ISSN 0258-6150 Readings in sustainable forest 122 management

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Readings in sustainable forest management The designations employed and the presentallon of matenalln this publicallon do not Imply the expression of any opInion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agnculture Organization of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, terntory, city or area or of ItS authorilles, or concerning the delimltallon of ItS frontiers or boundanes.

M-36 ISBN 92-5-103401-X

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© FAO 1994 Preface

This collection of technical papers on sustainable forest management had its origins in the 10th World Forestry Congress which issued the Paris Declaration in 1991. The Declaration called on the world's decision-makers to raise awareness and inform the public so that forest issues could be better understood and appreciated. The papers have already been synthesized in a companion volume The challenge of sustainable forest management: what future for the world's forests? This was aimed at a non-technictti audience, including decision-makers and concerned members of the general public, and it contributed to putting the Paris Declaration directly into effect. That first, "popular" volume was based on the papers of this technical volume, but it also covered some subjects not included here while expanding on others. The contents included a discussion of the evolution of the concept of sustainability, areview of the extent of the world's forests, the reasons for their importance as suppliers of a wide range of goods and services and the options available for their management. The book recognized the conflicting interests competing for the use of forest land and highlighted the costs and benefits to society of the different choices for forest management. Chapters were devoted to laws concerning forests and trees, to forestry institutions and their role in the service of society, and to the international dimension of sustainable forest management reflected in such subjects as the role of international organizations, international agreements, the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), debt-for­ nature swaps, the provision of genetic materials and medicines from forests and consumer boycotts of tropical timber. A number of themes were emphasized throughout the book. These included people's participation in decision­ making in forestry development that affects them and rural society, the conservation of forest resources through sound management practices and the need for forestry planning, especially the incorporation of forestry in planned land use. These themes also run through the papers included in this technical volume. The technical papers in this book were largely prepared and submitted during the first half of 1992. The delay in publishing them arose from the decision to concentrate on the preparation and issuance of the "popular" volume, which was expected to make the most impact in the immediate post-UNCED period. It is hoped that their publication will make available to professional foresters and others valuable technical information that will be relevant to their work. Several of the papers have been edited to reduce their length and explanatory footnotes have been added in some instances to relate the author's statements to FAO's position.

C.H. Murray Assistant Director-General Forestry Department Contents

Preface iii

Introduction 1

PART 1 DEVELOPING SYSTEMS FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT 15

WOOD PRODUCTION AND WOOD FOR ENERGY Sustainable management of tropical moist forest for wood 17 A.J. Leslie Management of woodlands and savannahs In the Sudano-Sahellan zone 33 M. Soto Flandez and K. Ouedraogo Sustainable management of plantation forest in the tropics and subtroplcs 45 E. Campinhos Jr

MANAGING FORESTS FOR NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS Sustainable management for non-wood forest products in the tropics and subtroplcs 55 G.E. Wickens

SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION Management for soli and water conservation 67 T. Michaelsen WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT Ensuring sustainable management of wildlife resources: the case of Africa 81 S.S. Ajayi

CONSERVING FOREST BIODIVERSITY Conserving genetic resources in forest ecosystems 101 R.H. Kemp and C. Palmberg-Lerche

FOREST MANAGEMENT AND PROTECTION AND CLIMATE CHANGE Climate change and sustainable forest management 119 D.C. Maciver Ensuring sustainability of forests through protection from fire, insects and disease 131 W.M. Ciesla

PART 2 CREATING A SUPPORTIVE ENVIRONMENT FOR SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT 151

POLICY, INSTITUTIONAL AND LEGAL ASPECTS Policy, legal and institutional aspects of sustainable forest management 153 M.R. de Montalembert and F. Schmithlisen

SOCIO-ECONOMIC ASPECTS People's participation in forest and tree management 173 M.W. Hoskins vii

RESEARCH ASPECTS Research for sustainable forest management 185 M.N. Salleh and F.S.P. Ng

NATIONAL POLICIES, PROGRAMMES AND EXPERIENCES The basis and action required for sustainable forestry development In Chile 193 J.F. de la Jara Indonesia's experience in sustainable forest management 201 L. Oaryadi Sweden: using the forest as a renewable resource 215 B. Hagglund Sustainable forest conservation and development in France 225 J. Gadant New Perspectives for Managing the United States National Forest System 235 H. Salwasser, OW. Maceleery and T.A. Snellgrove 'ii

Acknowledgements FAO specially commissioned the technical papers comprising this volume and is grateful to the following authors who voluntarily prepared their contribution: S.S. Ajayi. E. Campinhos lr. W.M. Ciesla. L Daryadi. 1.F. de la lara. M R de Montalembert. 1. Gadant. B Hagglund. M W Hoskins. RH. Kemp. A.J Leslze. D.C. Maciver. D W MacCleery. T. Michaelsen. F.S.P. Ng. M.N. Salleh. K. Ouedraogo. C. Palmberg-Lerche. H Salwasser.F. Schmlthusen. T.A. Snellgrove. M. Soto Flandez and G E Wickens Comments on the papers were made hy WM. Czesla. D. DykstraandC Palmherg­ Lerche. The papers were edited hy R. Flood CoordmatlOn and further edltmg were done hy 1 Ball Readings in sustainable forest management 1

Introduction

Forest management is defined as deal­ subject of these papers, will thus aim to ing with ..... the overall administrative, ensure that the values derived from the economic, legal, social, technical and forest meet present-day needs while at scientific aspects involved with the the same time ensuring their continued handling of conservation and use of availability and contribution to long­ forests. It implies various degrees of de­ term development needs. liberate human interventions, ranging Until recently, foresters were often from action aimed at safeguarding concerned to manage forests for the and maintaining the forest ecosystem sustained yield only of timber or woody and its functions, to favouring given products. Although there were difficul­ socially or economically valuable spe­ ties in determining the rate at which cies or groups of species for the improv­ forests were growmg, particularly the ed production of goods and environ­ natural forests in the tropical and sub­ mental services" (FAD, 1991). tropical zones - and thus the volume of Sustamable development is defined as wood that could be harvested from time ..... the management and conservation of to time - and although long-term main­ the natural resource base and the orien­ tenance of soil fertility under certain tation of technological and institutional management practices was in some in­ change in such a manner as to ensure the stances queried, the parameters that had attainment and continued satisfaction of to be measured were nevertheless clear. human needs for the present and future "The sustainable management of forests generations. Such sustainable develop­ for wood production is based on a de­ ment (in the agriculture, forestry and ceptively simple principle: harvesting fisheries sectors) conserves land, water, the wood at an average annual rate that plant and animal genetic resources, is is no greater than that at which the forest environmentally non-degrading, tech­ in question can grow it..." (see paper by nically appropriate, economically vi­ Leslie, p. 17). able and socially acceptable" (ibid.). It is now realized that, if sustainable Sustainable forest management, the forest management is concerned with 2 IntroductIOn

the production of wood alone, then the der, 1992). The problem is by no means other goods and services that can be restricted to India, and there is a need in obtained as well as the wider social several countries to extend forest poli­ issues that may be involved, are ne­ cies to encompass the development of glected. This omission undermined the all forests, woodlands and trees If possibility of sustainable forestry man­ unsustainable land-use practices are to agement practices because, while man­ be eliminated. agement for sustainable wood produc­ The concept of sustainable forest man­ tion did in fact frequently meet these agement, therefore, must include the wider needs in the short term, this was place of forests and trees in planned land coincidental and, since such practices use. The concept must define the role of were not included in the stated obJec­ the forestry sector in contributing to all tives, management was not done In a aspects of development. The impacts of sustainable fashion. Wood production sustainable forestry management prac­ was sometimes in conflict with these tices on the environment and on society wider functions of the forest, partIcu­ must be sufficiently quantified to permIt larly where it competed with the needs rational chOIces between competing In­ of those whose traditional livelihood terests while at the same time justIfying depended on the forest. the allocation of scarce funds to the There has been a tendency to confine forestry sector. the practice of sustainable forest man­ "Sustainable forest management there­ agement in the tropics and subtropics to fore involves planning the productIon those areas of forest designated as forest of wood for commercial purposes as reserves. In India, for instance, the pro­ well as meeting local needs forfuelwood, visions of the forest policy generally poles, food, fodder and other purposes. refer to blocks of forest that are legally It includes the protection or settIng aside constituted as reserved forests, while of areas to be managed as plant or wild­ not including the maintenance of the life reserves, or for recreational or envi­ forestry functions of trees growing on ronmental purposes. It is concerned with the remaining land area outside the re­ ensuring that conversion of forest lands serves - an area which makes up 77 to agriculture and other uses is done in a percent of the total land area. The un­ properly planned and controlled way. It controlled use of such land is leading to also covers the regeneration of waste­ degradation and erosion (Shyam Sun- lands and degraded forests, the integra- /?eadings in sustainable forest management 3

tion of trees in the farming landscape Duedraogo look at the woodlands and and the promotion of agroforestry. It is savannahs of the Sudano-Sahelian zone a multidisciplinary task, requiring col­ and the role of plantations is described laboration between government agen­ by E. Campinhos, with particular refer­ cies, non-governmental organizations ence to the growing of Eucalyptus spe­ (NODs) and, above all, people, espe­ cies for pulpwood in Brazil. cially rural people. It is concerned at Leslie's paper queries whether sus­ local, national, regional and global tainable management is practicable or levels" (FAD, 1993a). worth the considerable inputs, includ­ Sustainable forest management is con­ ing funds, that are required if wood is to sidered in this volume under the head­ be the major output, in view of the ings of wood production (including apparent incompatibility between man­ wood for energy), non-wood forest prod­ agement interventions (particularly har­ ucts, soIl and water conservation, wild­ vesting) for wood production and their life management, the conservation of effects on the sustainable supply of other biological diversity, forest protection goods and services. Leslie considers that and climate change, policy, institutIOnal the main problems are not technical (he and legal aspects, soclo-economic as­ proposes a selection system and low­ pects and research needs. Case-studies impact logging) but are caused by hu­ of natIonal policies, programmes and man activity, particularly those prob­ experiences in sustainable forest man­ lems arising from an inequitable world agement describe experiences in sus­ economy. A higher proportion of the tainable forest management in a number returns from the management of tropi­ of countnes. The contributions are not, cal forests must be redirected from the however, confined to a narrow defini­ dealers and processors back to the people tion of their subject matter, but recog­ who are directly dependent on the for­ nize the multidisciplinary needs of sus­ est. Political commitment, political sta­ tainable forest management and the bility and security of ownership are other interrelationship between sectors. important requirements for sustainable In the first section, the "traditional" forest management. role of the forests in wood supply is Forests of the tropical rain forest zone treated. AJ. Leslie considers sustain­ referred to in Leslie's paper comprise able management of the tropical moist 718 million ha, or 38 percent of the total forest, M. Soto Flandez and K. forested area in the tropics (FAD, 1993b). 4 Introduction

The deforestation rate in this zone is ests and woodlands, but also the wildlife approximately 460 000 ha yearly, or 0.6 resource (see paper by Ajayi, p. 81). percent of the zone. Forests of the dry Soto Flandez and Ouedraogo describe and very dry zones, defined as having the experiences of a project in Burkina an annual rainfall of between 500 and Faso, where a management plan pre­ I 000 mm, cover 238 million ha, 12 pared for a particular area encourages percent of the total tropical forested people's participation in decision-mak­ area, but are being deforested at a rate ing and in forest management as well as of 220 000 ha per year, or 0.9 percent. comanagement ofthe processing indus­ More than half the world's dry tropical try by the private sector. Some technical forests and savannah woodlands are in constraints exist - there is a lack of Africa. Their management is the subject knowledge of growth rates and the area of the paper by Soto Flandez and is not well protected from uncontrolled Ouedraogo who refer to the rapid popu­ fires - but the main problems are legal lation growth in these zones which is and socio-economic, such as contradic­ increasing the demand for food. The tions between traditional and modem area of farmland has sharply increased landownershIp and usufruct practices at the expense of forests, an effect com­ and the need to introduce new forms of pounded by unimproved farming meth­ rural organization and land-use prac­ ods and periodic droughts. In conse­ tices in place of the old ones. quence, traditional transhumance' The establishment of forest plantations practices depend ever more heavily on is an alternative form of wood produc­ woodlands for grazing and fodder de­ tion that has grown rapidly in recent rived from woody species. Woodlands years. The reported gross area of forest are also heavily used for fuelwood pro­ plantations in the tropics increased from duction. Under these pressures, the area about 18 million ha in 1980 to about 44 of woodland is inevitably decreasing, million ha in 1990, or at an annual rate affecting not only the resource itself and of more than 2.6 million ha (Pandey, the benefits derived directly from for- 1992). Although there is doubt concern­ ing the survival of the whole of the reported area, with the estimated net 1Transhumance refers to the seasonal area in 1990 lying between 28 million movement of livestock to another region, as and 34 million ha and the annual area opposed to "nomadism" which refers to continual movement in search of pasture established being between 1.6 million Readings in sustainable forest management 5

and 2 million ha, the figures neverthe­ control of pests and diseases and the use less illustrate the increasing importance of low-impact logging equipment. The that is attached to wood supply by means provision of social benefits for local of forest plantations. communities and the retention of natu­ Plantations usuaUy have one major ral woodland over 40 percent of the objective for their establishment: gener­ area, with associated native flora and ally the production of wood but some­ fauna, are among the methods used by times also the provision of services such the pulp and paper company in their as shelter and protection. At the same approaches to sustainable forest man­ time, plantations may provide non-wood agement. products; however they cannot provide The papers described have dealt with the fuJI range of goods and services woody products of the forest, although supplied by natural forests to which they recognizing the importance of the non­ have a complementary role. wood forest products and the services The sustainable management of forest provided by natural forests and planta­ plantations is deSCrIbed in the paper by tions. A number of papers then look at Campmhos, with particular reference to the range of services and other goods the plantations of Eucalyptus species at that can be obtained from sustainably Aracruz m Brazil. He describes the in­ managed forests. G.E. Wickens de­ crease of plantation area in Brazil under scribes sustainable forest management the impetus of financial incentives and for the provision of non-wood forest stresses the present importance of forest products, T. Michaelsen deals with soil plantations to the country's forestry and water conservation and S.S. Ajayi economy. The example quoted is of a looks at aspects of wildlife management plantation restricted to species of the in the forest. The importance of con­ genus Eucalyptus, much of which is serving biological diversity and genetic now grown from clonal material. Silvi­ resources in harmony with sustainable cultural and management practices that management for productive purposes is contribute to sustainable production in­ stressed by R.H. Kemp and C. Palmberg­ clude the matching of genetically im­ Lerche. proved material to site, the maintenance The value of non-wood forest prod­ of soil fertility through the incorpora­ ucts is frequently overlooked, yet 10- tion of residues, the protection of the caJIy these may be much more impor­ soil from erosion, the monitoring and tant than woody products, and their 6 Introduction

outtum may be the key to involving services is soil and water conservation, people in participatory forest manage­ described in the contribution by ment. Wickens describes the range of Michaelsen. It may be the principal ob­ non-wood forest products, including ject of management or it may be com­ plants for food and medicinal purposes, bined with other objectives, including fibres, dyes and animal fodder as well as recreation, animal or plant conservation valuable export commodities such as or low-impact harvesting. Forest plan­ rattans from Southeast Asian countries tations or mixed land use may also be and gum arabic from the Sudan. The consistent with the provision of range, and lack of knowledge, of man­ catchment area protection but, in all agement requirements for forest species cases, the sustainable provision of goods providing non-wood products may com­ and services will depend on proper plan­ plicate their management, and their in­ ning and appropriate management. tegration with timber production may Other services proVided by forests and slow the outtum of logs but could make woodlands are represented by the ge­ the practice more environmentally ac­ netic resources of forest ecosystems, ceptable. Moreover, the income gener­ reViewed by Kemp and Palmberg­ ated might cover the increased cost - Lerche. Forests and woodlands contain thus supporting Leslie's plea for the a Wide range of plants and animals of selection system of management and actual or potential socio-economic im­ low-impact harvesting practices in tropi­ portance. Their genetic diversity buffers cal moist forest management. forests against environmental change There is considerable potential for the and is the base for the sustainable devel­ breeding of mUltipurpose trees and opment of forest resources; it IS particu­ shrubs, using the natural variation de­ larly important in tree Improvement scribed by Kemp and Palmberg-Lerche. programmes, such as those descri bed by Yields, nutritional status or seasonal Campinhos, which depend on natural availability could all be improved in the variation. The genetic diversity repre­ same way as Campinhos is breeding sented by populations of marginal zones Eucalyptus species for increased growth (such as the savannah woodlands dealt rates and pulp production. with in the paper by Soto Flandez and Sustainably managed forests provide a Ouedraogo) have adapted to environ­ range of environmental services as well mental fluctuations and stress and ma')' as goods. One of the bestknown of these be more tolerant of global climate change Readings in sustainable forest management 7

(discussed by D.C. MacIver, p. 119). It FAD's Programme on Environmentally is therefore important to include the Sound Forest Harvesting will compare extremes of natural occurrence in ge­ conventional harvesting methods with netic conservation programmes. Genetic improved technologies that are envi­ resources can be conserved where areas ronmentally and economically accept­ have other objectives, even timber pro­ able, in Latin America, Asia and Africa. duction, but there can be no conser­ The paper by Ajayi deals with the vation without adequate control and goods and services from the forest (in continuity of management. The envi­ this case from simi lar woodlands to those ronmentally friendly harvesting tech­ described by Soto Flandez) by discuss­ niques suggested by Leslie for the ing the sustainable management of wild­ moist tropical forest WIll be necessary life resources in Africa. Although wild­ for the physical conservation of genetic life has a high value, both to rural people diversity, while the social and economic through the provision of meat and em­ measures, also identified by Leslie as ployment and to the national economy requisites for sustainable mOIst forest through game ranching and tourism, management, will include channelhng wildlife is nevertheless under serious a greater proportion of the profits of threat. Attempts to conserve wildlife forest product processing and trade to through repressive laws and the alien­ those whose way of life depends on the ation of the rural people from an asset to resource. which they consider they should have Several of the papers summarized free access has had a negative effect on above stress the need for low-impact the resource, since the people no longer harvesting systems, for instance for the identify the resource with the sustain­ sustaInable outturn of tImber and non­ able fulfilment of their requirements. wood forest products, the maintenance There is a need for wildlife utilization of watersheds and the conservation of with local community participation, par­ biological diversity. Studies have shown ticularly by ensuring that the benefits that such systems can be cheaper to accrue to the rural communities. operate than traditional systems but that Sustainable forest management is af­ better planning, close supervision, the fected by external influences such as upgrading of skllls and improvements fire, pests and disease in the short term in rewards are needed if they are to be and may be affected by global climate effective (Dykstra and Heinrich, 1992). change in the long term. These subjects 8 Introduction

are discussed in papers by MacIver and Policies that can be implemented, laws W.M. Ciesla. that can be enforced and institutions that Potential changes in the global climate are capable of meeting their responsi­ are caused by the increased release of bilities are requirements for sustainable greenhouse gases, such as carbon diox­ forest management. In the paper by M .R. ide. Most of the increase in atmospheric de Montalembert and F. Schmithiisen, carbon between 1850 and 1986 was the dynamic nature of rural develop­ derived from the burning of fossil fuels, ment is stressed, leading to the need for with less than 40 percent of the cumula­ a continual revision and updating of tive input estimated to have come from forest policies, institutions and regula­ deforestation and changes in land use tions to maintain an effective frame­ (Watson et aI., 1990). MacIver outlines work of incentives for the practice of a climate plan for sustainable forest sustainable forest management. While management, including forest climate this framework should be flexible, it management (the identification of shift­ must nevertheless offer the necessary ing seed zones, pollen flow and con­ security for long-term commitments In tamination, site modification technolo­ forest management (a point also made gies, tree breeding and the conservation by Leslie and Kemp and Palmberg­ of genetic resources and enhanced Lerche). The changing role of the public forest protection) and greenhouse gas sector and the expanding role of the management. The plan stresses the private sector, including NGOs, must be continuing role of forests in reducing considered In adapting institutions and concentrations of greenhouse gases organizations. The strengthening of tech­ through carbon sequestration. nical skills, the reinforcement of the The protection of forests from fire, social basis for sustainable management insects and diseases is described by and the diffusion of information are Ciesla. Protection must be considered essential but the most important factor an integral part of sustainable forest in the move towards sustainable forest management, since these hannful agents management will be changed attitudes can affect the flow of goods and services towards more comprehensive and part­ from the forest. Increased levels of car­ nership-oriented techniques. bon dioxide in the long term could in­ The partnership approach is expanded crease forest growth and susceptibility in the contribution by M.W. Hoskins to to damage from external causes. include socio-economic aspects of sus- Readings in sustainable forest management 8

tainable forest management. It applies Five case-studies of countries in which where people living in or close to the the forestry sector makes an important forest (insiders) carry out wise forest contribution to the national economy and tree management practices with and frequently also to export earnings adequate support from, or in partnership conclude this volume: they are on Chile with, outsiders (such as foresters). In (1. F. de la Jara) , France (1. Gadant), other words, the insiders are doing all or Indonesia (L. Daryadi), Sweden (B. some of the managing and the outsiders Hagglund) and the United States (H. are acting in a service role. It is where Salwasser, D.W. MacCleery and T.A. the respective roles of the parties in the Snellgrove ). partnership approach are misunderstood Chile has large reserves of native for­ or misapplied that participatory ap­ est and plantations, the latter making an proaches have failed, and policies, laws important contribution to the national (including land tenure and usufruct leg­ economy through internal sales and ex­ islation) and organizations may have to ports. De la Jara identifies a lack of be adapted to meet these requirements. knowledge of the state of the forest Furthermore, forestry extension and re­ resource, the emergence of environmen­ search will have to develop the means of tal issues connected with large-scale stimulating a two-way flow of Informa­ industrial round wood plantations and tion to and from the users. The concept competing interests of various groups as of the Ideotype, or identIfication of the some of the constraints to sustainable functions of the desired tree, has been an forest management in Chile. On the other important advancement in this field and hand, forestry programmes are often the has links with tree breeding and the only channel for the provision of social conservation of genetic resources. benefits in rural areas. De la Jara draws The need for research in support of attention to the weak state offorest insti­ sustainable forest management is reviewed tutions resulting from insufficient fund­ by M.N. Salleh and F.S.P. Ng. They note ing, the effects of which include the that a long-term commitment to research inability to enforce legislation, manage is required, but recognize the difficulties state-owned forests, carry out research of maintaining that commitment for sci­ or provide technical support to small entists and institutions in tropical devel­ forest owners. oping countries where funds and support Indonesia, like Chile, has a forestry services are often inadequate. sector which makes an important contri- 10 Introduction

bution to the domestic economy and to private sector, takes account of the long­ exports. In this case, the benefits are term nature and relatively low produc­ largel y derived from natural forests. The tivity offorestry. Lands are permanently demarcation of the permanent forest allocated to forestry and there is conti­ estate is proceeding and land is under nuity in the national forest policy, al­ pressure from a rapidly increasing hu­ though management has largely been man population. Shortages of trained decentralized in recent years. Private staff and workers and a weak adminis­ forest owners are very important in tration have slowed down programmes France, where one family in five owns a in plantation establishment and the re­ wooded area, and there is a large contri­ habilitation of degraded forest. The defi­ butIOn to the forest estate from farm nition of responsibility for forest man­ forests. District forestry also has a long agement among central and local gov­ history, WIth one commune in three ernments and the private sector has also owning some forest. Nevertheless, caused some problems. Environmental French socIety is becoming Increasingly concerns of pressure groups in timber­ urbanized and requires more from the importing countries may affect Indone­ forests than Just production. As a reSUlt, sian exports of wood products derived there is an increasing need to maintain a from natural forests. In the past, there channel of communication between has been an emphasis on logging rather those who manage the forest patrimony than management, with income being and those who apprecIate its scenic and invested in forest industries and in non­ cultural values. Gadant makes the Im­ forest activities. The adoption of a na­ portant POInt that conservatIOn requIres tional forestry action plan (WIthin the management; it IS not Just preservation framework of the Tropical Forests Ac­ through total protection. tion Programme) will help to overcome In Sweden, the ecological conditions weaknesses and to develop systems for are not favourable for forest growth, yet sustainable forest management. the forestry sector and the export of Gadant identifies three important fac­ forest products are very important to the tors contributing to sustainable forest national economy. The history of social management in France: well-trained and industrial development in Sweden personnel, adequate research facilities shows many of the problems currently and appropriate funding that, through afflicting sustainable forest management fiscal and financial incentives to the in developing countries, although the Readings in sustainable forest management 11

Swedish forest estate is now under stable States Department of Agriculture has ownership - three-quarters is privately responded to public pressure on man­ owned - with long-established legisla­ agement policy issues through a tion leading to Its sustainable manage­ programme concerned with the man­ ment, fIrSt for industrial wood and later agement of the national forest system. for other benefits. Examples of prob­ The programme has four primary pur­ lems formerly affecting the Swedish poses: to deepen know ledge of methods forests Include disregard for forest laws, for the sustained Yield of multiple cur­ explOItatIOn of the forest owners by in­ rent and future benefits; to improve pub­ dustrial users and the movement of land­ lic participatIOn in making decisions on less people to cIties. The Swedish expe­ the use of resources; to strengthen links nence has been one of social consensus. between research workers and manag­ with .'.ociety Investing through financial ers; and to integrate all aspects of land incentives and stability, during which and resource management. time the forest resources were constantly In summary, the common feature of Improved. Today there are signs of con­ the diSCUSSIOn of sustainable forest man­ flict between vanous Interest group~. agement by the papers presented in this however, whICh must be resolved if the volume i~ that timber production should resource is to be sustalnably managed. not be the sole aim and that the sustained A heightened awareness of forestry provision of a Wide range of environ­ Issues In the United States has led to mental, social and economic needs must major changes In the way In which an also be included. increasingly urban public perceives the Active management is required for role of forests and their management. forest conservation and the sustainable The "spotted owl debate" and the change productIOn of goods and services. The of policy towards retaining "old growth preservation of forest resources through forest" will have environmental. social strict protection and non-intervention and economic imphcatlOns outside the Will not ~ustain those resources because northwestern U mted States as the source natural systems are themselves subject of wood i!-. switched elsewhere - with to evolutionary change and succession. effects on global biological diverSity - Sal wasser, MacCleery and Snellgrove or as substitutes, which may use more quote the case of old-growth Douglas fir energy in their production, are intro­ forest in the western United States, which duced. The Forest Service of the United is the habitat of the northern spotted 12 Introduction

owl. In fact, this forest is subclimax, way flow of information is needed be­ which means that, unless managed, it tween foresters and the people affected by will eventually move towards different the foresters' decisions. forest conditions not necessarily suit­ There are still several infrastructural able for the northern spotted owl. The constraints to sustainable forest manage­ conservation of the genetic diversity of ment, including administrative arrange­ plants and animals in all successional ments, laws and policies that fail to pro­ stages and types of forest will require vide incentives for tree planting. There is management interventions, with greater a need for new attitudes towards partici­ action being necessary for those that are patory forms of forestry, interactions WIth habitat specialists or, in other words, are other types of land use and the role of solely adapted to a particular habitat. forestry in overall rural development. Sustainable forest management can only Technical knowledge iscurrently lack­ be practised if the goods and services ing, even in developed countries, but obtained are seen as contributing to rural this will be obtained sooner or later development and if local people partici­ through research and investigation. The pate in the decision-making process to set development of low-impact logglllg objectives as well as, where appropriate. techniques is needed in the mOIst tropi­ in the management of the resource. Part­ cal forests III particular, in orderto miDl­ nership between "insiders" who carry out mlze Impacts on non-wood forest prod­ the management and "outsiders" who ucts, regrowth, protective functions and support those activities is essential. A biological diverSIty. greater proportion of the returns from Sustalllable forest management re­ forest management must flow back to the quires planning, whIch needs relIable rural people. In some developed coun­ data and a foundatIOn of research as well tries this occurs because a high proportion as increased informatIOn at all levels. of the forest estate is under individual or The inclusion of forestry III land-use communal ownership. plans IS essential. but other forms of Not only those who depend on the forest land use that interact with forestry must for their livelihood will participate in de­ also be sustainable; for example. sus­ cision-making and management. In de­ tainable forestry will be impossible with­ veloped countries, much of the popula­ out sustainable agriculture which will in tion is urban but still has a keen interest in tum require programmes to limit human the fate of the forests. An improVed two- popUlation growth. ReadNJgs in sustainable forest management 13

The case-studies of two developing F AO. 1991. Sustainable management and three developed countries show the of tropical forests. Annex F. In Rep. lack of funds and trained staff in the Committee on Forest Development in former but they also show that environ­ the Tropics, Tenth Session, 10-13 De­ mental concerns expressed by vocal pres­ cember 1991. Rome. sure groups are by no means confined to FAO. 1993a. The challenge of sustain­ the developed world and that there are able forest management: what future linkages between the two country groups for the world'sforests? Rome. through trade boycotts threatened by F AO. 1993b. Forest resources assess­ consumer groups in the industrial coun­ ment 1990. Tropical countries. FAD tries. Many of the papers refer to the Forestry Paper No. 112. Rome. need for political commItment and sta­ Pandey, D. 1992. Assessment oftropi­ bilIty In the management of the resource calforest plantation resources. Umea, and, in the countrIes mentIOned, for for­ Sweden, Swedish University of Agri­ estry Investment IncentIves. cultural SCIences. (To be published The papers presented in thIs volume withIn the framework of the FAD For­ are meant to provide an effective and est Resources Assessment) constructive basis for the development Shyam Sunder,S. 1992. Land use policy of poliCIes and programmes that WIll and forests. In I.R. Calder, R.L. Hall & lead to sustainable forest management P.G. Adlard, eds. Growth and water In all types offorest. It I~ hoped that they use ollorest plantations. London, will contnbute not Just to increasIng the Wiley. technical understanding of those withIn Watson, R.T., Rodhe, H., Oeschger, the forestry profession, but also towards H. & Siegenthaler, U. 1990. Green­ the political commitment and height­ hou~e gases and aerosols. In Scientific ened awareness of the compleXItIes of assessment of climate change. Report forestry issues of those outsIde it. prepared for Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Working Group I. REFERENCES Geneva, WMDlNairobi, UNEP.

Dykstra, D.P. & Heinrich, R. 1992. Sustaining tropical forests through environmentally sound harvesting practices. Unasylva, 43(169): 9-15.

Part 1 Developing systems for the implementation of sustainable forest management

Systems for the implementation of sustainable forest management 17

Sustainable management of tropical moist forest for wood A.J. Leslie

This paper discusses the feasibility of sustainable management of tropical moist forests for wood production. Emphasis has shifted from considering sustained wood yield as being necessanly the same thing as overall sustain ability. The concern is now with sustaining the forest and all of its values ratherthan just its wood-producing capacity. Although it IS difficult to combine conservation with a potentially destruc­ tive use such as timber harvesting, it is not impossible. This paper reviews the complexities of sustainable forest management and its components, and reviews experience in Malaysia and in West Africa. From this the determinants for success are identified and the prospects for sustainable forest management in tropical moist forests are discussed. The development and introductIon of low-impact manage­ ment techniques, particularly for harvesting, are stressed.

A reasonable doubt? ests being managed to the review's stan­ One of the main concerns over what is dard. Worse still, much of it was in an area happening to the world's tropical forests is of northern Queensland, Australia, which the apparent failure to manage forests had been recently withdrawn from wood sustainably. The eVIdence seems to con­ production. More detailed studies of spe­ firm this. A well-balanced review of the cific areas have since indicated that the status ofsustainable management in tropi­ proportion is probably somewhat higher cal forestry (Poore et at., 1989) found no than that reported in the review (e.g. ITTO, more than a negligible proportion of for- 1991). Nevertheless, even the addition of these areas is unlikely to give a proportion of much more than 5 percent as areas of The author is Senior Associate In Forestry at the world's tropical moist forest under the School of Agriculture and Forestry, management that may be recognized as University of Melbourne, Parkville, 3052 Australia. sustainable. 18 Wood production and wood for energy

The actual figure is, of course, debat­ Sustained yield and sustainable able. There is not enough agreement on management either the total area and composition of The science and practice of forestry is tropical forests or the definition of sus­ largely a response to the first two ques­ tainable management to warrant much tions, modified to varying degrees in precision in any such estimate. Certainly, light of the third. Its essence is the simul­ the proportion that could be claimed to taneous conservation and use of forests be managed for sustained yield is much for the welfare and development of hu­ higher than 5 percent. That figure may man societies. Some uses are best or

not, however, be too wide of the mark for most easily provided by leaving forests I truly successful sustained yield manage­ more or less intact, and management ment. In fact, a great deal of experience sustainability for these purposes poses in tropical forestry tends to support the no great problems other than protection scepticism about forest management and occasional manipulation. The diffi­ sustainabililty as practised at present culties arise mainly from attempts to (Jacobs, 1988; King, 1990). combine conservation with potentially The issue can be divided into three destructive uses. The most prominent questions: and potentially the most destructive of • Is sustainable management possible these, apart from conversion to other when wood is a major output? forms of land use, is USing forests for • If it IS, how can it be implemented? wood production. It is not the only de­ • Is it then worth the effort and the structi ve use and wood is far from being cost? the most important product of either Recent reviews (Schmidt, 1987; tropical or temperate forests, but the FAO, 1991a; Perl et al., 1991) cover destructive potential of wood harvesting the issues, possibilities, differences is such that much of the techmcal content and remedies pertinent to the first two offorestry is concerned with conserving I questions. forests while USing them as a permanent, The contribution of this paper is to renewable source of wood. explore the implications of the third The sustainable management of for­ question for"forest management in ests for wood production is based on a light of the apparent gap between sus­ deceptively simple principle: harvesting tained yield for wood and mUltipur­ the wood at an average annual rate that is pose sustainability. no greater than that at which the forest in Systems for the implementation of sustainable forest management 19

question can grow it and without harm­ and growth modelling. However, the ing the forest's capacity to supply other principle itc;elf still holds, despite a strong goods and services. This applies for any tendency nowadays to urge its abandon­ type of forest anywhere and at any time, ment on the grounds that it no longer irrespective of whether wood is a pri­ serves practical needs or meets the stan­ mary or a subsidiary objective of man­ dards of economic efficiency. Yet these agement. arguments appear less plausible on closer The principle is, however, much easier examination of their narrow interpreta­ to state than to apply. The increment, tions of sustained yield and criteria of being physically inseparable from the efficiency. Although the questions they trees with which it is produced, must be raIse are relevant to the application of harvested by felling a part of the forest sustained yield, they are far from deci­ equal in amount to the increment of the sive in dismissing the principle. forest as a whole. The problem of sus­ The fourth element is a fairly recent tainable management arises from the development. It reflects the fact that a dIfficultIes of coordinating the four ele­ sustained yield of wood is no longer ments involved: ascertaming the incre­ accepted by influential sections of the ment; identifying the appropriate part of general public and the world community the forest to be felled as being equivalent as being necessarily the same thing as to the increment; replacing that part of overall sustainability. The concern is the forest to be felled in conjunction with now with sustaining the forest and all of the harvesting operation; and harvesting its values rather than just its wood-pro­ so that no serious and permanent dam­ ducing capacity. age results to other goods and services or to the forests' capacity to continue sup­ The complexities of sustainable plying them in the future. management The traditional sustained yield man­ The first two elements taken together agement systems did combine the first cover the yield regulation part of a sus­ three elements in a way which met tainable management system, the third sustainability requirements at the time. the regeneration or silvicultural part, The methods of yield regulation devel­ and the fourth the harvesting part. In oped to implement sustained yield have practice, it is not easy to devise, mea­ since become operationally obsolete with sure, apply or monitor anyone of these, the development of computerized stand and the difficulties are compounded be- 20 Wood production and wood for energy

cause all parts have to work together and ning under the above circumstances is simultaneously. The difficulties increase rarely favourable for sustainable man­ with the ecological and structural com­ agement of forest resources. Manage­ plexity of the forests to be managed and ment plans can be easily overridden by their economic and social environment the more powerful political and social (Janzen, 1975). appeal of such considerations as income It seems to be universally agreed that, and employment generation or foreign ecologically, the tropical moist forests are exchange earnings. Hence, it is hard to among the most complex of terrestrial meet the initial requirement for sustained ecosystems. This could partly account for yield management: the delineation of a the limited success of sustainable man- specific tract or group of tracts offorest agement in tropical forestry and is un­ as the sustained yield unit with reason­ doubtedly the ultimate limiting factor. As able security of tenure and stability of yet, however, it is still less of an obstacle boundaries and for which the sustain­ than socio-economic problems arising able yield of wood can be calculated, from the use of tropical mOIst forests for harvested and monitored. If this cannot industrial wood production. be done, sustainable management is se­ The economies of developing coun­ verely handicapped from the outset. Yet tries to which the tropical forests are strict stabIlity and security of the unit are virtually restricted are, by definition, not absolute conditions for sustainable simpler than those of most temperate management. Changes in either or both

countries, but the task of economic man­ can be accommodated In management agement is vastly more complicated. The planning and control, al though only when task of combining economic develop­ any additions or reductions in the area ment with social justice is daunting on its and changes in the forest composition own, without the added handicap ofhav­ and structure are fairly predictable. ing far fewer options than modem devel­ For various reasons, however, neither oped countries had at a similar stage in stability nor predictability is achievable their development. in most developing countries. Far too many factors can lead to greater The spatial assessment of unpredictability than can be accom- sustainablllty modated: forest clearing for controlled The consequent and somewhat neces- expansion and diversification of agri­ sarily ad hoc nature of economic plan- culture, for infrastructural needs or for Systems for the implementation of sustainable forest management 21

unplanned, poverty-driven subsistence • the wood increment over the unit as fanning, and excessive cutting for im­ a whole; mediate liquidation of capital for na­ • the distribution over the unit of the tional development or simply for the age or size classes of the trees personal enrichment of those in author­ producing the type of wood required; ity. Whatever the cause, the result is that • the methods used to replace the trees the area and composition of any sus­ removed in the harvesting area; tained yield umt are likely to be upset, • safeguarding of the supply of other making sustainable management not only products and services and respect difficult but impossible. for the other parties with interests Most critics of forestry's failure to besides those of wood production, live up to its fundamental principle of especially during harvesting sus tamable use consider either a coun­ operations and silvicuItural try, e.g. Malaysia or a region, such as the treatments. Amazon, or even the world as the sus­ The second and the fourth elements tainable yield unit. These may be useful warrant special mention. The second as polemical devices or m macro­ governs the extent to which and for how economic planning, but they are hardly long the allowable cut, whether greater relevant to actually managing the for­ or less than the increment, would need to ests sustamably. As a rule, the national be harvested in order to bring the sus­ resource is simply too unwIeldy an area tained yield umt into the balanced state, to work wIth as a single sustained yield allowing a cut equal to the increment to unit. be maintained indefinitely or for as long as conditions remain unchanged. The The components of sustainable fourth sets the limits within which all management silvicultural and logging operations as­ Only with a well-defined and stable sus­ sociated with sustained wood produc­ tained yield unit is it sensible to estimate tion must be conducted. These limits, in the allowable cut, i.e. the average quan­ tum, govern whether wood production tity of wood that can be harvested from under those conditions is economically the unit, annually or periodically, under viable. If it is not, then any wood har­ sustainable management. The sustain­ vesting, even within the sustained yield able yield results from a combination of limits, would either be unprofitable, and the following four elements: therefore tend to be implemented with 22 Wood productIOn and wood for energy

scant regard for the standards of sustain­ ing which changes in methods and in­ able management in the full sense, or strumentation are likely to jeopardize would have to be subsidized. comparability, the system and records Ifthe two elements interact, it is in one are expensive to maintain and require a direction only. An allowable cut at a level of stability and contmuity that few higher level than the increment may be countries can provide. It is effectively set where the size-class distribution is by default that approximation, estima­ skewed towards the larger classes. This tion and extrapolation from the few sets greater cut could go some way to com­ of usable data have become more or less pensating the higher harvesting costs the standard procedure. forced by the restrictions needed to safe­ Indications are that mean annual in­

guard non-wood products or the inter­ crements of between 1 and 3 m 1 per ests of local communitIes or envIron­ hectare of wood to the speCIfIcations for mental values. A distribution skewed in industnal use safely represent the the opposIte direction, however, requires pantroplcal range (Dawkins, 1958; an allowable cut set lower than the incre­ Nicholson, 1979; Poore et at, 1989). ment, thus tending to push logging costs Whatever estimate IS adopted for forests even higher. in the sustamable yield unit, the mcre­ There are generally few short cuts to ment problem becomes that of determin­ measuring increment in tropical moist ing the most appropriate part of the for­ forests. The constraints on establishing ests to harvest as surrogate for the total age of tropical trees are not perhaps as increment of wood over the whole unit. absolute as they were once thought to be Three classes of trees should quahfy: (Baas and Vetter, 1989). However, even • those at the stage of maturity a moderately reliable basis for incre­ correspondmg to the target product ment measurement still depends heav­ speCIfications; ily on repeated measurements (e.g. • those whose removal would favour Lowe, n.d.) which, given the erratic or accelerate the growth or growth patterns of individual species development of younger or smaller and size classes (e.g. Fox, 1976), must trees better suited to producing the cover very long periods of time. Apart desired end-products; from the length of time before the nec­ • those that should be salvaged before essary information can come from the they die or are lost for one reason or permanent sample plot system, and dur- another. Systems for the ImplementatIOn of sustainable forest management 23

Such standards in the process of sus­ would provide. It also requires some tained yield management presuppose a idea of the diameter growth rates by know ledge of the forests and their struc­ species and by size class. But more im­ ture and condition far beyond the present portant, it requires a fairly consistent realm of practicality in tropical forestry and unwavering system for monitoring for wood production on a bulk scale. the actual growth and changes in species However, itisnotatall impractIcal when composition and stand structure against the harvest focuses on one or a few high­ the initial guesses, as well as the power value species, as in the teak management and ability to revise the cut in the light of system devised by Brandis In the mld- new Information. 1860s (Brasnett. 1953). Given these conditions, the method WIthout such umque condItions, the has been found to be a safe way of problem has usually been resolved by sustaining wood output with two provi­ applYing a simple area control system of sIOns: that no drastic alterations are made yield regulation. The unit is diVided Into to the area of the unit and that regenera­ a series of coupes equal In number to the tion is assured. years eIther in the technical rotatIOn adopted for the pnncipal tImber species Lessons from experience or In the estimated felling cycle during The Malaysian Uniform System in the which trees below the specified standard lowland forests of Peninsular Malaysia for harvesting are expected to reach It. met the above standards until the con­ The method involves first chOOSing a version of the majority to agricultural­ minimum diameter at whIch trees will be based development virtually eliminated deemed ready for harvest and then esti­ these forests as a timber resource. It was mating either the time it will take for a able to do so mainly because it released tree of each species to grow to that already established regeneration, and dIameter from seed or shoot or the time then only until the expanding scale and it will take for trees of specific diameter increasing mechanization of logging classes below that minimum to grow into made it too costly to operate and admin­ the mature diameter class. ister (Wyatt-Smith, 1963). The method requires some know ledge Attempts to transfer and adapt this of the size-class distribution over the system to West Africa were markedly forests in the unit but in no greater detail less successful. This was less the result than a fairly low-level timber inventory of mechanized large-scale logging than 24 Wood production and wood for energy

having to rely more on inducing rather than when the openings must induce the than releasing regeneration. Whatever regeneration. the reason, the canopy openings and the The second factor is the typically un­ pre- and post-felling treatments were even structure of most tropical moist rarely followed by the regeneration on forests. In this structure, neither size nor which sustained yield depends. As it position in the canopy is a reliable guide happened, this limited success hardly to relative maturity of the many species mattered. Most of the forests in which in the highly variable forests. Silvicul­ management was attempted - with the tural selection systems in association exception of many of the forest reserves with more direct volume control seem to in Ghana - have subsequently been lost be a safer and more logical basis for to agricul ture or converted to forest plan­ sustained yield management. The suc­ tations. cess ofsustained yield management along This West African experience may these lines in Ghana (Baidoe, 1970) tends well underlie the widely held opinion to confirm this. that plantations offer the only reliable The third point is probably the most means for sustained yield management compelling: the economics of loggmg, in tropical forestry. However, the mam under prevailing market and commer­ value of this contrast between results cial conditIOns, VIrtually dictates forest from similar systems is probably what it management possibilities for most of the reveals about the determinants of suc­ tropical moist forests. It alone is enough cessful sustained yield management of to rule out sustainable management tropical moist forests. consistent with the biological, structural and other social factors as a feasible Determinants of success in forest proposition, while making even sustained management yield management primarily for wood a Three factors seem to be crucial. One is doubtful one. This is because these mar­ the interaction between the yield regula­ ket structures and patterns as well as the tion and the regeneration parts of man­ accompanying commercial relationships agement. Under ecological conditions force operators into high-output, heavy­ in which the primary function of the technology, short-cut logging systems. canopy openings is to release already These are physically and economically established regeneration, simplifications incompatible with management systems in yield regulation by area are less risky that, for sustained yield, depend on fol- Systems for the Implementation of sustamable forest management 25

lowing the regeneration or on carefuIly be found to escape from the economic calculated and controlled canopy open- stranglehold on tropical forestry, man­ ings in order to induce regeneration. agement for sustained yield woodproduc­ They are even less compatible with the tion is barely a realistic target, let alone standards that must be met under sus- sustainability in all its facets. tainable management for products and The radical solution in this sort of situ­ services other than wood (see list in ation is to change the system that causes it. Jacobs, 1988). As this is hardly something that the for­ estry sector has the power to do, work Prospects of making the transition must be carried out within an imperfect to sustainability system. This means either accepting the ThIs transition from attempted sustained limitations and the very few opportunities yield management for wood to successful they offer sustainable management in tropi­ sustainable management in a broader sense cal forestry or hanging the response to is now the main challenge in tropical these limits. The first option is not as forestry. It is, some argue, animpossibihty mevitable as most commentators seem to (Jacobs, 1988). It is common knowledge believe. The prospects for a different re­ that sustained yield management for wood sponse are, fortunately, better for the tropi­ has been and still is extremely difficult to cal moist forests than they are for most implement. It seems logical to infer from other forest types. Ironically, this is largely this that there is even less chance of suc­ a result of the pressure that the necessity to cessfully combining a sustained yield of meet sustainable management standards wood with the unimpaired production and places on logging. protection of the many other non-wood products, services and values involved in Sustainable management sustainable management. framework for wood For all of its plausibility, the argument Conceptually, the technical characteris­ does not stand up. It depends mamly on tics of tropical moist forests can be com­ the technical difficulties of applying sus­ bined with the markets for tropical woods tained YIeld management, but these are and other non-wood products to tum not yet the major limiting factors. The what is a threat in most other types of present obstacles are much more the result forest into an opportunity. of a malfunctioning, lopsided and inequi­ There is no question that sustainable table world economy. Unless a way can management of tropical moist forests is 26 Wood production and wood/or energy

relatively easy if they can be effectively ecological or cultural significance protected from fire and conversion to, as food or wildlife or importance in other fonns ofland use and if they are not environmental, stream bank and soil then commercially exploited for indus­ protection or the conservation of trial wood. If, and it is a very big if, the biodiversity, or that serve as links in first two conditions are met, then the food, pollination and seed dispersion problems will arise almost entirely from chains. commercial wood utilization. Timber These are minimum conditions which, harvesting, even under effective sus­ in turn, impose four additional condi­ tained yield management for wood, puts tions on any logging system:

most of the other aspects of sustainable o No heavy machinery for skidding is management at risk simply because, es­ to be used.

