin Paper 105,Worldwatch Institute, Washington D.C.,UnitedStates. Lowe, M.D.,1991:ShapingCities:TheEnvironmental andHumanDimensions,Worldwatch Approaches forEco-Societies NewYork: UnitedNationsUniversityPress, NuevaYork. Inoguchi, T., Newman,E.andPaolettoG.(eds.)(1999)CitiestheEnvironment –New Planning Guide”,Toronto, Canadá. CouncilforLocalEnvironmentalICLEI (International Initiatives),1996:“TheLocalAgenda21 riesgos environmental, Niteroi: EdUFF. Herculano, S.,Porto,M.F. deSouza,Freitas. C.M.de(organizers)(2000)Calidadvida y Washington: World Resources Institute–WRI,Washington D.C.,UnitedStates and ReportingonEnvironmental PolicyPerformanceinthecontextofsustainabledevelopment, Hammond, A.andothers1995,Environmental Indicators:ASystematicApproach toMeasuring Bertrand BrazilEditores. Río deJaneiro, Brazil. Guerra, J.A.T. yBaptista,S.C.(organizes)(2001)Problemas environmental urbanosenBrazil, Third World, SecondEdition,Oxford UniversityPress, Oxford, UnitedKingdom. Gilbert, A.andGugler, J.(1992,1997)Cities,PovertyandDevelopment–Urbanizationinthe municipios –verde (IQM–Verde) CIDE:RíodeJaneiro, Brazil. Fundación Centro deInformaciónyDatosRíoJaneiro (2002)–Índicedecalidadlos America andtheCaribbean,MexicoD.F., Mexico. metodológicos,United NationsEnvironment Programme –UNEPRegionalOffi ce forLatin R.,2002,Gestiónambientaldelasciudades–TeoríaFernández, críticayapoyos Sustainable DevelopmentforDecision-Making”,FederalPlanningOffi ce, Belgium. Hierarchy”, publishedinthefi naldocumentoftheGhent,Belgium,Workshop on“Indicatorsfor Adriaanse, Albert,1995:“TheRoleofISDsandtheirPotentialAggregation intheInformation Bibliography Earthscan PublicationLtd. Londres, UnitedKingdom UNEP (UnitedNationsEnvironment Programme), 1999:GlobalEnvironment Outlook2000, Environmental AssessmentandReporting.Training Manual.SecondEdition, Canada. 2000:CapacityBuildingforIntegrated Development, andEcologisticsInternational, UNEP (UnitedNationsEnvironmental Program),Institute forSustainable IISD(International Regional Offi ce forLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean, MexicoD.F. Mexico. UNEP, 2000:GEOLatin America andtheCaribbean:GlobalEnvironment Outlook2000,UNEP, UNDP HumanDevelopmentReport,1998,Trinova Editora, Lisbon,Portugal. edition, EdicionesMundi-Prensa, Madrid,Spain. UNDP (UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme), 1996:HumanDevelopmentReport.First ECLAC. Santiago,Chile Series No.30:EconomicComisiónforLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean,UnitedNations, territoriales paraeldesarrollo sostenible.Manizales,Colombia.Environment andDevelopment Volume 1.Velásquez, L.S., 2001, Indicadores degestiónurbana.Losobservatoriosurbano- UNCHS, UNEP, 1999:Preparing theSCPEnvironmental Profi le. TheSCPSource BookSeries: Turkey. Second Conference ofUnited NationsonHumanSettlements,UN–HabitatII–Istanbul, UNCHS (TheUnitedNationsCentre forHumanSettlements),1996:FinalDocumentofthe Translation (1997)ofAgenda21Brasilia. UNCED (UnitedNationsConference onEnvironment andDevelopment),1992:FederalSenate Publications Ltd.,Londres, UnitedKingdom. N.,1998Greening theBuiltEnvironment,Smith, M.,Whitelegg,J.yWilliams, Earthscan 21 September1994,Washington, D.C.,UnitedStates. on Environmentally SustainableDevelopmentheldattheNationalAcademyofSciences,19- Face oftheUrbanEnvironment: Proceedings ofthe SecondAnnualWorld BankConference Environmentally SustainableDevelopment,SecondEdition,1994,World Bank,theHuman ConferenceSerageldin, I.,Cohen,M.,Sivaramakrishnan,K.C.,1995:International on 1997, Wiley, UnitedKingdom. report oftheproject onIndicatorsforSustainableDevelopment B.Moldan&S.Billharzeds., Scientific CommitteeonProblems oftheEnvironment (SCOPE),1997:SustainabilityIndicators: Belgium. of SustainableDevelopmentforDecision-Making”,publishedbytheFederalPlanningOffi ce, Sustainable Development”,Publishedinthefinal documentTaller deGhent,Bélgica,“Indicators – ASystematicApproach toMeasuringandReportingontheEnvironment inTheContextof Scientific CommitteeonProblems oftheEnvironment (SCOPE),1995:“Environmental Indicators 199 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports 200 Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports whosis/whostat/2009/en/index.html WHO (World HealthOrganization),2009,World Health Statistics2009.http://www.who.int/ Earth” NewSocietyPublishers,Canada. Wackernagel, M.&Rees,W. 1996:“OurEcologicalFootprint.ReducingHumanImpacton Environment forDevelopment,Progress Press .Valletta. Malta UNEP (UnitedNationsEnvironmental Programme), 2007. GlobalEnvironment OutlookGEO4. asp?page=bookView&book=2562 World’s Cities2008/2009,HarmoniousCities.http://www.un-habitat.org/pmss/getPage. UN-HABITAT (UnitedNationsHumanSettlementsProgramme) ,2008:Stateofthe Methodology for the preparation of GEO Cities Reports

Training Manual Version 3

Belgian Government

Belgian Development Cooperation

United Nations Environment Programme Division of Early Warning and Assessment www.unep.org Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean Clayton, Ciudad del Saber United Nations Environment Programme Avenida Morse, Edificio 103. Corregimiento de Ancón P. O. Box 30552 - 00100 Nairobi, Kenya Panama City, Panama Tel. (+502) 305-3100 Tel.: + 254 20 762 1234 Fax: (+507) 305-3105 Fax.: + 254 20 762 3927 Internet site: www.pnuma.org/deat1/ e-mail: [email protected] Email: [email protected] UNEP UNEP ISBN 978-9962-8942-0-9 www.unep.org