pecially as currently practised, it dis­ o Careful and accurate directional rupts the forest structure, the forest and felling should be carried out.

social environment and the ecosystem o Road and extractIOn routes are to be far more than any other use except agri­ planned, designed and constructed cultural clearing. to conform to standards for The conclusion is inescapable: if sus­ envIronmental protection and social tainable management is to include In­ and cultural welfare rather than dustrial timber production, sustained primarily to minimize log trans­ yield management for wood must be portation costs. This implies narrow combined with very low-impact harvest­ road linecleanngs, avoidanceofvul­ ing. To qualify as a lOW-Impact system, nerable slopes and sensitive locali­ harvesting has to be conducted under the ties, a minimum of earth movement following conditions: and the highest standards for o the felling of very few trees per surfacing, maintenance, drainage hectare; and stream crossings as well as camps o negligible damage to the residual and settlements.

stand, any advanced growth and o Operations are to be suspended already established regeneration; during wet weather and for some

o retention and protection of trees, time afterwards. shrubs, vines, palms and ground flora One inevitable consequence will be that have actual or potential greatly increased harvesting costs com­ commercial or handcraft value, an pared with those of most current opera- Systems for the implementatIOn of sustainable forest management 27

tions. 1 Whether the markets for tropical harvesting (Tropical Science Centre, timbers can absorb the extra cost or 1982); and third, management will there­ whether there is enough economic rent in fore have to concentrate only on those the marketing chain to allow it to be species that now command orcould com­ absorbed are, therefore, matters of con­ mand prices high enough to carry the siderable debate. The costs oflow-impact costs of low-impact harvesting. harvesting are the unavoidable price of sustainable management. Either it is ab­ Feasibility of low-Impact sorbed or else wood production, even management in wood production under sustained yield management, has Not only does the feasibility of low­ no place in sustainable management in impact management seem to rest on a tropical moist forests. The decisive ques­ return to the despIsed practice of high tion IS not the most hotly dIsputed one at grading,' but It also implies that the all: it is not whether sustainable manage­ considerable effort expended to increase ment for wood production IS possible, but utilization of lesser-used species is mis­ whether It is worth the effort and the cost. guided. The first danger is a real possi­ Three crucIal implicatIOns for forest bility if the system were to be run on the management follow. FIrst. only man­ simple diameter-limit basis common to agement based on some form of selec­ most of the so-called selection systems tion silviculture can generally be con­ in the tropics. To prevent the focus on sIstent with low-impact harvesting; high-value species from degenerating second, harvesting wIll have to revert into a device for hIgh grading, the diam­ 2 to low-powered systems In which eter limits corresponding to the techni­ planning and hIghly skilled operators cal rotation for the target species and the are substituted for the high-power, high­ target products should be guiding rather output systems characteristic of present than binding. In the selection of trees for harvesting, therefore, silvicultural con­

1 Studies quoted In Dykstra and Heinrich (1992) siderations must override the diameter show that enVIronmentally sound harvesting limits. The allowable cut could thus methods can be less costly than conventional techniques 2Hlgh-powered systems need not be hlgh­ Impact Likewise, the Implied prohibItion on 'DeSCribed as "cutting the best and leaVing the use of heavy machinery for skIdding the worst", from a practice common in the could eliminate a technIque that mIght be hardwood forests of the United States in the appropriate under particular cIrcumstances. nineteenth century. 28 Wood production and wood for energy

include some trees below the diameter The same thing cannot be said with limits as well as some above them. The comparable confidence for technical and ruling criterion would be improved pro­ economic feasibility, however. A high ductivity potential in the broadly defined and continuous input from very skilful sense and not present marketability. and knowledgeable staff, both technical The second implication is correct. It and professional, is a prerequisite forthe would be wrong only if a virtually im­ precision necessary in tree selection, possible combination of conditions pre­ increment and growth rate assessment vailed, such as the following: and regeneration as well as overall plan­ • the extra volume harvested with the ning and monitoring. The standard re­ more intensive utilization of lesser­ quired is close to that of the method of used species would have to improve control described by Knuchel (1953). the financial revenue-to-cost ratio This alone might appear to put it right substantially; out of the technical reach of most devel­ • silvicultural systems approaching oping countries as neither the staffmg clear-felling would have to be nor the continuity standards can be generally applicable; readily met. • harvesting under such systems would The chances of such systems being have to have a negligible adverse economIcally feasible might seem to be impact on all other products and even lower.4 The apparentl y higher costs values. of management necessary to attain the The combination of the latter two con­ high technical standard required would ditions comes close to being a contradic­ be added to the hIgher logging costs tion in terms, while support for the first Involved In harvesting lower volumes lies more in hope than in evidence. per hectare under more stringent stan­ The likelihood is that only selection­ dards for protecting other values. The type management systems for a few high­ cumulative result would almost certainly value species can possibly satisfy the push the costs of most operations as conditions. Even then, sustainable man­ currently practised well beyond anything agement to these limits is not necessarily that could be absorbed within current feasible. The chances of their being eco­ markets. logically, socially and environmentally feasible are quite good, provided regen­ eration can be assured. 4See footnote 1, p.27. Systems for the Implementation of sustainable forest management 29

The path to low-Impact in logging costs is inevitable under sus­ management tainable management, but not to the In this line of argument, the low-impact extent implied by simple extrapolation system hardly seems to be a viable way from present methods and systems. to sustainable management, but to reject Similarly, the higher technical stan­ such a system because of its technical dards for the more intensive forest man­ and economic impracticability also pre­ agement under these systems would in­ cludes wood production as an output evitably cost more in professional and under sustainable management. The point technical staffing numbers and quality cannot be made too often: sustained­ and in their field support, but this does yield wood production must be low­ not necessarily mean a proportionate impact as well as profitable. Ifthis is not increase in the cost per unit of wood possible, wood production has no place output. Inventory and monitoring of in the sustainable management of tropi­ wood production would only have to cal moist forests. However, this defeatist cover the few target species rather than conclusion only applies, if the assump­ the several hundred under management tIOns about costs and markets on which at present. Furthermore, an increase in it depends are correct and cannot be staff and other resources directly in­ changed. There is no reason to accept volved in forest management does not that either is true. necessarily mean an equivalent increase For a start, not all changes in harvest­ in costs overall. Many state and national ing methods increase logging costs. The forest services have plenty of scope sImpler technology adopted means less within their existing structures to rede­ capital-intensive logging systems with ploy qualified and experienced staff as lower fixed costs in total and per unit well as support services to the field since, area. The reduced volumes harvested ultimately, the quality offorest manage­ per hectare do not, therefore, necessarily ment depends on what happens in the involve as big an increase in the unit cost forests more than on what is planned in of logging as under the present logging head offices. This is particularly true of systems. Nor, forthe same reason, would forest management for wood produc­ adjusting to the more stringent standards tion, which has to meet the standards of forthe protection of environmental, cul­ multiple-use sustainability. The best tural and social values increase current people should be located where those costs as much. Undoubtedly, an increase standards are most vulnerable. 30 Wood production and wood for energy

Increased management and logging keting process, moving away from its costs are inevitable under sustainable present commodity mode to a specialty, management but not to the extent indi­ custom-based orientation. Undeniably, cated on first sight. the continuity of wood production from However, the weakest part of the ar­ tropical moist forests depends ultimately gument against the practical feasibility on whether it can adapt to the standards of low-impact management is probably for sustainable management. It is no its assumptions regarding revenue. Even good arguing that the pressures arising with smaller additional costs, doubts from international concern can only bear about the market's capacity to absorb on the export trade, which is now the them are quite legitimate under present lesserpartoftotal production. Pressures marketing arrangements. The trouble is from the world plantation resource now that segregation of high-quality from the approaching maturity are just as likely utility timber tends to occur more to­ to have a similar effect in domestic mar­ wards the consumers' end ofthe market­ kets by forcing the price ceiling for ing chain than the producers' end. The commodity grades from natural forests returns from higher-valued timbers are so low as to leave no option but special­ thus captured more by the dealers and ization. the users of tropIcal woods than the Therefore. the development of high­ growers. The evidence to that effect is value marketing strategies is the first naturally indicative more than defIni­ step in making tropical forest manage­ tive, but studies of economic rent (GillIs, ment for wood production sustainable, 1988), the extent of transfer pricing while the market research on which the (Barnett, 1989) and the structure of mar­ move will be based has now become the kets for high-quality tropical timbers most urgent need in tropical forestry. (OFI, 1991; FAD, 1991b) all point in that direction. The price differentials REFERENCES and the levels of economic rent seem to be quite capable of absorbing the addi­ Baas, P. & Vetter, J.R.E., eds. 1989. tional costs of sustainable management Growth rings in tropical trees. JAWA provided they can be redirected to the Bull., 10(2): 95-174. forest end of the marketing chain. Baidoe, J.F. 1970. The selection system This would involve a complete re­ as practiced in Ghana. Comm. For. structuring of the tropical timber mar- Rev., 49(2): 159-165. Systems for the implementation of sustainable forest management 31

Barnett, T. 1989. The Barnett Report. A misuse of forest resources, Chap. 2. summary of the commission inquiry New York, Cambridge University into aspects of the timber industry in Press. Papua New Guinea. Hobart, Australia, ITTO. 1991. Report of mission: the The Asia-Pacific Action Group. promotion of sustainable forest man­ Brasnett, N.V. 1953. Planned manage­ agement in Sarawak, Malaysia. ment of forests, p. 128-135. London, Yokohama, Japan, ITTO. Allen & Unwin. Jacobs, M. 1988. The tropical rainfor­ Dawkins, H.C. 1958. The management est. p. 12; 256-258. Berlin-Heidelberg, of natural tropical high forest with Germany, Springer. specwi reference to Uganda IFI Paper Janzen, D.H.1975. Ecology ofplants in No. 34. Oxford, UK, IF!. the tropics. London, Arnold. Dykstra, D.P. & Heinrich, R. 1992. King, K.F.S. 1990. The failure of tropi­ Sustaming tropical forests through en­ cal forest management. In lITO Pro­ vironmentally sound harvesting prac­ ject Report P072189(F), PCF(vii)14, tices. Unasyll'a, 43(169): 9-15. p. 7-14. Yokohama, Japan, ITTO. FAa. 1979. The effect oj logging and Knuchel, H. 1953. Management con­ treatment on the mixed dlpterocaJp trol In selectIOn forest. Tech. Comm. forests afSoutheast Asia FO:MIsc/79/ No.5. Oxford, UK, IFI. 8. Rome. Lowe, R.G. n.d. Volume increment of FAO. 1991 a. Sustainahle management natural tropical moist forest in Nigeria. of tropical forests Secretariat note Ibadan, Nigeria, Federal Department FO:FDT/91/5. Committee on Forestry of Forestry. (mimeo) Development in the Tropics. Rome. OFI. 1991. Incentives in producer and FAO. 1991b. High-value markets for consumer countries to promote sus­ tropical sawnwaod, plywood in the talnahle development of tropical for­ European Community. Rome. ests. Oxford, UK, Oxford Forest Insti­ Fox,J.E.D.1976.Constraintsonthenatu­ tute. ral regeneration of tropical mOIst forest. Perl, M.A., Kiernan, M.J., McCaf­ For. Ecol Manage., 1(1): 37-86. ferey, D., Buschbaciwr, R.J. & Gillis, M. 1988. Indonesia: public poli­ Batmanian, G.J.1991. Viewsfromthe cies, resource management and the forest: naturalforest management ini­ tropical forest. In R. Repetto & M. tiatives in LatinAmerica. Gland, Swit­ Gillis, eds. Puhllc poliCIes and the zerland, World Wildlife Fund. 32 Wood productIOn and wood/or energy

Poore, D., Burgess, P., Palmer, J., forest. Forestry subproject: central selva Rietbergen, S. & Synott, T. 1989. No resources management project, Palcazu timber without trees: sustainability in Valley, Peru. San Jose. tropical forests. London, Earthscan. Wyatt-Smith, J. 1963. Manual of Ma­ Schmidt, R. 1987. Tropical rain forest layan silviculture for inland forests. management. Unasylva, 39(156): 2-17. Malayan Forest Records No. 23. Kuala Tropical Science Centre. 1982. Sus­ Lumpur, Forestry Department 2. tained yield management of natural Systems for the implementation of sustainable forest management 33

Management of woodlands and savannahs in the Sudano-Sahelian zone M. Soto Flandez and K. Ouedraogo

This paper discusses one of the most progressive projects dealing with the management of natural forests In the Sudano-Sahelian area and undertaken in Burkina Faso betwen 1986 and 1993. Expected results Include management of 200 000 ha of village areas and comanagement of 100 000 ha of forest formations with local farmer participation and the regular production of 50 000 m3 of fuelwood per year from 1993. The paper also describes the agro-ecological and population characteristics of the Sudano-Sahel ian zone. The current state of natural woody vegetation is reviewed along with utilization patterns while other practices in managing natural forests in the region are outlined.

THE SUDANO-SAHELIAN ZONE trated in August, sets in with the south­ Agro-ecological characteristics western monsoon after the resurgence of In the semi-arid zone south of the Sa­ the intertropical front. Mean annual rain­ hara, the climate is characterized by a fall increases towards the south. Three long dry season lasting from eight to ten agroclimatic zones can be distinguished: months. The only rainy season, concen- a rangeland area with rainfall below 200 m; a precarious dry savannah farmland

The authors are Senior Technical Adviser area with mean rainfall of 500 m; and an and National Project Manager, respectively, area corresponding to the Sudano­ of the UNDP-funded natural forest Sahelian zone, where the natural vegeta­ management project BKF/89f011, BP 2540 Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. tion is of the tree and shrub savannah 34 Wood production and woodfor energy

type and mean rainfall is between 500 Population and economic and 1 200 mm. These averages cover a activities wide range of annual rainy season The socio-economic development pros­ lengths, annual rainfall totals and rain­ pects of the Sudano-Sahelian zone in­ fall distributions in space and time. Rains volve 16 countries: Benin, Burkina Faso, come mostly in the form of storms; their Cameroon, the Central African Repub­ force is considerable and causes abun­ lic, Chad, Cote d'Ivoire, the Gambia, dant runoff and a very high risk of ero­ Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Mali, sion. Wind erosion is particularly in­ the Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, the Sudan tense in the region where annual rainfall and Togo. Extendmg over 3 million km2, is below 600 mm at the start of the the area currently has a population of25 growing season and where soils are de­ million, a number that will probably nuded (Pieri, 1989). double by the year 20 I 0 as the average The dominant elements of the Sudano­ population growth rates seem to have Sahelian landscape are the indurated stabilized between 2.7 and 3 percent per pediments that form a framework through year (Pieri, 1989). Meanwhile, the food which run, north of the 12th parallel, the defiCit is growing while agncultural and dune systems that stretch from the Atlan­ animal production methods arenotevolv­ tic Ocean to the Sudan (Bertrand et ai., mg. Farm production is still based on 1985). slash-and-bum practices. Three or four The most widespread soils are dune years offield cultivation are followed by soils on ancient or recent aeolian sands several years of natural fallow to allow and pediment soils that develop on the the soil to recover its fertility. As soils long slopes linking an uphill area and a are depleted and space is reduced, farm­ lowland or river. The soils of the high­ ers are forced to emigrate and clear new lands result from the combined action of lands in areas that are still forested. The palaeoclimates and erosion cycles. nomadic type of cattle production prac­ The natural vegetation is composed tised is more a way of life than an eco­ mainl y of mixed forest -grassland forma­ nomic activity. It still depends on cli­ tions' crossed by riparian formations matic hazards and on the tightness of the along the lowlands and rivers. Among meat market. It is also becoming more the mixed-formation woodlands, there and more marginalized because of the are woodlands and tree savannahs with a expansion of farmlands. more or less closed canopy. Although seldom quantified, the main Systems for the implementation of sustainable forest management 35

forestry activity is merely the gathering diameters and the average heights vary of forest products and fuel wood left according to climate, types of soil and over from clearing activities and the human pressure. Shrub savannahs are passage of forest fires. Wood produc- characterized by a grass layer at least 80 tion from natural forests is still at the cm high, while woody species are sel­ experimental stage and processed prod- dom more than 5 m high and are scat­ ucts are limited to small quantities of tered throughout the grass cover. sawnwood, except in Cote d'Ivoire, Riparian formations are extensions of Ghana, Nigeria and Cameroon that have the semi-deciduous forests along rivers closed broad-leaved forests. in the savannahs. Species associations vary and include Terminalia ivorensis, CURRENT STATE OF NATURAL Triplochiton scleroxylon, Khaya sene- WOODY VEGETATION galensis and Parinari excelsa. Forest formations The mixed forest-grassland formations Utilization patterns typical of the Sudano-Sahelian zone in­ The only source of information avail­ clude: woodlands, wooded savannah, able on the size and evolution of wood­ tree savannah and shrub savannah. The land and savannah surfaces is Forest wooded savannah and woodlands, with resources oftropical Africa (FAO/UNEP, tree heights exceeding 15 m, are repre­ 1981). In thIS technical report, the total sented by patches scattered here and estImated surface of open broad-leaved there inthe savannah. Wooded savannah formations was 84 million ha in 1980, or is considered to be the degradation fa­ 28 percent of the total area of the S udano­ cies of woodlands. The tree cover, occu­ Sahelian zone. It is imperative to learn pying 40 to 90 percent of the surface, how much is left, as deforestation has includes lsoberlinia doka, Uapaca to­ been accelerating ever since. golensts and Anogelssus leiocarpa for­ The main utilization of woodlands ests. The tree savannah has large areas of and savannahs is that of a reserve of grasslands. The most frequent species arable lands with low human pressure are: Parkia biglobosa, Daniellia oliveri, which serves as a safety valve in face of Khaya senegalel'lsis, Butyrosperrnum the increase of food production, without parkii and Detarium macrocarpum. intensifying production methods. An However, the floral composition as well example of this is the grain plan, recently as the number of stems per hectare, the proposed to the Burkina Faso Govern- 36 Wood production and wood for energy

ment, which notes that in the year 2005 The second most important form of the demand for local grain will increase utilization of forest formations after that to 750 000 tonnes of gross production. of farmland reserves is harvesting for This will entail the clearing of 600 000 fuelwood production. The populations ha with an assumed yield of 700 kg per of the Sudano-Sahelian zone use very hectare or of 900 000 ha with a yield of little oil and electricity. On the other 600 kg per hectare. Real technological hand, their annual fuel wood consump­ innovations are very limited and pro­ tion is approximately 0.6 m3 per caput, ductivity increases over the past 15 years corresponding to an average of 90 per­ have not exceeded 2 percent per year. cent of the total energy used, except for Average long-term production growth Senegal and Mauritania where fuel wood has remained below population growth. consumption falls, respectively, to 60 In conclusion, the development of rain­ and 69 percent (Gin, 1983). fed grain production depends on the Fuelwood production comes mainly expansion of the cultivated areas from the wood left over from cleanng (SEDES-CEDRA T S.A., 1990). How­ operations and which farmers are will­ ever, to these planned "expansions", ing to gather for their own use and for other components should be added which sale when economically accessible mar­ cannot be planned. These are the regu­ kets are available, in order to cover the lar, unobtrusive, continuous migrations clearing cost. Conversely, on the out­ resulting from soil depletion caused by skirts of larger urban centres, the pro­ single-crop farming with insufficient duction of fuel wood leaves rings ofland, inputs of organic and mineral fertilizers sometimes extending beyond a 50 km as well as insufficient fallow because of radius, stripped of woody vegetation. In the saturation of space in village areas. some areas, these sources of production This migration process becomes cha­ are supplemented by the collection of otic, uncontrollable and turns into mass dead wood, a category which includes migration in times of drought, as in 1968, both tree stands withered by drought 1973-1974 and 1983-1984. Hence the and trees that die every year through appearance of the clearing fronts, the forest fires. The pressure on forest for­ systematic growing and rapid shrinking mations through uncontrolled clearing of forest formations which mark the re­ and fuelwood harvesting is so excessive cent evolution of the landscape in the that it can be considered much higher Sudano-Sahelian countries. than their natural regeneration capacity. Systems for the implementatIOn of sustainable forest management 37

In this connection, it is significant that in ing the wintering season is the source of the tree savannahs, which account for sometimes deadly conflicts between farm­ most of the region's areas that are still ers and shepherds. The latter. although forested, the total growing stock seldom limited by the presence of trypano­ exceeds 15 m3 per hectare. The recurrent somiasis. are forced to shelter their herds assault of forest fires has reduced the in the forests and engage in tree delim bing annual growth rate of tree savannahs to in order to reach the higher fodder. Hence. less than I m3 per hectare. This observa­ the emergence of various silvopastoral tion is shared by the Organisation for management practices, whose technical Economic Cooperation and Develop­ content has had mixed success; it often ment (OECD) which, in establishing a does not go beyond merel y destroying the tentative scenario, asserts that: the Sahel tree savannah and its replacement by a manages to survive reasonably well, with grass savannah dotted with patches of no real growth and at the cost of a strong desertification. increase in its external dependency as Among the forms of forest formation well as a fairly rapid erosion of its natu­ utilization one should also mention the ral capital. wood processing industry and the tradi­ Nevertheless, in the analysis of the tional use of forests by rural popula­ region's prospects it is estimated that tions. The wood processing industry re­ the replacement of wood by imported mains confined to sawnwood, and the fuels for domestic use is excluded. Ag­ processing capacities that are very scarce riculture must supply not only food and in terms of volume seem not to have the bulk ofthe foreign exchange needed exceeded 12 percent of growth in the to finance imports but also part of the past decade (F AO/UNEP, 1981). On the energy required by the S udano-Sahelian other hand, the traditional uses of the region (OECD, 1988). forest as a source of medicines, fruits Cattle production, although not pro­ and proteins supplied by game are be­ portionate to the size of the preceding coming difficult, given the disappear­ forms of utilization of forest formations, ance of forest formations. ranks third in importance. The extension The assessment of these uses under­ offarmlands inexorably reduces the space lines the crucial role of forest in the available for traditional cattle farming. survival ofthe Sudano-Sahel ian popula­ Transhumance becomes more and more tions, intensifying the concern over the difficult and the movements of herds dur- rupture of the ecological balances which 38 Wood productIOn and wood for energy

already threatens 25 million people agement, despite difficulties arising from through deforestation, desertification the absence of a specialized silviculture, and migration. The village authorities the complexity of landownership and used to preserve the natural environ­ the social and economic organization of ment with rules which have more or less the rural populations, is beginning to be disappeared with the disruption of tradi­ viewed by policy-makers and financiers tiona
society. New rules, suited to the as a viable alternative. Forest manage­ total change in demographic and eco­ ment is regarded more and more as a tool nomic conditions, are necessary. The that can contribute efficiently for a few management of natural forests, a branch more decades to answering the need for of forestry that studies forest sciences domestic energy; creating rural jobs; and techniques in their relation to ad­ regulating the use of natural resources; ministrative, legislative, economic and quickenIng the pace of changes in agri­ social principles (Metro, 1975), can use­ cultural production methods; settIng up fully contribute to the shaping of new stable forms of coexistence with animal balances in the rural world. productIOn; and preservIng a natural environment intrinsically linked to Afn­ MANAGEMENT PRACTICES can culture. Management of natural forests A few years ago, the only countries of The experience of Burkina Faso the Sudano-Sahelian zone that could One of the most progressive projects boast the use of management practices deal ing wi th the management of natural for their natural forests, in the sense of a forests in the Sudano-Sahehan area was clear definitIOn of production targets undertaken by Burkina Faso In 1986. and the actions to attain them, were Financed by UNDP and implemented by Ghana and the Sudan. In fact, these FAO under the supervision of the MInis­ countries had long-standing harvesting try of Environment and Tourism, it was rules, often accompanied by forest -tend­ completed in 1993. The expected results ing methods aimed at regenerating for­ were: the management of 200 000 ha of ests by enriching them if possible (FAO/ village areas and the comanagement of UNEP, 1981). Today most countries are 100000 ha of forest formations with the starting their own experiences in the participation of the local farmers and the field and adding to it the new dimension regular production of 50 000 mJ of of people's participation. Forest man- fuelwood per year, starting from 1993. Iystems for the ImplementatIOn of sustamable forest management 39

The management practices followed enrichment planting for the plots des­ by the Burkina Faso project include the tined for harvesting; and ensures main­ following: tenance of the forest roads and forest fire • Effective and voluntary participation prevention and control. of the rural population organized m The management model set up by the village forest management groups. Burkma Faso project is divided into two • The conservation and enrichment of clearly defined phases. The first formu­ forest formations, especially those lates the management and administra­

where growing stock exceeds 10m 1 tIOn plan, including training village in­ per year. structors and management officers, and • The creation of economically self­ follows up the first year's implementa­ sufficient forest Industnes, tion ofthe management plan. This phase comanaged by the farmers and the IS financed by non-forest resources and forest services. is carned out by the project team with the • Close cooperatIon with the pTlvate farmers' participation. sector responsible for transportmg The second phase concerns the fuel wood and Its marketIng to comanagement of the forest production customers. bu~iness responsible for applying the • Use of the economic and social management plan. The business is run dynamics tnggered by forest by a management council consistmg of management to support the representatives of the village forest man­ organization of livestock breedmg agement groups, the forest services and and agnculture, includmg land use, the provincial admimstratlon. Manage­ in the village areas. ment costs are covered by income from The management plan alms at produc­ the forest production itself, based on an mg fuel wood to supply the town of amount deducted from the price of each Ouagadougou. It divides the forest for­ stere sold. This is the management fund. mations mto management units of dif­ ferent sizes ranging from 2 000 to 4 000 Description of the intervention area. ha m order to set up a block of plots with The project intervention area lies south a I5-year rotation; evaluates the forest of Ouagadougou in the north Sudanese potential; sets harvesting regulations c.iimatic zone with rainfall ranging from which limit wood extraction to 50 per­ 700 to 900 mm. Forest formations are cent of the growing stock; estabhshes mainly of the tree savannah type, in- 40 Wood production and wood/or energy

eluding Butyrospermum paradoxa var. Mossis (57 percent), the Peuhls (10 per­ parkii, Detarium macrocarpum, cent) and the Wall as (3 percent) Terminalia sp. and Anogeissus leiocarpa (Douarnba, 1991). with an extensive grass layer. Wooded Despite the main roads that cross it savannahs are present in patches includ­ from north to south, the project interven­ ing Burkea africana, Isoberlinia doka tion zone remains largely landlocked and Daniellia oliveri. Rivers and low­ because of the absence of cross-country lands have riparian formations with a links. The population is settled in about predominance of Khaya senegaiensis, 100 villages of varying sizes. In 1985, Pterocarpus ermaceus, Burkea africana 84 000 peopled lived in these villages. and Parinari excelsa. Assuming an annual population growth According to Burkina Faso land legis­ rate for the area of 5 percent, there could lation, all lands falling within the bound­ be about 120000 inhabitants today. aries of the national territory form part of The main economic activity is agricul­ the National Forest Estate belonging to ture, essentially on a subsistence level, the state (Government of Burkina Faso, with a marginal participation in ca<;h crops: 1991). The project intervention area is the extensive and nomadic livestock pro­ divided between the 30 000 ha of the duction practised around the area includes gazetted forest and the 70 000 ha of the about 30 000 head of cattle and almost as non-gazetted forests. For customary au­ many small ruminants. State services are thorities, all land in village areas belongs limited to insufficient pnmary schools, to the indigenous populations. Arbitra­ health centres and extension services. tion of conflicts and the attribution ofland Trade seems to be concentrated in the to migrant applicants are assured by the weekly village markets, with intervillage village and land chiefs. The migrant ben­ exchanges as their main feature. eficiaries, however, cannot appropriate it The present size and prospects of the even after prolonged use, nor undertake fuel wood market in Ouagadougou are certain activities without the owner's pre­ determined by the assumed population vious authorization. The loan ofland sub­ growth and the maintenance of the con­ ject to mutual aid and hospitality obliga­ sumption level, evaluated for 1987 at tions is not binding on the beneficiary 0.66 kg per person per day. Based on (Nougtara, 1991). The population com­ these figures in 1990, the estimated an­ prises four different ethnic groups: the nual demand for fuel wood was about indigenous Gourounsis (30 percent), the 240000 m3 while, in 2000, it is projected Systems for the implementation of sustainable forest management 41

to rise to 600 000 m3 (Zida, 1991). This on the objectives of forest formation means that the fuelwood market is as­ development. sured even if it exceeds the annual pro­ • Compiling a map ofland occupation duction of the forest formations that at a scale of 1 :20 000: the blocks supply the town of Ouagadougou, and is selected jointly with the village estimated to be 530 000 m3 per year authorities are subjected to a (World Bank/UNDP, 1990). photographic coverage at 1:20 000. Photo interpretation and mapping The management plan formulation activities stress the different types of phase. The management plan formula­ forest formations, human occupancy tion phase included the following activi­ and river and road networks. tIes: • Organizing groups: instructors or­ • Setting up a soil map at a scale of ganize village meetings with all 1 :200 000: the first phase, aimed at wishing to participate in order to identifying blocks suited to describe the planned activities, ad­ management, was carried out using vantages and constraints. Decisions Landsat TM images at a scale of concerning forest management 1:200 000. The end of the rainy groups are the sole responsibility of season was chosen to record the the villagers. scenes in order to obtain maximum • Training: management groups select vegetation coverofthe soil. Physical one forestry instructor for every 20 maps (at 1:200 000) of Burkina people. The ten-week training course Faso's Geographic Institute were comprises three sessions: logging, used as a planimetnc background to silviculture and forest fire protection. prepare monochromatic mapping • Establishing management units and (Ribot, 1991). plots: the management units are • Identifying the villages concerned established according to the and checking their potentialities: this estimated forest potential, inter­ involved low flights followed by village preferences, number of mem­ ground surveys based on pre­ bers of the groups and available ac­ established procedures. cess routes. The plot block is deter­ • Using information campaigns: an mined by the area of the manage­ information campaign addressed the ment unit and the number of years of administrative and village authorities the rotation adopted. 42 Wood production and woodfor energy

o Evaluating forest potential: this in­ Constraints cludes establishing the dendrometric The progress achieved by the Burkina and ecological parameters that Faso project in creating a natural forest should determine the final form of management model with farmers' par­ the management and administration ticipation has enabled it to identify the plan. limits of technical expertise and the

o Compiling a comanagement con­ magnitude of socio-economic con­ tract: the comanagement contract is straints. a forest resources usufruct agree­ Technically, the main problems are ment conditioned by the manage­ few: forestry know ledge, control of for­ ment and administration plan. est fires, length of the rotations and in­

o Formulating the management and ventory methods suited to the heteroge­ administration plan: this is a neous species and varying ages of the document that summarizes the forest formations In the Sudano-Sahel ian cartographic, legal and socio­ zone. economic data of the forest and However, the main constraints to specifies the management targets. implementing sustainable management lnteIVention methods concern mainly of forest formations stem from legal and rotation time, the haIVesting system, SOCiO-economlc factors. On the one hand, the silvicultural methods to be there are the complex relationships and applied in order to ensure contradictions between land legislation regeneration of the formations and and customary rights, in particular con­ the form and intensity of the activities cerning landownership and usufruct of associated with forest management, forest resources; on the other hand, there including agriculture and cattle are problems of establishing new forms production. of rural land organization and utilization of natural resources in place of the present Comanagement. Comanagement is agricultural and livestock production implemented through a wood production methods. firm, regulated by the management and the administration plan. Farmers, who are REFERENCES organized in forestry management groups and joined in a group union, participate at Bertrand, Kilian, J., Raunet, M., all the decision-making levels. Guillobez, S. & Bourgeon, G. 1985. Systems for the implementation of sustainable forest management 43

La connaissance des systemes de des pays saheliens 1983-2010. Paris. pays ages naturels, un prealable a la Pieri, Ch. 1989. Fertilire des terres de protection du milieu. L' approche savane. Bilan de trente ans de recher­ morphopedologique, Bull. Rech. Agro. che et de developpement agricole au Gembloux, 20(3/4): 545-559. sud du Sahara. Paris, Ministry of Co­ Douamba, J.B. 1991. Contribution d operation and Development/CIRAD­ l' analyse et d la mise en appizcation de IRAT. l' Intensification des cultures vlvrieres. Ribot, F. 1991. Notice explicative de la Consultant's report. Project BKF/89/ carte de la situation des etats de sur­ OIl. Ouagadougou, UNDP. face. Project BKF/89/011. Oua­ FAO. 1990. Amenagement et exploita­ gadougou, UNDP. tion des forets pour Ie ravitaillement SEDES·CEDRAT S.A. 1990. Plan d' Ouagadougou en bois defeu. Termi­ cereralier du Burkina Faso. Ministry nal report. FO-DP/BKF/89/011. Rome. of Agriculture and Livestock Produc­ FAO/UNEP. 1981. Forest resources of tion. Ouagadougou, CILSS. tropical Africa Technical Report No. World Bank/UNDP. 1990. Strategie 2. UN 32/6. 1301-78-04. Rome. pour /' energie menagere, Programme Giri, J. 1983. Le Sahel demain, catas­ d' assistance d la gestion du secteur trophe ou renaissance? Paris, Karthala. energle. Ouagadougou. Government of Burkina Faso. 1991. Zida, B. 1991. Production, commer­ Pr()jet de texte pOl'tant sur la re­ Cialisation et consommation des com­ organisation agraire etfonciere. Oua­ bustibles ligneux. Region et ville de gadougou. Ouagadougou. Consultant's report. Metro,A. 1975. Terminologleforestiere. Project BKF/89/0 II. Ouagadougou, Version fran'taise. Paris, Conseil inter­ UNDP. national de la langue fran'taise. Nougtara, T. 1991. Les contramtes de l' amenagement sylvo-pastoral en zone protegee de Cassou. End of training report. Project BKF/89/011. Oua­ gadougou, UNDP. OECD. 1988. Le Sahelface auxfuturs. Dependance croissante ou transfor­ mation structure lie . Etude prospective

Systems for the implementation of sustainable forest management 45

Sustainable management of plantation forest in the tropics and subtropics E. Camplnhos Jr

This paper discusses the necessity for using the best possible technology for establishing and growing high-yielding forest plantations for volume and quality in the tropIcs and subtropics. After describing the Brazilian forestry situation and wood consumption and pro­ duction in Brazil, the paper cites a successful Brazilian example of forestry plan­ tation in a tropical region: Aracruz Cellulose, a private company which is located in Aracruz in Espirito Santo state. The company produces 1 025 tonnes of bleached cellulose annually from its eucalyptus plantations, with sustainable management as the main goal. Company practices include the use of appropriate genetic mate­ rial for tree Improvement, soil conservation, pest control, improved logging prac­ tices and equipment, research Into residue use and the conservation of native flora and fauna samples.

Introduction struction, fibre and other uses, new for­ Every year, forests become increasmgly ests are being established with new qual­ important to rural communities for the ity and productivity concepts. provision of goods and services. To in­ Environmentally, forest planting is crease wood supplies for energy, con- imperative: it protects and restores the enVIronment; supplies energy; reduces The author IS General Manager of SilViculture the pressure to clear tropical and sub­ and Research, Aracruz Florestal S. A., Rua tropical forests; sequesters carbon re­ Professor Lobo 1128, 29190 Aracruz, Espirito Santo, Brazil. leased into the atmosphere; and is an 48 Wood production and wood for energy

income source for fanners. Forest plan­ rently, good specimens of that species tations offer attractive returns when fast­ can only be observed in forest reserves growing species for tropical and sub­ because the best trees have gone to the tropical regions are used, for instance sawmill and the forests have made way some Eucalyptus and Pinus species. The for grain plantations. Owing to Brazil­ use of these versatile species is fre­ ian pine's economic importance, a fed­ quently opposed, owing to negative eral government agency, the Instituto myths, but such high-value species can­ Nacional do Pinho (National Pine Insti­ not be easily substituted. tute), was created in the 1940s to re­ Technological forest development for establish the forests. tropical and subtropical regions has been Accelerated population growth, the rapid over the last two decades. Current need for new agricultural lands and the techniques establish forest plantations use of low-technology agriculture all with minimum waste and maximum generated strong pressure on forests, productivity. and forests in the northern, western and This paper outlines the Brazilian for­ eastern regions were reduced to vast estry situation and illustrates the results degraded and unproductive areas. New of Aracruz Cellulose's forestry and in­ forests were felled for hardwood ex­ dustrial activities in developing and ports, this time in the Atlantic and Ama­ adapting technologies, respecting the zonian tropical areas. Only the best parts environment, creating good working of the tree (about 30 percent) of a few conditions and in striving for sustainable hundred species were cut and used; the development. balance was burned. Today in Brazil, the situation is chang­ Brazilian forestry ing. There IS a general concern about and In Brazil, there are two types of forest: a wareness of forests' beneficial effects tropical and subtropical. Brazilian colo­ and their rational use in sustainable de­ nization, which occurred more inten­ velopment without environmental deg­ sively in the central-southern region of radation. the country, meant that subtropical for­ ests rapidly gave way to agriculture. The current Brazilian forestry Araucaria angustifolia (Brazilian pine) S\tu8t\on is one of the most valuable and re-presen­ The federal and several state govern­ tative species from that region. Cur- ments are strictly regulating native for- Systems for the implementatIOn of sustainable forest management 47

est cutting in an attempt to preserve what the forestry techniques suitable for each remains. However, they cannot completely region and for selected species. This led halt forest cutting for community needs. to the creation of research institutes and As forests are renewable resources, forestry schools. Many industries were they should be utilized properly, with established for the new forests, as in the mature trees being felled before they case of Aracruz Florestal. die. However, no conclusive experience exists for this kind of forest manage­ Wood consumption and ment. There is research into indigenous production In Brazil forest management, especially fortropl­ The main uses for wood in Brazil, both cal forests, but results are slow to arrive indigenous and planted forests, are: SInce forests grow slowly. • Charcoal. Charcoal production The Increasing difficulty for markets began in the second half of the to offer wood, in addItion to the conse­ nineteenth century, using only wood quent price increases, makes farmers coal from indigenous forests. In plant fast-growing tree species. For ex­ 1987, total charcoal production was ample, Eucalyptus sp. and PinUS sp. are about 34 million m" with 80 percent being planted both in the tropIcal and of this from indigenous forests. subtropIcal regions, and their products • Pulpandpaper.From 1970 until 1987, are marketable. The only constraint IS pulp and paper production increased that these are not habitual wood species by 10.6 percent annually, reaching 3.8 since indigenous woods were used tradi­ million tonnes in 1988. All wood is tionally. The government has therefore from planted forest: 67 percent is encouraged the establIshment of these hardwood (eucalypts) and 33 percent fast-growing trees: in 1967, fiscal incen­ softwood (Brazilian pine etc.). tives for forest plantations were created • Lumber. The fiscal incentives for in Brazil. This move generated the plant­ reforestation are already making an ing of 6252000 ha up to 1986, mainly of impact: pine forests planted at the eucalypts and pines. In 1989, these in­ beginning of 1967 have already centives stopped, although some Brazil­ placed about 3 million m 1 of wood ian states offer financing through their per year on the market. development banks. • Indigenous wood v..eneer. Approxi­ 3 Some of the plantations were unsatis­ mately 500 000 m of plywood are factory, through a lack of knowledge of produced per year. 48 Wood productIOn and wood/or energy

Nevertheless, there is a considerable group, is located in the Aracruz munici­ gap between the amount of wood pro­ pality, 65 km from Vitoria, capital of duced from planted forests and the in­ Espirito Santo state. The company fol­ creasing demand for its products. For lows an integrated concept, consisting the year 1987/88, the difference was of eucalyptus forests, two pulp mills, an 3 about 182 million m • electrochemical plant, a port and a resi­ The outlook is very similar in most dential town where some of its 7 500 developing tropical countries. These employees live. Aracruz Cellulose, the countries have great potential for estab­ holding company of the group, is an lishing industrial and high productivity enterprise with more than US$2 billion forests: the climate is favourable, and in capital value. human resources, technology and seeds The company's pulp mills can pro­ are available. duce 1 025000 tonnes of bleached mar­ Pulp mills do not use indigenous wood. ket pulp per year, exporting 80 percent They use wood produced from planted of its production to about 20 countries. forests with improved species suited to Aracruz Florestal IS responsible for fibre production. The plantings are made the silvicultural activities of the Aracruz in an orderly way allowing rational man­ group, including forestry research. agement aimed at a sustainable yield. plantations, environmental protection These (plantation) forests are effectively and logging and transportation of euca­ a short-cycle tree culture or lignoculture lyptus wood to the pulp mill~. In the and are called forests more because of overall business, Aracruz Florestal has their size than their composition. increased results in pulp productivity in The need to produce homogeneous line with the development of worldwide and good-quality wood for pulp produc­ pioneering techniques and methods. tion makes each industry plant its own Starting In 1967, Aracruz established forests and also encourages nearby farm­ Its forests in the northern coastal region ers to dedicate themselves to the tree of Espirito Santo state and in the south plantation, thereby becoming a partner of Bahia state, concentrating the Se­ in timber production. lected sites in three regions, with an elevation of up to 100 m, an annual A Brazilian example of a tropical rainfall of about I 400 mm and an an­ forestry plantation: Aracruz nual average temperature of about 24°C. Aracruz Cellulose, a private Brazilian The total land area is 203 226 ha, of Systems for the Implementation of sustainable forest management 49

which] 3] 322 ha are covered by euca­ brids adapted to the region's environ­ lyptus plantations and 71 904 ha are mental conditions, which resisted pests occupied by the remaining indigenous and diseases better and yielded higher forests and service areas. volumes (45 m3 per hectare per year) and Owing to the lack of experience with more pulp (> 50 percent). Some syn­ eucalyptus plantations in the region and thetic hybrids (Eucalyptus grandis X E. the absence of improved seeds adapted urophylla) reach quite high increments to the local environmental conditions, (70 m' per hectare per year) when the an annual mean incrementof28 m' in the clone and soil interact well. first plantatIOns was obtained. Acquir­ Results achieved in this clonal experi­ Ing selected material for local condi­ mentation phase showed highly com­ tions to guarantee a better productIOn in pensatory productivity and a wood of the second generation has represented a homogeneous characteristic clones; thus, real challenge. in ] 979 the company chose to replace A research programme was essential plantations gradually, using seeds by for conducting the forestry project. Start­ clonal plantations. ing in 1971, eucalyptus specIes and prov­ In 1986, harvestIng of the first clonal enances and progenies from Australia plantations confirmed research expecta­ and Indonesia were introduced. This tions: wood consumption at the plant programme aimed at produCIng im­ decreased from 4.87 m' to 4.26 m' per proved genetIc material adapted to local tonne of pulp, resulting in significant conditions. On average, 12 years were advantages in product quality and pro­ reqUIred to reach the first stage of supe­ duction and optImizing plant equipment rior seeds. usage. Clonal plantations also present Aracruz buIlt a research centre and advantages of about 22 percent in har­ arranged for seed collection in Australia vesting and logging operations, through and Indonesia. At the same time, to ac­ their tree uniformity, high survival and celerate the use of good genetic mate­ branch-free stems, which give lower rial, studies were carried out to develop costs. a method for vegetative propagation by Because of its pioneering work in de­ rooted cuttings or clones. veloping and adapting clonal plantations, Selection of better trees in the planted in ] 984 Aracruz won international rec­ forests and company research made it ognition with the prestigious Marcus possible to Identify the spontaneous hy- Wallenberg Prize. 50 Wood production and wood for energy

Aracruz Florestal sustainable without turning the soil excessively. management policies and practice This procedure aims at reducing the There had been previous exploitation of loss of nutrients and organic matter the vegetative cover in the areas where as well as the risk of erosion. Aracruz wanted to install its pulp mills, • Soil fertility, biomass production and causing some limitations to company the exportation of nutrients are activities. Formerly occupied by exu­ monitored after wood cutting. The berant tropical forest, these areas were data obtained, together with those covered by weeds and bush and their from research, enable fertilization to soils of inherently low fertility were fur­ be carried out, thus preventing ther depleted. nutrient depletion in the soil and To overcome this, the company devel­ maintaining and/or increasing oped several actions to achieve high forestry productivity. productivity and quality in its wood pro­ • Forests bordering rivers and lakes duction for cellulose. With sustainable are maintained and ennched in order management as the main goal, these ac­ to protect water supplies and maintain tions have evolved over the years and biodiversity. can be summarized as follows: Biodiversity. Genetic material. Species, origins and • The remaining natural vegetation progenies of eucalyptm adapted to local integrated in forestry plantations is conditions were select.~d through tests maintaIned and enriched, resulting evaluating the interaction of genetic in I ha of natural vegetation for material with the prevailing environ­ every 2.4 ha of eucalyptus plantatIon. ment in company areas. This procedure • With habitat maintenance in significantly increases productivity and, company areas, 156 bird species (25 at the same time, minimizes environ­ of which combat eucalyptus pests), mental impacts by introducing exotic 36 mammal species and 3 000 insect species. species were identified.

Soil conservation. Pest control. Preventive pest control is • After wood cutting, forestry resi­ based on a computerized system for de­ dues (leaves and branches) are in­ tecting primary focus, which periodi­ corporated without burning and cally monitors all company areas. The Systems for the implementation of sustainable forest management 51

efficiency of the system means that inter­ edge and research orientation are being vention is necessary in less than 0.02 brought from national and international percent of cases. universities and research institutes by The remaining cases return to equilib­ Aracruz through a close cooperation and rium by natural biodiversity. If treat­ exchange programme. ment measures are needed, biological control is preferred. Research. Research activities in progress or being initiated emphasize: Logging. Leguminosae. Tests are being made • Improved tools were developed for with some tropical fodder and alimen­ manual cutting. tary Leguminosae associated with euca­ • For the first time in Brazil, the lyptus plantations, aimed at biodiversity, company has introduced cutting culture treatment (inhibiting or reducing using a harvester. competition from undesirable weeds) and nitrogen and organic material fixa­ Forestry equipment. tion. Some species have shown potential • In 1984, Aracruz introduced units to produce biomass and inhibit weeds for on-road transportation. Together with the first results. with a vehicle manufacturing Forestry management units. These company, the company is currently units will be established using data from developing a new three-wheel soil surveys, soil preparation and fertili­ bidirectional semi-truck trailer. This zation monitoring and research, deter­ unit is very stable and can ascend mining specific management for differ­ sloping roads, thereby increasing the ent environmental conditions. Factors loading capacity by 19 percent. considered include: • Aracruz has introduced and adapted • genetic material a more modern, economic and • site preparation and fertilization ergonomic forestry tractor family, • weed control which has resulted in better off-road • road maintenance wood transportation. • soil conservation of planted areas A series of research and operational • environmental planning tests are being carried out, aimed at Utilization of residues. Eucalyptus maintaining the evolution of sustainable bark is being tested as a growth medium forestry management. Scientific knowl- for compost utilization in forest nurser- 52 Wood production and wood for energy

ies. Bark is also being used successfully by industries. Among the 150 signatory for recuperating degraded areas. companies, Aracruz was the first to rep­ Ash from auxiliary boilers - with a resent Brazil, setting an example and large amount of calcium, magnesium opening the way for other companies. and potassium - is being used in opera­ It is importantto emphasize that, when tional tests to complement the fertiliza­ t!Jis global document was signed, Aracruz tion of eucalyptus plantations. had already fulfilled many of the indexes Preservation of native flora. Experi­ and requirements and should meet all ments are being perfonned to define remaining criteria very soon. ideal sustainable management of differ­ ent forestry fragments. By fonning a Conclusions and seed bank of local indigenous arboreous recommendations species, Aracruz intends to identify those • This paper describes a successful species that can produce energy, pulp, forestry business in a tropical region saw mill products, etc., and thus use based on eucalyptus forest them in silvicultural research and possi­ plantations, supplying a pulp mill bly in reforestation proJects. that has a capacity of 1 025 000 PreservatIOn ofnative fauna. Quanti­ tonne bleached pulp per year. tative and qualitative studies on the bio­ • TropIcal and subtropical regions ecological and support capacity in com­ offer good opportunities for hlgh­ pany areas aim at reintroducing some quality and fast-growing forestry fauna species in danger of extinctIon or plantations, wIth competitive costs. of not settling again in the preservation Land and labour are available. areas. Government representatives should Because of these and other company understand this opportunity and measures on environmental questIons develop a realistic forestry policy since it began activIty, it was possible to that incorporates reforestatIOn sign the Business Charter for Sustain­ incentives. able Development in Rotterdam in April • Policy for exchanging developed 1991. This document, written by the technologies and for evolving them International Chamber of Commerce, and adapting them to local condi­ with United Nations support, establishes tions, has created a tremendous and 16 criteria for environmental protection beneficial synergy among techni­ and recovery to be attained and verified cians, resulting in effort and cost re- Systems for the implementation of sustainable forest management 53

ductions. This was the case with Campinhos Jr, E. 1986. Forestry pro­ Aracruz, after establishing relation­ ductivity in the tropics: Aracruz' expe­ ships with forestry technicians of rience. Riode Janeiro, Brazil, ESPRA. public and private companies in 3 pp. many countries. Campinhos Jr, E. 1991. Plantation of • Technology developments for re­ fast-growing species for tropical areas. forestation in tropical and subtropi­ In Proc. 10th World For. Congr., Vol. cal countries create opportunities for 5, p. 111-120. Nancy, France, ENGREF. establishing new projects and adap­ Campinhos Jr, E. Some aspects about tations to local conditions. forest tree plantation in developing • It is necessary to respect the envi­ countries. In Issue dialogue on tree ronment, to preserve it and restore it. plantattons' benefits and drawbacks . • A key point in a reforestation Geneva, Centre for Applied Studies in programme is to identify genetic ma­ International Negotiations. (in press) tenal sources. The growth of selected Campinhos Jr, E. & Silva Jr, E.C. genetic material should be quantified 1990. Development of the eucalyptus in each region. tree offuture. Seville, Spain, ESPRA, • Forests can act as "carbon smks", 22 pp . contnbutmg to the capture of excess FAO. 1991 a. Global overV/e"W of status carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. and trends ofthe world's forests. Rome. Tree plantations are at once FAO. 1991b. Plantation wood in world ecologIcally appropnate, econo­ trade. Rome. 22 pp. mIcally profItable and socially FAO Forestry Department. 1986. acceptable. FAO's Tropical Forestry Action Plan. Unasylva, 38(152): 37-64. REFERENCES Jesus, R.M. 1990. The need for refores­ tation; environmental protection agency. Burley, J. & Ikemori, Y.K. 1988. In Proc. Workshop on Large-Scale Re­ Tropical forest production: the im­ forestatlon. Corvallis, Forest Research pact of clonal propagation technol­ Laboratory, Oregon State University. ogy. In Towards an agro-industrial Pacheco, M.R.P.S. & Helene, M.E.M. future. p. 169-180. Monograph Se­ 1990. Atmosfera, fluxos de carbono e ries 8. London, Royal Agricultural fertilizacao por C02. USP. Estudos Society of England. Avancados, 4(9): 204-220. 54 Wood productIOn and wood for energy

Poyry, J. 1990. The forest industry - lenges. In Proc. World Congress of threshold to the twenty-first century; IUFRO, Montreal, Canada. technical advances and scientific chal- Systems for the Implementation of sustainable forest management 55

Sustainable management for non-wood forest products in the tropics and subtropics G.E. Wickens

This paper describes the sustainable management of forests in the tropics and subtropics for non-wood forest products. Sustainable management for non-wood products means balancing optimal productivity and controlling ecological change so that environmental equilibriums are maintained. Management requirements will vary according to site, species and the needs of the local communities and the government, etc. Other subjects covered include the possibility of combining sustainable management for non-wood products with that for timber production; the use of fire in sustainable management; rotational coppicing to maintain sustained yields of fuelwood, of wood for poles, etc.; improving non-wood products through natural variation, vegetative propagation and selection for desirable traits; and rotational cropping, agroforestry and shifting cultivation. Finally, the paper provides an example of the management ramifications required for the sustained productivity and conservation of non-wood products in the 77 000 km 2 ATr and Tenere National Nature Reserve in the Niger.

Introduction tions and nations. In the present context, The distinction between wood and non­ "wood" refers to round wood, sawn tim­ wood products is ill-defined and vari­ ber, wood-based panels, wood chips and ously interpreted by different organiza- pulp, and it often involves commercial enterprises. The author is retired Head of the Economic The term "forest", as it is used here, and Conservation Section, Royal Botanic approaches its original meaning as an Gardens, Kew, United Kingdom 56 Managing forests for non-wood forest products

unenclosed woodland or open, mainly gral part of the survival and develop­ treeless area, reserved for hunting and ment strategy for the continuing well­ embracing all the natural ecosystems where being of man, livestock and native flora trees and shrubs form a significant com­ and fauna. Often considered a forest by­ ponent. Thus, "forests" range from ever­ product, unfortunately the potential eco­ green rain forests to desert. However, in nomic value, either monetary or in terms the latter, trees and shrubs are confined of utilization (e.g. wild foods, browse, primarily to oases and waterways. bushmeat), is often unknown or unap­ "Non-wood forest products" refers preciated by managers. Forest manage­ here to all the biological material (other ment can no longer be concerned solely than wood products defined above) that with timber production. It is also neces­ may be extracted from natural ecosys­ sary to consider environmental impact tems and managed plantations and that studies and the effect of timber produc­ can be utilized within the household, be tion on the well-being of local people in marketed or have social, cultural or reli­ terms of floral, faunal and medical ecol­ gious significance. Such products in­ ogy, ethnobiology, sociology, etc. clude: plants used for food, beverages, The role of forest managers is to main­ forage, fuel, medicine, fibres and tam or increase the productivity offorest biochemicals; and animals, birds and resources while protectmg them from fish used for food, fur and feathers; as overexploitation. The aim IS to proVide well as their products such as honey, lac essential products and services while and silk. Ecosystem use for recreation, simultaneously allowmg for the needs of

nature reserves and catchment manage- I the local rural people. For non-wood ment is regarded as forest services. For­ forest products the challenge is there­ age according to FAO usage (Ibrahim in fore to assist "development" while si­ FAO, 1975), includes "all browse and multaneously promoting the continued herbaceous food that is available to live­ and possibly increased sustainable utili­ stock or game animals". Thus, forage zation of such products (Wickens, 1991). includes non-wood forest products that There is a wide variation in manage­ sustain such animal populations. ment requirements associated with non­ wood forest products, reflecting the var­ Management for non-wood forest ied environmental requirements and products habitats of the species concerned. Fur­ Non-wood forest products are an inte- thermore, other management require- Systems for the implementation of sustainable forest management 57

ments include such diverse interests as community without any need for gov­ the local communities acting either as ernment intervention: for example, the individuals or collectively, external en­ so-called "primitive" forest-dwelling trepreneurs acting independently of the communities of Amazonia are very adept local community, and local or national at utilizing and conserving local re­ government agencies with interests and sources. The Kayapo Amerindians from policies that mayor may not reflect the Gorotire village in southern Para state, well-being of the local community. Thus, Brazil, utilize more than 98 percent of there can be no single solution to the the 120 species identified from clumps management requirements for non-wood of woody vegetation (apere) within the forest products. local scrub savannah (campo cerrado). Both natural and planted forests are a Furthermore, the Kayapo prepare suit­ rich source of non-wood forest prod­ able planting media from litter and ter­ ucts. Unfortunately, harvesting their wild mite and ant nests, and take them to the products is sometimes inefficient and apere where selected useful wild species done using destructive methods. The are planted. Some desirable species may potential markets for some of these prod­ even be brought from considerable dis­ ucts has resulted in their replacement by tances (Anderson and Posey, 1989). cheaper, synthetic products. The need Similarly, the swidden cultivation ar­ for a constant supply, as in the case of eas of the Ka'opor Amerindians are pharmaceutical products, has also led to cropped and rotationally abandoned so synthesization. The few products that as to create a succession of diverse habi­ cannot be readily synthesized, such as tats to maintain both flora and fauna. natural rubber, have been taken into ag­ Thus, the secondary forest is being ma­ ricultural production or are undergoing nipulated for the sustainable production domestication, for instance rattan (Poore, of both floral and faunal resources by 1989). Thus, entrepreneurs and govern­ utilizing the various vegetation zones in ment policy-makers need to consider different stages of recovery (Balee and supply, demand and global economics Gely, 1989). Such community-based affecting the more commercially viable management systems challenge govern­ non-wood forest products, which mayor ments to ensure that such sustainable may not concern the rural user. community forestry systems continue to At one extreme, the natural resources survive as the communities are exposed i may be managed and maintained by the to the outside world. 58 Managing forests for non-wood forest products

The integration of non-wood forest forest in an age when the world's tropi­ products with timber production can pro­ cal forests are disappearing at the rate of vide both local benefits and make timber 40 ha per minute. By establishing a buffer extraction more environmentally sus­ zone around Kirup as well as agroforestry tainable and economically feasible. Thus, schemes, the project aims at increasing Caldecott (1988), in his proposal for a the productivity of the 30 000 small­ review offorest policy in Sarawak, sug­ scale farmers living in the region while gested increasing production of non­ safeguarding the future of the rain forest wood products and introducing longer in the heart of the national park. felling cycles and lower harvesting in­ tensities for timber. Revenue loss from The use of fire the lower timber production is offset by In use since antiquity, fire is the oldest of the increased revenue from non-wood land management practices, and IS prac­ forest products. An example is the Yapo tised throughout the tropical and sub­ National Forestinsouthem Coted 'Ivoire, tropical woodland, scrubland and grass­ consisting of both plantations and natu­ land ecosystems (Warmington, 1964; ral forest. The 1987 revenue from the West, 1965). Fire may be used by the non-timber products totalled US$26000 pastoralist as a range management tool and helped defray management costs to control plant successIOn; encourage (Falconer, 1990). fresh grass growth early In the groWIng Unfortunately, there is still insuffI­ season; destroy undesirable plants and cient information on how to manage Insect pests; and reduce the fuel load and forests to yield a diversity of products. potential risk of accidental fires Referring specifically to West Africa, (Edwards, 1984). Fire may also be used Falconer (FAD, 1990) observed that to clear or clean lands for cultivation. there are no examples of community An understanding of the principles of forest activities designed to enhance pre­ fire behaviour and its effect on the flora existing forest resources. However, quite and fauna is essential for its use as a often it is difficult to distinguish be­ management tool for sustainable pro­ tween sucn communit'j forest activities duction. cma. cQnse~at\Qn ~\Q\ec\s. Came\QQn' s 1\\e \m\lac\ Oll\\:e on ~ma and fauna declaration of Komp as a National depends upon the frequency, intensity Rainforest Park in 1987 was pnmariJy and height at which heat energy is re­ intended to conserve 125 000 ha of rain leased. The time of the year is also Systems for the implementation of sustainable forest management 59

important. Thus, the burning of grass­ destroyed whereas birds and adult mam­ lands at the end of the rainy season can mals can escape. Whether the faunal be harmful, since many of the perennial population returns depends on the envi­ species are still trans locating food re­ ronmental changes resulting from the serves from the leaves for storage in the fire. Overly frequent fires may result in roots. The fire stimulates the grasses to long-lasting or even pennanent faunal produce fresh growth at the expense of changes (Bigalke and Willan, 1984). the madequate food reserves stored in Much of the above infonnation is based the root system. The weakened species on experience in southern Africa and is are then replaced by more fire-tolerant not necessarily applicable to other re­ and generally less palatable perennials gions of the world where different eco­ or even annuals. The bared soil may also logical and climatological conditions suffer erosion (Scott, 1955). prevail. Indeed, the use of fire and its Fire may also be used to control bush effects within the biomass of South Af­ encroachment and to maintain a rica, as described in Booysen and Tainton favourable balance between woody and (1984), are sufficiently variable to ex­ grass species' competition for moisture clude the recommendation of one single and nutrients and the livestock's require­ management methodology. ment for herbage, browse and shade. A The following examples from Austra­ late bum, before the grasses have started lia and Central America illustrate the use to produce new growth but sufficiently of fire to manipulate non-wood forest late in the season to leave the bared soil products. Prior to European contact, the exposed for the shortest possible time, Alyawara aborigines of Central Austra­ can be effective in controlling bush en­ lia survived by hunting and gathering; croachment (West, 1955). The frequency their highly variable pattern of move­ of such bums should be such that unde­ ment depended on food and water distri­ sirable trees and shrubs from either seed bution, a pattern detennined by the cli­ or coppice regrowth do not mature suf­ mate and a knowledge of the ecology of ficiently to produce seed or become re­ both flora and fauna. One reason for the sistant to fire (Kruger, 1984; Mentis and now limited distribution of fonnerly Tainton, 1984). important food plants is attributed by the The impact of fire on fauna survival is Alyawara to the government's policy of poorly documented. Flightless insects, discouraging fire use. Fire was used by eggs and immature mammals may be the Alyawara to drive game from cover, 80 Managing forests for non-wood forest products

to clear ground for hunting and plant of fuel wood, straight poles for fencing, collecting, or for camp sites. The area walls, roof timbers, tool handles, etc. burnt rarely exceeded I km2; neverthe­ and also for prolonging species life. The less it had an important impact on the cutting of reeds and reed grasses, such as abundance and distribution of those ed­ Phragmltes australis and Arundodonax, ible plants that favoured disturbed habi­ can stimulate further rhizome growth tats and it created patchy habitats where (Anderson, 1991). animals could find fresh forage close to unbumt cover. Although it is unclear Improvement of non-wood forest whether fire was deliberately used to products promote environmental change, the There is an enormous potential for de­ Alyawara certainly recognized its effect veloping non-wood forest products, es­ (O'Connell, Latz and Barnett, 1983). pecially in the developing countries. Wild A more deliberate and localized ex­ foods, for example, can contribute sub­ ample of the use of fire to influence the stantially towards fulfilling dietary needs, productivity of a single species is in the especially during seasons of the year Jaumave region of the Sierra Madre Ori­ when conventional staples are unavail­ ental in Mexico. Here, the campesinos able. For example, In West Africa, the use the rhizomatous, perennial bushgrass, African pear (Dacryodes edulis) ma­ zacaton (Sporobolus giganteus) for tures during the "hungry season" when thatching. During winter, the zacaton the agricultural crops have been planted stands are burnt to destroy insect pests, but are not yet ready for harvest (Okafor, eliminate competitive grasses and shrubs 1991 ). and destroy any accumulation of dead Ogden (1990) and Falconer (1990) material. The burning also creates higher recognize the nutritional benefits of wild and thicker culms and stimulates the forest foods as sources of protein, min­ rhizomes to expand the stands of zacaton erals and vitamins. The dietary value of (Anderson, 1991). such wild foods has also been observed among the desert peoples, including the Coppice regrowth Australian aborigines, Ethiopian Jews Rotational coppicing of a number of and the Amerindians of Mexico and the trees and shrubs (Azadirachta sp., Euca- southwestern United States. lyptus sp., Ziziphus sp., etc.) can also be Like industrial timber trees, natural used for maintaining sustainable yields variation within non-industrial multipur- Systems for the implementatIOn of sustainable forest management 61

pose trees and shrubs offers similar man­ Agroforestry and rotational agement opportunities for conserving, cropping developing and utilizing plant resources Von MaydeU et al. (1982) defines (Okafor, 1991; Venkatesh.1988).Among agroforestry as a new term for the old the Nigerian wild fruit-tree resources, the practice of growing woody plants with recognition of taxonomic varieties with agricultural crops and/or livestock to­ significant differences in the phenology of gether on the same land. It is the deliber­ flowering, fruiting and leafflush has led to ate growing of woody perennials on the the possibility of deliberately extending same unit of land as agricultural crops the period offruit and vegetable availabil­ and/or animals, either in some form of ity, increasing productIvIty and selecting spatial mixture or in sequence, and in­ the desired pattern and yield season volves a slgmficant positive and/ornega­ (Okafor, 1978; 199 I). Such fruit-trees tive ecological or economic interaction include Dacryodes edulis, Irvingia between the woody and non-woody com­ gabonensis and Terculia afncana ssp. ponents of the system. afrlcana (Okafor, 1977; 1980; 1991). For Agroforestry also offers an opportu­ example, the fruit availability of Irvingia nity for growing, under "plantation" con­ gabonensls can be significantly extended ditions, mUltipurpose species whose pro­ by using var. gabonensls and var. exce/sa ducti vity can be or has been improved by which fruit in the rainy and dry seasons, selection and/or breeding. Thus, wild, respectively. semi-domesticated and domesticated The successful methods of vegetative species can be used in the woody portion propagation used include budding, stem of the agroforestry system. cuttings and truncheons. Different vari­ There is no clear distinction between eties may require different management forestry, agriculture and horticulture, objectives and practices. For example, especially where non-wood forest prod­ for food production Okafor (1980) rec­ ucts are concerned (Wickens, 1990). ommends using the budded plants of the Thus, depending on their scale and his­ large-fruited Treculia africana var. torical and national inclinations. planta­ africana to reduce bole length and height tion crops and their management can offruit set, while the smaller-fruited var. come under one or more of the three mollis and var. inversa, which are better disciplines. The distinction has been fur­ suited for pulp production, can be reared ther complicated by the development of from unbudded fruits. agroforestry practices during the latter 62 Managing forests for non-wood forest products

half of this century, where tree growing low, the planting of tree seeds or seed­ becomes part of the crop rotation, or lings during the last year of cropping alley cropping where the crops benefit ensures a period of soil rejuvenation from the adjoining permanent or semi­ under a plantation crop, the regular spac­ permanent rows of shrubs and/or trees. ing of which should maximize benefits Multipurpose trees and shrubs are often from soil improvement and yields of selected for these practices, providing non-wood forest products. non-wood forest products in addition to their agronomic benefits by way of re­ Management implementation ducing erosion, providing shade and An example ofthe management ramifi­ improving soil fertility. cations required for the sustained pro­ In shifting cultivation, the bush fallow ductivity and conservation of non-wood represents a natural and inefficient form forest products IS that of the Niger's of agroforestry. It is inefficient because 77 000 km2 Air and Tenere National Na­ the species regrowth and their density is ture Reserve. The reserve was motivat­ usually subject to natural regeneration. ed primarily to conserve the region's For example, the gum cultivation cycle unique flora and fauna against uncon­ formerly practised in the Sudan tradition­ trolled hunting and tourist harass­ ally consisted of about four years of crop­ ment. After several years of drought, ping followed by ten to 14 years under tree the effects of excessive land use and fallow from regenerating Acacia senegal, deforestatIOn were clearly visible. The with other trees and shrubs being largely local inhabitants were consulted at all eliminated during the previous clearings stages of planning to ensure their well­ of the fallow for cultivation. This repre­ being and agreed cooperatIOn. sents a management decision by the farmer The rural development programme to maximize production (within the limits included introducing adobe construc­ of natural regeneration) ofsuch non-wood tion to decrease the demand for building forest products as gum arabic, browse and poles, well digging, health training, adult fuelwood. literacy classes, etc. General state legis­ Urbanization and demographic growth lation was replaced by more appropriate have made shifting cultivation largely site-specific regulations. A wildlife sanc­ impractical. Land under continuous crop­ tuary occupying 12 percent of the area ping requires the rotation of crops to was established in the centre of the re­ maintain fertility. Instead of a bush fal- serve, in a part rarely visited. Hunting Systems for the implementation of sustainable forest management 63

and bushmeat gathering were banned BaJee, W. & Gely, A. 1989. Managed and national restrictions on the use of forest succession in Amazonia: the certain tree species were enforced and Ka'opor case. Adv. Econ. Bot., 7: 129- accompanied by help compensating the 158. artisans and products affected by the Bigalke, R.C. & Willan, K. 1984. Ef­ ban. fects offire regime on faunal composi­ tion and dynamics. In P. de V. Booysen, Concluding remarks & N.M. Tainton, eds., Ecological ef­ "Forestry is the science, business and art fects of fire in South African ecosys­ of managing and conserving forests and tems, p. 255-271. Berlin, Gennany, associated lands for continuing eco­ Springer. 426 pp. nomic, social and environmental ben­ Booysen, P. de V. & Tainton, N.M., efit. It involves the balanced manage­ eds. 1984. Ecological effects offire in ment of forest resources for optimum South African ecosystems. Berlin, Ger­ yields of wood products, abundant wild­ many, Springer. 426 pp. life. plentiful supplies of pure water, Caldecott, J. 1988. Proposal for an attractive scenic and recreational envi­ independent review offorestry policy ronments in wild, rural and urban set­ in Sarawak. London, Land Associates. tings. and a variety of other services and (mimeo) products. Forestry draws on knowledge Edwards, P.J. 1984. The use of fire as a and expenence from many disciplines management tool. In P. de V. Booysen and other professions" (Science Council & N.M. Tainton, eds. Ecological ef­ of Canada, 1973). fects of fire In South African ecosys­ tems. p. 349-362. Berlin, Gennany, References Springer. 426 pp. Anderson, A.B. & Posey, D.A. 1989. Falconer, J. 1990. "Hungry season" Management of a tropical scrub sa­ food from forests. Unasylva, 41( 160): vanna by the Gorotife Kayap6 of Bra­ 14-19. zil. Adv. Econ. Bot., 7: 159-173. FAO. 1975. Glossary of terms used in Anderson, K. 1991. Wild plant man­ pasture and range survey research, agement: cross-cultural examples of ecology and management. AGPC: the small fanners of Jaumave, Mexico MISCl34. Rome. and the south Miwok of the Yosemite FAO. 1990. The major significance of region. Arid Lands Newsl., 31: 18-23. "minor" forest products. The local use 64 Managing forests for non-wood forest products

and value offorests in the West African est tree crops for food supplies in Ni­ humid zone. Community Forestry Note geria. For. Ecol. Manage .• I: 235-247. No.6. Rome. Okafor, J.e. 1978. Development of FAO. 1991. Non-woodforest products: forest tree crops for food supplies in the way ahead. FAO Forestry Paper Nigeria. Forest Ecol. Manage., I: 235- No. 97. Rome. 247. Kruger, F.J. 1984. Effects of fire on Okafor, J.e. 1980. Edible indigenous vegetation structure and dynamics. In woody plants in the rural economy of P. de V. Booysen & N.M. Tainton. eds. the Nigerian forest zone. For. Ecol. Ecological effects offire in South Afri­ Manage .• 3: 45-65. can ecosystems. p. 219-243. Berlin, Okafor, J.e. 1991. Improving edible Gennany, Springer. 426 pp. species of forest products. Unasylva. Mentis, M.T. & Tainton, N.M. 1984. 42(165): 17-21. The effect of fire on forage production Poore,D.1989.Notimberwlthout trees and quality. In P. de V. Booysen & London. Earthscan. N.M. Tainton, eds. Ecologl('al effects Science Council of Canada. 1974. A offire in South African ecosystems. p. national statement by the schools of 245-254. Berlin. Germany. Springer. forestry at Canadwn Unlversltles. Ot­ 426 pp. tawa, Canada. Meredith, D •• ed. 1955. The grasses Scott, J.D. 1955. Pnnciples of pasture and pastures of South Afnca Pretoria. management. In D. Meredith. ed. The South Africa, Central News Agency. grasses and pastures of South Afnca. 771 pp. p. 601-623. Pretoria. South Africa. Niamir, M. 1990. Traditional woodland Central News Agency. 771 pp. management techniques of African Venkatesh, e.S. 1988. Genetic Improve­ pastoralists. U nasylva. 41 (160): 49-58. ment of mUlti-purpose tree species. O'Connell, J.F., Latz, P.K. & Barnett, Int. TreeCropsJ. 5: 109-124. P. 1983. Traditional and modem plant Von MaydeU, H.J., Budowski, G., Le use among the Alyawara of Central Houerou, H.N., Lundgen, B. & Australia. Econ. Bot., 37: 80-109. Steppler, H.A. 1982. What is Ogden, C. 1990. Building nutritional con­ AGROFORESTRY? Agrofor.Syst., I: siderations into forestry development 13-27. efforts. Unasylva. 41(160): 20-28. Warmington, B.H. 1964. Carthage. Okafor,J.e. 1977. Development of for- London. Penguin. Systems for the implementatIOn of sustainable forest management 65

West, O. 1955. Veld management in the Mimeographed Publication No.1. dry, summer-rainfall bush veld, In D. Hurley, Berkshire, UK, Commonwealth Meredith, ed. The grasses and pas­ Bureau of Pastures and Field Crops. tures of South Africa, p. 624-636. Wickens, G.E. 1990. What is economic Pretoria, South Africa, Central News botany? Econ. Bot., 44: 12-28. Agency. 771 pp. Wickens, G.E. 1991. Management is­ West, O. 1965. Fire in vegetatIOn and its sues for development of non-timber for­

use In pasture management, p. I-53. est products. Unasylva, 42( 165): 3-8.

Systems for the Implementation of sustainable forest management 67

Management for soil and water conservation T. Michaelsen

This paper provides examples of different scenarios where soil and water conservation are seen as important aspects of sustainable forest management. It makes a brief update of present, incomplete knowledge of forest hydrology, especially in tropical zones and describes some forest management options, with special emphasis on soil and water conservation, including basic considerations in critical operations such as road construction, and land clearing. Finally, the paper deals with some of the particular Issues related to semi-arid zones. The hydrologic balance of natural forests, once destroyed, can never be fully restored, and prevention through timely and decisive action is needed to protect forest areas which are vital for water resources protection from destruction and conversion to other uses, including forest plantations. On the other hand, it has been demonstrated that following a few basic rules In forest harvesting operations can make this practice environmentally acceptable in terms of sOil, water and nutrient losses. The beneficial effects of trees and forest plantations on sOil and water conservation should not be taken for granted. Forests and trees will only be protected and managed effectively if they are of value to the land users and to rural communities living in their vicinity.

SOIL AND WATER purposes or for combining several CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT complementary or conflicting objectives. Forest management for soil and water Scenarios range from cases where the conservation is carned out for many only requirement is to establish norms for minimizing damage to soil and water resources by observing a few basic man­ The author is Forest Conservation Officer with the Forest Resources Division of FAD. agement rules - including road con- 68 SOIl and water conservatIOn

struction,land preparation, pest control are often small municipal water supply and forest harvesting - to cases, such as catchments in areas of high rainfall and municipal watersheds in humid tropical steep terrain. Examples include the wa­ mountain areas, where the need for un­ tersheds of the Guma Dam in Freetown, disturbed forest cover may be so over­ Sierra Leone; the Hermitage Dam in riding as to exclude all activities that Kingston, Jamaica; and the Rio Piedras would affect or change the forest veg­ water intake, San Pedro Sula, Honduras. etative cover. These three catchments, together with Sustainability in soil and water conser­ many others, are all relatively small (usu­ vation aspects is not different from ally not more than a couple ofthousand sustainability in other areas of forestry hectares) compared with their great im­ and land use in general. It is based on portance as major suppliers of the do­ maintaining site productivity for sustained mestic waterrequirement in urban areas. yield. In soil and water conservation Furthermore, in most cases this impor­ projects, it was always assumed to be the tance was recognized by far-sighted town main objective. In practice, however, it administrations early enough to save has been repeatedly demonstrated that these catchments from shifting cultiva­ this long-term objective was rarely tion and uncontrolled urbanization. In achieved: the proposed technical solu­ general, they have been respected as tions were too costIy for large-scale imple­ water supply areas because the value of mentation or even maintenance by land the water was, and is, much higher than users, including the government and its the uncertain and short-term benefits relevant agencies. The challenge is there­ from clearing, fuel wood cutting, graz­ fore to make the concept of sustamability ing, etc. Although unpopular, the only in forest soil and water conservation work. forest "management" in such catchments It is increasingly obvious that this de­ should be effective patrolling by guards pends on the perceived benefits of con­ (forest or municipal) to protect the forest servation activities to those directly af­ cover. fected, usually the rural populations liv­ ing in or immediately near the areas. Water catchments, wildlife sanctuaries and large national parks. The com­ Soli and water conservatIon in bined status of a water supply catchment sustainable forest management and a wildlife sanctuary or national park Single purpose water catchments. These usually presents few technical problems. Systems for the implementatIon of sustainable forest management 89

The wildlife authorities in charge of ing, fishing, hunting and other activi­ such areas will normally maintain some ties. Further, "ecotourism", when protection which more than satisfies the changed from adventure travel for the watershed or water supply authorities. few into nature observation tours for Examples can be found in Kenya (Mount urban groups and to a source of revenue Kenya and Aberdare National Parks) from the tourist industry, may become and the United Republic of Tanzania popular to the point of self-destruction. (Kilimanjaro National Park). The image of mountain forests as peace­ The same is true where natural forest ful areas for "getting away from it all" is areas in important watersheds are being being replaced by the reality of new protected because of the occurrence of alpine super highways, taking skiers rare plant species or for cultural or reli­ directly to the mountains, which are gious reasons. complete with modIfied landscapes. Whereas successful water develop­ hotels. skilifts and concrete avalanche ment has taken place downstream from control structures. Local culture. forests national parks and other areas mam­ and scenic beauty in the Himalayas. the tained under forest cover, it has rarely Andes and East Africa are rapidly chang­ proved feasible to restore the forest cover mg because of international visitors. With fully upstream from new dams threat­ such intensive activity. it is no longer ened by high sedImentation rates. Here, certain that recreational use can be con­ sustamabihty contains an element of sidered compatible with soil and water timely and decisive action. Not only IS conservation functions of the forest preventIOn better than cure, but no cure cover. Careful monitoring and regula­ may be available because, once people tIOn are required, not only of forest have settled in these watersheds, It is management practices but also of the difficult to persuade them to move and environmental impacts of recreational because, once the forest is cut, it is activities and related infrastructure. difficult to restore the original hydro­ logical balance Soil and water conservation in man­ aged natural forests. Concerning hu­ F orestrecreation areas and watersheds. man interventions. it is not always what Mountain areas everywhere are being is being done so much as how it is being put under pressure by mass local and done that matters. The positive or nega­ global tourism for hiking, skiing, camp- tive effects of natural forest harvesting 70 Soil and water conservatIOn

on soil and water conservation will de­ employment during forest harvesting pend on the location of roads and trails, operations but also permanently as a the quality of their construction, drain­ source of food, water, fodder, housing age and maintenance; the type offelling materials, income, etc. and hauling operations and degree of The maintenance of long-term site mechanization used; and the silvicul­ productivity in relation to forest harvest­ tural interventions, induding salvage ing operations is well summarized by felling and pest and fire protection, prac­ Bruijnzeel (1990): "Significant rises in tised between harvesting cycles. As streamflow and dissolved nutrient con­ Hamilton (FAO, 1986) repeatedly noted, centration (notably of nitrate and potas­ badly planned road construction in steep, sium) have been observed after selective humid tropical areas, followed by negli­ loggmg in Malaysia and Suriname. gence and a lack of maintenance, may Losses can be minimised by taking proper cause considerably more erosion and care of road layout and extraction tech­ soil disturbance than shifting cultiva­ niques, maintaining an adequate ripar­ tion, often seen by government officials ian buffer strip, etc. The increases in as the prime culprit of degradation. nutrient losses reported to date are tem­ However, it should be stressed thatthe porary, relatively small and should not combination of road construction - of create future productivity prohlems. any quality - and commercial timber More work at a variety of geological logging makes natural forests extremely substrates is desirable, also with respect vulnerable, as they become accessible to sediment production and sources" but of little commercial interest to any­ (italics added). one for the next 20 years. For the polIti­ cian faced with demands of land-hun­ Forest plantations and soil and water gry peasants trying to feed their fami­ conservation. The notion that tree plant­ lies, there appear to be only three alter­ ing is synonymous with soil and water natives: looking the other way and al­ conservation has become dominant in lowing spontaneous colonization; try­ public opinion and the media. Further­ ing to regulate land-use conversions more, it is believed that the best way to through agrarian reform programmes, make a "greener world" is to keep people transmigration, settlement schemes, etc.; away from such plantations. Both need or making sure that the forest is of value further qualification: i) Tree plantations­ to the people living nearby, not only for of several species, including teak, pines, Systems for the implementation of sustainable forest management 71

eucalyptus, and Alnus nepalensis - have stable as forest plantations, and cut-and­ been shown to suffer severe erosion prob­ carry grass plots or rotational grazing lems shortly after canopy closure four to may have erosion and runoff rates that 15 years after planting and, in such cases, are almost as low as forested land. How­ early interventions and thinnings, have ever, forests in mountain areas have been recommended to re-establish ground only rarely been replaced with other vegetation. Tree plantations can benefit well-managed and sustainable forms of watershed behaviour if properly planned land use. At present, therefore, many and managed With this objective in mind. mountain areas badly need restoring. Forest plantations in watersheds will nor­ mally be mUltipurpose. If soil and water Trees and forests in the conservation IS the only objective, then hydrological cycle and soil and natural regeneration should be preferred water conservation if it is at all feasible. On some eroded Sites, The intention here is not to give a full pioneer tree species and grasses may need deSCrIption of the hydrological cycle to be planted to start the process ofreveg­ and the role played by forests and woody etatlOn. ll) If people are demed access to vegetation. However, the last decade has plantations occupying former degraded witnessed noteworthy progress in the rangelands, they will usually make sure understanding of tropical and subtropi­ that the plantation remains unsuccessful cal forest hydrology which may help in and/or they will have to take their animals understanding what trees and forests can to graze elsewhere, most likely on even and cannot do to make proposed land more marginal land and, thereby, causing uses sustainable. harmful downstream effects. Interception and infiltration. Moisture Mixed land-use and soil and watercon­ interception by vegetation, woody or servation. Most watersheds in tropical not, generally means two things: i) that, and subtropical zones are not completely with a rainfall pattern of low intensity forested, but often densely inhabited by showers, most moisture does not reach a rural population practismg subsistence the ground but is directly returned to the farming. atmosphere by evaporation from leaves, Again, such watershed land uses are stems, branches, etc.; and ii) that, even neither inherently "good" nor "bad": during very intensive storms, raindrops well-managed terraced fields may be as will not hit the soil directly, thus avoid- 72 Soil and water conservation

ing the first step in soil erosion - detach­ est cover may still act as a mechanical ment of soil particles. However, de­ protection against the direct impact of pending on local conditions, three more raindrops on the soil surface. aspects of interception may be impor­ Infiltration rates under natural undis­ tant: interception of mist and "horizon­ turbed forest cover will usually be high tal" rainfall; interception by tree cano­ and surface runoff a relatively rare phe­ pies with limited ground vegetation or nomenon limited to unusually big raIn­ litter; and heavy rainfall. storms. The influence of the forest cover The interception of horizontal rain is is related principally to the fact that the important in cold deserts such as that of ground will be covered with litter and northern Chile, or in cloud forests in thatthe organic matter content of the soi I Central America from about 2 000 m is maIntained. In addition, roots, whether above sea level. OtherwIse, there are live or decaying, will provide pore space many other examples with speCIal local over and above those dictated by soil conditions where this interception sig­ texture. niflcantly contributes to soil moisture. However, once this additional space The interception by tree crowns sev­ has been saturated, further infiltration eral metres above the ground does not will be determined by soil texture irre­ help soil protection and may, in some spective of vegetative cover or land use, cases, even increase erosion by magni­ with the possible exception of over­ fying the size of raindrops falling from grazed pasture where the soi I Infil tration the leaves compared with those of the rates may be reduced by trampling. rain. This frequently happens with large­ leaved species such as teak, but IS not Water use by trees. Water used by trees limited to this species. This may cause and forest vegetatIOn is a continuing and soil erosion on sloping land where forest sometimes hotly debated issue with im­ plantations are allowed to establish a portant practical implications. In tem­ closed canopy and where trees shade perate zones, trees have been planted to out ground vegetation, including crops drain swamps and lower water tables. under agroforestry systems. The famous controlled paired watershed During tropical storms with precipita­ studies carried out at the Coweeta Hy­ tion exceeding 100 mm in two hours, drologic Laboratory in North Carolina, interception capacity loses significance United States, since 1934 showed very for reducing surface runoff but the for- clearly that there was scope for increased Systems for the implementation of sustainable forest management 73

water yield by reducing forest vegeta­ stressed that in tropical mountain areas tion (Swank and Crossley, 1988). there is not much scope for increasing However, subsequent research in tropi­ water yield by reducing vegetative cover. cal and subtropical regions has shown that these results cannot be translated directly Forests and rainfalL There is no evi­ to the tropics, especially because of the dence that even large-scale deforesta­ erosion risks involved from high rainfall tion has led to reduced mean annual frequencies and intensities. In the tropics, precipitation rates or that reforestation vegetation reduction to increase water schemes would be able to increase rain­ yields cannot be recommended. On the fall. Apart from special localized cases, contrary, observations in the Phewa Tal rainfall is determined by atmospheric watershed in Nepal showed that in some conditions and low pressure systems, cases increased infiltration following re­ not by land conditions (Pereira, 1989). forestation of degraded communal graz­ Therefore, it can be generally stated ing areas more than offset the water used that deforestation does not lead to by the trees and that springs started to droughts, as sometimes stated in the flow longer into the dry season. media. Land degradation following the Tree species that use more water than elimination offorest vegetation through others constitute one of the motIves be­ unsuitable cultivation practices, hind the FAO study, The ecolo[?ical ef­ overcutting and overgrazing may give fects of eucalyptus (FAO, 1985). How­ the impression of lower rainfall. How­ ever, it was found that this species was as ever, this is not reflected in long-term efficient as others in producing biomass weather records. based on aVaIlable water. Thus eucalyptus plantations will normally use more water Forests andfloods. The fact that undis­ than natural vegetation because of the turbed forest cover maintains high infil­ amount of biomass produced; eucalyptus tration rates and soil water-storage ca­ planting is therefore not recommended in pacity does not mean that natural forest catchments where water concerns prevail areas will effectively reduce runoff be­ over wood yields. The same recommen­ yond certain limits. When more than 100 dation concerns other fast-growing spe­ mm of rain falls in a couple of hours on cies, including pines, hence such water­ the north coast of Jamaica, or when sheds should remain under natural vegeta­ around 400 mm falls during a 24-hour tion as far as possible. Again it must be period in southern Thailand or Hondu- 74 Soil and water conservation

ras, then even high infiltration rates and biologically, by regenerating natural veg­ soil storage capacities will be exceeded etation. The argument was that the local and any additional rainfall will be sur­ population would not respect the pro­ face runoff, contributing to downstream tection of natural regeneration in the floods (Hamilton in FAO, 1988). same way as with a plantation, com­ As Hamilton pointed out (FAO, 1986), monly of exotic pines. However, with foresters should not yield to the tempta­ the increased understanding that tion of using flood control to justify the sustainability can only be achieved with funding of reafforestation schemes, since the active participatIOn, from the plan­ they will not be able to deliver because: ning stage, of the local popUlation, a i) the original conditions under natural change is due in the way forest service forest cover can only be partially re­ activities are implemented. stored; and ii) flood damage is "caused" Gradually, costly monospecific plan­ by exceptional amounts of rainfall greatly tations of exotic trees for soil protection exceeding the retention capacity of any should be considered unnecessary. The land, forested or not, and by floodplain objectIve should be to rehabilitate and occupation downstream. maintain natural vegetatIon sustainably, based on managed grazing and agreed Management options for multiple-use forest management plans, sustainable soli and water Implemented WIth the active involve­ conservation ment of the local population. Soil and water considerations constitute the sole objective offorest managements Plantation management for soil and only in a few cases, such as small steep water conservation. Where land SUIt­ municipal watersheds. Therefore forest ability and the long-term land-use objec­ management options with multiple ob­ tives indicate forest plantations as the jectives are discussed here. best option for watershed management, It is still possible to consider a range of Natural vegetation and plantations. alternatives aimed at optimizing the soil Plantations have often been used by and water conservation benefits of such government forest services, even when plantations. the main objective was land reclama­ As already mentioned, forest planta­ tion, which could have been achieved tions do not necessarily provide good more suitably, both economically and soil protection unless litter and ground Systems for the implementatIOn of sustamable forest management 75

cover is favoured and maintained, mostly cies or another, mixed or pure planta­ through early thinnings, pruning, etc. tions and so forth. Similarly, grasses and other low vegeta­ Where planting is necessary for wa­ tion can be stimulated by varying plant­ tershed rehabilitation, increased atten­ ing distances, including greater distances tion is being given not only to providing between rows, on the contour if pos­ vegetative cover but, at the same time, to sible, than wIthin rows: 2 x 4 m rather addressing some of the original causes than 3 x 3, for instance. ofland degradation: overexploitation for Often some forest grazing is desirable fuel wood, overgrazing, browsing, poor in order to reduce fIre hazards. Such farming practices, etc. In such cases, it is grazing should be controlled and man­ first necessary to ensure a participatory aged and preferably consist of high stock­ planning process involving the land us­ ing rates for short periods followed by ers and to obtain consensus on what to long periods of rest. When carried out in plant and for what purposes - fodder, close collaboration with livestock own­ fuelwood, building material - in order ers, this silvlcultural practice may also to achIeve sustainable protection rather develop into constructive cooperation than short-term official targets of between foresters and farmers or ranch­ "regreening". ers and make both groups equally Inter­ ested in forest protection. How sustainable are agroforestry pro­ Although management is emphasIzed, duction systems? The sustainability of species selectton remains an Important agroforestry production systems is based factor. In most cases, however, the deCI­ on three major factors: maintenance of sion to plant rather than rely on natural biomass production levels; return per vegetation would have been based on person-day to the farmer compared with the mix of major and minor forest prod­ alternative sources of income; and main­ ucts required. Species selection would tenance of site productivity and other be based on this factor, combined with environmental factors. A common as­ an analysis of the corresponding site sumption, largely proved to be false, is factors, including soil and water conser­ that the presence of many trees by itself vation. Species selection should always would ensure soil stability and water be based on local criteria and objectives. conservation (Wiersum, 1984; Young, It therefore seems inappropriate to make 1988). On the contrary, rather than look­ general recommendations about one spe- ing up into the tree crowns, it is neces- 76 Soil and water conservation

sary to look down at the ground cover, in founded targets of public criticism of order to assess the effectiveness of trees tropical forest operations is the con­ in soil conservation. spicuous damage caused by inappropri- ate road construction and the lack of Soli and water considerations In maintenance of forest roads. land clearing and forest The divorce of responsibility between harvesting who pays for the initial construction and Land clearing. The impact on soil and who, if anyone, pays for long-term main­ water conservation from land clearing tenance leads to too many kilometres of depends almost entirely on the methods cheap roads being "built" with mad­ and technology used: the most environ­ equate drainage systems, no protection ment-friendly methods are those used by of cut-and-fill slopes and gradients that small-scale shifting cultivators, involv­ are too steep. It is not exaggerated to ing only manual felling and burning fol­ state that no forestry operation can even lowed by planting without tillage; the pretend to be sustainable if the road and other extreme is represented by felling trail network is not designed, built and or "chaining" followed by destumping maintained in an environmentally satIs­ with bulldozers. factory manner. An intermediate impact results when the land is cleared mechanically but fol­ Forest harvesting. The same prmciples lowing the contours and with the debris applying to land clearmg also cover for­ placed as barriers to slow down runoff and est harvesting operations, with one im­ erosion. This can by further Improved by portant exception: hIgh mechanization respecting natural watercourses, leaving may be very appropriate If it means buffer strips untouched and aVOIding steep avoiding ground skidding. Nevertheless, parts of the terrain which are usually un­ attention should be given to road and suitableforthe intended use anyway. Sadly, trail construction, landings, etc. however, such simple and effective mea­ Modem forest harvesting can be car­ sures are often ignored in land-clearing ried out in ways that minimize environ­ operations if they add - even minimally - mental damage and hence provide the to short-term costs. basis for sustainable forest management. However, this almost always involves Road and trail construction and main­ higher operational costs and, judging tenance. One of the favourite and well- from experiences with land clearing and Systems for the implementation of sustainable forest management 77

road construction, requires a closer rela- be the challenge of the forestry profes­ tionship between the short- and long- sion. term beneficiaries offorestry operations, including downstream populations and Soli and water conservation In economic and environmental interests. semi-arid zones Emphasis on natural vegetation. large­ Conversion to other land uses. Much of scale conversions of natural vegetation the current annual deforestation in tropi­ in tropical and subtropical semi-arid cal and subtropical zones is due, not to zones to monospecific plantations of logging and other forest harvesting op­ cash crops in agriculture (cotton and erations but to a process of converting others) and forestry (pines, eucalyptus forested areas to other land uses. This and others) have often proved to be involves at least two critical consider­ financially unsustainable - because of ations: land-clearing methods and the market fluctuations, increased labour sustainability of the "new" land use. costs, quotas, product substitutions for As stated above, environmental dam­ example - or environmentally harmful age caused by different land-clearing - because of increased wind or water methods varies considerably. If the pro­ erosion, excessive needs of pesticide posed land use is not sustainable, further application, etc. This has led to renewed land clearing will soon be necessary to interest in mUltipurpose management of compensate for dwindling income and existing, but often degraded, natural veg­ food production. Hence this IS one of the etation. main reasons why planners increasingly This is by no means a simple alterna­ link deforestation with poverty and tive. It implies reviving the respect for unsustainable agriculture. traditional grazing rights and regulating On the other hand, even foresters and mechanisms; developing and marketing forestry agencies should welcome care­ semi -arid forest and range products (oils. ful clearing of forested land for more fruits. nuts, meat. skins. honey. wood. valuable and sustainable land uses ex­ fodder. silk, wool. etc.); and reorienting cept, naturally, where ecologically sig­ government and non-governmental in­ nificant or unique areas are involved. stitutions and services available to the The delineation and protection of such rural communities. areas, and not a general defence of any The large-scale forest hydrological land covered by forest vegetation, should restoration of semi-arid lands carried 78 Soil and water conservatIOn

out by the government in the Spanish water retention, storage and infiltration Mediterranean zones is not an option should be utilized, since this will trans­ generally available to tropical and sub­ late into livestock and agricultural de­ tropical countries, as it is based on a velopment in nearby downstream areas, gradual depopulation of the mountain as currently demonstrated by the UNDP/ areas and on the availabijity of sufficient FAG-assisted Suketar watershed project public funds. However, large-scale for­ in Azad Kashmir, Pakistan. estation can provide a valuable injec­ The factthat such reclamation projects tion of external financing to initiate are feasible once again demonstrates programmes to rehabilitate and diver­ that semi-arid zones have generally suf­ sify the mountain economy, as is hap­ fered from human-caused degradation, pening in Turkey and Pakistan, for ex­ not desertification. Rainfall has remained ample. Gn the other hand, if such projects remarkably consistent, with the natural remain largely government-executed fluctuations typical of semi-arid zones, public works, they may be short-lived or even over thousands of years as the even rejected by the rural populations; history of Yemen and other countries this happened with soil conservation show. programmes in Lesotho (FAG, 1990) and with mountain restoration works in The role of fodder and livestock. The the early 1970s in Iran. role of fodder and livestock in forestry development in semi-arid zones cannot Land preparation for planting. When be ignored and should not be underesti­ the planting offorest species is required mated. Three aspects of land manage­ in semi-arid zones, certain mechanical ment can help improve the dialogue be­ measures are usually necessary to en­ tween foresters and livestock owners: sure water retention and infiltration: these more attention to the potential offodder may be eyebrow terraces, single or trees; water harvesting and water con­ double furrows along the contour, pits, servation measures for increased fodder ditches or even terraces, as practised in production; and the use of controlled Ethiopia and China. grazing to reduce the fire hazard. However, considering land reclama­ Large-scale reforestatiol1' in semi-arid tion as part of mountain rural develop­ zones may affect watersheds negatively if ment and not just as a reforestation it fails to consider the above. Apart from project means that any opportunity for alienating livestock owners, who are often Systems for the implementation of sustainable forest management 79

influential members of society, the dis­ rated from the social and economic con­ placement of livestock from traditional ditions generally governing society. It grazing areas may lead to more marginal cannot be a "green island" in a sea of areas being grazed, as herds are almost land degradation and poverty. If govern­ never reduced as part of a forestry ment agencies are ineffective outside the programme. In the medium term, such forest, they may be even more so inside. reductions are unnecessary, smce reha­ The first guiding principle should there­ bilitated rangeland often produces more fore be to consider forests in the national fodder after reforestation than before. and local socio-economic context. Second, it is useful to distinguish be­ Windbreaks and shelterbelts. Tree plant­ tween six different scenarios: i) natural ing for windbreaks not only conserves forest which should be protected in its moisture and reduces the effects of wind natural state for water, wildlife and ge­ erosion, but may be an essentIal basis for netic resources conservation; ii) natural agriculture in semi-and zones and wmdy forest subject to the harvesting of timber temperate areas such as northwestern and non-wood forest products accord­ Europe. This has been clearly demon­ ing to a forest management plan; iii) strated In Denmark during the last 25 forest plantations; iv) land-use conver­ years: fIrSt the introduction oflarge farm sions to plantation crops, pastures, machines caused Important windbreaks agroforestry. agriCUlture, urban land to be eliminated m order to create large, uses; v) natural forests in semi-arid zones; consolidated fIelds SUItable for such and vi) shelterbelts and other environ­ mechanizatIOn; second dunng the pe­ mental tree planting. Each of these will riod following the oil crisis 1973, when need specific action, with many cases of trees m wmdbreaks were cut for overlapping, mixed land-use patterns, fuelwood. In both cases, wind erosion buffer zones, etc. was reactivated, remindmg people of Third, people and communities af­ the essential functions of the shelterbelts, fected should participate in planning which in most cases had to be restored. and distributing benefits. If the land users and the local communities in gen- Elements of a strategy for eral have no incentive to protect forest the future resources, no police force in the world Sustainable forest management for soil will be able to prevent these resources and water conservation cannot be sepa- from disappearing. 80 Soil and water conservation

Finally, institutions, including gov­ Pereira, H.C. 1989. Policy and plan­ ernment agencies and fanners' and peas­ ning in the management of tropical ants' organizations, must be given con­ watersheds. London, Belhaven. tinuing support to ensure long-term sta­ Swank, W.T. & D.A. Crossley, eds. bility. Otherwise, no confidence will be 1988. Forest hydrology and ecology at attached to agreements, management Coweeta. Based on papers presented plans, grazing rights, etc. at a symposium, held in Athens, Geor­ gia, United States, in October 1984 to REFERENCES commemorate 50 years of research at the Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory. Bonell, M. 1991. Progress in runoff and New York, Springer. erosion research in forests. In Proc. Wiersum, K.F. 1984. Surface erosion 10th World For. ConE:r. Nancy, France, under various trOPiCal agroforestry sys­ ENGREF. tems. In Proc Symp. Effects of Forest Bruijnzeel, L.A. 1990. HydroloE:Y of Land Use on Erosion and Slope Stabil­ moist tropical forests and effects of ity. Honolulu, East-West Center. conversion: a state of knowledge re­ Young, A. 1988. The potential oj view. Paris, Unesco. agroforestry for soil conservatIOn. FAO. 1985. The ecoloE:ical effects of Working Paper No. 42. Nairobi, eucalyptus. FAO Forestry Paper No. ICRAF. 59. Rome. FAO. 1986. Towards clarifymg the ap­ propriate mandate in forestry for water­ shed rehabilitation and management. In Strategies, approaches and systems In integrated watershed management. FAO Conservation Guide No. 14. Rome. FAO. 1988. Guidelines for economic appraisal of watershed management projects. FAOConservation Guide No. 16. Rome. FAO.I990. TheconservatlOnandreha­ bilitation ofAfrican lands. An interna­ tional scheme. ARC/90/4. Rome. Systems for the implementation of sustainable forest management 81

Ensuring sustainable management of wildlife resources: the case of Africa S.S. Ajayl

This paper describes the depleted state of African wildlife and outlines some positive measures for its sustainable management. Some examples demonstrate this de­ pletion: the number of African elephants has decreased from about ten million (500 years ago) to just 700 000 today; the number of rhinoceros dwindled from 50 000 in 1976 to 14800 in 1978, and only about 3 500 existed in Africa by 1989. Poaching and hunting are among the main causes of this depletion. The economic values of wildlife are divided into two main headings: consumptive uses - for meat, trophy value and game ranching; and non-consumptive uses - tourism and recreation. Measures for managing African wildlife sustainably can be negative or positive. Negative measures include management by alienating local communities from wildlife by repressive game-use legislation, forcibly moving people from their ancestral homes, severing cultural ties and totally banning utilization and commercialization. This only increases the price of animals as well as the risk of poaching. Positive measures include Integrated wildlife utilization with local community participation; multiple uses for sustainable management of wildlife - game viewing, hunting, tourism, mixed wildlife/livestock farms; wildlife as a form of land use on marginal lands; and domestication.

AFRICA'S WILDLIFE ENDOWMENT any other continent in the world (Bigalke, AND ITS DEPLETED STATUS 1%4). According to Mwenya (FAO, Africa has more wildlife resources than 1990a), it is an intrinsic part of African economic and cultural life. The World The author is Professor In the Department of Bank in 1989 estimated the original wild­ Wildlife and Fisheries Management at the University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Ntgeria. life habitats of Africa to be 20 797 441 82 Wildlife management

2 square miles (almost 54 million km ). Comoe (Cote d'!voire) to 4032 kg per However, today African wildlife is a km2 in Saint Flogis (Central African depleted resource. According to the Republic). These figures are quite be­ World Bank (1990), many species which low the potential carrying capacity of were previously abundant are now ex­ the habitats. They attributed the low tinct or gravely endangered. The World population densities to i) the degrada­ Bank currently estimates that, of the tion of wildlife habitats; and it) high original wildlife habitats, 65 percent has mortality rates from overhunting, since been lost through conversion to agricul­ many traditional hunting grounds have ture and livestock grazing as well as been transformed officially to forest or overctJtting for fuelwood. The remain­ game reserves, where all huntIng nghts der is under growing pressure to meet are illegal. the needs of stressed national econo­ The declIning status of wildlife In mies and rapidly growing human popu­ Africa can also be seen from the wildlife lations. Habitat loss IS thus one of the legislation of most African countries. greatest threats to wildlife in Africa. According to the Organization of Afn­ According to the World Conservation can Unity (OAU) Algiers Wildlife Con­ Union (lUeN, 1989). hunting has deci­ vention of 1968, animals were usually mated many species of African wildlife. classified into three schedules. ProVI­ The ivory trade has reduced the number sion was to be made in nationallegisla­ of African elephants from about ten mil­ tion for: animals that are endangered and lion (500 years ago) t(' 700 000 today should be strictly protected (as Schedule and the destruction continues at the rate I); animals that are not endangered and of 10 percent annually. vulnerable but can be hunted under ex­ Furthermore, according to Simmons ceptional circumstances (as Schedule and Kreuter (1989) rhinoceros dwindled II); and those animals with satisfactory from 50 000 in 1976 to 14 800 in 1978 status and which, therefore, can be hunted and 8 800 in 1984 while only about 3 under licence (as Schedule III). How­ 500 existed on the entire continent of ever, Ajayi (FAO, 1979) in his survey of Africa by 1989. forest mammal utilization in West Af­ Milligan and Ague (1978) found that rica, found that the wildlife legislation the biomass of large herbivores in 11 used was old and outdated and that the national parks in West Africa ranges current status of wildlife showed a stag­ considerably from 214 kg per km2 in gering list of endangered mammals Systems for the implementatIOn of sustainable forest management 83

which were not strictly protected by rearing. Table 1 shows the economic law. According to this report, ten spe­ importance of forest mammals in five cies of the order Primate, one of West African states and relates the per­ Proboscidae, five of Artiodactyle, 23 of centage mean annual consumption of Carnivora, two of Rodentia and three of animal protein to human populations. In Philidota represent a realistic current list all the countries, meat from wildlife of endangered species of mammals in (popularly known as bush meat ) accounts West Africa. for 20 to 90 percent of total animal Ayeni (1977) found that the decline of protein consumed. In Liberia. wildlife wildlife populations In Nigeria can be accounts for as much as 80 to 90 percent attributed to poaching. Interviews with of the total animal protein consumed. numerous poachers arrested insIde pro­ In Ghana. an estimated 1.75 of the tected areas revealed that poachers hunted 15.22 g of daily protein consumed came primarily for meat and money, as poach­ from wildlife. compared with 1.64 g ing was considered more lucratIve than from domestic Ii vestock. The rest comes farming. They engaged in illegal hunting from plants and fish (Asibey, 1978). because of starvatIOn and persistent pov­ In Nigeria, Charter (1970) estimated erty among the local communities. Weak that a total of 617 tonnes ofbush meat were wildlife laws, which prescribe a token fine consumed during the financial year 1965/ for convicted poachers. were also respon­ 66 compared with 714 tonnes of beef sible for persistent illegal hunting. during the same period. The estimated The declining status of African wildlife value of wild animal meat for this period resources requires an urgent. realistic and was $20.4 million against $34 million for effective approach. necessanly inCOrpo­ domestIc animals. rating the root cause of persistent poach­ For locally produced food, Charter ing among the local communities. stated that 19 percent came from wild animals, 21 percent from domestic ani­ ECONOMIC VALUE OF WILDLIFE mals and 60 percent from fish. He con­ Consumptive uses cluded that Nigerians, particularly in the For meat. Dependence of rural popula­ southern forest region. depend more on tion all wildlife. Wildlife is a very impor­ their natural environment for animal pro­ tant source of meat, particularly in the tein than on agriCUlture. forest regions of West Africa where tse­ In southern Africa, Von Richter (1970) tse flies have limited domestic livestock found that nearly 60 percent of all animal 84 Wildlife management

TABLE 1 Economic Importance of forest wildlife In five West African countries

Countnes Mean annual Source Human populallon consumptIOn of (MlillOns) wIld anlmall!rotem

Cameroon 70-80% among rural Allo (personal 75(1978) people In the southern commUnicatIon, raIn forest 1979)

COte d'ivolre 70% for the southern ASlbey (1978) 60 (1978) trofc,cal rain forest be ore hunting was banned In 1974

Ghana 73% for the entire ASlbey (1978) 103(1974) country

Liberia 80-90% for the entJre Woods 20(1978) country (personal communicatIOn, 1979)

Nlgena 20% among rural Charter (1970) 80(1973) people In the southern rain forest

protein consumed by people in rural areas dressed carcass value of pig, sheep, cattle, in Botswana came from wildlife. Bigalke domestic rabbit and some wild rodents (1964) also discovered that wddlife rep­ such as the grass cutter and the African resented 5 to 10 percent of the total meat giant rat. Wild rodents compared consumed in some localities in Rhodesia favourably in carcass quality with rabbits (now Zambia and Zimbabwe). and other domestic animals. Carcass value. Although WIldlife is Nutritive value. Table 3 compares the widely utilized for food in Africa, less is nutritive values (fat, protein and ash known about carcass and nutritive values [carbohydrates]) of some West African than for domestic animals. Apart from forest mammals and domestic animals. Asibey and Eyeson (1975), Tewe and Domestic animals generally have less Ajayi (1977), Ajayi and Tewe (1979), protein and carbohydrates than their wild Ajayi and Tewe (1979), there is little counterparts: carbohydrates range from published information on the nutritive 1.1 percent in red river hog to 6 percent quality of forest mammals and domestic in forest genet, whereas for domestic animals in West Africa. animals in similar environments they Table 2 compares the percentage range from 0.8 percent in pork and beef Systems for the implementation of sustainable forest management 85

TABLE 2 Kreuter, 1989). Elephant hide is worth Killing-out percentage of some as much as the ivory and is made into forest and domestic mammals in boots, wallets and other leather goods. West Africa Thus, the value of one elephant (exclud­ ing its meat) is about $4 000. Rhinoc­ Average kIlhng-out (DleHed C(Jrc(JSS value) eros horns are valued as dagger handles and aphrodisiacs; the horns were sold (Percentage) for about $16 000 per kilogram in 1989, Domestic rabbit 514 and since each hom weighed about 5 kg, Cattle 388 one rhinoceros (excluding its meat) was Pig 748 worth about $80 000. Sheep 493 Dwarf forest goat 506 Game ranching. Game ranching and Grass cutter 638 mixed wildlife farming have been well­ African giant rat 516 established and profitable practices in southern Africa for over 30 years. In to 1.3 percent in mutton. Likewise, pro­ Transvaal, by 1964 there were 4 000

teins range from 16.1 percent In tree ranches involved in game farming, with

hyrax to 55.4 percent In forest genet. For an annual output of over 3 500 kg of domestic anImals, there are lower val­ game meat per year. Wildlife now earns ues: 11.2 percent in pork to 19.6 percent about $35 million per year. in beef. However, further research into Recently, trophy hunting in southern more varied wildlife species and their Africa has increased substantially. Farms approximate compositIOn and ammo are generally small- about 3 000 ha­ aCid content is necessary to establish the but safari trophy hunting in this part of alleged higher nutritive value of wild­ Africa accounts for about 47 percent of life over domestic livestock. the African market. In Namibia too, the game ranching in­ Trophy value. The vulnerability of el­ dustry has developed rapidly within the ephant and rhinoceros can indeed be past 35 years. Since 1967, when Namibian attributed to their enormous economic legislation allowed landholders full own­ value. Uncarved tusks in East Africa ership of wildlife as well as leased hunting sold for $5 per kilogram in 1969, $68 in rights, ranches using wildlife as a primary 1978 and $180 in 1989 (Simmons and form of land use increased from 52 in 86 Wildlife management

TABLE 3 Approximate composition and minerai content of forest mammals and domestic animals

Animal MD1sture Protem Fal Ash (/iJams)

FOREST MAMMALS

Rodents African giant rat (Cflcstomys gamblanus) 659 189 110 39 Grass cutter (Trhyonomys swmdeflanus) 658 207 07 05 #77 4 #262 #74 #10 697 188 89 12 Tree hyrax (Dendrohyrax arborens) 787 161 29 1 9

Primates Green monkey (Cercopithecus aethlOps) 803 176 13 11

Proboscldae Elephant (skin) (Loxodonta africana eye/otIS) 494 292 197 17

Carnivora Long-snouted mongoose (Herpestes naso) 727 188 19 33 Forest genet (Genetta pardma) 318 554 93 60

Suldae Red river hog (Potamochoerus aethlops) 701 23.8 16 11 #724 #272 #27 #11

Artlodectyla Royal antelope (Nsctragus pygmacus) 451 40.6 107 33 :ystems for the Implementation of sustainable forest management 87

TABLE 3 (contmued)

Ammal Momure Protem Fat Ash (/IIams)

Grnmm's or Grey dUlker (Sylvlcapra gnmmla) 745 234 09 12 746 208 3.4 12 Bushbuck (Tregelaphus scnptus) 599 334 20 40 476 409 122 37

DOMESTIC ANIMALS

Ox (beef) +738 +196 +120 +10 +547 +165 +280 +08 Sheep (mutton) +785 +172 +29 +10 +624 +168 +194 +13 Pig (pork) +648 +194 +13.4 +08 +411 +112 +490 +06

Note Approximate values are expre"ed 10 term, of gil 00 g and mmeral, In mg/IOO g of fre,h edible tl",ue ~()UTl e.\ +Tewe and AJayl (1977). #AJaYI and Tewe (1979). and A

1976 to 411 in 1979. In this way, the been the backbone of the economies of populations of most wildlife species in­ some East and southern African coun­ creased by 30 percent. In the early 1980s, tries. For example, Ajayi (1972) found four private farms initiated cropping that wildlife-based tourism contributed schemes, exporting $2.1 million worth of about $30 million to Kenya's economy meat to Europe. Sport hunting generated in 1971. another $1.2 million and live animal ex­ In countries of the Southern African ports a further $0.6 million. Development Community (SADC), it is Game ranching is thus growing rap­ estimated that wildlife utilization for tour­ idly, mainly because of the multiple uses ism could generate an annual income of of wildlife and because of the quasi­ about $250 million. This estimate is private ownership of the resource. thought to fall far short ofsouthern Africa's full potential (FAO, I 990b). Apart from Non-consumptive uses - tourism the monetary value, wildlife-based tour­ Wildlife-based tourism development has ism has many advantages as a form ofland 88 Wildlife management

TABLE 4 rience" of hunting it or seeing it in its ProfH assessments for ranch natural setting. case-studies In Zimbabwe, with Another feature of non-consumptive environmental costs recreational use of WIldlife is environ­ mental sustainability. Increasing income Ranch WIldlIfe Cattle (US$/ha) from wildlife in this sector does not imply increasing the number of ani­ Buffalo range 4.90-621 -8 mals, but rather the number of tourists Rosslyn ranch 529 o and possibly safari hunters as well as the Matetsi region 418-893 -118 fees charged. Matetsl satan area 514-11 54 o Note Values converted at $ZI = US$O 72 Economic value of game ranching Source Child, 1988 and cattle production TABLE 5 ChIld (1988) made several comparI­ Profit assessments for ranch case sons of cattle and wildlife production studies In Zimbabwe - without in Zimbabwe both considering envI­ environmental costs ronmental costs (Table 4) and without considering environmental costs Ranch WildlIfe Cattle (US

TABLE 6 Economic values of different wildlife uses In East and southern Africa

WIldhfe Ul1hz.tlOn Char.Clenstlc Profit (US$/ha)

Tourism (non-consumptive) High-intensity, Tanzania (Manyara) 250 High-IntenSity, Kenya (Amboseli) 1500

Medium-intensity, Tanzania (Serengetl) 8-18

Low-intensity, Tanzania (Ruaha) 010

Safari hunting (lightly consumptive) Span hunting, Tanzania 09

Spon hunting, Zimbabwe (Matetsl) 5-10

spon hunting, Zimbabwe (ranches) 3-6

Local community Inte?rated wildlife Agriculture, Zimbabwe 0 utilization on ma~lna lands (consumptive an non-consumptive) Game culling, safari hunting and tOUrism In Zimbabwe

• Total Income 2

• Income to local commUnities

Comparative economic values of sport hunting in Zimbabwe. Local com­ consumptive and non­ munity integrated utilization of wildlife consumptive uses of wildlife generates a total profit of about $2 per In 1989, the World Bank compared differ­ hectare, of which about 50 percent ac­ ent fOnTIS of consumptive and non-con­ crues to local communities in Zimbabwe. sumptive wildlife utilization in the United Republic of Tanzania, Kenya and Zimba­ NEGATIVE MITIGATION bwe and found that tourism is by far the MEASURES FOR SUSTAINABLE most lucrative of all enterprises (Table 6). MANAGEMENT OF AFRICAN It earns an annual profit of about $1 500 WILDLIFE per hectare in high-density areas such as Alienation of local communities: the Amboseli National Park in Kenya and a problematic solution $250 per hectare in the Manyara National In the nineteenth and the first part of the Park in Tanzania. This is followed by twentieth century, most of Africa was 90 Wildlife management

colonized by Europeans. Large areas management approach can be summa­ containing wildlife and other natural rized as, follows: resources were set aside for "conserva­ • Local communities were virtually tion" under state ownership. Thus, rela­ excluded from access to natural tively high-density wildlife areas in resources, particularly wildlife and many parts of Africa were owned by the forest reserves, despite the fact that colonial government. Rural communi­ the community pays the major pnce ties, the traditional owners of wildlife fornatural resources conservation in resources, were forcibly moved out of terms of alienated land, lost their ancestral areas of land and conse­ opportunities for resource use and quently alienated from the wildlife that damage to crops and livelihood by they once owned (FAO, 1990b; 1990c; wildlife. 1990d). • Traditionally and culturally, African This alienation of Africans from their communities were originally hnked wildlife was backed by repressive legis­ with theirnatural resources. However, lation with no respect for chiefs, rural conservation policIes have tended to communities and their traditional and sever these linkages. Rural cultural values. communities participated very little This conservation approach had griev- or not at all in conservation decision­ 0us consequences: it cut into the heart of making and in utilizing the benefits. long-held traditions and customs that • Communities near designated were an integral part of African eXIst­ conservatIOn areas continue to suffer ence and, according to Mwenya (FAO, from underdevelopment, since money 1990a), it dismembered the entire holis­ from natural resource utilization does tic philosophy underlying the structure not "filter down" to the grassroots. of African life. Deprivation thus evoked Consequently, these remote areas have a strong sense of injustice among the poor social amenIties and severe African rural communities who lived unemployment problems. closest to wildlife, to the extent that they • The community's interaction with resorted to poaching. The colonial and wildlIfe and other natural resources is postcolonial governments responded by often termed illegal under the existmg adopting a vigorous militaristic anti­ repressive legislation. Therefore, the poaching campaign. natural resources have continued to Thus, the problems arising from this suffer severely from poaching. ~ystems for the implementation of sustainable forest management 91

Total ban on utilization and became the worst criminals. This man­ commercialization agement approach failed because i) it One approach to elephant and rhinoc­ misplaced the responsibility for wildlife eros conservation in Africa today is a protection and management utilization, total ban on exploiting these two species putting it in "government hands" instead in order to suppress or eliminate trade in of those of the local communities living ivory and rhinoceros horns. The trade near the protected areas; and ii) it was has resulted in the loss of 56 to 78 unable to address the basic problems of percent of elephant populations m East starvation, poverty and unemployment, and central Africa, mainly to poachers. which Ayeni (1977) identified as the This conservation approach was said to root cause of illegal hunting. be characteristic of an economic theory that a government ban on a valuable POSITIVE MITIGATION commodity can never wholly eliminate MEASURES FOR SUSTAINABLE the demand (Simmons and Kreuter, MANAGEMENT OF AFRICAN 1989). Hence, the total ban achieved WILDLIFE three results: a price increase of the Integrated wildlife utilization with commodities - ivory and rhmoceros hom; local community participation people who had comparative advantage Practically all the former colonial Afri­ for avoidmg detection, particularly gov­ can countnes underwent the above ex­ ernment officials, took over the formerly periences in their bid to conserve what legal market; and the resources disap­ was left of their wildlife resources. How­ peared. ever, southern African countries are in­ It must be remembered that so little creasingly aware today that wildlife and was spent on patrolling the protected other natural resources cannot be man­ areas that the chances of catchmg poach­ aged successfully without the involve­ ers was minimal. Game guards are ill­ ment and participation of local commu­ equipped, underpaid and sparsely scat­ nities m the decision-making processes tered in reserve areas. Despite the total and in the distribution of the resulting ban on wildlife exploitation, the more economic benefits. lucrative business of poaching is such a Against this background, the commu­ powerful incentive that the very govern­ nal integrated resource conservation ment officials charged with the primary programmes were established in three responsibility of protection sometimes southern African countries - Botswana. 92 Wildlife management

Zambia and Zimbabwe - literally to (ITRG) concluded that the ivory trade, return the natural resources to the "own­ and not habitat loss or human population ers" so that communities might keep, increase, is responsible for the declining manage and utilize their resources (FAD, numbers ofAfrican elephants. Some East 1990b; 1990c; 1990d). This is the origin African countries - notably Tanzania and of the Game Harvesting Project in Kenya - responded with an immediate Botswana; the Luangwa Integrated Ru­ total ban on the ivory trade. The European ral Development Project (LIRDP); the Economic Community correspondingly Administrative Management by Design banned ivory imports. (ADMADE) project in Zambia; and the The East African countries also re- Communal Areas Management quested the secretariat of the Conven- Programme for Indigenous Resources tion on International Trade in Endan­ (CAMPFIRE) in Zimbabwe. This cur­ gered Species of wild flora and fauna rent philosophy oflocal community par­ (CITES) to list the elephant in Appendix ticipation in wildlife management is I: this would amount to a total ban on therefore considered the basis of mod­ trade in elephant products, including em wildlife management projects in hides and ivory; the African elephant is Africa. It has resolved many currently listed in Appendix II, which sociopolitical problems and has reduced allows a quota allocation to be adminIS­ poaching to the bare minimum in many tered by CITES for their utilization. parts of Africa. The old approach of total bans has These integrated wildlife utilization now shifted to conservation by utiliza­ schemes aim at generating income and tion. This new approach, practised by employment for the local communities. Zimbabwe, Malawi, Botswana, Zambia As the local communities are responsible and South Africa, allows ecologically­ for managing their wildlife resources, based culling of elephants at the rate of wildlife conservation in these projects has 5 percent per year on private. communal also improved in terms of greatly reduced and state lands. Photographic and safari poaching and increased wildlife popula­ opportunities are also sold to interna­ tions and habitat upgrading. tional clients. This strategy has resulted in extensive marketing of elephants. Quasi-private ownership and commer­ With utilization through quasi-own­ cialization of wildlife. In June 1989, a ership and local community participa­ report by the Ivory Trade Review Group tory strategies, the elephant population )ystems for the implementation of sustainable forest management 83

is now increasing in Zimbabwe, Malawi, full range of recreational. aesthetic, nu­ Zambia, Botswana, Namibia and South tritional and scientific uses. A system Mrica - the countries that decided not to where several uses can be exploited participate in the ban. simultaneously improves wildlife man­ Under the prohibition conservation agement and makes it more efficient strategy, the white rhinoceros, although than other competitive land-use options. listed in Appendix I, declined from The key point here is that multiple 1 500 to 20 animals in five countries by wildlife uses enable the economic base 1960 (Simmons and Kreuter, 1989). By to diversify. This is practised in several contrast, South Africa's rhinoceros popu­ southern African countries, particularly lation, which was commercialized on in Zimbabwe and the Republic of South private farms, parks and reserves, in­ Africa. In these countries, game parks, creased tenfold during the same period. game ranches and game farms are man­ Therefore, it is clear that sustainable aged purely for wildlife or are combined management of and solutions to save the With livestock and crop farming. How­ African elephant and rhinoceros do not ever, wildlife is subject to many uses lie in totally banning ivory and rhinoc­ whereby meat can be produced eros hom trade in all countries. Under sustainably and more animals can be strict control, the utilization of elephants sold as trophies for substantial amounts and other economically important spe­ of money, thus allowing safari charges cies through quasi-ownership, commer­ to be made. Indeed, the most lucrative cialization and popular participation by wildlife uses in southern Africa at present local communities has led to more effec­ are safari hunting and tourism. The land tive conservation of wildhfe. However, is thus used for three tiers of wildlife the success of southern African coun­ utilization: consumptive meat produc­ tries may be partly attributed to the avail­ tion, lightly consumptive usage for tro­ ability of technical expertise and facili­ phies and non-consumptive tourism. ties for wildlife utilization schemes. Besides multiple uses of wildlife itself, multiple-use rangeland farming is also Sustainable management for practised extensively in southern Africa. multiple uses of wildlife At moderate stocking levels, there is little The real advantages of wildlife as an competition between wild herbivores and economical and sustainable form ofland livestock so that wildlife can be added to use appear in a system which offers a extensive livestock ranching at little cost. 94 Wildlife management

In fact, combined wildlife and livestock rica into four main ecological regions, operations are the most common fonn of based on average annual rainfall: wildlife utilization in southern Africa to­ • Deserts and semi-desert: 300 mm day. In such combined enterprises, wild­ per year life has been found to be much more • Semi-arid rangeland: 300-700 mm profitable than livestock, and the continu­ per year ation of livestock operations does not • Arable savannah: 700-1 500 mm make economic sense. per year • Tropical moist forest: 1 500 mm per Wildlife as a land use on marginal year African rangelands In Africa, 8.5 percent of the total land The extent ofmarginal lands in Africa. area is classified as being under arable The tenn "marginal lands" applies to fanning, 24 percent under forest and lands whose use is limited by physical, 19.5 percent under penn anent pasture, ecological or economic factors. Thus, while 48 percent remains unclassified. the meaning varies from place to place Talbot et al. (1965) stated that 45.5 and may also change as economic fac­ percent of Africa is "marginal" or semi­ tors change. arid land with little potential for arable Physical and ecological factors usu­ fanning except with irrigation, while ally include climate (characterized in another 22 percent is semi-desert coun­ Africa by insufficient rainfall and exces­ try ofhttle value. The authors concluded sive heat), poor soils, soil leaching and that at least 30 percent of the African soil erosion. Otheredaphic features such continent is marginal for arable fanning. as rugged terrain also characterize mar­ The Warld Bank (1990) maintained that ginallands in Africa. Another character­ semi-arid rangelands occupy almost two­ istic are low yields which cannot be thirds of Africa's total land area. appreciably raised without inputs of The World Bank (1990) also stated money or effort that are often dispropor­ that the semi-arid regions of Africa are tionate to the gains. Marginal lands are difficult to manage for sustainable live­ therefore areas that are unproductive stock and arable farming and that, in under arable farming. The productivity many areas, maximum rangeland pro­ of such areas depends on a wise choice ductivity for meat production has al­ of land use. ready been reached or exceeded, with In 1990, the World Bank divided Af- resulting environmental degradation. ')ystems for the implementation of sustainable forest management 95

Wildlife versus livestock as meat pro­ extensive management system ducers on marginal land. Much has characterized by its low inputs, been written on the relative advantages wildlife has proved to be the best and of wildlife as a durable fonn of land use optimum fonn ofland use in tenns of and as a source of meat in the semi-arid sustainable use of the ecosystem and regions of Africa. Ecological studies have of the wildlife resource itself. been cited to show that indigenous spe­ Nevertheless, in the past, the advan­ cies (wildlife) utilize the rangeland re­ tages of using wildlife as a land use sources (primary productivity) more ef­ solely for meat production have been ficiently than introduced livestock and overshadowed by various technical and that the ecosystem can support a higher commercial factors: e.g. poor develop­ total biomass of wild species sustainably. ment of wildlife censusing, harvesting It has been shown specifically that: and processing methods over the years; • Wildlife species exist in multi species and the numerous regulations and gov­ communities, which can utilize ernment subsidies and price guarantees rangeland vegetation more fully and which favoured livestock industries. efficiently than livestock which are usually raised in monoculture or in a Domestication of African wildlife mixture of a few species. Although Africa has the highest poten­ • Individual herbivores on rangelands tial for domesticating wildlife, it has are physiologically adapted to using contributed relatively little to the world their specialized foods efficiently. of domestic animals. The order • Wildlife species are often more Artiodactyla (even-toed ungulates) have adapted to harsh local conditions provided human society with most of its such as excessive heat and lack of important domestic animals. Fifteen out water. of the 22 widely used species belong to • Wildlife species resist disease better this order, which includes cattle, sheep, than their domestic counterparts. goats and pigs. Only two of these 15 • Wildlife have more productivity species are indigenous to Africa, even advantages, such as higher fecundity, though the continent has more than 90 faster growth rates and better carcass species of artiodactyles. quality. There are two compelling reasons for • In the fragile ecosystem of Africa's giving serious consideration to the do­ semi-arid rangelands, under an mestication of these indigenous wild 96 Wildlife management

species: first, the indigenous species have represent their wild counterpart, since undergone selection by adverse local there is bound to be a degree of selection conditions, such as climate and terrain, in favour of domesticated ecotypes, i.e. and are therefore more likely to be fully strains best suited to the rather abnormal adapted to local conditions than "intro­ environment of captivity. Further re­ duced" traditional domestic livestock search is therefore necessary. (the oryx, for example, thrives in arid Until recently, the order Rodentia had conditions where cattle can barely sur­ also received little attention for domes­ vive); second, small ungulates such as tication, even though it provides a sig­ steinbock and duiker become sexually nificant portion of the total bush meat mature at about six months of age and consumed in the forest region of West the females produce their first young at Africa (FAD, 1979). The rabbit belongs about one year of age. Thereafter, they to the Lagomorpha order, a group of have two pregnancies per year. Larger animals with the special advantages of a animals, such as warthog, impala, wilde­ small size, high fertility rates and short beest, kudu and waterbuck, become gestation periods and breeding inter­ sexually mature at one year and produce vals. These make them attractive propo­ their first young at two years of age, sitions for rearing in captivity to supple­ thereafter producing once a year. ment meat production from established Another advantage is that indigenous domestic livestock. herds of wildlife are immune to or toler­ Research in Nigeria by Ajayi has ant of local diseases - trypanosomiasis, placed three species of African wildlife anthrax, tuberculosis and rinderpest, on the world's list of domestic animals, which have made large areas of African namely the African giant rat, the grass savannah uninhabitable to cattle. Al­ cutter and the Nigerian breed of hel­ though these diseases can be controlled, meted guinea fowl. Research is neces­ it often requires great expense and hu­ sary to bring more species into the fold man resources, adding directly or indi­ for "gene conservation" and for sustain­ rectly to the cost of meat from domestic able management of African wildlife. livestock. However, an important question is CONCLUSIONS AND whether wild animals will retain these RECOMMENDATIONS desirable attributes after captivity. It is a i) Past approaches to wildlife manage­ fact that animals in captivity no longer ment and utilization make it clear that a ;ystems for the implementation of sustainable forest management

total ban on exploiting and utilizing ment of wildlife resources. African wild­ economic species and alienating local life species are better adapted to their communities from the natural resources local environments and more immune are strategies which are inimical to sus­ to disease than traditional domestic ani­ tainable management of wildlife. mals. In several cases, small African antelopes are able to produce more meat ii) Wildlife management and utilization than their domestic counterparts. is a better form of land use on the vast marginal lands of Africa which are un- vi) In the local community participation productive to agriculture. projects, three distinct participatory ele- ments were essential to success: iii) QuasI-private ownership ofland and • the active participation of the rural its wildlife - with wildlife utilization communities in the projects; under strict ecological principles - and • bestowal of the "appropriate" commercialization of wildlife have en­ authority on the communities, or its sured a more effective protection, resto­ restoration to them, so they might ration and sustainable management of take vital decisions on managing African wildlife. This is contrary to the and utilizing their own resources; old approach of public ownership which • distributing benefits of management has resulted in wIdespread illegal hunt­ efforts and resource utilization to ing and the present decline of African the rural communities directly, either wildlife. as cash bonuses or through the provision of social amenities. iv) Multiple uses of wildlife on the same land, such as game farming tourism and REFERENCES safari hunting, have economically en­ hanced wildlife in southern Africa, and Ajayi, S.S. 1971. Wildlife as a source of this approach could serve for future wild­ protein in Nigeria: some priorities for life development programmes in other development. J. Nigeria Field Soc., 3: parts of Africa. 115-127. Ajayi, S.S. 1972. Wildlife and tourism v) Domestication of fast-reproducing in Tanzania: possibilities in Nigeria. I: and -maturing wildlife species is a desir- 34-39. able approach to sustainable manage- Ajayi, S.S. & Tewe, 0.0. 1979. Perfor- 98 Wildlife management

mance of the African giant rat FAO. 1990a. The ADMADE pro­ (Critetomys gambianus: Waterhouse) gramme, a traditional approach to wild­ on commercial rations and varying life management in Zambia. Part of dietary protein levels. 1. Lab. Animals seminar paper on rural community par­ (London), 12: 109-112. ticipation in integrated wildlife man­ Asibey, E.O.A. 1978. Wildlife produc­ agement and utilization in Botswana, tion as a means of meat supply in West Zambia and Zimbabwe. FO: TCP/ Africa, with particular reference to RAF/8965. Rome. Ghana. Paper presented at the 8th World FAO. 1990b. Training Seminar on In­ For. Congr., 16-28 October 1978, tegrated Wildlife Resource Use - Jakarta. FF-F/8-5. 21 pp. arrangements for SADCC training se­ Asibey, E.O.A. & Eyeson, K.K. 1975. minar on integrated wildlife resource Additional information on the impor­ use. FO: TCP/RAF/8965. Working tance of wild animals as a source of Document No. 90/1. Rome. food in Africa, south of the Sahara. FAO. I 990c. Training Seminar on Inte­ Bongo, 1(2): 13-18. (a publication of grated Wildlife Resource Use - record Ghana Wildlife Society) of SADCC mobile training seminar on Ayeni, J.S.O. 1977. Attitudes to utiliza­ wildlife management, involving tion and management of wildlife in people's participation. FO: TCP/RAF/ rural areas. In Proc. Seventh Annual 8962. Field Document N. I. Rome. Conf. For. Assoc. Nigeria. lbadan, Fed­ FAO. 199Od. Training Seminar on Inte­ eral Department of Forestry. grated Wildlife Resource Use: rural com­ Bigalke, R.C. 1964. Can Africa pro­ munity partIcipation in integrated wild­ duce new domestic animals? New Sci., life management and utilization in 374: 141-146. Botswana, Zambia and Zimbabwe - a Charter, J .R. 1970. The economic value collection of seminar papers. FO: TCP/ of wildlife in Nigeria. In Proc. Eighth RAF/8962. Field Document No.2. Annual Conf. For. Assoc. Nigeria. Rome. Ibadan, Nigeria. 13 pp. IUCN. 1987. Directory of afrotropical Child, B. 1988. The economic potential protected areas. Gland, Switzerland. and utilization of wildlife in Zimbabwe. 1034 pp. Rev. sci. tech., 7(4). Milligan, K.R.N. & Ajayi, S.S. 1978. FAO. 1979. Utilization offorest Wildlife The management of West African na­ in West Africa. FO: MlSCn9(26. Rome. tional parks present status, problems :ystems for the implementation of sustainable forest management

and status. Paper presented at the Fourth Cricetomys gambianus. InProc.Eighth East African Wildlife Symposium. 11- Annual Conf. For. Assoc. Nigeria. 17 December 1978.31 pp. Ibadan, Federal Department of For­ Simmons, R.T. & Kreuter, U.P. 1989. estry. Ivory han - no elephants. Policy re­ Von Richter, W. 1970. Wildlife and view. Washington, DC, Heritage Foun­ rural economy in southwestern dation. Botswana. Botswana Notes and Talbot, L.M., Payne, W.J.A., Leder, Records. 2:85-94. Gaborone, Botswana H.P., Verdcourt, L.D. & Ralbot, M.H. Society. 1965. The meat production potential World Bank. 1990. Living with wild­ of WIld antmal.~ In Africa. Farnham, lIfe: wIldlife resources management Bucks, UK, CAB International. with local participation in Africa. Tech­ Tewe, 0.0. & Ajayi, S.S. 1977. Nutri­ nical Paper No. 130. Washington, DC. tive value of the Afncan giant rat

:ystems for the implementation of sustamable forest management 101

Conserving genetic resources in forest ecosystems R.H. Kemp and C. Palmberg-Lerche

This paper discusses the importance of conserving the wide range of plants and animals of actual or potential social and economic importance contained in forest ecosystems. Their genetic diversity is the basis for the sustainable development and management of forest ecosystems, and it buffers such ecosystems against environmental change. The Importance of including extremes of natural occurrence in genetic conservation programmes is stressed. Other subjects included in the paper are the concept of Standard Stands, conservation in tropical moist forests (especially the harmonization of logging techniques with the conservation of genetic diversity and with sustainable forest management), the use of resource inventories to assist in genetic conservation and the need for the development of national strategies for genetic conservation coordinated with other sectors of the economy.

Forests, the biological diversity they life species, wild relatives of important contain and the ecological functions they crops and trees producing wood and help maintain are a heritage of human­ timber, fodder, fruits, latexes and other kind. Forests and woodlands contain a products. Foresters are in a key position large range of species of actual or poten­ to help ensure the conservation and wise tial socio-economic importance globally, use of these valuable resources (FAO, nationally and locally, including wild- 1988). Genetic diversity in forest ecosystems

The authors are, respectively, a Tropical and variation among and between spe­ Forestry Consultant, 12 Westview Rd, cies is the basis for their adaptation to Warlingham, Surrey CR6 9JD, UK and Chief, environmental stress, including the fu­ Forest Resources Development Branch, Forest Resources Division, FAO, Rome ture, and possibly more extreme, effects 102 Conserving forest biodlversil

of global climate change and the emer­ The nature of forest genetic gence or introduction of new pests and resources diseases. Genetic resources include the economic, Genetic diversity is, furthermore, the scientific or social value of the heritable fundamental base for sustainably devel­ materials contained within and between oping and improving forest resources species. The values derived from ge­ for human use. This is an urgent need, as netic resources are generally associated the expansion of human populations and with the different levels of organization ever-higher aspirations for economic and diversity that exist in nature, from development demand a more efficient ecosystems to species, populations, in­ use of the finite land resource and the dividuals and genes (FAD, 1988). The conservation of the resource base. conservation of genetic resources at the Over the past decades, genetic selec­ species and intraspecific levels in natu­ tion and breeding, coupled with inten­ ral forests depends on maintaining es­ sified management strategies and meth­ sential functional components of the odologies have led to greatly increased ecosystem; these may include interac­ agricultural production. At its most inten­ tions such as symbiotic relationshIps and si ve, the management of agricultural crops interdependence between tree species today involves the provision of hIghly and their animal pollinators, seed dis­ controlled environmental conditions, for persers, etc. Research has frequently re­ example under glass or plastic. The scale vealed hidden complexities, for example of forests and the life span of trees to among "plant web" and "food web" sys­ harvestable size, relatIve to the unit value tems (GIlbert, 1980; Terborgh, 1986: of their marketed produce, preclude large­ Whitmore, 1990). scale, human changes to their environ­ The conservation of natural forest eco­ ment, except at the nursery stage or in systems is an important function of na­ controlled propagation. Increased forest tional parks and other fully protectec productivity therefore depends on selec­ areas and may often be compatible witt tion, breeding and propagation aimed at other objectives such as watershed man matching the crop as cIosel y as possi ble to agement or the protection of wildlife its environment and end-use objectives, resources. However, the conservation 01 as well as on the maintenance of a broad important genetic resources at an in genetic base to buffer tree populations traspecific level, between different prov against changes in the environment. enances or individual genotypes, rna) Systems for the implementation of sustainable forest management 103

not be adequately covered through the strategy must be to conserve as wide a maintenance of fully protected areas range of provenances as possible, with alone, given the very limited and often particular attention given to sampling accidental distribution of such areas in the more extreme environmental condi­ most countries. Depending on the distri­ tions of the species 'natural occurrence. bution of intraspecific variation, which Not only are the popUlations in such is dependent on the species' breeding conditions likely to be genetically dis­ and seed dispersal systems, valuable tinct, through adaptation to the local genetic resources may be lost even if the environment, but they may also be more species per se survives through the con­ vulnerable to loss through forest distur­ servation of representative ecosystems. bance. A conservation strategy aimed at When planning conservatIOn activities, capturing intraspecific variation thus it is therefore essential to state clearly requires a number of conservation areas the objectives of conservation, giving scattered over the entire range of the due conSIderation to the various levels species, many of which will also have of diversity found in nature and outlined other objectives, such as timber produc­ above (FAG, 1990). It is not necessary, tion or soil and water conservation. nor usually possible, to conserve all lev­ els of genetIc diversity in all areas; some Management of diversity areas of forest may be devoted to eco­ Forests are naturally dynamic systems, system conservation while others may subject to cyclical changes through peri­ be managed to conserve intraspecific odic disturbance, senescence and eco­ variation as part of a network of conser­ logical succession. Their genetic diver­ vatIOn areas contaming selected target sity, particularly in the more complex species or populations (FAG, 1993a). formations, results not only from the There is inadequate informatIon to­ number of species present in agiven area day on the variation and variation pat­ but also from successional changes. The terns of the majority of forest species. richest areas of diversity are likely to be Very often, genetic differences between those including secondary forest in vari­ provenances of a species can only be ous stages of recovery. Depending on hypothesized from their geographic or the forest management system and the ecological situatIOns (Frankel, 1970). In degree of understanding of forest dy­ the absence of more reliable informa­ namics underpinning it, genetic diver­ tion, the safest practicable conservation sity and specific genetic resources may 104 Conserving forest biodiversil

be enhanced or reduced by human inter­ tential contribution of each forest man­ vention in given areas of forest over agement unit to the overall national ob­ given time periods. The most vital need jectives for conserving the country's in conservation is the adequate control genetic resources will vary according to and continuity of management to meet location; environmental conditions; spe­ specified aims and to be carried out cies composition, size and shape; and within consistent land-use plans and na­ many otherfactors. As mentioned above, tional forest policies. Based on a suffi­ it is neither necessary nor desirable to cient knowledge of forest composition prescribe equal priority and intensity of and dynamics, management systems genetic resource conservation to all pro­ aimed primarily at producing timber and duction forests. However, sustainable other forest products and services can forest management should, by defini­ contribute substantially to conserving a tion, always include provisions for pro­ forest's genetic resources. Hitherto, par­ tecting site conditions, seed trees, seed­ ticularly in the complex tropical moist ling regeneration and advance growth of forests, economic forces and market desirable species. It should do this ac­ demands have imposed management cording to management plans and pre­ systems aimed at simplifying and trun­ scriptions which should balance pro­ cating the natural complexity and suc­ ductive, protective and environmental cessional development of ecosystems. needs. The growing recognition of the potential I n summary, the challenge for genetic value of genetic diversity, together with resource conservation is not to select, set rapid advances in technological means aside and guard protected areas contain­ to handle and interpret large and com­ ing genetic resources, nor to preserve plex arrays of data of the functional seed, pollen or tissue in a seed bank. It is relationships in the forests, is likely to to maintain the genetic variability of lead in the future to more varied .man­ target species within a mosaic of eco­ agement for diversity over a given terri­ nomically and socially acceptable land­ tory, harmonized with other economic use options, including protected areas and social needs. and managed forest reserves (F AO, Every country, and to a large extent 1991). Such in situ conservation should, each area offorest, is unique in terms of where feasible, be complemented by ex its genetic resources and the appropriate situ conservation of genetic resources of strategy for their management. The po- priority species. Systems for the implementation of sustainable forest management 105

National policy ecosystem, this action may contribute to Although effective action to conserve conserv ing the genetic resources of those genetic resources depends ultimately on species targeted for use, at an acceptable operations within and around specific cost to the total genetic diversity in the areas offorest, such action must also be specific forest area concerned (FAO, planned as an integral part of overalI 1984; FAO, 1993a; Kemp, 1992). national development policies. This in­ The conservation of genetic resources tegration must embrace not only policies in situ within natural forest ecosystems for forest and land use. taking account of may be the only possible strategy for the the contributions of both the productive great majority of species in the more forest estate and the system of fulIy complex forests, such as the tropical protected areas, but also extend to as­ moist forests. However, provision for ex pects of forest industry. trade and lInk­ situ action may be needed to comple­ ages with other sectors of the economy. ment such a strategy (FAO, 1975). This With this level of integrated planning may be true if populations oftarget spe­ and management. the national objec­ cies are threatened by forest clearance, tives of maximizing the sustainable har­ or by loss of genetic integrity through vest of wood and non-wood products. pollen contamination originating from protecting soil and water resources and non-native plantations. conserving ecosystems and genetic re­ The techniques for ex situ conserva­ sources can be efficiently achieved. tion are well established and their limita­ National strategy design must take tions well known: the recalcitrant account of the distribution patterns of behaviour of the seed of many high for­ species and associations in relation to est species, particularly those character­ their presence in other areas of forest. In istic of late stages of succession in the some areas of production forest, prevail­ moist tropical forests; missed opportu­ ing needs and management prescriptions nities for further eVOlutionary change in may lead to the extreme refinement of material stored in controIled conditions, the stand composition to favour one or a such as seed banks; and the difficulties few species in an ecosystem which, in its and time involved in regenerating seed natural state, consisted of a larger num­ lots when gennination falls below ac­ ber of species. If done with a full under­ ceptable limits (FAO, 1993b). Specially standing of forest dynamics and the ef­ established ex situ conservation stands. fects on the long-tenn functioning of the if replicated under different sets of envi- 106 Conserving/orest biodiversity

ronmental conditions and appropriately genetic diversity and the patterns of dis­ managed, may safeguard broad genetic tribution of genes within and between variation within the species concerned the target populations is critically im­ while providing a source of material for portant for efficient conservation strate­ breeding programmes to serve produc­ gies, both in situ and ex situ. The genetic tion objectives (FAD, 1975). structure of a species results from muta­ Although it is nonnally assumed that tion, migration, selection and gene flow tree breeding programmes will reduce between separate populations, and it is genetic diversity, they may be designed strongly influenced by the genetic sys­ to maintain variation within populations tem, embracing the breeding system and and e\len, by multiple population man­ dispersal mechanisms for pollen and agement, to increase the total genetic seed. Infonnation on the genetic struc­ variation (Namkoong, Kang and ture of forest trees is very limited and, Brouard, 1988). Nevertheless, strategies for most tropical species, it is non-exis­ for in situ conservation in natural forest tent. EVidence from provenance trials of ecosystems deserve the most urgent at­ temperate and tropical tree species, al­ tention, particularly to take advantage of lied at tImes to isoenzyme analysis, has the conservation contribution of the pro­ nevertheless shown that high genetic duction forests and to seek opportunities variation is nonnally present both be­ for combining the conservation of ge­ tween and within populations. The rate netic resources of economically impor­ of out-crossing is also generally high, tant target tree species with the protec­ although inbreeding and even apomixis tion of the gene pools of associated spe­ have been reported for some tree species cies, for example those providing non­ and for isolated individuals of such spe­ timber products and benefits important cies, especially in the tropical moist for­ to rural people. ests (Bawa, 1974; Bullock, 1985; Bawa and Krugman, 1991 ; Janzen and Genetic structure Vasquez-Yanes, 1991). Management systems aimed at combin­ Knowledge of the genetic structure ing production objectives with the con­ has implications for the location, num­ servation of genetic resources require ber, size and management of in situ some understanding of both forest dy­ conservation stands and for sampling namics and the genetic structure of spe­ for ex situ conservation. However, even cies and populations. Understanding without such knowledge it seems likely Systems for the implementation of sustainable forest management 107

that, for out-crossing and widely distrib­ tion. The effects might not necessarily uted species, a few populations in each be negative, since removing closely re­ major geographical zone may be suffi­ lated individuals could encourage wider cient to conserve much of the genetic out-crossing, with possibly beneficial diversity (National Research Council, results. In other cases, an existing soil 1991). Genetic conservation need not seed bank may supplement the regrowth cover all popUlations, but those in differ­ after a first harvesting intervention. How­ entecological conditions are more likely ever, the more extensive and severe the to contain different genotypes, genes disruption, the greater the likelihood of (alleles)! and gene frequencies. By tar­ adverse effects; the possible impacts must geting ecosystems at the extremes of a therefore be considered in forest man­ species' natural distribution range, with agement prescriptions, based on exist- an effective population size of a few 109 knowledge and subsequent monitor­ hundred individuals each and a total ing of their effects. population of a few thousand, sampling will ensure a high probability for captur­ Standard Stands ing most alleles (Namkoong, 1991). In Tree species of proven economic value the more complex and species-nch tropi­ that are already used in large-scale plan­ cal forests, 10 which mature individuals tation programmes are frequently sub­ of target species may be scattered at a Jected to genetic improvement low density of only one or less per hect­ programmes, which include the selec­ are, harvesting or other causes of loss tion, breeding and propagation of desir­ could alter the levels and patterns of out­ able individuals. Even when mUltiple crossing or inbreeding within the popu­ population breeding programmes are lation, possibly having detnmental ef­ planned to maintain or enhance genetic fects on fertile seed production and on diversity of the species in use, some the longer-term viability of the popula- elements of the diversity in the original wild populations may be incidentally 'The structural and functional unit of lost. Sustainability in long-term planta­ Inheritance is the gene, which IS the physical tion and tree improvement programmes entity being transmitted during the reproductive process and which influences may ultimately depend on retaining ac­ hereditary traits among the offspring. Genes cess to the original wild populations, left can exist in different forms or states; these to evolve and adapt to changing condi­ alternative forms of a gene are called alleles (FAO. 1993a). tions. These original populations, fur- 108 Conservlng/orest biodiversity

thermore, constitute a standard against from the stands and its distribution for which others, of different provenance or experimental purposes or operational the result of selection or breeding, may planting. The overaII purpose of the sys­ be judged. tem was to conserve the genetic identity Increasing human populations and of specific provenances of priority spe­ higher material standards of living im­ cies for as long as possible, with propa­ ply a more intensive use of land and gation based on natural regeneration of natural resources, leading to a progres­ each stand or, alternatively, on replant­ sive reduction of natural forest areas. ing using seed coIIected within the stand. Although some stands may be left intact, The Standard Stand approach devel­ for example in national parks or on inac­ oped very weII owing to the relatively cessible or difficult terrain, these are simple composition of the natural stands. unlikely to represent the original popu­ the advanced state of Finnish forestry lations adequately. In Finland in the mid- and the high level of effective manage­ 1950s, such considerations led to the ment in both state-owned and private concept of a system of Standard Stands forests. In principle, it should be pos­ within areas of natural forest. The ongi­ sible to introduce a similar system in nal idea was to establish a network of other countries. The possibilities are most stands of each of the most important tree eVIdent in countrIes in the temperate species, representing the principal eco­ zone and appear to be most problematic logical areas throughout the country in tropical countries because of complex (Hagman, 1971). The stands chosen were species compositions and the inadequate neither "plus" nor "minus" but rather knowledge of ecosystem dynamics. Nev­ average for the area and large enough to ertheless, where recognized plantation yield a good supply of seed as weII as to species are found in sufficiently large ensure good, within-stand pollination natural stands that are representative of withoutthe risk of excessive inbreeding. their original distribution, the establish­ The minimum stand size chosen for spe­ ment of Standard Stands, under effec­ cies such as Pinus sy/vestris, Picea abies tive control and with long-term security and Betula spp. was 1 ha, with a 100m of tenure, should be considered. The surround area and a total area of 5 to 6 ha Central American pine forests constitute if possible. Detailed site descriptions an example (Kemp, 1973). The work and mensuration data were recorded to­ already undertaken in the provisional gether with records of seed coIIected delineation of provenance regions and ystems for the implementation of sustainable forest management 109 proposed conservation stands in the natu­ conservation will increasingly depend ral forests of Pinus caribaea and P. on ex situ action based on information oocarpa, for example in Honduras gained through international provenance (Robbins and Hughes. 1983). provides research and field trials. although all some scientific basis for developing a opportunities should be taken to con­ Standard Stands network there. serve remaining representative natural Other recognized tropical plantation stands in situ, harmonizing conservation species that occur in relatively simple with sustained use; and ensuring that and largely monospecific stands - in­ non-local genetic materials, which might cluding species of other tropical pines. hybridize with the species or with the teak. Gmelma and eucalyptus - might be local provenance, are not introduced amenable to this approach. given suffi­ without demonstrating their superiority cient knowledge of their natural distri­ or adequately safeguarding the genetic bution and adequate levels of effective integrity of the local gene pool. protection and control. The commercial In the case of Standard Stands. as for and environmental importance of trees genetic conservation in general, meticu­ in arid and semi-arid regions makes the lous documentation ofthe material to be conservation oftheir genetic resources a conserved is essential. The development high priority. requiring urgent action in and maintenance of computerized data­ the context of widespread and increas­ bases are important aids to such genetic ing deforestation and degradatIOn conservation efforts. (Palmberg. 1981; 1986). However. op­ portunities to apply the Standard Stand TropIcal moist forests approach to species in these areas have In the more complex tropical forest for­ already been limited in many cases by mations, particularly the tropical rain severe fragmentation of the natural for­ forest. where close to 300 species of ests and woodlands and by the influence trees have been recorded on a single of human societies in the selection and hectare in Peru (Whitmore. 1990). ge­ undocumented distribution ofespecially netic resource conservation in the con­ those species which have long been rec­ text of sustainable development presents ognized for their nutritional value. For particular problems. The importance of species such as Gliricidla sepium. origi­ in situ conservation action and the de­ nating in Central America. or F aidherbia velopment of systems of fully protected albida (syn.Acacia albida) from Africa, areas have already been recognized. 110 Conserving forest biodiversity

Because of the ever-increasing pressures sentially on studying and interpreting on land and forest resources and the limi­ taxonomic information on genetically tations on the location and extent of pro­ determined differences and affinities, tected areas, the contribution of produc- their patterns of natural distribution and ) tion forests to genetic resource conserva­ their ecological bases. tion is increasingly and critically impor­ Very often the only data available are tant. The multiple roles of natural forests from standard forest inventories, but are recognized for their social and envi­ these assess stocks of harvestable tim­ ronmental benefits as well as for produc­ ber, not usually the actual composition tion. The continued provision of wood or condition of the forest. Since a high and non-wood forest products, and even proportion of the cost of inventory op­ the long-term functional efficiency of the erations is spent in the access to and ecosystem itself, may depend on safe­ support for field work in the forest, the guarding an appropriate range of both cost of collecting additional data to serve specific and intraspecific genetic diver­ as a basis for conservation activities sity of its component species. would be relativel y low. Surveys of non­ For effective sustainable productive wood forest products and of variation forest management, data are needed on patterns in the floristic composition of the composition of each of the main the forest can provide the basis for ge­ forest types as well as on the silvicultural netic conservation strategies, incorpo­ characteristics of the principal species rating both the principal economic spe­ and of those which may compete with cies and those providing other benefits. them at various stages of their develop­ Non-timber forest products commonly ment; such data include regeneration represent the most direct evidence of behaviour, growth rates, response to forest value in the eyes of the local canopy opening, logging and silvicul­ people and often cannot be substituted tural operations. Management for the in by establishing forest plantations; sus­ situ conservation of genetic resources of tainable in situ management of these the principal tree species requires the resources is therefore a key to securing same basic data on ecology and autecol­ local support for conservation. ogy as do silvicultural interventions, but with greater emphasis on breeding sys- Resource Inventories terns and genetic structure. The scien- For the forest inventory to serve its full tific basis for conservation depends es- purpose in assisting the conservation of Systems for the implementation of sustainable forest management 111

forest genetic resources, it must provide capabilities for data handling and analy­ data which can be used to assess the sis has transformed the possibilities for relative conservation value of a given understanding forest composition and area of production forest, for example genetic diversity patterns. Simulation of the distribution range of selected species the variability and complexities ofpopu­ or forest types in relation to other re­ lation distributions using stochastic mod­ served and protected areas. This should els, such as those designed to measure help determine the minimum number the average number of occurrences in a and most efficient combination of con­ given area, may be used to reveal vari­ servation sites to cover the target spe­ ability patterns and thereby help select cies, populations and plant communities priority locations for conservation. Geo­ adequately. Variation in the environment graphic information systems (GIS) can and in the plant community as a whole be an important aid in defining and inter­ may indicate possible patterns of in­ preting species distribution patterns in traspecific variation in target species. relation to environmental variables and The degree of precision in surveying vegetation types. The design and man­ resources providing non-wood forest agement of appropriate database sys­ products may relate to the likely levels tems should aid the synthesis ofall avail­ and methods of harvesting: if the prod­ able relevant information on forest com­ ucts are to be freely gathered, informa­ position, species distributions, phenol­ tion will be needed principally on regen­ ogy of flowering and fruiting and other eration potential and levels of relevant data from various sources. sustainability, so that broad qualitative Within the production forests, the net­ assessments may be sufficient. work of permanent sample plots may be The efficiency and cost-effectiveness used for phenological studies and basic of the inventory process depend on the research observations. planning stage where the appropriate range of botanical, ecological and socio­ Harvesting of timber and genetiC logical expertise, both in survey formu­ diversity lation and implementation, must be in­ In many tropical production forests the cluded. This should include expert in­ harvesting of timber is currently theonly volvement in designing the systems of large-scale management intervention. data capture, handling and analysis. The Unless carefully planned andcontrolJed, widespread availability of computing harvesting may severely damage stand 112 Conserving forest buxl,verslty

structure, site capability and regenera­ good phenotype, well distributed through tion. Nevertheless, based on a sufficient the stand, is important for future sustain­ understanding of ecosystems and eco­ able productivity and for genetic re­ logical processes, logging and timber source conservation, particularly where extraction can be used to assist in the there are madequate levels of established conservation of genetic resources of the seedlings and advance growth of desir­ principal tree species. Theoretically, se­ able species, and where there is an inad­ lective logging could be planned to main­ equate soil seed bank of target species. tain a balance between the areas of forest The presence of residual large trees after devoted to the different stages of eco­ the main harvesting operations presents logical succession in a country or over some problems in subsequent manage­ an ecological region, thereby allowing ment of the stand if they are so numerous the maximum total genetic diversity to as to compete with the next crop or are be conserved of both pioneer species subsequently harvested WIth related ex­ and those characteristic of later succes­ traction damage. Nevertheless, the loss sional stages. This might be achieved in in Immediate productIOn is slight com­ various ways: by localized clear-cutting pared with the dangers of progressIve at long intervals, allowing each newly detenoratlOn of the genetic quality of the felled area in turn to revert to the mature, population through reliance for regen­ climax condition; by the careful opening eratIOn on the residual, smallerindividu­ of small gaps through the removal of als, should these prove to be of mferIor individual trees; or by various possIble genetIc qualIty. intermediate patterns and harvesting in­ The seedhngs of many tree specIes tensities. However, frequent repetition which characterize the later stages of of even low-intensity harvesting in the succession depend for successful regen­ same forest area may have an adverse eration on surviving for long periods effect on the breeding populations of the under the forest canopy rather than on slower-growing species by altering the the rapId colonization of gaps or the number and distribution of mature re­ germination of seed dormant in the soil. productive individuals in such species Seedlings are particularly vulnerable to that are present before the next felling; damage by logging while harvesting ag­ the effects of interventions must there­ gravates the adverse impacts on such fore be continuously monitored. species by opening the canopy exten­ The retention of enough seed trees of sively and suddenly, thereby drastically Systems for the ImplementatIOn of sustainable forest management 113

altering the environment in favour of tural treatments are applied to favour conditions preferred by fast-growing regeneration of the species under use. pioneer species. Since the heavy-seeded Yet, with forward planning of harvest­ climax species most often depend on ing allied to strict controls on road con­ animals for seed dispersal - a system struction, logging plans, timber mark­ which prevents localized seed concen­ ing, felling and extraction, the harvest­ tration and loss through predation - the ing operation can be used to promote disruption of animal populations caused genetic resource conservation, as out­ by logging may have further adverse lined above. Furthermore, even the nar­ impacts on these species. Quite small rower range of total genetic diversity areas of unlogged forest, within or ad­ that may result from repeated harvesting JOIning logging concessions. may be criti­ and refinement operati ons will be greater cally important to survival within the than if the same area were converted to area of keystone animal species (Johns, a forest plantation, and certainly much 1989) and thus to the forest's long-term greater than if it were to be changed to sustainable productivity. alternative forms of land use. The increasIng use of heavy mecham­ The most severe impacts of logging cal equipment for tImber harvesting has on genetic diversity result from human severely harmed many tropical produc­ intervention after harvesting, through tion forests. Where the effect on ad­ agncultural encroachmentorfire. WhIle vance regeneration is accIdental, it tends some drier forest formations are adapted to be dIstributed over all tree species to survive periodic burning and may be quite randomly, so the impact on the fire disclimax communitIes, In the more genetic resources is indiscnminate complex moist forests fire will severely (Johns, 1988). However, the impact on reduce diversity; in extreme cases, whole already rare species subject to selective populations of regrowth may be lost logging will be severe through reduction through fire following the felling of all of the future breeding populations. Where adult trees of a species in the area con­ market demand is very selective, exclu­ cerned. sive concentratIOn on extracting the best phenotypes of the most desirable spe­ Silviculture cies is likely to result in progressive For in situ conservation, natural regen­ deterioration in the overall genetic qual­ eration is clearly preferable and is likely ity of the stand, unless specific silvicul- also to be the cheapest option for sus- 114 Conserving forest biodiversity

tainable management of production for­ tive felling repeatedly removes the fast­ ests, provided that it can be confidently est -growing and possibly most desirable assured. In practice, it has proved to be individuals, there is some danger of dys­ one of the most difficult and uncertain genic effects within populations of har­ aspects of management in a wide range vested species, leaving less vigorous and of forest types, especially in tropical perhaps defective stems to regenerate. moist forests. Monocyclic, or Moreover, without deliberate interven­ shelterwood, systems relying on seed­ tions to favour the growth of the imma­ ling regeneration have been tried exten­ ture trees of the desired species, stand sively in all tropical regions but they quality may deteriorate. Such damage have encountered severe problems, par­ may be avoided through responsible ticularly with climber infestations and management and harvesting practices, their failure to induce adequate regen­ but implies skilled tending and well­ eration of the principal economic spe­ planned and controlled harvesting prac­ cies. Increased demand and a wider ac­ tices. ceptability oflesser-known species, lead­ Silvicultural operations - particularly ing to more intensive felling operations, refinement operations or liberation have tended to favour pioneer or near­ thinnings to favour certain species and pioneer species - including some with individuals - can be strongly discrimi­ light, pale, general-purpose marketable natory and can therefore negatively in­ timbers - at the expense of the slower­ fluence genetic diversity at the species growing heavier hard~ f)ods. The repeti­ level, leading to a decrease In overall tion of frequent felling and short rota­ diversity. Depending on the infonna­ tions is likely to hann severely the breed­ tion, skill and investment applied, they ing populations and genetic resources of may also be used to maintain diversity these latter species, which are character­ and to restore the genetic resources of istic of later-stage and mature forests. selected species. A combination of log­ Polycyclic systems relying on advance ging operations and silvicultural treat­ regeneration can theoretically incorpo­ ments may be used to develop and main­ rate mature-phase species, with longer tain a mosaic of different stages of eco­ felling cycles for such timbers; there­ logical succession as well as of different fore, they can conserve a broader spec­ tree populations, including where ap­ trum of genetic resources in tenns of propriate the delineation of"core" zones, species composition. However, if selec- devoted primarily to conservation, and Systems for the implementatIOn of sustainable forest management 115

"buffer" zones of more intensively man­ tional policy and the biological charac­ aged production forest. The efficiency teristics of target species. Specific man­ of such zoning would depend on the agement systems and the level of prior­ design of a national network of conser­ ity to be assigned to conservation objec­ vation areas, embracing both the fully tives must be determined for each forest protected reserve system and the pro­ or management unit to achieve an appro­ duction forests and extending across the priate balance within the national forest natural range of the principal species. estate as a whole, giving due weight to both socio-economic and ecological National strategy objectives. The scale and complexity of Effective action to conserve forest genetic the data needed for sustainable forest resources requires coordination both management to meet both sets of objec­ within the forestry sector, including in­ tives require coordination through a na­ dustry and trade, and outside. Coherent tional data centre, with appropriate in­ incentive systems for sustainable forest ternationallinks, to facilitate and stimu­ management are required at every level late the collection of information and to within the country and at all points in the make it readily accessible in a suitable chain, from the forest to the national and format. The formulation of a national International markets. Necessary condi­ strategy for the conservation of forest tions include fair trading practices, appro­ genetic resources is the most appropri­ priate Investment In local processing, ate means to ensure the effective use of marketing assistance and maximum re­ available national resources, including covery of the value of the products in the forest lands, as well as to secure oppor­ country of origin and the channelling of tunities for regional and international part of the profits back Into the forest in cooperation. support of ecologically and economically In all aspects of forest management and sound forest management. genetic conservation, the failure to com­ An urgent task IS to prioritize target ply with prescriptions and conditions has species, popUlations, areas and activi­ frequently damaged the growing stock ties for the conservation of genetic re­ and, particularly, its regeneration capac­ sources in each country. This must take ity. For both sustainable management and account of needs for ex situ as well as in genetic conservation objectives, it is es­ situ action as components of a coherent sential to monitor operations closely both programme, in accordance with the na- to see if they conform with the national 116 Conserving forest biodiversity

strategy and to assess their ecological, conservation and use for sustainable silvicultural and socio-economic effects. agricultural, forestry and fisheries de­ velopment. FAO Working Paper ofthe REFERENCES IDWG Sub-group on Biological Di­ versity. Rome. 41 pp. Baw&, K.S. 1974. Breeding systems of FAO. 1991. FAO activities on in situ tree species of a lowland tropical com­ conservation of plant genetic resources. munity. Evolution, 28: 85-92. In Forest Genetic Resources Informa­ Bawa, K.S. & Krugman, S.L. 1991. tion No. 19, p. 2-8. Rome. Reproductive biology and genetics of FAO. 1993a. ConservatIOn of genetic tropical trees in relation to conserva­ resources in tropical forest manage­ tion and management. In A. Gomez­ ment: pnnciples and concepts. FAO Pompa, T.C. Whitmore & M. Hadley, Forestry Paper No. 107. Rome. eds. Rainforest regeneration and man­ FAO. 1993b. Ex situ storage of seeds, agement. Paris, Parthenon, Carnforth pollen and 10 vitro cultures of peren­ and Unesco. nial woody plant specIes. FAO For­ Bullock, S.H. 1985. Breeding systems estry Paper No. 112. Rome. 83 pp. in the flora of a tropical deciduous Frankel,O.H. 1970. Genetic conserva­ forest in Mexico. Biotropica. 17: 287- tion in perspective. In O.H. Frankel & 301. E. Bennett, eds. Genetic resources in FAO. 1975. The methodology of con­ plants - their exploration and conser­ servation offorest genetic resources: vatIOn. IBPHandbook No. II. Oxford, report on a pilot study. FO:MISC{75/ UK, Blackwell. 8. Rome. 137 pp. Gilbert, L.E. 1980. Food web FAO. 1984. A Guide to in situ conserva­ organisation and conservatIon of tion of genetic resources of tropical neotropical diversity. In M.E. Soule & woody species. FORGEN/MISC/84/ B.A. Wilcox, eds. Conservation biol­ 2. Rome. 196 pp. ogy, p. 11-33. Sunderland, UK, Sinauer. FAO. 1988. Plant genetic resources: Hagman, M. 1971. The Finnish stan­ lheir conservation in situ for human dard stands for forestry research. In use. Booklet prepared by the FAO For­ D.P. Fowler & C.w. Yeatman, eds. estry Department in collaboration with Proc. 13th Meeting Comm. For. Tree Unesco/UNEP/IUCN. Rome, FAO. Breeding Canada. Prince George, Brit­ FAO. 1990. Biological diversity: its ish Columbia, Canada. Systems for the implementation of sustainable forest management 117

Janzen, D.H. & Vasquez-Yanes, C. Managing global genetic resources: 1991. Aspects of tropical seed ecology forest trees. Washington, DC, National of relevance to management of tropical Academy Press. 228 pp. forested wildlands. In A. Gomez­ Palmberg, e. 1981. A vital fuelwood Pompa, T.C Whitmore & M. Hadley, gene pool is in danger. Unasylva, eds. Rainforest regeneration and man­ 33(33): 22-30. agement Paris, Parthenon, Carnforth Palm berg, e. 1986. Selection and ge­ and Unesco. netic improvement of indigenous and Johns, A.D. 1988. Effects of selectIve exotic multipurpose tree species for timber extraction on ram forest struc­ dry zones. Agrofor Syst., 4: 121-127. ture and composition and some conse­ Robbins,A.M.J.&Hughes,e.E.1983. quences for frugivores and folivores. Provenance regions for Pinus caribaea Biotroplca, 20(1): 31-37. and Pinus oocarpa within the Repub­ Johns, A.D. 1989. Timber. the environ­ lic of Honduras. Tropical Forestry ment and wildlife In Malayszan rain Paper No. 18. Oxford, UK, Commu­ nIty Forestry Institute, University of forests, final report InstItute of South- east Asian Biology, UniversIty of Ab- Oxford Press. 91 pp. erdeen, UK. Terborgh, J. 1986. Keystone plant re­ Kemp, R.H. 1973. InternatIOnal prov­ sources in the tropical forest. In M.E. enance research on Central American Soule & B.A. Wilcox, eds. Conserva­ pmes. Comm. For Rev.• 52(1): 55-56. tum bIOlogy, p. 330-344. Sunderland, Kemp, R.H. 1992. The conservatIOn of UK, Sinauer. genetic resources in managed tropIcal Whitmore, T.e. 1990. Tropical rain forests. Unasylva, 43( 169): 34-40. forests. Oxford, UK, Clarendon. Namkoong, G., Kang, H.C. & Brouard, H.S. 1988. Tree breeding: principles and strategies New York, Springer. 179 pp. Namkoong, G. 1991. Conservation and protection of ecosystems and genetic resources. In Proc. 10th World For­ estry Congress. Nancy, France, ENGREF. National Research Council. 1991.

Systems for the implementatIOn of sustamable forest management 119

Climate change and sustainable forest management D.C. Maciver

Climate, its variability and changing structure, plays a major role in the growth, development, migration, succession, mortality and regeneration of forests. Historically, climatic information was usually incorporated into forest management decisions locally or regionally, but little attention was paid to the impact of the global climate. The potential change in the global climate (the trend towards future warming) threatens forest sustainability and endangers known management practices. Therefore, it is essential that a climate plan be developed as an integral part of sustainable forest management, developing improved regeneration and protection prescriptions to adapt to the change. The reasons for such global change include increased releases of "greenhouse gases", such as carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and ozone. Since the turn of the century, human activity seems to have been the major source of further carbon dioxide releases: land-use change, deforestation and fossil fuel burning. The use of global calculation models (GeMs) is discussed in this paper. A climate plan for sustainable forest management comprises two key elements: forest climate management and greenhouse gas management. Forest climate management includes the following: identifying shifting seed zones; pollen flow and contamination; site modification technologies;forestclimate manipulation practices (physical alteration, breeding programmes, conserving biodiversity); and enhanced protection. Greenhouse gas management should focus on altering pools and fluxes of carbon, methane and nitrous oxide and on the continuing role of forests in reducing atmospheric concentrations of these gases.

The author is with the Canadian Climate Centre, EnVironment Canada. 120 Forest management and protection and climate change

INTRODUCTION usually incorporated into forest man­ Forests and foresters are constantly chang­ agement decisions locally or regionally, ing. Forests are engaged in the complex with little attention given to the impact act of adaptation with one species fol­ of the global climate. lowed by another, either gradually through The potential change in the global natural succession or rapidly by climate­ climate poses a new threat to forest based or other disturbances. In response, sustainability and jeopardizes the forest foresters have developed forest manage­ management practices based on current ment actions designed to sustain and, in and historical climate variability. A cli­ some cases, enhance the social and eco­ mate plan should be developed as an nomic benefits derived from the forest integral part of the sustainable forest sector. management process. For example, me­ Forests are able to protect themselves teorologists tend to view the atmosphere against many threats to their growth and as a subdivision process from the global development, including the ability to to regIOnal to local scales; however, regenerate after severe disruptions. Many foresters tend to aggregate from the tree forest management actions aim at taking to the stand and then to the forest level. advantage of this buffering and renewal These opposite temporal and spatial ap­ capacity of the forest. For example, proaches need to be assessed and inte­ today's boreal forest has evolved from a grated carefully. The biological series of disturbances, especially fIre, storability of wood on the stump IS finIte, into a mosaic of species and age classes. and the forester, together with the me­ Similarly, silvicultural practices attempt teorologist, should develop Improved to develop hospitable site conditions for renewal and protectIOn prescriptions re­ regeneration after timber harvesting. flecting the opportuni ties under a chang- Forest managers have developed pre­ 109 climate. scriptions, by species and site condition, Indications of future global warming for successfully renewing managed for­ significantly influence all forest man­ ests and protecting unmanaged forests. agement activities and will affect many Climate, its variability and changing decisions taken at the operational site structure, plays amajorrole in the growth, level-the selection of species, site modi­ development, migration, succession, fications, the preservation of the bio­ mortality and regeneration of forests. logical heritage, enhanced protection Historically, climate information was strategies and the incorporation of new Systems for the Implementation of sustainable forest management 121

technologies - in the aim of maintaining while forest ecosystems will continue to a sustainable forest sector and protect­ adapt to changing conditions when tol­ ing ecosystems. erable thresholds are exceeded or will recover if the change is minor. THE CLIMATE CHANGE ISSUE1 The balance of heat within the atmo­ The atmosphere is a dynamic system sphere is the difference between the in­ that is constantly changing. Volcanic coming and outgoing radiation between activity, solar orbital shifts and changes the sun and the earth. The outgoing, or in the natural greenhouse effect are some infrared, radiation on its return journey to of the forces that have caused variable space is intercepted by clouds and green­ climates throughout the earth's geologi­ house gases such as carbon dioxide, meth­ cal history. For example, in the Middle ane, nitrous oxide and ozone. The strong Ages a wann and benevolent climate, relationship between temperature change lasting from about AD 900 to AD 1200, and two greenhouse gases, carbon diox­ known as the Medieval Optimum, per­ Ide and methane, is shown in the Figure mitted human habitation to extend to (Hengeveld, 1991). This proxy climate nonnally harsh areas such as Greenland. data source reinforces the correlation that In the thirteenth century, a 6OO-year pe­ eXIsts between increasing greenhouse riod of pronounced cooling occurred gases and temperature change and also which was known as the "Little Ice Age" hIghlights the elevated level of carbon (Easterlmg, 1990). BiotIC resiliency dioxide in the atmosphere today (1990) needs to be assessed and incorporated as compared with the last 160 000 years. a basic ingredient into sustainable forest Since the tum of the century, human management strategies. Tropical forests, activities appear to be the major additi ve for example, have adapted to a number source for carbon dioxide releases into of severe dIsruptions, such as fire, the atmosphere. Land-use change, de­ drought, insects, disease, hurricanes and forestation and fossil fuel burning add to land-use changes, and continue to sup­ the natural balance between the releases port intensive biodiversity, although in and the removals of carbon to and from an altered state. Naturally induced change the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide con­ has occurred and will continue to occur centrations in the atmosphere have in­ creased by 11 percent over the last 30

'Climate change Is also discussed in the years, suggesting that at least half of the paper by Ciesla. p 131 anthropogenic emissions remain in the 122 Forest management and protection and climate change

<-,~.' ... ,.. ~. ...,'.11 !· ...... _ ...... methanI ....' ......

8 2 to. 0 ·2 I -4 ·6 ·8 ·10

I Methane I-'

1990 level of CO2

Carbon dioxide

o 40 80 120 160 Age (thousand years before present)

SotIr«: Hengeveld (1991), adapted from Houghton (199Ob). Systems for the implementation of sustainable forest management 123

atmosphere. "In other words, the natural climates will not be uniform across the system appears willing to forgive a part earth's surface. Within the global circula­ of the human interference, but only part" tion system, large amounts of heat and (Hengeveld, 1991). moisture are transported from equatorial Forests are particularly fragile when regions towards the poles and vice versa. their natural thresholds have been ex­ This interaction of air masses with the ceeded, with the result that change be­ earth's surface topology creates regional comes inevitable. The cost of restoring climate patterns which display a unique ecosystems in some countries may prove convergence of energy and moisture to insurmountable compared with the ac­ support biotic activity. If the climate celerated development of new adaptive changes slowly over time and space, then technologies, the introduction of new forest ecosystems will have the opportu­ specIes and sIte modIfication costs. nity to adapt; however, the reahties, with Global forces playa SIgnIficant role in increasing greenhouse gas emissions, the Increase of greenhouse gases In the point to a rate of change that will exceed atmosphere. Social and economic pres­ the natural adaptive abilities of the forest. sures to enhance the standard of hVIng in In cases where the forest is also subject to many countries, together WIth a projected a multiplicity of stresses, such as acid doubling of the world's population within precIpitation, air pollution and higher ul­ the next 50 years, will probably result in traviolet radiation, accelerated rates of increasing emISSIons Into the atmosphere. forest degradation, decline and alteration There IS considerable uncertainty con­ can be expected. cerning future rates of greenhouse gas A number of global circulation mod­ increments at a time when political and els (GCMs) have been developed to technological actIons are difficult to pre­ understand the changing climate better, dict. However, It is reasonable to con­ especially with elevated levels of carbon clude at this point in time that human dioxide. Increases in global mean tem­ activitIes have changed the composition perature in the range of 1.5 to 4.5°C are of the atmosphere, and these changes, by based on a doubling of carbon dioxide exceeding the buffenng capacIty ofearth's levels and exceed previous historical ecosystems, will have a major impact on rates. Global precipItation is expected to the forest ecosystem. Forest management increase slightly but the net effect will be practices need to adapt to this change. a significant increase in evaporation rates Global climate change towards warmer in the middle latitudes of the Northern 124 Forest management and protectIOn and climate change

Hemisphere. These models have attained land base instead of expanding into new intellectual credibility but there is still a and marginal landscapes. critical need to examine the interactions Many countries rely heavily on their with the forest ecosystem during the forest resource sector to support devel­ transition to a doubled carbon dioxide opment programmes. For instance, the state. The Canadian Climate Centre's value of exports in $CAN billion for the GCM projects global temperature in­ following countries were: 2.0 for Indo­ creases of 3.SoC and evaporation and nesia, 1.2 for Brazil and 0.5 for Chile in precipitation increases of 3.8 percent, the tropics and subtropics; and 16.9 for which far exceed the optimum thermal Canada, 8.7 for the UnIted States, 2.5 for and moisture ranges for many species Austria and 7.2 for Finland (FAO, 1993). (MacIver, 1989). Other GCMs have. in Wood products are important in these some cases, significantly higher values and other natIOnal economies, as are the but all agree that the future climate di­ multIple benefits derived from wildlife. rection is towards global warming. This recreation. soil conservation, catchment conclusion alone is sufficient to shape protectIOn, the conservation of genetic future forest management actions. resources, wilderness areas and cultural values of the forest. SUSTAINABLE FOREST Wood is also an integral part of any MANAGEMENT energy conservation programme for The impact of a warmer climate on sus­ buildIng and construction and the long­ tainable forest management WIll be most term storage of carbon. Wood can pro­ noticeable at the boundaries of the eco­ vide a renewable energy supply as a tones, alpine species, unique species substitute for the use of fossil fuels. In niches and populations without the ge­ some countries, wood is the only domes­ netic diversity to adapt. In other words, tic fuel. Any changes in the climate that all forest species will need to adjust might affect the sustainable output of while retreating species are replaced by goods and services from the forest must other species. However, in many loca­ therefore have a major impact on every tions, including North America, the country and every region. northward expansion is limited by poor soil conditions. The ability to sustain THE CLIMATE PLAN this forest sector will depend on increas­ Various studies have highlighted the sen­ ing the productivity of the current forest siti vity of the forest sector to a changing Systems for the implementatIOn of sustamable forest management 125

climate, especially in temperate and bo­ moisture between closed forest and open real regions. The impact of climate environments. Moreover, the transition change on the forest ecosystem must be climate near forest edges provides modi­ evaluated holistically as human activi­ fied climate regions for enhanced regen­ ties have a dominant influence on the eration and moisture conservation. es­ conservation and use of this ecosystem. pecially in boreal forests. With global In many countries, forest management warming. this differential is expected to actions tend to be mission-oriented to­ increase with open areas warming faster wards one or two goals. However, the than the closed forest. Under these con­ new threats of a changing climate will ditions. the regeneration of trees and affect all components of the forest eco­ shrubs into these open sites will come system. under increasing climate stress and may Forest management actions can alter be in jeopardy. the forest climate and the greenhouse A first priority for forest management gas balances between the forest ecosys­ should be to improve global observa­ tem and the atmosphere. These balances tions and understanding of the vertical are the major elements of a clImate plan and horizontal structures of forest cli­ for sustainable forest management. mates. Without this knowledge. the for­ est manager will be ill-equipped to de­ Forest climate management velop new adaptive practices for forest Forest canopies serve as an interception renewal. production, protection and con­ layer between the atmosphere and the servation under a changing climate. The forest floor. Compared to adjacent forest manager can accelerate or slow "open" areas, the forest can regulate the down the rate of forest climate change: exchanges of energy and moisture, thus for example. forest clearing rapidly cre­ stabilizing and protecting the thermal ates open climate conditions; selective and moisture regimes within the rooting tree harvesting retains the forest canopy zone. Lower maximum and higher mini­ and a modified forest climate. mum temperatures as well as reduced Foresters can geneticall y al ter the spe­ moisture receipt at the forest floor char­ cies or modify the site. or both. Local or acterize forest climates. Understandably, regional management decisions can dra­ different stand structures and species matically alter the forest climate and compositions can significantly expand hence the forest's buffering capacity. or contract the differential in heat and Plantation management and agroforestry 126 Forest management and protection and climate change

allow for greater forest climate control practices aim at manipulating the local by designing the new forest within future climate for the health, productivity and climate orientations. When using selected renewal benefits of the forest. This abil­ genotypes and intensive cultural prac­ ity to manipulate the forest climate pos­ tices with short-rotation woody crop sibly to delay or reduce the effects of management, care must be taken to en­ global warming is an important adaptive sure that yields are sustained, biodi versity management strategy. is conserved and the risks associated Whether abrupt or gradual, potential with long-rotation climate exposure are changes in the forest climate need to be reduced. evaluated carefully as part of the sus­ The need to use timber resources at a tainable forest management plan. A first time when other ecosystem partners ad­ stage in this process will be to establish vocate greater natural forest conserva­ forest climate stations above and wlthm tion will tend to lead to a partitioning of the forest to detect differential change the timber land base into areas devoted between open and closed forest clImates. to "farmed" forests and other areas re­ Site modification technology is used served for mUltiple uses and maintaining extensively in many countries to en­ a quality environment. This level of in­ hance crop protection agamst hazards tensive or elite forest management is such as frost, drought and wind. Like­ high in some countries and indications wise, tree breeding programmes are de­ are that more countries need to do the signed to improve the performance of same. genotypes and their tolerance for such Numerous examples of static, not dy­ hazards. However, under a changing namic, scenarios offorest migration have climate, It is essential to improve under­ been developed by superimposing ther­ standing of pollen and gene flows. For mal and moisture isohnes over ecotone example, the selection of "drought­ boundaries for today's climate and then proof' familIes within the variability of projecting where the new forest will be today's climate is a sound "prepared­ under a changed climate. For species ness" strategy for tomorrow's climate. that are particularly sensitive to climate Basic genetics and tree physiology will extremes during their physiological life be one ofthe cornerstones of sustainable cycle, these scenarios may have some forest management. validity after extreme disturbance. How­ Forest adaptation results from a com­ ever, in many countries, management plex series of events: the displacement of Systems for the implementatIOn of sustainable forest management 127

seed zones; pollen flow and contamina­ pools and fluxes as a result of manage­ tion; the translocation of seed and seed­ ment actions should be accounted for. lings; biodiversity; and the physical alter­ Carbon management of all forest eco­ ation of the sites. Climate-based agents system components - roots, soils, above­ for mortality such as fIre, insects, disease, ground biomass, forest floor and extreme climate events and air pollution understorey vegetation - should be an will also accelerate forest adaptation rates. essential part of all forestry operations. Human needs and land-use change may Tropical forests are generally regarded be the greatest disruptive agents. This as a net carbon source whereas temperate cumulative threat, locally and regionally, and boreal forests are a net sink. Because again emphasizes the need to develop ofhuman acti vity, the tropical forests con­ adaptive forest management strategies, tribute carbon to the atmosphere follow­ includmg a climate plan for all opera­ ing deforestation, biomass burning and tions. the oxidation of organic matter in the soil. Deforestation has increased to an annual Greenhouse gas management rate of 15.4 million ha between 1981 and The process of photosynthesis removes 1990 (FAD, 1993b), mainly by shifting carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and cultivators, and is expected to contmue to converts it into woody tissue. Forests increase during the foreseeable future alone will not reverse the increase in (Myers, 1991). Population pressure and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere; how­ associated soclo-economic needs will con­ ever, they are part of the solution to the tinue to deplete and degrade the tropical problem. forests. Forests can sequester carbon m woody There IS need for a global carbon tissue (Houghton, 1990a; Grainger, inventory that includes natural forests, 1990). Soil carbon pools represent a plantation forests, agroforests and urban particularly large smk and can poten­ forests and their subsequent carbon re­ tially sequester and store additional car­ placement by forest or other crops. It bon from the atmosphere. The Intergov­ may be more meaningful to calculate the ernmental Panel on Climate Change net carbon balances over time by land (lPCC) reported that the world's veg­ unit, .not crop type. etation and soil store 550 and I 500 The ability to calculate carbon contri­ gigatonnes of carbon, respectively butions logically derives from existing (Houghton, 1990b). Alterations in these timber volume inventories. A recent 128 Forest management and protectIOn and climate change

study by Sedjo (1992) has used data taken out offood production in temper­ from FAO to confinn that northern tem­ ate regions may offer some scope for the perate forests are a large net sink almost expansion of forest, and there may be equivalent to the median value fortropi­ land available in the tropics and sub­ cal forest clearing emissions (Detwiler tropics for forestation and the planting and Hall, 1988). of trees in association with agriculture. The disturbance of any forest ecosys­ Furthennore, tropIcal forests have lower tem by windthrow, wildfire, insects, dis­ forestation costs than those in temperate ease, extreme climate events or air pol­ and boreal regions. However, precise lution will further contribute to green­ costing of the mUltiple benefits of envI­ house concentrations in the atmosphere. ronmental, human, spiritual, ethical and Each of these results from direct atmo­ economic values associated with forests spheric hazards or indirect climate-based needs to be evaluated. All indicatIOns processes, with fire receiving the most are that forest management must be attention because of its threat to human more intensive and extensive. For ex­ life, to security and because of the eco­ ample, the Introduction of genetically nomic loss it causes. Climate change is improved species will alter the costIng expected to increase the seventy and balances. Tree breeding programmes duration of wildfire and outbreaks of have demonstrated a signIficant im­ pests as stress increases on ecosystems provement in productivity and carbon adapting to change. In many countnes, sequestration, thereby reducing the land the total burned area exceeds the annual base reqUIrements. timber harvest. Enhanced protection Forest wetlands and bIOmass burnIng technologies will be another cornerstone contribute to increasmg global methane for sustainable forest management. emissions to the atmosphere. Further in­ Reforestation and forestation are pos­ creases in methane can be expected from sible scenarios involving all countries to future land-use changes associated with increase the amount of wood volume human activity. Fertilizers, especially and carbon stored within the global for­ ammonia-based, will contribute to the ni­ ests. In a number of countries, the deci­ trous oxide increase in greenhouse gases. sion to reforest and forest is based on In both cases, greenhouse gas manage­ many factors that limit the forester's ment will become an increasingly impor­ ability to replace and expand the exist­ tant component of the climate plan for ing forest land base. Land that is being sustainable forest management. Systems for the implementatIOn of sustainable forest management 129

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS house gas management should focus on The climate, forests and foresters are altering pools and fluxes of gases such as constantly in a state of change. Recently, carbon, methane and nitrous oxides, and human activities appear to be accelerat­ on the contributing role of the forest in ing the changing climate towards global reducing atmospheric concentrations of warming. The consequences are expected these gases. to be severe where social and economic structures depend considerably on the REFERENCES forest sector. Foresters need to develop a climate plan for sustainable forest Detwiler, R. & Hall, C. 1988. Tropical management: forest climate management forests and the global carbon cycle. and greenhouse gas management are Science, 239: 43-47. essential ingredients in the climate plan Easterling, W.E. 1990. Climate trends for a sound manipulation of the energy, and prospects. In R.N. Simpson & D. moisture and gaseous exchanges between Nair, eds. Natural resources for the the forest and the atmosphere. All mdi­ 21st century, p. 32-55. Washington, cations are that tree breeding DC, American Forestry Association/ programmes, intensive forest manage­ Island. ment plus enhanced protection strate­ FAO.1993a.FAOForestProductsYear­ gies will need to be increased under a hook 1991 Rome. changing clImate. FAO. 1993b. Forest resources assess­ The first pnority should be to Improve ment 1990. Tropical countries. FAO our global observations and understand­ Forestry Paper No. 112. Rome. ing of the vertIcal and horizontal struc­ Grainger, A. 1990. Modelling the im­ tures of the forest climate, by specIes and pact of alternative afforestation strate­ site type. Forest adaptation strategies gies to reduce carbon dioxide emis­ should mclude research on the identifica­ sIOns. In Tropical forestry response tion of shifting seed zones; pollen flow options to global climate change. Pro­ and contamination; translocation of seed ceedings of a conference, 9-11 Janu­ and seedlings; site modification technolo­ ary. Brazil, University of Sao Paulo. gies; forest climate manipulation prac­ Hall, P. & MacIver, D.C. 1991. Cli­ tices; conservation of bIodiversity; socio­ mate change and the managed forest. economic impacts on forest populations; IPCC. WGn update. and enhanced protection strategies. Green- Hengeveld, H. 1991. Understanding 130 Forest management and protection and climate change

atmospheric change. State of the En­ IPCC.1990.Climatechange-thelPCC vironment Report 91-92. Toronto, impacts assessment. Australia. Canada, Environment Canada. MacIver, D.C. 1989. Protecting the Houghton, R. I 990a. Projections offu­ Health and Productivity of the Boreal ture deforestation and reforestation in Estate. In Proc. 10th Fire and Forest the tropics. In Tropical forestry re­ Meteorology CO'lf. Toronto, Canada, sponse options to global climate Environment Canada. change. Proceedings of a conference, Myers, N. 1991. Tropical forests; present 9-11 January. Brazil, University of Sao status and future outlook. Climate Paulo. Change, 19(1-2): 3-32. Houghton, R. 1990b. Climate change: Sedjo,R.A.1992. Temperateforesteco­ the !PCC assessment. New York, Cam­ systems in the global carbon cycle. bridge University Press. Amhio, 21(4): 274-277. Systems for the Implementation of sustainable forest management 131

Ensuring sustainability of forests through protection from fire, insects and disease W.M. Ciesla

Fire, Insects and disease help bring about change and are integral to forest dy­ namics. However, they can disrupt the flow of goods and services from forests by affecting tree growth and survival, water quality and yield, biodiversity, forage for domestic animals and recreation. Thus, measures to protect forests from fire, in­ sects and disease must be an integral part of sustainable forest management. This paper discusses the role of fire, insects and disease In plant communities, the fac­ tors that influence the occurrence of these agents and their impact on sustainable forestry. Measures that can be taken to reduce losses from fire, insects and disease through the development of Integrated forest fire and pest management programmes are outlined.

INTRODUCTION tam conditions, they adversely affect the Forests are dynamic systems that are con­ flow of goods and servIces that forests tinuously changing. Sometimes the provIde. They can affect tree growth and change is slow and hardly noticeable. At survival, wood quality, water quality and other times, it is sudden and dramatic. yield, wildlife habitat, recreation, scenic FIre, insects and disease are integral parts values, forage for domestic animals and of forest dynamics. However, under cer- cultural resources. Consequently, mea­ sures to protect forests from fIre, insects and disease must be integral to forest The author is Forest Protection Officer with management if sustainable levels of goods the Forest Resources Development Branch, Forest Resources Division, FAO. and services are to be assured. 132 Forest management and protection and clImate change

FOREST FIRE and P. roxburghii in Asia (Goldammer Throughout human history. fire has been and Pefiafel. 1990). Fire also enables regarded as a strong ally and dreaded Pinus oocarpa, an indigenous pine of enemy. Fire provides a source of warmth Mexico and Central America. to com­ and a means of cooking food. Primitive pete with broadleaf vegetation. It has tribes used fire to drive game when hunt­ two adaptive mechanisms; serotinous ing. Fire is used to clear land for crops or cones, whIch release seeds only after to improve forage for domestic animals. exposure to high temperatures, and sap­ On the other hand. a wildfire raging out of lings, which can sprout from the roots control can quickly destroy natural re­ after the original stem has been killed by sources. property and human lives. fire (Perry. 1991).

The role of fire in plant Impact of fire on sustainable communities forestry Fire is one of the natural forces that has Fire is a natural component of many influenced plant communities over evo­ ecosystems but it can adversely affect lutionary periods oftime (Mutch, I 970). the ability of forests to produce sustain­ In semi-arid regions. where fires are able levels of goods and services. Fire frequent, forests and woodlands have kIlls vegetatIOn; even fire-tolerant trees evolved with adaptive traits to ensure that sustain injury from fire may be survival or to enable them to compete more susceptible to attack by insects or with less fire-tolerant species. fungi (Amman and Ryan, 1991). More In western North America. the open Intense fIres can kill all vegetation on a character of Pinus ponderosa forests site and destroy years of growth in a results from natural fires. Mature trees matter of hours. Habitat for Indigenous have thick bark which enables them to flora and fauna may be lost. Usually. survive ground fires. Ground fires keep many years are required for a site to combustible fuels at low levels and pre­ recover from a forest fire. The destruc­ vent hotter. more destructive fires. With­ tion of vegetation by fire causes soil out fire. less fire-tolerant species such as erosion, especially on steep slopes. Abies sp. appear in the understorey and which can lead to landslides and the eventually dominate the stand (Fowells. siltation of water supplies. 1965). Similar relationships have been Approximately 50 percent of the dry documented for P. kesiya, P. merkusii biomass of woody vegetation is com- Systems for the implementation of sustainable forest management 133

posed of carbon (Brown and Lugo, prescription" (FAO, 1986). Long-term 1982). When forests bum, a high pro­ statistical data on the number, area and portion of the carbon is released into the cause of wildfires are available for rela­ atmosphere as carbon dioxide and other tively few countries; however, recent greenhouse gases. Increasing atmo­ estimates indicate that approximately spheric levels of these gases cause con­ 12 million to 13 million ha offorests and cern because they may influence global other wooded lands are burned annually climate (FAO, 1990a). After fossil fuel by wildfire (FAO, 1992). Data for Eu­ burning, forest vegetation burning is the rope and North America have been sum­ second largest source of greenhouse marized by the United Nations Joint gases and accounts for about 20 to 30 FAO/Economic Commission for Europe percent of the annual emiSSIons of these (ECE) since 1978 (FAO/ECE, 1986; gases at present OPCC, 1990). 1990). For the period 1980-1988, these data indicate that an average of 585 000 Intentional fires ha was burnt annually in Western Eu­ FIre is used to clear large areas of forest rope, largely in the Mediterranean re­ for agriculture. TropIcal deforestatIon gion, and 3478200 ha in North America. and associated burning are occurring at In Brazil, 201 263 ha of the country's 6 record rates and are currently estimated millIon ha of planted forests were burnt to be 15.4 million ha per year (FAO, by wildfires during the period 1983- 1993). ThIS represents a significant in­ 1988. The estimated cost of replacing crease from the 11.3 million ha esti­ these forests is SUS 154.3 million mated a decade ago (FAO, 1982). Much (Soares, 1991). of this clearing is done to support shift­ Occasionally, catastrophic wildfires ing cultivation (SeiHer and Crutzen, occur. In 1982-1983, following a severe 1980). Fire is an Important sIlvlcuItural drought, some 3.6 mIllion ha of primary tool for slash disposal, fuel reduction and secondary rain forest were destroyed and the preparation of sites for planting by the largest wildfire in recorded his­ or natural regeneration (Velez, 1991; tory in East Kamilantan, the Indonesian Wade and Lundsford, 1990). portion of the island of Borneo (Cougill, 1989). In 1983, the "Ash Wednesday" Wildfires fire burned over 340000 ha in southern A wildfire is defined as "any fire occur­ Australia and resulted in 300 000 farm ring on wildland except a fire under animals killed, 2 500 homes damaged, 134 Forest management and protectIOn and climate change

3 500 people injured and 75 fatalities of mahua flowers. Often untended, these (Robertson, 1990; Rothsay, 1990). fires spread to surrounding areas (Saigal. Most wildfires are caused by humans. 1990). Careless use of fire during agricultural Arson fires may be ignited for private operations is a major cause of wildfire. vengeance, personal conflicts over own­ In the Mediterranean region, many fires ership, hunting rights or government are caused by shepherds who ignite for­ forest policies. Another motive for ar­ ests and grassland to promote a new son is to change land-use classification flush of green grass for their herds. Farm­ and permit home building in former ers often use fire to eliminate crop resi­ forest areas (Velez, 1990). dues or prepare land for planting. These Natural factors. such as dry lightning fires frequently spread into surrounding storms, cause Wildfire m remote. mac­ forests. Urban populations often do not cessible regions of Australia, the Rus­ appreciate fire and its consequences. In sian Federation and western North the Mediterranean region, careless smok­ America. ers or untended smouldering campfires cause about one-third of the fires in the Factors influencing fire region (Velez, 1990). In Honduras. a occurrence and behaviour country with extensive forests, the main Fire depends on fuels more than any cause of wildfires is human activity, other factor. Forest fuels are generally including: the restoration of rangelands, classified into three categories; ground the extermination of insect pests and the fuels, surface fuels and aenal fuels. preparation of fields for crops or dis­ Ground fuels mcludeduff, decayed wood posal of agricultural residues (U nasylva. and peat. Surface fuels consist of the 1990). loose litter on the forest floor and in­ The production of two non-wood clude fallen foliage, twigs, bark, cones products causes forest fires in some parts and small branches. Aerial fuels include of India: tendu leaves, Diospyros all burnable material. living or dead. me/anoxy/on, which are used for ciga­ located in the understorey or upper for­ rette wrappers; and the mahua flower, est canopy. Madhuca indica, which is used for a Climatic factors such as temperature, beverage. Fires are set to promote a moisture and atmospheric stability in­ better flush of growth of tendu leaves or fluence the probability of an ignition to clear the forest floor for the collectIOn and the rate at which fuels are consumed Systems for the implementation of sustainable forest management 135

by fire. Generally speaking. increasing agement to reduce fire risk (e.g. pre­ temperatures. decreasing moisture lev­ scribed burning. thinning. brush re­ els and increasing wind velocities favour moval). the intensity and rate of spread of fires. Legislation must complement fire pre­ This is the case in the Mediterranean vention by establishing the setting of where inland summer winds can cause incendiary fires as a crime and penaliz­ relative humidity to drop and spread ing offenders in proportion to the dam­ fires by carrying sparks long distances age caused (Velez. 1990). Prevention (Velez. 1990). also benefits from regulations defining Topography can significantly influ­ the conditions under which intentional ence fire behaVIOur. Steep slopes favour burning can be undertaken. the spread of fire; a fire moving up a Prescribed burning is an effective fuel steep slope often resembles a fIre spread­ management tool in forests of fire-toler­ ing before a strong wind (Brown and ant species and benefits include reduced DavIs. 1973). hazardous fuels. disposal oflogging de­ bris. site preparation for seeding and Forest fire management planting. Improved wildlife habitat and Fire management encompasses three management of competing vegetation activities required to protect wildland (Velez, 1991; Wade and Lundsford, resources from fire: preventIon. 1990). presuppresslOn and suppression. Fire management also Includes the use of Presuppression. Presuppression in­ prescribed fire to meet land manage­ cludes all fire management activities ment objectives (FAD, 1986; USDA planned and accomplished in advance Forest Service, 1990). of an ignitIon. They are designed to ensure effective suppression and include Prevention. Prevention includes two fire planning. detection. dispatching. fire general areas; activities directed at danger rating. fire weather monitoring people, the major cause of fire, and and suppression training and qualifica­ activities directed at mitigating the flam­ tion (USDA Forest Service. 1990). mability of the forest resource (Velez, 1990). The former include public infor­ Suppression. The objective of fire sup­ mation campaigns and fire prevention pression is to suppress wildfires at mini­ messages. The latter include fuel man- mum cost consistent with land and re- 138 Forest management and protection and climate change

source management objectives (USDA, is intended to function in any emer­ 1990). gency incident and operates on the basis There are three methods for bringing of a series of subfunctions or units (e.g. a wildfire under control. A direct attack operations, plans, logistics and finance) is an attack on the burning edge of the (Chandler, et al., 1983). fire and is used when fires are small. A Aircraft are used to support various parallel attack involves the construc­ fire management operations. Besides tion of a fire line parallel but close to the using small aircraft for fire detection, edge of the fire. An indirect attack is both fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters used when the fire is too intense for are used to deploy fire fighting crews. other means of attack and entails the Air tankers support ground forces by construction of fire lines some distance dropping water or chemical retardants from the fire edge and the burning out of on portIOns of a wildfire that is burnmg all intervening fuels (Chandler, et al., with high intensity. This provides a cool­ 1983). JOg effect and allows ground crews ac­ With an effective fire management cess to the fire for either a parallel or programme in place, most fires can be indirect attack. Aircraft equipped with successfully controlled during the mitlal airborne thermal infrared scanners can attack. This often involves the deploy­ map fire perimeters and identify "hot ment of a single fire brigade with appro­ spots" which are then attacked by aerial priate equipment. In the United States, tankers. approximately 90 percent of forest fires are extinguished during the initial attack. INSECTS AND DISEASE Large conflagrations require the de­ Forests are also damaged by various ployment of a project fire team, some­ pests. These include insects, mites, fungi, times composed of several hundred bacteria, paraSitic plants, anthropogenic people. Effective use of these teams pollutants and other agents. requires planning, coordination and an effective organization. In the United Insects States, the Forest Service, the Bureau of Insects surpass all other terrestrial ani­ Land Management and other public mals in number (Borror and Delong, agencies have adopted the Incident Com­ 1960). Approximately 751 000 insect mand System (ICS) as the organiza­ species, or 54 percent of the world's tional model for large project fires. ICS known living organisms, have been de- Systems for the implementation of sustainable forest management 137

scribed (Wheeler, 1990). Many perform Disease essential functions in ecosystem sur­ Plant disease is defined as "any devia­ vival. An example is the important ac­ tion in the normal functioning of a plant tivity of pollinators in the reproductive caused by a persistent agent". Disease cycle of flowering plants or insects that can be caused by abiotic (non-living) are instrumental in the breakdown of and biotic (living) factors. Abiotic fac­ dead organic material or that function as tors include air pollution, temperature natural enemies of pests. extremes, drought, chemicals or me­ Other insects are vectors of plant, chanical damage. Biotic factors include animal or human disease or feed on fungi, bacteria. virus. insects, mites, crops, livestock. stored products or trees. nematodes or parasitic plants. Under favourable conditions. they can Disease can be recognized by symp­ reproduce rapidly and cause damage. toms and signs. A symptom is an ex­ Throughout much of human history, pression of disease. Diseases often have campaIgns have been waged against unique symptoms which are helpful in these pests. For example, plagues of identifying the pathogen: reduced mIgratory locusts are mentioned in the growth. dieback. decay, yellowing or Old Testament of the Bible and the Ko­ chlorosis of foliage or abnormal growth ran (FAO, 1967). such as cankers or witches' -broom. A Forests are subject to Insect outbreaks sIgn is the presence of the disease-caus­ capable of causing severe resource dam­ ing agent, such as the fruiting stage of a age. Examples include the spruce bud­ fungus or the occurrence of a parasitic worm, Choristoneura fumiferana, adefo­ plant. liator of Abies sp. and Picea sp. forests in Fungi are a leading biotic cause of eastern Canada and the United States tree disease. They cause wood decay, (Blais, 1985); various bark beetles (e.g. rusts. cankers, foliar diseases, wilts and Dentroctonus sp. in conifer forests of root rots. Some fungi benefit trees. My­ the southeastern United States, Mexico corrhizae act as extensions of a tree's and Central America, Ips sp. in North root system and increase water and nu­ America, Europe and the Himalayas) trient uptake and resistance to root dis­ (Thatcher et al., 1981); and the ease (Manion, 1981). Several groups of processionary caterpillar, Thaumetopoea parasitic plants cause growth loss, de­ pityocampa, a defoliator of Pinus sp. in formity and tree mortality. The leafy the Mediterranean region (B uxton, 1983). mistletoes (Family: Loranthaceae) in- 138 Forest management and protection and climate change

fest both hardwoods and softwoods. Root disease fungi often weaken their Dwarf mistletoes, Arceuthobium sp. hosts but do not kill them. If infected (Family: Viscaceae) are major pests of trees are exposed to additional stress, conifers (Hawks worth and Weins, 1972). such as insect defoliation or drought, Nematodes provoke diseases such as they are further weakened and predis­ the wilt disease of pines caused by Bur­ posed to attack by tree-killing Insects. saphelenchus xylophilus. Several pines Trees affected by root disease are often indigenous to China and Japan are sen­ foci for bark beetle attacks following sitive to this nematode and widespread drought. tree mortality has resulted (Mamiya, Diebacks or declines are believed to 1976). Air pollution, resulting from be caused by the Interaction of several increased urbanization and industriali­ factors, resulting in gradual tree deterio­ zation, together with increased demands ration. Symptoms include reduced for mobility and use of electricity, has growth, yellowing or chlorotic foliage, become a major disease-causing agent die back of branches and roots and even­ in some forests (Smith, 1990). tual tree mortality. Causal factors may Include drought. off-site plantings, root Pest complexes disease, insects and air pollution Often the combined action of insects, (Manion, 1981). A regional decline af­ disease and associated environmental fac­ fecting many tree species appeared in tors damages and ultimately kills trees. Europe during the late 1970s. The com­ Some insects are vectors of plant disease plex of stress factors responsi ble for this and disperse the pathogen to suitable host decline is not fully understood. How­ material. Bark beetles inoculate their hosts ever, many investigators believe the with spores of blue stain fungi, deposition of toxic, nutrient, aCidifying Ophiostoma sp., which colonize the sap­ and/or growth-altering substances of wood and disrupt the flow of water to the anthropogenic origin to be an incitIng crown. This hastens the death of the tree factor (Schutt and Cowling, 1985). and provides more suitable conditions for developing bark beetle broods (Drooz, Impacts of insects and disease on 1985). Similarly, several species of bark sustainable forestry beetles transmit Dutch elm disease, caused Every part of a tree can be host material by the fungus Ophiostoma (= Cera­ for insects and disease. Trees of all ages, tocystis) ulmi (Manion, 1981). from seedlings to mature trees, are subject Systems for the implementation of sustainable forest management 139

to attack. In addition, insects and diseases increase the volume of combustible fu­ are pests of logs and wood products. els. Consequently, when an ignition oc­ Like fire, these agents have far-reach­ curs, resultant wildfires will bum more ing ecological, social and economic im­ intensely and be more destructive and pacts. Pest activity can significantly re­ more difficult to extinguish. duce yields of wood products. In the In the United States, fungi causing United States, bark beetles alone kill an decay in living trees account for more average of25.5 million m3 of sawtimber loss in sawtimber than fire, insects, and pulpwood annually (USDA Forest weather or any other disease agent Service, 1958). Yields of fruit, mast or (USDA Forest Service, 1958). Decay of other food products on which wildlife, wood products is also significant. Ap­ livestock or humans may depend, may proximately 10 percent of the timber also be Significantly reduced. In India harvested annually is utilized to replace and many other countries, defoliating wood that has deteriorated through de­ insects decrease the availability of hard­ cay fungi (Manion, 1981). Insects can woods, a valuable source of fodder also cause extensive damage to wood in (Verma and Parry, 1991). use. Termites (Order: Isoptera) are ma­ Introduced pests can eliminate a host jor pests ofli ving trees, homes and other plant from an ecosystem and reduce wooden structures (Findlay, 1967). biological diversity. For example, chest­ nut blight, caused by the fungus Endothza Factors which influence pest parasltica, eliminated Castanea dentata abundance as a major component of the hardwood As a rule, pests do not cause serious forests In the eastern UOlted States damage to forests unless they are suffi­ (Manion, 1981). ciently numerous. When designing pest Extensive areas offorest damaged by management programmes, it is impor­ defoliating or tree-killing insects are tant that forest managers understand the unsightly. Consequently, recreational mechanisms that influence pest abun­ and scenic values of forests are lost. dance. Trees that are weakened or killed by insects and disease in developed forest Quality ofhost material. As tree vigour recreation areas are a safety hazard to declines, so does the tree's ability to people using these areas. Dead trees left resist attack. Examples include: reduced behind in the wake of pest outbreaks conifer resistance to bark beetle attacks 140 Forest management and protection and climate change

because of drought, flooding, root dis­ Natural enemies. Parasites, predators, ease, etc. (Rudinsky, 1962); and the de­ disease and competing or antagonizing cline of Pinus echinata in the southeast­ agents regulate pest numbers. Examples ern United States, believed to be caused include parasitoids of the orders Hy­ by a soil-borne fungus, Phytophthora menoptera and Diptera (Giding, 1990); cinnamomi. Trees growing on low-ni­ nematodes such as Deladenus trogen soils with poor internal soil drain­ siricidicola (Bedding and Akhurst, age are most severely affected by this 1974); predators such as birds, spiders disease (Mistretta, 1984). and a wide range of other insects; patho­ gens, including bacteria (e.g. Bacillus Quantity of host material. Agricultural thuringiensis var. kurstaki), fungi (e.g. fields containing a single crop are espe­ Beauvaria bassiana) and baculoviruses, cially favourable for the development of which attack certam insects in the Hy­ pest populations because they provide a menoptera and Lepidoptera orders large volume of host material. Tropical (Girling, 1990). forests, on the other hand, where hun­ dreds of plant species occupy a single Climatic factors. Climate can also 10- hectare, rarely succumb to large-scale fluence pest abundance. Climatic fac­ outbreaks(SpeightandWainhouse, 1989). tors such as low annual precipitation, Natural forests of one or two species, low mean maximum temperatures 10 relatively common in the boreal and January and low mean minimum tem­ temperate forests ofthe Northern Hemi­ peratures in July are associated with sphere, are often subject to pest activity. frequent outbreaks of western spruce Examples are the outbreaks of mountain budworm, Choristoneura oCCldentalzs pine beetle, Dentroctonus ponderosae, (Kemp, 1985). Timing of rainfall is in pure Pinus contorta forests of west­ known to influence fungal activity. When em North America (Amman etal., 1977). the needle fungus, Dothistroma pini, Forest plantations, which often con­ was introduced into Kenya, a region of sist of a.single species, are particularly summer rainfall, Pinus radiata was so subject to pest damage. In Viet Nam, severely damaged that the species had to extensive planting of hillsides with Pinus be dropped from the planting programme merkusii and other pines has led to fre­ (Odera and Arap Sang, 1980). Climatic quent outbreaks of pine caterpillar, events such as storms cause mechanical Dendrolimus punctatus (Billings, 1991). injury and predispose trees to pest at- Systems for the implementation of sustainable forest management 141

tack. During the late 1960s and early America on Pinus strobus planting stock 1970s, stonns caused windthrow over (Manion, 1981). A pine woolly aphid, portions of Norway and Sweden. Pineus pini, was introduced into Kenya Windthrown Picea abies were invaded and Zimbabwe on Pinus taeda scions, by the bark beetle, Ips typographus. sent from Australia as part of an interna­ Severe droughts during the period 1974- tional tree improvement programme 1976 reduced the vigour of standing (Barnes, Jarvis and Schweppenhauser. trees and predisposed them to attacks 1976). Atmospheric pollution has be­ from subsequent generations of bark come a major cause of disease in some beetles (Speight and Wainhouse, 1989). forests, especially in industrial coun­ tries. Heavy metals. acid rain, sulphur Human activities. Atmospheric poll ution, dioxide and ozone have been implicated logging, road construction, the establish­ as disease agents near industrial centres ment of single species plantations and and, more recently, over more remote even fire prevention can create favourable forest areas (Schutt and Cowling, 1985; conditions for increased pest activity. Smith, 1990). Jacobson and Hill (1970) The accidental introduction of insects identified and described symptoms as­ and pathogens has caused catastrophic sociated with gaseous pollutants. losses, primarily through international transport of animal and plant materials Protecting forests from pests into new habitats. Often these agents are Integrated pest management (IPM) is the of minor consequence in their native best way to protect forests from insects habitat. However, introduced into a new and disease. IPM involves both decision­ environment and exposed to sensitive making and action elements. The empha­ hosts In the absence of natural enemies, sis is on pest monitoring. understanding they can become pests. Examples in­ the underlying causes of outbreaks and clude fungi such as the Dutch elm maintaining or improving the health of disease fungus, Ophiostoma u/mi, and forests, rather than on controlling pests insects such as the cypress aphid, Cinara (USDA Forest Service, 1988). An inte­ cupressi and the oriental scale, gral part of IPM is to ensure early detec­ Aonidiella orientalis. Forestry practices tion of pests, delineate outbreak bound­ have caused accidental pest introduc­ aries and predict future population trends tions. White pine blister rust, Cronartium and damage. IPM emphasizes pest pre­ ribico/a, was introduced into North vention and makes use of one or more 142 Forest management and protection and climate change

tactics (e.g. silvicultural, biological, ge­ out geological history. These changes netic, chemical) to reduce pest-caused have influenced the existence, abun­ losses to a level where resource manage­ dance and distribution of plants and ment objectives can be met now and in the animals. Today, there is much concern future. It is a dynamic process and new that human activity, such as the burning approaches and new technologies are con­ of fossil fuels and tropical deforestation, tinuously tested and evaluated. Those that may be changing global climate at an prove effective are quickly integrated into unprecedented rate and that this could ongoing programmes. profoundly affect forests and their IPM is still evolving as an integral sustainability. part of sustainable forest management (USDA Forest Service, 1988). In many The greenhouse effect cases IPM has not been adopted, and Greenhouse gases regulate the earth 's tem­ few true IPM systems exist in forestry perature. The most important are water

), today. Reasons include a lack of know 1- vapour (HP), carbon diOXide (C02

), edge about certain pests or pest com­ methane (CH4 nitrous oxide (NP), plexes and their host interactions, a lack ozone (01) and chlorofluorocarbons of proven pest management tactics, a (CFCs). Theses gases trap heat which 'shortage of funds, insufficient data on would otherwise escape the earth's atmo­ pest-caused losses and a lack of interest sphere. Without them, the mean surface on the part offorest managers who must temperature of the earth would be about integrate preventive strategies into op­ -30°C instead of + 15°C, and life as we erational programmes. Too often, forest know it could not exist (FAO, 1990b). managers disregard pest damage. Con­ sequently, outbreaks are treated as a Global climate change

crisis and action is usually taken too late An increase in atmospheric CO2 or other to prevent resource damage. A key chal­ greenhouse gases could result in a warm­ lenge for forest resource managers is to ing of the atmosphere and changes in integrate pest potential and management global climate. There is now strong, into strategic forest plans. although not yet conclusive, evidence that this is happening (FAO, 1990b).

CLIMATE CHANGE AND FOREST Increases in atmospheric CO2 and CH4 PROTECTION have been measured since about 1850. The earth's climate has changed through- This increase has been accompanied by Systems for the implementation of sustainable forest management 143

a 0.5°C rise in temperature, brought about be more strongly affected. A shift in the by a number of natural and anthropo­ range of a species could result in its genic (human) causes. Leading anthro­ occupying a greater land area. On the pogenic factors include the burning of other hand, it could force a species to fossil fuels and biomass burning associ­ occupy areas of less productive soils, ated with deforestation and land-use resulting in reduced growth and in­ changes (lPCC, 1990). creased susceptibil-ity to pests. This has If present trends continue, it is pre­ been predicted for Pinus taeda, a spe­ dicted that the atmospheric concentration cies indigenous to the southern United

of CO2 will double from the pre-industrial States, if its natural range were to shift revolution level of around 260 ppm by the northwards into the poorer soils of the year 2065 (Pollard, 1985). ThIs will prob­ Appalachian Mountains. ably influence global and regional clI­ Higher temperatures and increased mates. A temperature increase of 2 to 5°C precipitation could result in increased is predicted. Temperature is expected to tree growth. In addition, many plants, increase more with latitude and will there­ including trees, are known to produce

fore exert a major effect on northern eco­ more biomass when CO2 levels are el­ systems. PrecIpItation is also expected to evated. TranspIration rates of many green increase generally because ofthe increased plants are also reduced in atmospheres

, energy available for evaporation with an elevated level of CO2 Conse­ (Hamngton et ai, 1991). quently, forests may also be more toler­ ant of moisture stress. Potential effects of climate change Increased temperatures, on the other on forests hand, can place trees under stress and Global climate change can affect forests increase their susceptibility to insects both positively and negatively. These and disease. It has been suggested that a effects could be far-reachmg and affect widespread decline of Betula sp. in east­ all of the world's forests. One possible ern Canada during the late 1950s and effect of global climate change is a shift 1960s was related to a warming trend in the natural ranges of tree species and (Hepting, 1963). If this is so, forest forest types towards polar latitudes. decline could become more frequent in Since climate change may be more pro­ the future, especially where there are nounced in upper latitudes, temperate high concentrations of anthropogenic and boreal forest regions are expected to pollutants in the atmosphere. 144 Forest management and protection and climate change

While some global climate models 183 tonnes C/ha. These forests contain (GCMs) predict an overall increase in approximately 46 percent of the world's precipitation. some also predict that con­ living terrestrial carbon and 11 percent tinental regions will have reduced pre­ of the world's soil carbon. Plantations of cipitation/evaporation ratios. with short rotation with fast-growing trees

• doubled CO2 This would be accompa­ have the potentIal to store from 8 to 78 nied by reduced soil moisture. espe­ tonnes C/ha, depending on the species, cially during the summer growing sea­ site and length of rotation (Schroeder, son (FAO. 1990b). Reduced moisture 1991). Mature or overmature forests, levels in continental forest ecosystems which are no longer adding increment, could mean a higher incidence of wild­ have also reached zero carbon accumu­ fire which, in tum, would result in more lation. When trees die, bum or are har­ IS CO2 released into the atmosphere. As vested, a portion of the carbon once stated earlier, drought is a key factor that again released into the atmosphere. places trees and forests under stress and Because of their ability to store car­ increases their susceptibility to invasion bon, forests can potentially mitigate the by insects and disease. If more trees are effects of global climate change. Reduc­ killed by these agents, the volume of tIOn in forest burning and clearing and combustible fuels will increase. Conse­ increased tree planting have been rec­ quently, when wildfires occur, they will ommended as forest sector responses to bum more intensely, cause more dam­ the climate change issue (FAO, 1990a). age and be more difficult to extinguish Accelerated tree-planting initiatives are (Sedjo, 1991). already under way in several countnes. In 1991, representatives of 67 countries Forests as agents for mitigating and mternational agencies participated effects of climate change in the development of the Noordwijk Green plants are a principal component Declaration on Climate Change. One of the global carbon cycle. Through provision of this declaration was to in­

photosynthesis, they remove CO2 from crease the net forest area by 12 million the atmosphere. Trees accumulate and ha per year by the beginning of the next store carbon as woody tissue. Conse­ century (Anon., 1989). quently, forests are carbon sinks. Brown Initiatives to increase net forest area and Lugo (1982) estimate that tropical should produce benefits independent of forest ecosystems can store from 46 to climate change concerns as defined in Systems for the Implementation of sustainable forest management 145

land-use plans and forest management mate through increasing levels of CO2 strategies (F AO, 1990b). If tree planting and other greenhouse gases could have increases significantly in the future, in­ both positive and negative effects on creased protection will be necessary to forests. One potential effect is increased ensure the trees' survival. forest susceptibility to fire, insects and disease. Furthermore, initiatives to in­ SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS crease forests' ability to function as car­ Fire, insects and disease are key factors bon sinks will require accelerated pro­ affecting the sustainability of the world's tection efforts. forests. While these agents may have important functions in forest ecosys­ REFERENCES tems, they can also affect the ecological, social and economic benefits which for­ Amman, G.D., McGregor, M.D., ests provide. The effects of f!Te, insects Cahill, D.B. & Klein, w.n. 1977. and disease can range from a slow drain Guidelines forreducing losses ofJodge­ on forest growth to extensive tree killing pole pine to the mountain pine beetle over large areas. Logs and wood prod­ in unmanaged stands in the Rocky ucts are also subject to damage by in­ Mountains. General Technical Report sects and decay fungi. INT 36. Washington, DC, USDA For­ Fire and pest management pro­ est Service. grammes are designed to reduce losses Amman, G.D. & Ryan, K.C. 1991. In line with resource management ob­ Insect mfestations offire-injured trees jectives. They include both prevention in the Greater Yellowstone Area. Re­ and suppression strategies. Detection search Note. 398. Intermountain For­ and monitormg are important In ensur­ est and Range Experiment Station. ing that fire and pest activity is discov­ Ogden, Utah. USDA Forest Service. ered before extensive damage occurs 9pp. and in providing data to support deci­ Anon. 1989. The Noordwljk Declara­ sions on appropriate tactics. For maxi­ tion on Climate Change. Atmospheric mum effectiveness, forest protection Pollution and Climate Change Minis­ should be an integral part of sustainable terial Conference, Noordwijk, the forest management and should appear Netherlands, 6-7 November 1989. as a key element of strategic forest plans. Barnes, R.D., Jarvis R.F. & The probable change in global cli- Schweppenhauser, M.A. 1976. 146 Forest management and protectIOn and climate change

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FAO/ECE. 1986. Forestfire statistics, diseases. Ann. Rev. Phytopathol., I: 3rd edition. New York, UN. 30 pp. 31-49. FAO/ECE. 1990. Forest fire statistics IPCC. 1990. Scientific assessment of 1985-1988. New York, UN. 28 pp. climate change. Report prepared by Findlay, W.P.K. 1967. Timber pe sts and IPCCWorkingGroup I. WMO/UNDP. diseases. Oxford, UK, Pergamon. 280 Jacobson, J.S. & Hill, A.C., eds. 1970. pp. Recognition of air pollution injury to Fowells, H.A. 1965. Silvics of forest vegetation: a pictorial atlas. Pittsburg, trees of the United States. Agriculture Pa, USA, Air Pollution Control Asso­ Handbook 271. Washington, DC, ciation. USDA Forest Service. 762 pp. Kemp, W.P. 1985. Historical western Girling, D.L. 1990. Biological control spruce bud worm outbreak frequency. manual. Prepared by the International In Recent advances in spruce bud­ Institute of Biological Control with worm research, p. 133-134. CANUSA UNDP, UTA, FAO and the OAU. Spruce Budworms Research Program, Slough, UK, CAB International. Canadian Forestry Service. Goldammer,J.G. & Pefiafel, R.S. 1990. Mamiya, Y. 1976. Pine wilt disease Fire m the pine-grassland biomes of caused by the pme wood nematode. tropical and subtropical Asia. In J.G. JARQ, 10: 206-211. Goldammer, ed. Fire In the tropical Manion, P.D. 1981. Tree disease con­ biota, p. 45-62. Berlin, Germany, cepts. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Springer. USA, Prentice Hall. 399 pp. Harrington, J., Kimmins, J., Laven­ Mistretta, P.A. 1984. Llttleleatdisease. der, D., Zoltas S. & Payette, S. 1991. Forest Insect and DIsease Leaflet 20. The effect of climate change on forest Washington, DC, USDA Forest Ser­ ecology in Canada. InProc.l0th World vice. 6 pp. For. Congr., Vol. 2, p. 49-58. Nancy, Mutch, R.E. 1970. Woodland fires and France, ENGREE ecosystems - a hypothesis. Ecology, Hawksworth, F.G. & Wiens, D. 1972. 5 1: 1046-105 1. Biology and classification of dWGlf Odera, J.A. & Arap Sang, F.K. 1980. mistletoes (Arceuthobium). Agricul­ Quarantine as a tool of pest and disease ture Handbook 401. Washington, DC, control with reference to the Kenya USDA Forest Service. 234 pp. situation. InProc. Commonwealth For. Hepting, G. 1963. Climate and forest Conj., Trinidad and Tobago. 12 pp. 148 Forest management and protection and climate change

Perry, J.R. 1991. The pines of Mexico Seiler, W. & Crutzen, P. 1980. Estima­ and Central America. Portland, Oreg., tion of gross and net fluxes of carbon USA, Timber. 231 pp. between the biosphere and the atmo­ Pollard, D.F.W. 1985. A forestry pro­ sphere from biomass burning. Climatic spective in the carbon dioxide issue. Change, 2: 207-247. For. Chron., August, 312-318. Smith, W.H. 1990. Air pollution and Robertson, F.D. 1990. The global chal­ forests, 2nd edition. New York, lenge for wildland fire management. Springer. 618 pp. In Proc.Int. Wildland Fire Coni, Bos­ Soares, R. V. 1991. Economic and eco­ ton, Mass., USA, July 1989. Washing­ logical consequences offorest fire: the ton DC, USDA Forest Service. Brazilianexample.lnProc. 10th World Rothsay, H.E. 1990. The" Ash Wednes­ For. Congr., Vol. 2, p.471-479. Nancy, day" story. In Proc.lnt. Wildland Fire France. ENG REF. Conf., Boston, Mass., USA, July Speight, M.R. & Wainhouse, D. 1989. 23-26 1989. Washington DC, USDA Ecology and management offorest in­ Forest Service. 48 pp. sects. Oxford, UK. Clarendon. 374 pp. Rudinsky,J.1962. EcologyofScolytidae. Thatcher, R.L., Searcy, J.L., Coster Annu. Rev. Entomol., 7: 327-348. J.E. & Hertel, G.D., eds. 1981. The Saigal, R. 1990. Modem forest fire con­ southern pine beetle. Tech. Bull. 1631, trol: the Indian experience. Unasylva, Washington, DC, USDA Forest Ser­ 41(162): 21-27. vice and SCience and Education Ad­ Schroeder, P. 1991. Carhon storage ministration. 266 pp. potential ofshort-rotatIOn tropical tree Unasylva. 1990. Forest fire control in plantations. Corvallis, Oreg., USA, Honduras. (Interview with Chief M. United States Environmental Protec­ Salazar, Chief of Forestry Protection in tion Agency. 21 pp. Honduras.) Unasylva, 41(162): 13-16. Schutt, P. & Cowling, E. 1985. USDA Forest Service. 1958. TImber Waldsterben. a general decline of for­ resources for America's future. Forest ests in central Europe: symptoms, de­ Resource Report No. 14. Washington, velopment and probable causes. Plant DC. 713 pp. Dis. Rep., 69: 1-9. USDA Forest Service. 1988. Forest Sedjo, R.A. 1991. Climate, forests and health through silviculture and inte­ fire: a North American perspective. grated pest management: a strategic Environ. Int., 17: 163-168. plan. Washington. DC. 26 pp. Systems for the Implementation of sustainable forest management 149

USDA Forest Service. 1990. Forest fects of insect pests on the reforestation service manual- title 5100,fire man­ of the western Himalayas. In Proc. 10th agement. Washington, DC. World For. Congr., Vol. 2, p. 373-378. Velez, R. 1990. Mediterranean forest Nancy, France, ENGREF. fires: a regional perspective. Unasylva, Wade, D.D. & Lundsford, J. 1990. 41(162): 3-9. Fire as a forest management tool: pre­ Velez, R. 1991. Uso del fuego en scribed burning in the southern United selvicultura. In Proc. 10th World For States. Unasylva, 41(162): 28-38. Congr., Vol. 2, p. 461-469. Nancy, Wheeler, Q.D. 1990. Insect diversity France, ENGREF. and cladistic constraints. Ann. Entomol. Verma, T.D. & Parry, W.H. 1991. Ef- Soc. Am., 83: 1031-1047.

Part 2 Creating a supportive environment for sustainable forest management

A supportive environment for sustainable forest management 153

Policy, legal and institutional aspects of sustainable forest management M.R. de Montalembert and F. SchmlthOsen

This paper discusses major policy, legal and institutional aspects of forest manage­ ment. The dynamic nature of development requires continuous adaptation in policies, institutions and regulations aimed at maintaining an effective incentive framework for sustainable forest management. Such a framework should combine a certain flexibility with the stability and security necessary for long-term continuity in forest management. The paper includes sections on laws and regulations for sustainable forest management - nominal and functional forest law, forest tenure, etc., and institutional and organizational aspects; the changing role of the public sector and expanding roles of the private sector and non-governmental organizations; and Information, commu nication and training - facilitating the diffusion of knowledge, reinforcing the social base of sustainability through understanding and dialogue and gradually strengthening technical skills and capabilities. The paper concludes that the most important factor is changing attitudes and capacities from the traditional emphasis and focusing on the more comprehensive and partnership approaches required in sustainable forest management.

INTRODUCTION grammes depends importantly on their Recent analyses show that the perfor­ institutional context, including prevail­ mance of forest management pro- ing policy orientations. The dynamic changes of forest management affect The authors are, respectively, Director of the Forestry Policy and Planning Division in the institutional effectiveness: demographic FAD Forestry Department, Rome, and growth and population movements in­ Professor of Forest Polley and Forest crease pressures on forests, and more Economics at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich. land is cleared for agriculture to meet 154 Policy. institutional and legal aspects

basic food needs. Tensions exist be­ current and future value of forest eco­ tween resource stability and the day-to­ SystenlS and the full range of benefits, day subsistence needs of growing local both private and public; reinvestment populations. and/or new investment in the forest re­ Forest nruwnagenlentntustaddress in­ source; and, at least sometimes, a re­ creasingly contplex dentands front a striction on present utilization by cur­ growing nuntber of users: the state tailing exploitative short-ternl forest wishes to ntobilize the econonlic poten­ uses. tial of a renewable resource to generate This paper discusses ntajor policy, revenues and entployntent; private en­ legal and institutional aspects of forest trepreneurs work to increase their profit nruwnagentent under the following basic and competitiveness; local people rely assuntptions. First, our underlying con­ on the forest for food, fodder, fuel and cern is developntent, i.e. securing int­ inconte and it ntay also constitute their proved livelihoods for present genera­ cultural basis; the public expects the tions while ntaintaining the forest heri­ forest to be a ntajor contponent of a tage and its potential for the benefit of stable and amenable local environntent; future generations. Second, we consider recent concerns stress the global role of this stable forest potential within the forests in relation to clintate change and broader context of rural development, biodiversity conservation. Inequitable recognizing that the dynamics of land developntent patterns exacerbate pres­ use ntust allow for changes while ntain­ sures on forests further; ntore rural poor taining the balance between forests and and landless are forced to ntigrate into other land uses where trees also have a less productive and ntore ecologically role. Third, we believe forest stability fragile areas. These forests are destroyed and sustainable forest ntanagentent can for unsustainable farnling instead of be­ only be achieved by clearly identifying ing n18Daged properly for alleviating ntanagentent responsibilities and rec­ poverty and enviroDnlental protection. onciling the diverse and possibly COnt­ Sustainability in forest resources ntan­ peting interests through dialogue and agentent is based on balancing private partnership-building. Fourth. the shift and public interests and the uses and in entphasis on the enviroDnlental pro­ benefits of present and future genera­ tection function is fully recognized but tions. Itaiso requires the following: ntore it does not dintinish the econontic inl­ global understanding of the potential portance of the forests' production func- 155 tion or the need for forestry activities to mains a theoretical concept subject to compete effectively for scarce invest- diverse interpretations. Each country ment resources and to be valuable decides how best to lranslate this policy enough for users to commit themselves orientation into criteria for monitoring to sustainable management. and evaluating sustainability develop- Our approach builds on the principle ment. The main development policy adopted by the United Nations Confer- stream can thus encourage consistent ence on Environment and Development sustainability approaches among all sec­ (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro as part of tors. This is particularly important for the non-legally binding authoritative those activities dealing with renewable statement on forests that: "national poli­ natural resources and competing for the cies and strategies should provide a land resource. Such a context consti­ framewoB. for increased efforts, includ­ tutes a prerequisite to, and a basic incen­ ing the development and strengthening tive for, sustainable forest management. of institutions for the conservation, man­ Within this broad context of rural agement and development of forests". development and land-use and environ­ The dynamic nature of development mental policy, forest policies deal more requires long-tenn flexibility and adap­ specifically with forest resources and tation in policies, institutions and regu­ their management: the socio-economic lations aimed at maintaining an effec­ aspects of increasing sectoral perfor­ tive incentive framework for sustainable mance; the role of forest and tree forest management. resources in land use and rural develop­ ment; their function in nature conserva­ THE NEED FOR A SOUND POUCY tion and environmental protection. FRAMEWORK Most existing forest policies were For sustainable forest management, it conceived to address simpler situations. is essential that an overall priority of Smaller populations and less competi­ national policy is development sus­ tion among land users reduced pressure tainability across all sectors and security to focus on the stability of forest ecosys­ of sustainable livelihoods for present tems and their sustainable management. and future generations. Without a clear A ministerial declaration would express focus on development patterns which concern for maintaining forest areas but balance human activities with nature's would not prevent these areas from be­ ability to renew itself, sustainability re- ing considered able to regenerate them- 111 Policy, institutional and legal aspects

selves naturally while constituting a land system should decide how to reconcile bank for further agricultural expansion. or even combine divergent interests and The declared intention was to protect a how to share costs and benefits among seldom well-demarcated estate, some­ the main actors and beneficiaries. How­ times confiscated from local groups who ever, consultations legitimize the in­ had owned it from time immemorial. volvement of all major actors and solicit Forest policies focused principally on their commitment to a more compre­ timber production and its sustained yield hensive approach to sustainable forest and restricted other activities. Such a management. negative posture generated conflict In modifying the policy framework to among interested parties (forestry agen­ provide effective incentives for sustain­ cies. the private sector, local groups). able management, the following con­ Furthermore. fiscal and pricing policies siderations are particularly important: as well as contractual policies focused • Land-use planmng and policies: mostly on harvesting and not on man­ recogntzIng forests as a major agement. Hence. former forest policies renewable natural resource of value were weak because they lacked focus for present and future generations. on comprehensiveness and sustainable • Macroeconomic poliCies and struc­ management of the forest ecosystem tural adjustment measures: iden­ and on generating cooperation among tifying and assessing possible major actors, rural communities, pri­ negative impacts of agricultural vate entrepreneurs and the forestry in­ programmes or privatizatIOn policies stitution itself. on forest conservation - cash crop Today, forests must be managed in a expansion, or rural people migrating much more interdependent and com­ to expand subsistence farming. etc. plex context. The most critical change • Policy interactions between forestry required is to establish a partnership and related sectors such as ag­ process. Consequently, forest policies riculture, livestock. infrastructure, should involve major interest groups In industry, energy, mining: verifying forest management decisions through and developing consistency and consultations. In particular. consulta­ complementarities with forest tions must enable people affected by the management activities; and mi­ emerging management arrangements to nimizing the negative impacts of articulate their interests. The political specific pricing and incentive A supportive environment for sustainable forest management 157

measures in other sectors against varied interests, the policy should sustainable forest management and encourage flexible approaches that use. ensure sustainability across a variety • Conservation and wise utilization of of tenure, use and management forests, its unequivocal recognition regimes in different ecological and as a national priority in forest policy socio-economic contexts. and its simultaneous reflection in • Forest dwellers and neighbouring environmental and development communities: their rights of access policies. Sustainability is a long­ to those products on which their term perspective characterizing the livelihood depends should be application of such a policy to a recognized. Forest policy must demarcated permanent forest estate recognize their secure and sus­ comprising productIon forests and tainable livelihoods and the protec­ protection forests . tion of the cultural integrity of their • Forest policy should focus on the forest heritage. The policy must behaviour of various social groups therefore encourage the design and with interest in using the forest implementation of management resources and encourage them to approaches enabling local people to organize themselves. Sustainability organize themselves and be involved is likely to result from convergent as preferential partners and benefi­ and comprehenSIve approaches that ciaries. reconcile local community needs • Fiscal poltcies: revenues accruing with the broader demands for to the government cannot be based economic growth and environmental solely on forestry taxes and fees in stability. DIfferent user groups isolation from revenues generated should be recognized. Timber and by the general taxation system. Fis­ other raw materials are sold to the cal policies, general and forestry­ market or to industry by private related, influence the willingness and entrepreneurs, some other products ability of the institution in charge of such as fodder or wild foods are forest management to invest in its used as a common resource by local sustainability. Many countries with groups while others, such as water large privately owned forest re­ flows or biodiversity, interest the sources have a favourable taxation broader community. Within such regime for forest revenues in order 1. Policy. institlllioNJl and legal aspects

to make continued invesbnent in simple issue, but efficient economic forest management attractive and performance is important in competitive against oIber options. sustainability. 1be marlcets for forest Fmaocial grants and compensations products should operate so that a fair may also be considered: grants for share of revenues accrues to those improving long-term production who are actually responsible for potential such as reforestation and managing the forest: a government forestation, silvicultural improve­ entity. a private concessionaire, a ments and infrastructure; compen­ forest owner or a local community sation for costs of specified man­ or user group. agement measures undertaken by The most important issue regards on­ forest owners in the public interest, going analyses of the impact of the vari­ such as improving the stability of ous elements and identifying the need special protection forests, construc­ for change so that long-term manage­ tion measures for land or managing ment is encouraged. This requires regu­ intensively-used recreation forests; lar consultations among interested par­ compensation for defined losses or ties to identify issues and possible con­ foregone benefits of forest owners straints of current policies as well as as a result of voluntary harvesting potential solutions through reforms or restrictions in certain areas. adaptation in policy. • Pricing policies for all mark.eted forest goods and services are LAWS AND REGULATIONS FOR particularly important in detennining SUST~NABLEFOREST the ecooomics offorest management MANAGEMENT and especially the levels of Present legislation on conserving and invesbnent and reinvesbnent for developing forest resources does oot conserving and improving forest sufficiently reflect the principle of resources. 1be interplay of market sustainability. Indeed, many laws and forces and competition should make regulations are inconsistent and often forest product prices reflect real contradictory to long-term forest man­ economic values while monitoring agement the possible interactions of price More emphasis on sustainable forest differentials with alternative non­ resource development in national poli­ foreslly productions. This is not a cies must lead to legislation being sys- A Sllpponive environment for sllSUlinable fonst management 118

tematicaUy reviewed and often consid­ Present forest legislation is largely erably modified. regulatory. The policy-makers who have Such an adjustment sbould reinforce shaped these laws, have largely focused existing provisioos that aim at imple­ on immediate benefits from timber pro­ menting sustainability and incorporate duction as the major or exclusive output new regulatioos which coosider 1he inter­ from the recourse. They assumed that it ests of future generatioos, eliminating would be sufficient to regulate forest those provisions that are incompatible cover maintenance and to prevent de­ with sustainable forest utilization and structive practices. Regulatory measures development. This implies considerable will certainly remain important in stan­ efforts in further improving and elaborat­ dard forest laws but it is fairly evident ing nominal as well as functional forest that a comprehensive policy of sustain­ law. able forest management cannot be based on such measures alone. Nominal forest law Forest legislation has to provide a more Nominal forest law comprises legislation consistent framework for participatory which specifically addresses forests and forest policies for people relying directly forestry. It refers primarily to forest law on forests. It particularly needs to offer itself, dealing with forest conservation incentives and/or compensation to pri­ and development. It also includescomple­ vate and communal owners who provide mentary regulations and rules. public benefits by managing their forests Like forest policy, nominal forest law in a multifunctional manner and in accor­ has three important aspects: it is sector­ dance with 1he principle of sustainability. specific legislation focusing on forest conservation and development and, as Functional forest law such, is part of the economic develop­ Functional forest law refers to a wide ment and natural resources legislation; range of laws and regUlations which it is an important and integral part of address other subjects and problem ar­ land-use and rural development legisla­ eas. However, 1heirprovisions have some tion concerning forests as part of rural relevance or impact on forest conserva­ space; and it is an indispensable element tion and development. of environmental protection law and of Legislation of particular importance nature and landscape conservation leg­ to sustainable forest development may islation. be grouped as follows: 180 Policy, institutIOnal and legal aspects

• Legislation referring to the general of the various laws and regulations. The and specific aspects ofenvironmen­ following aspects need particular atten­ tal protection: national environmen­ tion: tal protection codes, air pollution • the implications of expanding envi­ control, etc. ronmental and nature protection leg­ • Legislation principally concerned islation on the evolution of forest with renewable natural resources: legislation; legislation related to agriculture, • the degree to which the respective grazing. fishery, agrarian reform, provisions mutually support, con­ erosion control. land rehabilitation tradict or even neutralize and ob­ and their various interfaces with struct each other; forestry and combined production • the scope in environmental protec­ systems. tion laws for inserting or reinforcing • Legislation dealing with social and specific provisions for forest con­ economic measures for developing servation and management; rural space: land tenure legislation. • the impact on sustainable forest land-use planning legislation, tax management from evolving and legislation, etc. improving natural resources and • Legislation concerning nature pro­ rural development legislation; tection: principally laws protecting • the need to modify forest manage­ flora. fauna and undisturbed land­ ment regulations in order to be scapes; and hunting, wildlife and compatIble and to support such national parks legislation. legislation. Forests and forest land use as well as the management of timber stands thus Forest management issues become subject to a varied network of Depending on social needs and the pre­ legal provisions. This leads to an in­ vailing forest ecosystems, the general creasing interdependence between for­ objectives of the law may cover a wide est laws, on the one hand, and economic range of individual targets and goals. development laws as well as natural Points of general importance concern­ resources and environmental legislation, ing a comprehensive sustainable forest on the other hand. utilization approach are: The growing complexity requires a • protecting the forest cover and its thorough analysis of the compatibility regional distribution in order to A supportive environment for sustainable forest management 181

maintain a stable environment and • the production of various categories to provide a basis for economic and of industrial wood as a basis for an social forest development; industrial sector economy; • protecting all prevailing natural • the supply of a wide range of non­ forest ecosystems in order to wood products both for local and maintain biodiversity and industrial uses; landscapes; • the provision of protective services • establishing and supporting a viable against the consequences of natural and multifunctional forest economy, calamities such as avalanches, combining ecological conservation erosion, landslides and floods; and economic resource utilization; • the maintenance of the protective • establishing new forests as far as role of the forest cover for they are required for environmental groundwater resources; reasons and/or economic develop­ • the provision of recreational uses ment. for urban areas and/or tourist If at all, forest laws refer to sustain­ development. able forest management usually for wood Prevailing forest practice regulations production only. Sustainable forest man­ need to be systematically reviewed. Such agement, however, must also address a review should aim at ascertaining the conservation and management of whether the existing provisions related forest ecosystems as a whole. to timber harvesting, road construction, Thus, the law has to define sustain­ reforestation, silvicultural improvements ability both in terms of the diversity and and management planning are consis­ stabilIty of the various forest ecosys­ tent with sustainable resources develop­ tems and of their contribution to present ment. Furthermore, the requirements of and future development needs. It has biodiversity protection and landscape then to determine the meaning and rel­ conservation should be integrated into evance of sustainable management with forest utilization practices. Biodiversity regard to present and potential outputs, and landscape conservation are in fact in particular: an essential frame condition for sustain­ • the production of fuel wood and able forest development. construction timber for local Laws and regulations usually contain consumption as an input for rural little on public participation in man­ economics; agementdecisions. Hitherto, forest man- Policy. instilulio1UJl tmd legal aspects agement planning has been mainly con­ and wasteful utilization very much. Al­ sidered a technical issue and left to for­ though primarily a political issue, legis­ est owners and forest services. Revised lation can provide an institutionalized Iegi.slation is necessary in order to: basis for monitoring sustainable resource • provide instiwtionalized processes policies by: for forest owners, user groups and • establishing the principle and the political entities to determine the necessary mechanisms for regularly range of forestry outputs, the monitoring the state of forest management objectives and the resources nationally and regionally; necessary measures to reach such • checking the results of forest objectives; management planning, particularly • generate the political commibnent concerning forest area. biodiversity essential for implementing sus­ and health of forest stands, outputs tainable resource development and of public interest, etc.; to provide the necessary financial • evaluating the efficiency of public basis based on equitable cost sharing policies and related legal provisions between forest owners and public with regard to the comprehensive entities. objectives of sustainable forest Incentives are important to support development and conservation; sustainable forest management objec­ • providing the relevant information tives involving immediate interests of from monitoring and evaluation to forest owners and entitled user groups government and parliament. as weIl as the public and the usually more long-term interests of the commu­ Forest tenure issues nity. Legislation should provide incen­ The term, forest tenure, comprises both tives that promote practices and benefits forest usage rights and various forms of that concern the community as a whole. forest ownership. Forest laws and regu­ More appropriate legislation on sus­ lations must include provisions cover­ tainable forest uses needs to be imple­ ing the different categories of tenure mented. Laws and regulations have and must determine: actually been revised or are currently • the categories and nature of vsage being reviewed; however, up tooow it is rights and the extent to which they doubtful whether legislative improve­ may be practised sustainably; ments have redressed forest destruction • the categories and nature of forest 1a

ownership and the applicable erty are particularly interesting. legis­ management planning procedures; lation should regulate: • the rights and obligations of differ­ • the rights and responsibilities of ent categories of forest owners, par­ communal forest owners regarding ticularly concerning land registra­ sustainable uses and management tion and demarcation; practices; • the conditions modifying the status • thepossibilityofconsolidatingforest of forest land, irrespective of usage rights by introducing new ownership changes. forms of ownership by the Many forest laws acknowledge usage community or by groups of users; rights as a matter of principle but they • the possibility of transferring public lack adequate provisions to protect forest forest land into community usage rights and to allow their sustainable ownership either by land title practice in detennined forest areas. Man­ registration, by long-tenn land-use agementregulations, in fact, tend todisre­ agreements or by land leases. gard user rights and to provoke their Several countries do not yet have ap­ abolition. This frustrates the local popula- propriate legal arrangements for private tion, which may practise many forest uses forest tenure. The law, geared exclu- and sustainable management patterns. In sively to public ownership, may actu­ response, local people are compelled de ally hinder private initiatives in tree plant­ facto to give up previous careful and ing. Such legislation should be reviewed long-tenn resource utilization and move with the objectives of: to short-tenn and exploitative uses. New • abolishing unnecessary forest legislation should combine the principle regulations that prevent private ofsustainabilitywithafinnlegalcommit­ landowners from planting part of meot to maintain and develop local uses their land with trees; and to provide the necessary legal protec­ • introducing provisions that facilitate tion for their practice. tree utilization together with Acknowledged and institutionalized agricultural crops and that promote community access to using forest re­ efficient agroforestry practices; SOUIres is often important in determin­ • providing land-use agreements and ing local interest in maintaining the land leases that allow private forestry forest cover. 1be various forms of com­ on public land; munity forest tenure and common prop- • providing a positive approach in 184 Policy. institutional and legal aspects

encouraging sustainable private investment, and to the socio-economic forest management. contribution of the industry; State forest tenure has two aspects. In • reinforce the long-term management some countries, it is one of various tenur­ aspects by determining annual ial arrangements. The state forest service timber harvesting volumes instead manages state forest land, usually in co­ of relying on area alone, by operation with communal and private introducing sustainable wood forest owners. Under legal provisions, production regimes and by providing management standards are comparable incentives for improved utilization to or higher than for other ownership standards; groups, owing to the keen public interest • foster reinvestment in maintaining in sustainable resource use. In other coun­ the productivity of forest resources, tries, state forest tenure is the dominant or for instance through the planting of exclusive category of forest ownership logged areas, silvicultural improve­ but the government allocates timber har­ mentcutting, forest fire control and the vesting and forest management rights to improvement of forest infrastructure; private industry, for example as cutting • contribute to a more systematic permits, forest concessions, timber har­ integration of requirements to vesting agreements, forest management maintain biodiversity and ensure contracts and land leases. Sustainable landscape protection with forest management practices should be reviewed concession regulations; in this type of tenure. • encourage improved sustainable On the whole, forest concession sys­ resource utilization, in particular by tems are gradually moving from a largely renegotiation at regular intervals exploitative stage to more long-term (e.g. every five years) with an forest management contracts. Changes extension option if the performance in legislation have to focus principally has been satisfying and the proposals on provisions that: for improved management are • rationalize concession tenure by mutually agreeable. linking the size of granted forest areas and the length of the arrangement INSTITUTIONAL AND more specifically to the type ofprivate ORGANIZATIONAL ASPECTS operator, the level of raw material Institutional arrangements constitute the processing, the volume of industrial instruments for implementing national A supportive environment for sustainable forest management 185

forest policies through forestry laws and trend in the evolving institutional frame­ regulations. Institutional capacities have work of development. This is partly due generally been grossly underestimated. to economic liberalization and the ef­ Institutional weaknesses constitute a fectiveness of the market's regulatory major cause of unsustainable forest man­ influences. agement and utilization. However, changes in the institutional Forest management in developing framework of forest management are countries, particularly in the tropics, has not to be taken lightly. In many develop­ been until now mostly the responsibility ing countries, the predominance of the of government forestry institutions. state as forest owner reflects earlier low These institutions have suffered signifi­ population densities in and around many cant and enduring problems: lack of forest areas and a genuine concern for proportionate resources to match the their conservation. Now, genuine forest size of the public forest estate; inertia in dweller communities have a role in for­ adapting to new policies and develop­ est management, reflecting their depen­ ment context; unwillingness to transfer dence on and responsibility for the re­ forest management responsibilities to source. The shift in emphasis of forest others; and a lack of experience with concessions from harvesting to man­ Innovative approaches and methods, es­ agement is critical and has policy and pecially dealing with the socio-economic institutional implications. aspects of forest management under high In a number of other countries, forests demographic pressures. Finally, institu­ were removed from the control and man­ tional capacity to manage public forests agement of local communities to ensure has been hampered by a lack of eqUip­ their protection from over-exploitation. ment, low salaries, excessive bureau­ In the devolution of management re­ cracy and a lack of rewards for profes­ sponsibilities, genuine old-settlement sional capacities, poor training, uncer­ communities, with traditional rights and tain career prospects, corruption, etc. knowledge, should be distinguished from new settlements of rural poor, mi­ The evolving institutional context grating from necessi ty, and encroachers The changing role of the public sector migrating out of speculation. Any major and expanding roles of the private sec­ change in the respective roles of the tor and of non-governmental organiza­ forestry institution, of the private sector tions (NGOs) mark a general policy and of local communities must consider til Policy. ilUlilrltionol and legal aspects

tbe distioctoeeds and behaviouroftbese utilization; monitoring reactions and calegories. The possible impacts on behaviour patterns among tbe wide sustainable forest management need spectrum of land and tree owners careful assessment. i.e. economic per­ and users (public, private, common) formance, social equity and ecological andotberioterest groups; identifying stability. divergences of interest among Under what conditions can a change concerned groups and facilitating in the respective roles of the main actors dialogue and conflict resolution. enbance sustainable forest management? • Providing objective and up-to-date Wbatshould betbe nalUreoftbis change: analyses and understanding of the tbe devolution of land and forest man­ sector's perspectives concerning agement to the private sector, the trans­ supply and demand of goods and fer of usufruct rights on the supply of services and of potential marlret de­ goods and services from the forest, the velopments to orientate forest man­ recognition of communal control over a agement and related investments; previous common property resource? identifying the implications of cur­ rent demands on the forest potential PublIc Institutions to meet those of future generations. Tbere is no country in the world where • Managing the state forest estate, public institutions do not play a major accumulating experience and role in forest management Public insti­ providing examples of"good" forest tutions would seem to be betterequipped management for the following important aspects: • Encouraging and checking the • Improving the knowledge of the re­ impIementationofforestmanagement source and its value and potential and harvesting regulations by private through inventories of forests and owners and concession operators; other woody resources; monitoring determining performance control changes in relation to other land standards based on the regular uses and participating in compre­ monitoring of physical land-use and hensive land-use planning and man­ forest management cri1eria; evaluating agement. the relevant information submitted • Analysing market and non-market by the operator. mrentives and their impacts on • Providing support to developing resource protection and resource sustainable tree-growing and 187

management activities by rural on the adequacy of their infrastructure people, the private sector and other and resources. organizations through infonnation, extension and technical support. The private sector • Encouraging an overall consistency Private sector organizations are essen­ of forest management approaches tial partners in sustainable forest man­ while deconcentrating initiatives and agemenL 1beentrepreneurship and man­ support at field level for building up agement experience of private owners partnerships with local forest man­ andenterprises can substantially enhance agers and users and for establishing the performance and economic base of an effective dialogue. sustainable forest managemenL 1bey • Cooperating with public institutions represent by far the largest potential in other sectors on infrastructure investor. The institutional framework development, population, energy, should encourage the private sector to etc., and on cooniinated approaches make long-term investments in sustain­ to intersectoral issues. able forest management under condi­ • Managing or assisting in the man­ tions of profitability, fair competition agement of appropriate funding and security which can compete with mechanisms in order toprovide credit investment alternatives. Dialogue is es­ and stimulate investment in forest sential and will be all the more effective managementas well as to compensate if representative organizations can ex­ the costs to the private owner or the press the views offorest owners, includ­ user group of restrictions imposed on ing the smaller ones. Such organizations the productive function as a means of are essential channels for two-way com­ safeguarding broader benefits of the munication with public institutions and forest both inside and outside its for negotiations when needed. If prop­ borders. erly supported and motivated, these or­ 1be increasing complexity of sustain­ ganizations can strengthen the technical able forest management places a major and managerial capacities of their mem­ responsibility on public forestry institu­ bers for sustainable forest managemenL tions, and no other institutions can re­ Government institutions should also be place them. 1beirefficiency depends on efficient in checking and monitoring the the skills and attitudes of their staff, on effectiveness ofsustainable management modem administrative machinery and regulations. This is particularly impor- Policy. institutional and legal aspects tant in those countries where major re­ with the provision of public goods or sponsibilities in forest management are intangible values in management sys­ to be transferred to the private sector. tems that sustain the multiple roles and In a number of countries, structural functions of forests. Hence, it is neces­ adjusttnent programmes and a stronger sary to assess and monitor carefully orientation of macroeconomic policies institutional arrangements under which towards the market are increasing the private enterprises are to operate in man­ private sector's role in forestry. In many aging and utilizing public forests. In former centrally planned economies, the privately owned forests, the issue con­ transition to a market economy implies cerns the existence of adequate incen­ the surge of the private sector as a new tives for the sustainable and compre­ actor in{orestry. Thus, the general trend hensive management of the resource is an increasingly important private sec­ and the adequacy ofthe owners' techni­ tor as a partner in forest management. cal and managerial capacities. However, in most countries, concern for The other important issue concerns the the long-term sustain ability of forest contrast between private forestry and the resources and their public services un­ new dimension of people' s participation derlie the reluctance to privatize public and the social benefits of forest manage­ forest land. Forestry operations on pub­ ment. The impact of private business lic lands. such as harvesting, forestation development on local people must be and reforestation. are privatized under assessed very carefully, particularly re­ contractual arrangements which deter­ garding vulnerable groups. Privatization mine how the resources are managed of traditionally managed common lands and safeguarded and how revenues are may profoundly affect the access of local distributed. This raises two important groups to the supply of important goods issues concerning forest management. such as food, fodder or fuel. These groups Special attention is needed with goods should not be marginalized but should and services that are not traded or that actually benefit from such development. are related to public services such as conservation and protection and whose Non-governmental organizations values are difficult to assess. Examples The diversity of NGOs and their ex­ include biodiversity, wildlife habitat, panding influence in forest management microclimate and water supply. The is­ deserve special attention. Some NGOs sue relates to reoond\ing llr1vate llTofit focus on environmental, conservation and \ supportive environment for sustainable forest management 169

protection aspects of forest management. appropriation or privatization has dis­ Others are concerned with rural develop­ rupted local control and management of ment and poverty alleviation and ac­ these common property resources and tively promote the participation of rural resulted in increased hardship for the people in tree growing and management poor. Recently, common property man­ as well as in the processing and sale of agement and joint management of pub­ non-timber forest products as part of self­ lic forests with local communities have help rural development programmes. Still received renewed attention in develop­ other NODs concentrate more on the ment efforts towards sustainable forest socio-economic and cultural aspects of management. It is essential that public deve]opmentamong forest dwelling com­ forestry institutions recognize the re­ munities and indigenous peoples. These sponsibility of local user groups in plan­ different types of NODs play a useful ning, managing and checking forest role in underlining sustain ability in forest management prescriptions. management, and their cooperation Adequate institutional arrangements should be actively sought. and the capacity to implement them are Local organizations of rural users of critical supporting elements for sustain­ the forest or of small tree-growing farm­ able forest management. The best poli­ ers deserve special consideration. Their cies and laws will not enhance sustain­ importance lies in the rules and rewards able forest management if the human commonly accepted by a group of people and infrastructure capacities of the insti­ wanting to be organized. When such tutions remain totally inadequate, as is local organizations are lacking or are the case in so many countries. Further­ weak, it is much more difficult to pro­ more, the only workable approach is mote and support local sustainable for­ partnership based on some sort of har­ est management initiatives that take full mony and convergence of efforts be­ account of local needs and experiences. tween forestry departments, the private Local organizations are particularly im­ sector, rural people and other interest portant when forests constitute a com­ groups; such partnership does not pre­ mon pool of resources, with fuel wood, clude differences of interests but it works fodder and foods as major components positively towards recognizing these in­ of the local economy, filling gaps and terests and resolving possible conflicts providing complementary income and in order to ensure fair shares of sustain­ inputs. Almost everyWhere, government able benefits. 110 Policy, institutional and legal aspects

INFORMATION, COMMUNICATION facilitate two-way communication to AND TRAINING stimulate participation and support in Ultimately, forest management will be implementing the plans. This is all the sustainable only if its continuity is built more important since forest-dependent on a strong human resource base, pro­ groups are among the poorest in rural viding support and skills. This section areas. Furthermore, communication gen­ deals with the need to spread knowl­ erates convergence among groups when edge, to reinforce the social base of different interests may require negotia­ sustainability through understanding and tions and mediation. dialogue and gradually to strengthen Education should ensure that enough technical skills and capabilities. people are adequately trained to design Infortnation involves documenting and implement the new types of forest positive ideas and developments and management plans. At present, human diffusing the information in appropriate resources constitute one of the most se­ formats to generate support for suitable vere constraints, as forestry technicians solutions. Recently, forestry circles have may frequently be responsible for man­ increasingly realized that some of the aging tens of thousands of hectares of misconceptions in the public debate on tropical forest, and their skills are often forest management stem from a lack of notably insufficient for these responsi­ public relations capacity. Adequate in­ bilities. Forestry schools' curricula need formation activities are essential to build to be geared to the new generations of up common understanding and interac­ forestry technicians and profeSSIOnals and tion among partners concerned with sus­ should incorporate the new approaches tainable forest management and to en­ and practices of sustainable forest man­ sure support from policy-makers and agement. Furthermore, staff currently on the public. duty need in-service and refresher train­ Communication involves consultation ing to face the new orientations and com­ and dialogue with the various partners plexities of sustainable forest manage­ in forest management. Such a process ment. Training programmes should also must especially enable forest dwellers include private sector staff and rural com­ and other forest-dependent rural groups munity leaders. to express their needs, expectations and In many cases, significant effort is experiences from the early stage offor­ required to strengthen national and local est management preparation. This will forestry and related training institutions A supportive environment for sustainable forest management 171

so that the necessary skills are made tional and human capacities in developing available promptly in significant quan­ countries in line with the evolving devel­ tity. Training quality should be selec­ opmental requirements of forestry. This tively improved to produce forestry paper largely reflects the experience gained personnel with a solid technical knowl­ in forestry assistance programmes and edge in forest management and a com­ projects executed by FAO. Yet, technical mitted focus on sustainability. assistance requirements are still very sub­ stantial and pressing. International support CONCLUDING REMARKS needs to be significantly expanded and to This paper stressed recognized key deter­ concentrate more on building up capaci­ minants of forest management perfor­ ties in those critical elements of forest mance, which the new emphasis on eco­ management and to monitor the effective­ logical and socio-economic sustainability ness of results. has made more complex. The issues raised Finally, forestry increasingly takes are treated in a general manner and need place in complex interdependence among to be related to specific situations. In land uses and other soclO-economic pa­ some cases, major policy and institutional rameters. Thus, sustainable forest man­ reforms may appear to be necessary. In agement can only be undertaken and most cases, however, what is at stake are pursued through interdisciplinary ap­ the attitudes of institutions and people proaches within effectively coordinated and their willingness or, on the contrary, rural development programmes. No sus­ mertla to change their traditional empha­ tainable forest management programme sis and to focus on the more comprehen­ is feasible unless it takes fully into ac­ sive and partnership approaches required count developments in surrounding ar­ in sustainable forest management. eas. Conversely, sustainable forest man­ Attitudes and capacities at national and agementprograrnmes must be fully taken local levels are ultimately the critical ele­ into account in development programmes ments for any sound policy, well-designed concerning areas where those forests are regulation or responsible institution to have located. Therefore, the success of sus­ an actual and effective impact on spread­ tainable forest management also depends ing sustainable forest management prac­ on strengthening cooperation capacities tices more widely. Over recent decades, and interdisciplinary sustainable devel­ significant efforts have been made through opment work across sectors in the region technical assistance to build up institu- concerned.

A supportive environment tor sustainable forest management 173

People's participation in forest and tree management M.W. Hoskins

Self-help management of trees and forests by or with rural people is potentially one of the most effective ways of sustainably managing forest resources. Yet, large forest formations are under threat of overuse by groups, including local communities. On the one hand, rural people value tree products and functions considerably; on the other hand, people are often reluctant to invest in tree management or may even jeopardize forest management. Consciousness-raising elements of projects on the importance of trees are often ineffective. The real reason for a lack of local participation is that outsiders misperceive local constraints to and attitudes towards participation. Plan­ ners and donors need to have more confidence in local people's ability to participate in all stages of activity, planning, Implementation and monitoring. Important factors in thiS regard are institutional opportunities to improve access to and tenure over forest resources and land-use rights; using extension and research to take activities, technology and techniques to users who then extend them to other users; and changing the focus of training to these ideas of user extension and user research. Only a feeling of ownership and a guarantee of benefits will encourage local communities to take on long-term forest and tree management. This can only be provided by more appropriate institutional arrangements that benefit those who practise management and those who provide services. Definitions of the concepts of participation and institutions are also provided in this paper.

INTRODUCTION Judging from field project reports, noth­ The author IS Senior Community Forestry ing appears more rewarding, yet more Officer, Forestry Policy and Planning Division of FAO, Rome. difficult to achieve, than widespread 174 Socio-economic aspects

and effective self-help management of effective. There is something more to trees and forests by or with rural people. be learnt from studying participatory Not only are large forest formations behaviour and how it is motivated. under threat of overuse by groups, in­ A number of community forestry spe­ cluding local communities, but many cialists have concluded that outsiders forest formations are found in "islands", commonly misperceive local constraints scattered throughout rural landscapes. to and attitudes towards participatIOn in Local collaboration is needed if both tree and forest management. These re­ kinds of forest as well as trees are to be searchers and practitioners claim more effectively managed on national, misperceptions mean that various insti­ communal and private lands (FAO, tutions adopt dysfunctional policies and 1991a). programmes, controls and reward sys­ On the one hand we know that rural tems and approaches, whIch inadvert­ people almost universally value tree ently prevent participation. Data sup­ products and functions highly and, in porting thIS theory have surfaced in a some places may risk being hassled, number of different activity settings: jailed or even shot to obtain them for watersheds (Dani and Campbell, 1986; use or sale. On the other hand, people Dove, 1992); drylands (Weber and are often reported to be negatively Stoney, 1986; FAO, 1992); pastoralist predisposed towards investing in tree systems (FAO, 1990); and shifting cul­ management. Yet again, farmers are tivation systems (FAO, 199Ib). reported to be stealing seedlings from But what exactly does participation nurseries or planting trees, sometimes mean? What are these institutions? How collectively, in larger numbers than can these institutions change the envi­ the forest service (FAO, 1993a). What ronment to motivate self-help tree man­ causes this contrast in behaviour? Why agement? may people who traditionally plant trees or manage traditional forest re­ THE CONCEPT serves sometimes stop doing so? OF PARTICIPATION (Gerden and Mtallo, 1990). Project For our purposes, participation is local designs very commonly include a women and men (insiders) Implement­ communication campaign for "con­ ing wise forest and tree management sciousness raising" on the importance practices with adequate support, or in of trees, but this is frequently not partnership with outsiders (e.g. forest- A supportive environment for sustainable forest management 175

ers}.Partnershiporjointmanagementis above maintain that lack of participa­ an especially important concept regard- tion is frequently an institutional prob­ ing forest resources, since most forests lem and does not stem from a lack of are legally controlled by forest services interest or understanding. It is, there­ or govemments. Outsiders can support fore, important to clarify the term "insti­ local management by providing or grant- tution" and identify priority institutional ing access to forest resources, removing opportunities to increase local partici­ impediments to receiving benefits from pation. their management inputs, strengthening the local organizations' situation or THE CONCEPT OF INSTITUTIONS skills, assisting in planning, assuring Political scientists have a useful defini- that long-term benefits go to those who tion of institutions for this context: insti- manage wisely, providing outside tech­ tutions are organizatIOns or groups with nical mformation, etc. Significantly, this sets of rules that cover expected definition implies a change of roles for behaviour, sanctions for breaking the both foresters and farmers in that par- rules and rewards for behaving in the ticipation means insiders are dOIng some prescribed manner (Thomson in FAO, or all of the managing and forest ser­ 1992). Organizations may codify these vices are really acting in a service role. rules. However, in local settings, al­ For this to happen, both farmers and though not necessarily codified, they foresters must see rewards from partici­ are understood by groups or group mem- patory management. bers. In many places, farmers are not par­ In community forestry activities, there ticipating in this way. They are deforest­ are three sets of institutions: at national ing unsuitable land for farming and/or level, including the national policy-mak­ overusing the forest resource base in a ers who decide land tenure and other way that undermines future production regulations and donors who often estab­ of either trees or other plant or animal lish sanctions and rewards and exert crops. Furthermore, rural people do not pressure; forestry and other field-level all want the same outputs. Community­ organizations (e.g. extension services) level resource conflicts can undermine that administer policies and have codi­ equity and sustainability. Foresters, too, fied as well as non-codified rules of frequently take on roles other than ser­ behaviour; communities or community­ vice roles. However, the authors cited based groups whose members expect a 176 Socio-economic aspects

certain type of behaviour towards, woman rose and said: "As of yet we do among other things, land, tree and forest not know what it would cost us to par­ use and management. ticipate in your project or what would be This definition of institutions enables our benefits. Once these things are clear the institutional rules and expectations we will let you know." Follow-up ac­ of all actors to be examined separately tivities were then planned with the or in their joint actions. It also offers the women, including a joint field trip to the hope that institutions (rules) can change forest to look at products they might if members find the results unsatisfac­ want to include in the management plan. tory. Therefore, if farmers are not par­ In several host countries, such as Costa ticipating spontaneously in good man­ Rica, experimental funds have been es­ agement of forest and tree resources, the tablished by donors to fund individually rules of expected behaviour and accom­ selected small activities proposed by panying rewards and sanctions provided communities themselves. This is a ma­ by national and local institutions need jor step forward, although it is still the examination. donors who finally decide on the prior­ ity and validity of the community goals. DONORS AND NATIONAL FAO has been trying for a number of PLANNING INSTITUTIONS years to have projects funded by donors An opportunity to demonstrate and accepted by host country govern­ trust ments which really involve local users Donors and planners have a wide range in the whole planning process. This re­ of expectations of community forestry quires confidence that local men and projects, which consistently espouse lo­ women have valid objectives and can cal involvement in all stages of activity make reasoned decisions, given adequate identification, planning, implementation information. Recently a five-country and evaluatIon. However, most donor watershed project, funded by the Italian funded projects are designed so that Government through F AO and approved local people are only involved in imple­ by the host countries, let community mentation. members identify and plan the final ob­ In Burkina Faso, a national project jectives and activities. There is already director called the women to a meeting exciting potential as people overcome to discuss their participation in an ongo­ their disbet\ef at \)t\Wt\\\t ~

help activities offers great potential for resources do not always manage them future programmes. To transfer this as­ sustainably, it also shows that people pect of planning to local communities with inadequate resources for food se­ will require some changes in the rules by curity cannot practise sustainable man­ planners. Above all, it will require a new agement. It would seem that the first trust in local people to allow for the step in obtaining participation in man­ partnership approach. agement is to assure access to adequate resources and their benefits, for now NATIONAL POLICY, and for the future. ADMINISTRATIVE AND LEGAL The opportunity to provide appropri­ INSTITUTIONS ate access, however, is not always in line An opportunity to Improve access with current pressure to privatize forest and land and tree tenure/use land for individual families. Although rights and governance much more needs to be known about Issues concerning access to or tenure communal management, some resources over resources can largely determine the by their very nature are more effectively motivation oflocal individuals and groups managed as a private individual good; in managing forests and trees. In Bolivia, others, such as some forest products, villagers spoke of being interested in pasturelands and watersheds, are more planting trees, but were doing so without effectively managed on a larger or com­ much enthusiasm. They wanted more munity scale (FAO, 1992a). In some access to tree resources but knew large cases, land use changes with the season; farmers could take away Improved land the farmers manage individual plots at any time. They felt the project had not during the farming season and herders understood or provided for this threat. use the land communally after harvest. Tenure decisions are often made at a high Frequently, governmental land alloca­ policy level, not within a local or project tion schemes do not recognize this type context and often not even at the Ministry of traditional, overlapping or serial ten­ of Forestry. Yet such policies greatly in­ ure. In the United Republic of Tanzania. fluence forestry and community efforts pastoralist groups are studying tradi­ to improve forest management and must tionalland use to encourage the govern­ be addressed by foresters. ment to consider allocating larger areas Although experience shows that of land to traditional land-use plans people with adequate access to forest allowing for overlapping user rights. 178 Socio-economic aspects

Research shows various ways local Contrary to expectations, restrictions on people adapt to changing circumstances sandlewood ownership in India has al­ such as increasing tree resource scar­ most totally eliminated this tree from city. For example, local communities in farmers' fields. Nepal developed a management system In a watershed programme in Thai­ which they retained when resources were land, farmers must plant "approved" scarce and which was dropped when trees on a percentage of the land to resources regenerated sufficiently obtain land rights. While this is a posi­ (Gilmour and Fisher, 1991). tive stimulus, the species that farmers Both traditional and modern rules for choose are often considered unaccept­ obtaining land-use rights can provide able by the government. Farmers value incentives or disincentives for tree man­ mulberry (for leaves for sericulture), agement. In a number of countries, jackfruit (for their valuable fruit) and labour is the investment that gives people other trees that provide benefits while land rights (Sheperd in FAO, 1993b). fulfilling watershed objectives. Only a Unplanned deforestation and shortened limited number of slow-growing timber fallow ensue when land is cleared of trees are planted, as theIr benefits will trees or farming practices to ensure land never belong to the farmers. rights. In other systems, tree planting Legal rights and an organizational assures land tenure, and vast areas are forum are important for men and women green. farmers to address forestry and environ­ Anothermanagemen: incentiveordis­ mental problems. In Tanzania, organi­ incentive concerns the ddinition of types zational rules are being liberalized and of trees and access to them. In many traditional governmental bodies are countries, trees are controlled or owned again being revitalized. These local gov­ separately from the land they are on, or erning groups are making new rules for species are classified differently. Re­ self-help resource management formem­ cent attempts to save trees or types of bers. This new opportunity will allow trees from overuse have encouraged local people to improve forest manage­ some governments to claim new owner­ ment. ship of certain species. The local reac­ Therefore, the challenge -for donors tion has been to pull up the seedlings and policy-makers is to understand tra­ before they are noticed so that families ditionallocal rules, effects of new laws retain the space in the field for crops. and any attempts that local people are A supportive environment for sustainable forest management 179

making to address problems of access to these experiences can extend. The most land and trees and to make rules con­ exciting opportunity for forestry cerning these resources. We must study extensionists is to empower users to small examples until we understand pat­ extend forestry or agroforestry prac­ terns. However, even before understand­ tices to other users. ing all the institutional issues, local After professionals have helped gather people should be supported in any at­ the knowledge together and identify tempt to improve forest and tree man­ bottlenecks, their task is to provide fo­ agement and their rules regarding these rums for users to share and examine resources. options. A great deal of networking is required to identify the relevant research EXTENSION AND RESEARCH and information about farmers' and herd­ Opportunity to learn from users ers' activities in other areas and then Extension. Communication means get­ organize an opportunity for them to ex­ ting messages up, down or across. The change experiences. Training may also government will develop a communica­ be needed on topics from the most tech­ tion "down" message to tell farmers where nical forestry techmque to organiza­ seedlings are located and the current mar­ tional. marketing. planning or conflict ket price of a product or to inform them of management topics. new laws. Farmers will develop and de­ Extension is a new field in forestry. liver a commUnICatIOn "up" message to This may be advantageous. Perhaps for­ inform policy-makers of their need for estry can avoid the pitfalls of the top­ different tenure regulations or of the need down. ill-designed "messages" and to back their effort to protect a forest area. "packages" which plague agricultural Horizontal communication will help for­ extension. Some planners suggest that esters or policy-makers share experiences foresters work with existing agricultural WIth colleagues in another country or extension personnel. This could help enable farmers to discuss their experi­ avoid sending two, potentially conflict­ ences with one another. ing. messages into the same commu­ Extension, however, involves taking nity. It might be a good use of trained activities, technologies and techniques personnel in an established structure. to others. It is a form of horizontal com­ However, where planners decide this is munication of a complex set of experi­ preferable, they will need to retrain ences that people with full knowledge of extensionists in the particular issues that 180 Socio-economic aspects

result when trees are introduced into the learning framework (Hoskins, production and family livelihood sys­ 1987). tem. These issues include: There are several advantages to for­ • much more complicated tenure esters' retaining a core place in forestry arrangements when the crop or plant extension: it allows foresters to incorpo­ outlives the agricultural season; rate local knowledge into their policies, • organizational issues related to the planning, research and training; it helps fact that people who fonnerly had . ensure that forestry resources are valued overlapping use rights may have their rather than merely handled by already customary rights infringed when overstretched agriculturalists; and it re­ perennial species are planted; duces the risk of adopting current in­ • a rnuch longer time-frame for appropriate agricultural extension meth­ planning; ods into forestry. • a stronger emphasis on sustainabil­ ity; Research. Extension and research are • the fact that some practices in areas parallel and considered by fanners as such as watersheds are national two aspects of the same thing. In the concerns, or are important to farmers past. most forestry and even agroforestry at a distance so that rewards are not research centres suffered because ex­ always in the same area as the tension was not closely related to for­ management; estry research. Research results were • the need fornew market infonnation not adopted. even by people nearby. and perhaps a new infrastructure, as Research centres also suffered from in­ forest products are often in the adequate inputs from fanners on re­ infonnal sector; search priorities. • the importance of communal Recently. research institutions have management of forest resources, approached their research by learning especially for the poor and landless; how fanners use trees and how the fann­ • most important. the fact that outsiders ers' own research efforts address bottle­ (even national foresters and necks in their production and livelihood extensionists) seldom know all the systems. A new effort to develop user local uses of and values placed on research has begun in Asia. with re­ tree and forest products. so planning searchers and geneticists working to sup­ has to be approached in a two-way port fanner tree development and breed- A supportive environment for sustainable forest management 181

ing. The farmer identifies the ideotype keep records so that they can share new of the tree - exactly what function the infonnation with other extensionists, tree should perfonn and in what man­ strengthening infonnation flows. These ner. The geneticists then discuss the tasks will require a great deal of rethink­ planting materials versus management ing about curricula and the required options for obtaining the desired tree infrastructure. One African extensionist, and help the farmers obtain the proper discussing participatory forestry efforts, planting material and management op­ reported that it would require a new tions. Then the fanner grows and evalu­ approach to evaluation. As clients, the ates the trees in the desired place. Al­ farmers should be the ones to judge the though this does not negate the need for effectiveness of his work, and the previ­ basic research. more experience with ous target-oriented evaluations would farmer tree breeders will help redefine no longer measure his effectiveness. research questions. THE INSTITUTIONAL CHALLENGE Training If the national and international forestry Ifforestry extension and research should Lnstitutions' current approach is not ob­ focus on user extension and user re­ taining the desired results from rural search in areas where local participation people, the rules can be examined and is being sought. training for profession­ changed. This article has not discussed als to support these efforts will certainly many of the fiscal policy and compre­ be different. ExtensIOnists will need to hensive planning issues necessary in focus on new tools to elicit and organize successful tree management pro­ local knowledge and help rural people grammes. However, one major issue identify bottlenecks. They will need to that donors and planners need to address facilitate infonnation exchange and in­ is how to foster confidence and help fonnation networks. They must help communities develop the feeling (and policy-makers and forestry staff under­ reality) of ownership. Only this owner­ stand rural realities and identIfy more ship and the guarantee of benefits will effective rules and rewards for tree and encourage communities to take on the forest management. long-tenn management of tree and for­ Foresters must know basic research est resources. They must exhibit trust. methodology to help farmer research This is accompanied by the organiza­ (Hoskins and Raintree, 1988). They must tion of management embodied in the user 182 Socio-economic aspects

rights or tenure over land, trees and prod­ Dove, M.R. 1992. Foresters' beliefs ucts. Only collaboration between local about farmers: a priority for social people, policy-makers and lawmakers science research in social forestry. can build on the best of traditional and Agrofor. Syst., 17(1): 13-41. current resource patterns and knowledge FAO. 1990. Community forestry. Herd­ as well as providing appropriate support. ers' decision-making in natural re­ This collaboration must take the oppor­ sources management in arid and semi­ tunity to improve access and tenure and arid Africa. Community Forestry Note strengthen local governance. No.4. Rome. Finally, forest services must become FAO. 1991a. Community Forestry. Ten true services. Their professionals must years in review. Community Forestry help channel messages from communi­ Note No.7. Rome. ties to the policy-makers, planners and FAO. 1991 b. Shiftin!? Cultivators. Lo­ researchers as well as the more common cal technical knowledge and natural messages to the people. They must fa­ resource management in the humid cilitate extension between users as farm­ tropics. Community Forestry Note No. ers and as researchers. 8. Rome. "Consciousness raising" on the im­ FAO. 1992. Aframeworkfor analyzing portance of trees is not necessary to institutional incentives In community strengthen widespread participation in forestry. Community Forestry Note No. more effective tree and forest manage­ 10. Rome. ment. More appropriate rules, censures FAO. 1993a. Social and economic in­ and rewards are needed that benefit those centivesfor smallholder tree growing. who practise management and those who A case study from Murang' a District. provide inputs to facilitate good man­ Kenya. Community Forestry Case agement. Study No.5. Rome. FAO. 1993b. Common forest resource REFERENCES management. Annotated bibliography of Asia, Africa and Latin America. Dani, A., A. & Campbell, J.G. 1986. Community Forestry Note No. II. Sustaining upland resources: people's Rome. participation in watershed manage­ Gerden, c.A. & Mtallo, S. 1990. Tra­ ment. ICIMOD Occasional Paper No. ditional forest reserves in Babati Dis­ 3. Kathmandu, ICIMOD. trict, Tanzania: a case-study in human A supportive environment for sustainable forest management 183

ecology. SUAS/lRDC Working Paper Agroforestry - a decade in develop­ No. 128, Uppsala, Sweden, SUAS/ ment. Nairobi, ICRAF. IRDC. Hoskins, M.W. & Raintree, J. 1988. Gilmour, D.A. & Fisher, R.J. 1991. Planning forestry extension pro­ Villagers ,forests andforesters: the phI­ grammes. Bangkok, FAO/Winrock losophy. process and practice of com­ International. munity forestry in Nepal. Kathmandu, Weber, F.R. & Stoney, C. 1986. Refor­ Sahayogi. estation in arid lands. Arlington. Va .• Hoskins, M. W. 1987. Agroforestry and USA, Volunteers in Technical Assis­ the social milieu. In H.A. Steppler & tance. P.K. Ramachandran Nair, eds.

A supportive environment for sustainable forest management 185

Research for sustainable forest management M.N. Salleh and F.S.P. Ng

Research has an important role to play in improving the scientific basis for sus­ tainable management of natural forests in the tropics. However forestry research In the tropics requires a long-term personal commitment from scientists and ef­ fective institutional support. Many tropical countries have been losing rather than gaining the necessary expertise. If this problem could be overcome, more attention could be given to research on urgent environmental matters, harvesting, biodiver­ sity, non-wood resources and ecotourism.

Introduction question of whether we can extract from Forest management practices range from natural forests at current rates without protection management of strict natural irreversibly lowering their productivity parks and reserves to intensive crop and biodiversity. management of cultivated plantations. Sustainable management of forests The extraction management of natural should strike a balance between the ben­ forests lies in between. The liveliest de­ efits of harvesting and the costs of regen­ bate on sustainable forest management eration. Theoretically, it should be pos­ concerns the extraction management of sible to arrange to harvest only what tropical natural forests, particularly the nature replaces. However, in felling and extracting trees, the canopy is opened, soil is exposed, nutrients may be lost, The authors are, respectively, Director­ General of the Forest Research Institute habitat niches and food chains are al­ Malaysia (FRIM), In Kepong, 52109 Kuala tered and population densities of plants Lumpur, Malaysia, and Chief of the Forest and animals are changed. Research, Education and Training Branch in the FAD Forestry Department, Rome As far as we know, the only absolutely 186 Research aspects

irreversible effect is species extinction. tion of natural forests. In different areas The next most serious effect is the loss of of the tropics, different levels of human topsoil. Nutrient loss is serious because, impact on forests have resulted in a on a large scale, it is expensive to remedy. spectrum, ranging from mature, un­ Most other ill-effects of poor forest man­ touched forests through various levels agement can either be repaired by allow­ of degraded forests to scrubland and ing nature to take its course for as long as finally to Imperata grassland. needed or by speeding things up through Only within the past few years, spurred the application of silvicultural expertise. by environmental concerns, has public If extraction is dispersed in time and pressure re-emphasized natural forest space, well planned and executed on management. However, opinions on moderate terrain so that there is minimal objectives and management methods soil loss, the system repairs itself within have tended to be polarized between a few decades. This has been amply strict reserves at one extreme and timber confirmed where traditional shifting ag­ plantations at the other. There is much riculture has been practised as well as uncertainty over the middle ground, where timber-cutting intensity has been which is to make natural forest manage­ light or limited to small areas. ment an environmentally and economi­ However, from the 1950s to the 1970s, cally viable option. economists in the planning departments The results of research can help to keep of many tropical countries did not accept the middle option open. Research ex­ the conceptoflong forest rotations; tropi­ pands the scientific basis for management cal foresters were forced to find ways to on an ongoing baSIS and gives managers grow timber in 15, eight or even fewer the information they need. But manage­ years under plantation conditions. This ment itself should be ongoing and effec­ undermined the case for tropical natural tive, not suspended "pend109 research". forest management in an indirect but pervasive manner. In many countries, a Understanding the resource and whole generation of foresters has building research capacity emerged with no experience of natural Because natural forest management in­ forest management. volves managing an ecosystem and not Neglect of natural forest management just a crop, the demand for scientific has resulted and will continue to result in knowledge increases with the complex­ uncontrolled degradation and destruc- ity of the system. Equally important, A supportive environment for sustainable forest management 187

voluminous and unconnected data on com­ research is being done almost exclusively plicated natural forest ecosystems are of by inexperienced scientists or short-term little use; data have to be systematically consultants on narrow segments of prob­ integrated into management systems. lems. Integrated research to develop man­ Basic know ledge is comparati vely re­ agement systems, combining knowledge stricted in the tropics. In many tropical from various fields, requires a core group countries, for the past 50 years there has of national experts to monitor develop­ been no taxonomic research on plants ments, fill information gaps and integrate and animals that could form the basis of new information with old. This is what is a biodIversity management programme. lacking most in many developing coun­ Similarly, there have been few sus­ tries, and unless this problem is solved, it tained attempts to carry out the periodic will be difficult to deploy expertise in resource inventories necessary for in­ urgent and important areas such as re­ tensive management. The list contin­ search on environmentally acceptable har­ ues of sustaIned envIronmental research vesting technIques integrated with the that needs to be done In ecology, physi­ management of forests for the mainte­ ology, sIlviculture, sOIls, forest protec­ nance of biodIversity, non-wood re­ tIon, etc. Such work reqUIres a long­ sources and ecotourism. term commitment: scientific training takes a minimum of three to four years Environment for a basic degree and another three to Environmental issues range from local six years for a Ph.D. Ten more years of and immediate to global and long-term: research are needed before the better the local and immediate levels include scientists may claim to be expert in the immediate impact of logging on re­ their specializations. Only then do they generation or advance growth, through have sufficient experience and author­ the effect oflogging techniques on water Ity to begin organizing information into supplies to the role of forests in global systems. After that, the systems have to climate change, be contInually updated and improved to The more immediate and local prob­ meet changing demands, rectify mis­ lems will tend to receive the most atten­ takes and incorporate new knowledge. tion, but the global climate change issue Many dey eloping countries have been is of equal priority, not least to deter­ losing rather than gaining expertise. A mine the scale of the change as well as high turnover of research staff means options for mitigating its effects. 188 Research aspects

Forestry will be affected by global wann­ little or no consideration for soil loss. ing because a global rise in sea level will The immediate increase in sediment threaten the existence of island and man­ load degrades fishery habitats, silts up grove forests, while changes in rainfall rivers, dams, reservoirs and harbours will mean that forests in all the affected and increases the cost of clean, piped places will no longer be fully adapted to water. All these effects are well-known their present sites. In the past, there have and the costs of cleaning up are high, yet been climatic changes associated with the the abuse continues. advance and retreat of the Ice Ages, and Research can produce cheaper and forests advanced and retreated accord­ better methods of controlling erosion by ingly. Moving around is no longer pos­ critically evaluatmg and improving log­ sible, because land is no longer open for ging methods and machineries, road de­ forest movement, nor even for the move­ signs, buffer strip designs and so on. ment of people seeking economic refuge. Research should also aim at exploring What can be expected is that political, options for policy reform, particularly economic and scientific resources will be reform that will create a political and channelled increasingly into efforts to business climate receptive to erosion maintain patterns that were fixed under control. A lesson can perhaps be learnt previous and present climatic regimes. from industrial pollution control. Twenty Countries that have the least resources to years ago, pollutIOn control was viewed face such change will be the most disad­ negatively by industries; it was at first vantaged by it. resisted, then grudgingly accepted, then turned into profit. Now it is considered Harvesting part of the total quality management In many places, people have forgotten philosophy that will differentiate win­ what a clean river looks like. Con­ ning corporations and nations from los­ stantly muddy rivers indicate that the ing ones in the global economy. Can the land is being misused on a large scale. same climate of change be created in No land can maintain its producti vity, forestry? whether under forestry or agriculture, There is an interesting example in the if the source of that productivity is Malaysian oil palm industry, which at washed away. All land users contribute first discharged its effluent into the riv­ to this abuse and it often starts up­ ers. The rivers become so bad! y polluted stream, where forests are logged with that the government had to enact and A supportive environment for sustaiTUJble forest maTUJgement 188

enforce legislation to control the dis­ breeding and cloning activities, geno­ charge. The industry was given time types are intensively matched to site to gradually to meet the new standards in produce the highest possible yield of an several stages. At first the industry pro­ industrial product. If there is a climatic tested. Then it began to do research to shift, all that selection, breeding and avoid the problem. Finally, it made prof­ cloning work will have to be repeated. its by finding ways to convert the waste Consequently, the protection of native into marketable products. variation is vital because it contains the In forestry, the means to reduce soil er0- ingredients for future selection. sion during logging operations and, there­ Natural habitats are the best places for fore, to improve the standard of logging, conserving native variation. In spite of already exist. as do the means to monitor all the claims for seed storage and ex situ the effect'> downstream. These effects are living collections, human effort cannot not hidden. Research could refine the means, paraIlel nature in scale or effectiveness. but the will to apply them depends very The difficulty in human efforts to main­ much on public demand. tain seed and living coIlections outside natural conditions is that such curatorial Biodiversity work is boring and scientists get no The use of biodiversity may be illus­ credit because there is little scope for trated by the African oil palm Elaeis discovery. The record of commitment of quineensis. In Africa it grows naturally institutions and treasuries to unending in a wide range of habitats from humid to curatorial expenditure is not always en­ semi-arid forests; in Southeast Asia, it couraging. The effectiveness of ex situ has been highly selected and bred in the collections has often depended on the past 50 years to produce very high­ energy and dedication of their founders, yielding plants adapted to the humid and handing over to the next individual tropical lowlands. If the habitat is carries the risk that the original dedica­ changed a little, to slightly drier areas or tion may not be sustained even within slightly higher elevations, such high­ the framework of an institution. yielding palms yield less. Rubber, Hevea Nevertheless, ex situ conservation is brasiliensis, has also been selected and the only option for the increasing num­ bred to produce ultra high-yielding plants, ber of species that no longer have, or are and plantations are based extensively on likely to lose, their natural habitats, as clonal propagation. In all selection, well as for cultivars that have been dis- 190 Research aspects

placed from cultivation. However, hun­ where else, under the Malayan Uniform dreds of thousands of species still have System; nevertheless, it was intended natural habitats in the forests, and it is a that every managed forest should have lot safer and cheaper to conserve them a strictly protected "virgin jungle re­ there than outside. In their habitat, the serve" compartment, as well as buffer species continue to adapt to the site. For strips of forest along the rivers. The example, if there is a shift in climate, will-power to implement such concepts scientists will have to do a lot of work to was never strong enough. Studies should readapt crop plants to new conditions. be carried out on designing and admin­ Forests will adapt themselves through istrating such conserved forests and natural selection from their own pool of promoting the concepts further. On the diversity. Biodiversity is, in fact, the hills of Penang Island, where the Brit­ basis of the self-repairing and self-sus­ ish East India Company made exten­ taining capabilities of natural systems. sive clearings to grow spices, paintings For commercial reasons, managers from that period show that the hills of natural forest in the past tried to shift were completely cleared of forests , leav­ the species balance in mixed natural ing only the gulleys untouched. When forests to favour commercial species. the spice trade collapsed, the forests This idea is now almost dead. In its from the gulleys reclaimed the hills. heyday, it resulted in the mass girdling Some lessons could be learnt from this and poisoning of non-commercial trees. and similar experiences elsewhere. Nowadays, many more trees have be- come commercial and, in some areas, Non-wood forest resources natural forest harvesting is beginning to Non-wood forest resources have at­ resemble clear-cutting. The impJica- tracted much attention as economIc al­ tions for the genetic composition of the tematives and supplements to timber regeneration have not been assessed. cutting. However, many claims for the Indeed, forest biologists have hardly novelty of non-wood forest resources begun to consider the genetic implica- ignore the long history of such resources. tions of all harvesting systems, selec- They were discovered long ago and are tive or otherwise. For the tropical for- very well known locally, but their mar­ ests, this is urgent. ket shares have been stagnant or shrink- In Malaysia, tree girdling was prac- ing. Marketing research and entrepre­ tised probably more widely than any- neurial skills are required to open new A supportive environment for sustainable forest management 191

markets as well as research into the practically all indigenous fruit-trees, e.g. sustained production of non-wood for­ durian, rambutan, chempedak, mango est products integrated with other goods and langsat, form a genetic continuum and services. from selected clones in orchards to genu­ At the beginning of this century, the inely wild genotypes in the forests. With major economic products of tropical such a palette of genetic materials, the forests were chemical: resins, oils, rub­ future for developing new tropical fruits bers and tannin. These went into a vari­ to suit all tastes is exciting. ety of products such as varnishes, phar­ After plant breeders, natural products maceutical products, cosmetic products, chemists have the most creative future insulation for electric cables and rubber with forest resources. But they must products. Of these, rubber became espe­ have one foot in the forest and the other cially important and has coexisted with in the laboratory. In the forest, there are synthetics thanks to major Investments plants that one insect will eat but not both in plant breeding and in marketing another, plants that humans eat with which have kept the natural product impunity but insects and snails will not competitive. In the process, rubber be­ touch, and so on. To capitalize on these, came an agricultural crop. There has scientists with an entrepreneurial spirit been no equivalent effort for other forest are badly needed. chemical products, and to regain market share will be an uphill task that must be Ecotourism matched by other research inputs to en­ Ecotourism is another economic alter­ sure the sustained supply. native or even supplement to timber cut­ The domestication process has started ting. Here, the forest manager's role has for rattans, which promise to have a to be integrated into the overall tourism good future as a raw material for attrac­ development of a region. The forest pro­ tive furniture, provided sufficiently high vides the scenic background and the supplies are sustained to maintain mar­ environment for activities such as trek­ ket share. Bamboos may also have a king, climbing and wildlife observation. revival provided the technologies of Atthe same time, it protects the soil from East Asia can be successfully adapted being washed on to the beaches and the to the tropics. coral formations. The problem with The collection of foods from the forest ecotourism is that success can over­ has a long tradition. In Southeast Asia, whelm a particular area to the extent that 192 Research aspects

the building of more hotels, golf courses, In the past, foresters have not seen roads, night clubs and casinos creates a socio-economic research as a tool for land rush in which forests are the first to the development of appropriate tech­ be eliminated. Ecotourism has been niques, nor as a contribution to sustain­ known to degenerate into economic can­ able management. These attitudes will nibalism, eating into its own basis of have to change if research is to be truly existence. Scientists playa crucial role in multidisciplinary and if the forestry conducting environmental impact assess­ sector is to be seen as contributing to ments in all such places. Ecotourism of­ overall rural development. fers the best economic potential in many small island states, but the management Conclusion standards have to be particularly high Many developing countries have ne­ because the margins for error are slim. glected forestry research because they do not expect much from it. In our Social and economic research opinion, what developing countries Research needs to be carried out on social cannot afford is second-rate research and economic issues that affect the sus­ organizatIOns, but that is what they get tainable management of all forests. Re­ by neglecting research. Ideally, the search is needed on people's perceptions difference between a rich country and of the role of forests and trees and of theIr a poor one should be quantitatIve not requirements from them. Data are needed qualitatIve: rich countries can afford on the value of the services provided by many scientists and many research or­ the forests, which are presently largely ganizations; poorer countries can af­ unquantified. Only with such informa­ ford fewer scientists and fewer orgam­ tion can the forest manager define the zations. However, the standard of work objectives for forest management and should be high everywhere. No matter determine the extent to which participa­ how small, a good organization is a tory approaches are required. Figures that source of strength, whereas a medio­ quantify the benefits obtained from the cre organization only drains resources. forests can help to justify their existence This is the hard lesson that developmg in the face of pressures to clear them for countries have to learn before they can other uses, which may offer short-term achieve the kind of research needed to benefits, and can determine the place of tackle the problems of sustainable for­ forests within land-use plans. est management. A supportive envIronment for sustainable forest management 193

The basis and action required for sustainable forestry development in Chile J.F. de la Jara

This paper describes the forestry situation in Chile and suggests viable strategies for elaborating a national policy of sustainable forest management. As of 1991, areas reforested with fast-growing species totalled 1.5 million ha, 1.3 million ha of which was Pinus radlata. In 1990, forestry contributed 3.3 percent to Chile's gross "'ational product and forest product exports were worth US$950 million in 1991. This has been achieved through vigorous investment programmes in forestry by national and foreign private sector investors. For a viable policy of sustainable management, two courses of action are needed: a concerted effort by all forces in the sector to develop, by consensus, the framework within which to regulate productive, social and environmental relationships; and the assignment of technical resources by public and prrvate agents as well as their action in the case of any difficulties.

INTRODUCTION ther exhaustive discussions are needed There is wide consensus about the con­ to elaborate operationally viable and cept of sustainable forestry develop­ practical approaches to sustainability. ment, which reconciles economic Such approaches require basic infor­ growth, increasingly diversified social mation on a wide range of activities as demands and ecosystem capacity to well as developing analyses capable of meet such expectations. However, fur- maximizing and prioritizing social de­ mands. Sustainability is obviously not possible to achieve when the maximum The author is Executive Director ofthe National Forestry Corporation in Chile. capacity of the ecosystem is unknown 194 National policies, programmes and experiences

or when there are no ways of testing the der constitutes various eucalyptus and sacrifices that a community or society native species. Annual forestation dur­ is willing to make to meet the environ­ ing the past ten years has averaged mental costs of each development 82 000 ha, with an annual harvest of project. about 30 000 ha. This considerable in­ Even when the answers to these ques­ crease in forest resources is building up tions are known, the subject is further significant raw material supplies for the complicated by the global perspective future and is in keeping with current of sustainability, which may be incom­ and predicted investments: for example, patible with the basic relations of any by 1993, the installed capacity of the social organization. pulp and paper mdustry will double Nevertheless, today sustainable de­ and, by 1997, it WIll have trebled rela­ velopment is more than a simple option: tive to 1988. In addition, studies indi­ it is an imperative for all major scien­ cate that there are still roughly 3 million tific, technological and political efforts. ha of productive and accessible land suitable for reforestation with these THE FORESTRY SECTOR AND species. ITS PARTICIPATION IN NATIONAL In 1990, forestry contributed 3.3 per­ DEVELOPMENT cent to Chile's GDP. Forest product The forestry sector is important in exports were worth US$950 million in Chile's economy and, during the com­ 1991, equivalent to 10 percent of the ing years, will become more so. country's total exports. Forest products Chile's reserves of indigenous tem­ are exported to over 60 countries. The perate forests total 14.6 million ha, of range of goods, once limited to pulp, which 4.1 million ha are productive wood and chips, now covers over 300 forests. The rest is protected forest, different products such as wood-based with functions oriented towards panels, furniture, veneers and other biodiversity conservation, erosion con­ manufactured wood products. trol in steep areas, tourism develop­ This promising picture is completed ment, watershed protection, etc. by a vigorous investment programme As cf 1991, areas reforested with by national and foreign private sector fast-growing species totalled 1.5 mil­ investors; efficient entrepreneurial man­ lion ha, of which Pinus radiata ac­ agement facilitated by highly qualified counted for 1.3 million ha. The remain- human resources; and socio-economic A supportive environment for sustainable forest management 195

and political conditions free of major The emergence of environmental is­ conflicts. sues, the trends set by the more industri­ Nevertheless, the forest sector in Chile alized countries, insufficient knowledge is not yet in equilibrium, with the main of the present forestry situation in Chile, components developing at similar rates. the conflicting interests of various Development is centered on just one groups - all these can seriously hinder species - Pinus radiata - grown in a the formulation of a national forest restricted area of the country by a few policy. private enterprises with the required Certain issues related to underdevel­ technology and high-level managerial opment also determine objective pri­ capability. orities for forestry policy. In Chile, However, the value potential of for­ many urban and rural people experi­ estry has been generally enhanced. In ence absolute poverty and therefore practice, this process has made the sec­ need employment opportunities and tor more dynamic by introducing tech­ training and state assistance in terms of nology, labour relationships and exper­ housing and health care as well as, at tise from highly developed countries. times, food security. The forestry sec­ Concomitantly, it has generated pOliti­ tor is sometimes the only channel for cal and socIal demands that have placed providing such assIstance because of: the forestry sector at the same level as i) the low level of training required for other traditional economic sectors. its labour force; ii) its location in poor rural areas; iIi) its economic perfor­ CHALLENGES IN THE SEARCH mance in production and exports; and FOR SUSTAINABLE iv) its sustainable resource base. DEVELOPMENT The second element of the analysis The current forestry situatIOn in Chile refers to the capacity of ecosystems to does not enable a viable short-term tolerate ever-increasing utilization pres­ policy of sustainable development to be sure. No one denies the need to preserve formulated. A first step should be a biodiversity, ensure watershed protec­ wide-ranging agreement among all re­ tion and maintain the role of forest lated sectors and the general public on activities in relation to water, soil and contentious issues linked to the role of the scenic beauty of the landscape. How­ natural resources and the country's level ever, there is no agreement on how to of development. utilize forests with productive poten- 196 National policies. programmes and experiences

tial, including those whose composi­ Natural forests are currently a highly tion, health and quality cannot support impoverished and degraded resource, economically viable projects. contributing only 10 percent to national In summary, the first step towards fur­ production. Historically, natural for­ ther progress is to reach a consensus on ests were selectively utilized or de­ issues such as economic development, stroyed to gain land for agriculture and rural poverty eradication, environmental ranching; this in tum hampered the role protection and new social aspirations. of forests in regulating the hydrological At the same time, it will be necessary cycle, in sustaining biodiversity and in to attempt to solve those technical or other environmental functions. political problems which are generally identified as constraints to sustainable Plantations. Planted forests extend over development. They can be grouped as 1 000 km in the central-southern zone follows: and have been established on land that • problems linked to natural is too poor for agriculture. This con sid- resources; erable area of forest forms the basis for • problems related to production; current forest development and results • problems of an intersectoral ongin; from legal incentives for reforestation, • environmental problems; starting with the Forest Law promul­ • problems related to institutional gated in 1931. arrangements. In the short term, the plantations subsector, which includes forest indus­ Problems related to natural tries and forest workers, can be turned resources into an example of sustainable manage­ Natural forests. Any policy formula­ ment, not only because about three tion on indigenous natural resources is trees are planted for each tree cut down, seriously hampered by a lack of basic but because it has earned recognition information. There is no national in­ for the economic results achieved and ventory to provide background infor­ the considerable improvement in the mation on the area, volume and quality living conditions of workers. of the different forest species. There is However, it is still necessary to re­ only partial knowledge regarding the solve the potential problems related to silvicultural techniques for managing monoculture, such as forest health, the the existing types of forest. influence of advancing forest frontiers A supportive enVIronment for sustainable forest management 197

on rural communi.ties and the removal Intersectoral problems of deeply rooted but technically un­ There are also serious impediments to founded beliefs vis-a-vis the impact of sustainable forestry development in plantations on soil. water and wildlife. other areas of the national economy. The most striking one is insufficient Production infrastructure in terms of roads, rail­ As already mentioned, only 10 percent ways and ports. of production is based on natural forests Forestry activities are characterized even though there are about 4.1 million by the transport of large volumes of ha of potentially productive natural for­ heavy materials. Trucks transporting ests. Thus. prompt analyses and action lumber have severely damaged the sec­ should be planned to integrate these ondary road network and part of the natural forests into development. main road system. Owing to its age and This imbalance is also revealed by poor maintenance. the railway system per caput consumption of wood and cannot meet the new demand. Finally, panel products. Comparing Chile to the ports. even when they have been former Yugoslavia. SFR. and Portugal, modernized to meet the explosive cargo which are at similar levels of develop­ growth. are nearing their capacity limit. ment. wood consumption is only 0.15 m1 There is considerable public invest­ per inhabitant. while former Yugosla­ ment in transport infrastructure. taking via, SFR records 0.20 m3 and Portugal account of priorities besides forestry.

0.42 m 1. This indicates either a national However, the efforts of the state alone culture that prefers substitutes or a de­ will be insufficient to solve this Issue. ficient productive system supplying the Consequently, new alternatives are internal market. Whatever the reasons, being explored, such as the possibility low internal consumptIOn requires more of private investors developing ports detailed analysis. and roads while participating in im­ Finally, the production infrastructure proving the efficiency of the state rail­ shows great contrasts: highly efficient way system. equipment is associated with the ex­ Another intersectoral concern is ru­ port-oriented production sector, while ral poverty. Ecosystem fragility, en­ obsolete equipment with little mecha­ ergy requirements and land require­ nization can be found in the small- and ments for subsistence agriculture have medium-size enterprises. provoked serious erosion and degrada- 198 National policies. programmes and experiences

tion, creating poverty enclaves for fam­ a result of soil reclamation for ily holdings, landless agricultural work­ agriculture or cattle raising, for wood ers, pastoralists, small entrepreneurs, harvesting for timber and fuel wood artisans and jobless people. production and/or other human It is currently imperative to inter­ actiVities. vene in education, health and housing • The emission of gases, toxic fluids through an integrated strategy of rural and the handling of chemical development to allow rural people to products have created some local participate more advantageously in the problems. economy. Any delay in these interven­ tions will aggravate the overexploita­ Problems derived from tion of these ecosystems, since they institutional arrangements are the only accessible resources for State forest services have played a funda­ survival. mental role in the development of coun­ tries that enjoy sound forest develop­ Environmental effects ment. In Chile, a policy of reducing Environmental problems are being tack­ public expenditure has undermined In­ led by establishing a system that coor­ stitutional capacity to participate actively dinates action among the various min­ in development. In practice, this has istries and institutions concerned, thus meant the mabihty to enforce present recognizing that environmental issues legislation, develop appropriate action cut across many national activities. This such as management of state-owned for­ course of action differs from that adopted ests and provide technical assistance to by other countries which have preferred small forest owners who are unable to to create a special unit (such as a Min­ formulate and implement sustainable istry of the Environment). projects. The system does, however, have some Likewise, forest research has not ad­ weaknesses at present: equately responded to the need for fur­ • Examples of all natural vegetation ther knowledge; and, finally, educational have not been included in the and extension interventions have proved National System for State Protected ineffective since they have failed to pro­ Areas (SNASPE). vide enough qualified human resources • Systematic impoverishment and in number and quality to meet develop­ destruction of natural vegetation as ment needs. A supportive environment for sustainable forest management 199

CONCLUSIONS • Integrating the forestry sector into a Sustainable forestry development is the national environment policy, taking framework that accommodates fully the accountof distinctive characteristics overall objectives of forestry policy in of the sector. response to new social realities. • Strengthening the position of the for­ This will be attained neither through estry sector when prioritizing public a simple voluntary approach, nor by works in transport infrastructure; and legal or verbal declarations of political promoting the participation of the leaders, and certainly not in the short private sector in its implementation. term. However, it is possible to start • Expanding the contribution of the immediately to eliminate the restric­ forestry sector to rural development. tions that hmder its implementation; • Reorienting the development of therefore, this should become the target qualified labour at all levels. and guidmg principle for development • Promoting local forest product actors during the present decade. consumption. Two courses of action should be • Preparing existing institutions to adopted to overcome the obstacles to cope better with present and future sustainable management of forest re­ challenges in the sector. sources. First, forces active in the sector need to be concerted. Their interests and REFERENCES points of view should be heard, made known and taken into account in order to Altamirano, H. 1991. Forestry activi­ develop, by consensus, the framework ties and land use in Chile. Preliminary within which to regulate the productive, report of the Forestry Action Plan for social and environmental relatIonships Chile. (unpubl.) of the sector. The second task is techni­ Cabana, Ch.C. 1991. Present situation cal and requires public and private agents and perspectives for national forestry to assign resources and take action in development. Preliminary report of order to overcome any bottlenecks. the Forestry Action Plan for Chile. Following is a list of these actions: (unpubl.) • Substantially improving knowledge Husch, B. 1991. Institutional diagnosis of natural forests and creating an of the Chilean forestry sector. Pre­ agency for continuous forest liminary report of the Forestry Action inventory. Plan for Chile. (unpubl.) 200 National policies. programmes and experiences

Forestry Institute. 1991. Forest statis­ Torres, H. 1991. Analysis of forestry tics for 1990. Santiago, Chile. ecosystems conservation. Preliminary Forestry Institute. 1992. Chilean For­ report of the Forestry Action Plan for estry Exports. January/December Chile. (unpubl.) 1991. Santiago, Chile. Trigo, E..J. 1991. Towards a strategy Morales, G..J. 1991. The status of the for sustainable mixed farming devel­ national economy. Preliminary report opment. San Jose, Costa Rica, I1CA. of the Forestry Action Plan for Chile. Valenzuela, V.P. 1991. Forest indus­ (unpubl.) tries development. Preliminary report Moya, C.J. 1991. Forestry sector con­ of the Forestry Action Plan for Chile. tribution to rural development and (unpubl.) dendroenergy? Preliminary report of the Forestry Action Plan for Chile. (unpubl.) A supportive environment for sustainable forest management 201

Indonesia's experience in sustainable forest management L. Oaryadl

This paper provides an overview of Indonesia's expenences in sustainable forest management. The author describes the state of Indonesian forest resources and their role in national development, giving some examples to show the rapid development of forestry in the country's economy: Indonesia's share of the world's plywood market reached close to 50 percent in 1988 while its sawn wood exports accounted for about 17 percent of the world market; export earnings from forest products exceeded US$3 billion in 1988 and reached about US$4 billion in 1989. Indonesia's forestry development plans and long-term perspectives, weaknesses and strengths are considered. The paper also describes Indonesia's National Forestry Action Programme. In this programme, management emphasizes five main areas: using tropical forest for soil and water protection; developing efficient Industry and securing the market for forest products; utilizing timber as a renewable fuel and energy source; conserving flora and fauna as genetic resources; and promoting Institutional capability and popular participation.

Forests and global environmental not only provide essential products for issues survival and socio-economic develop­ Forests and forestry have never been ment, but are also important in main­ highlighted as much as today. Forests taining a sound living environment by producing commodities; contributing The author, who IS Senior ASSistant to the to soil and water conservation and de­ IndoneSian Minister of Forestry, wishes to sertification control, etc. express his gratitude to Drs Benni Sormin and There is much public concern about Efransjah, offiCials ofthe Ministry of Forestry, for their assistance in the preparation ofthis paper. deforestation and the degradation of the 202 National policies. programmes and experiences

world's forests. This deterioration of As part of the global forest ecosys­ forest resources results from competi­ tem, Indonesia strives to improve its tion for land, inadequate management utilization and management of forest and the emission of pollutants. resources. This paper contains an over­ The real causes of deforestation in v iew of Indonesia's experiences in sus­ developing countries are poverty, debt, tainable forest management. underdevelopment and the need to meet the basic requirements of rapid popula­ Forest resources and national tion growth. Balanced views of forestry's development economic, social and environmental Indonesia lies on the equator; it com­ functions in development are necessary, prises about 17 500 islands, of which together with an understanding of how 6 000 are inhabited, and stretches for these functions operate and interrelate. 5 100 km. With a total land area of Forest conservation and development almost 195 million ha, it is the largest is not an objective per se but rather an member of the Association of Southeast instrument in the larger-scale process Asian Nations (ASEAN) and the most of achieving national and international important country in Asia for tropical development priorities. Thus, sustain­ forests. The three largest islands able development and environmental (Sumatra, Kalimantan and Irian Jaya) issues include climate change, genetic are characterized by extensive coastal diversity, desertification control, wild­ plains and inland hilly areas. life management, freshwater resources BiogeographicaIly, the archipelago and the protection of fragile ecosys­ comprises two major regions: the ori­ tems and forest functions. ental and the Australasian regions. These The United Nations Conference on the are separated by the Wallace Line, ini­ Human Environment, held in 1972 in tially proposed to dIstinguish the fauna Stockholm, brought these crucial aspects on the eastern and western parts of the of human life to the fore. Twenty years archipelago. Indonesia is part of the later, the United Nations Conference on Malaysian botanical region, whose rain Environment and Development forests are among the richest in the (UNCED) was convened in Rio de world in tenns of number of flora and Janeiro, Brazil, to evaluate the integrated fauna species. dimensions of environment and devel­ Climates range from ever-wet and opment further. semi-wet climates to semi-arid or mon- A supportive environment for sustainable forest management 203

soon types. Average annual rainfall has moved from Java to the outer is­ ranges from 700 to 4 000 mm with a lands. During the last 30 years, annual mean day temperature of 32°e, mean log production increased from 1.4 mil­ night temperature of 22°e, daily aver­ lion m 1 in 1960 to 31.4 million m 1 in age humidity of 90 percent and mon­ 1989, with about 96 percent coming soon winds outside the typhoon belt. from natural forests. In 1990, the population was about A minor producer and exporter of 180 million people. The population is tropical hardwood logs in the early very unevenly distributed and over 62 1970s, by the mid-1980s Indonesia was percent are concentrated in the island of a major producer and exporter of manu­ Java, which accounts for only 7 percent factured forest products. Indonesia's of the total land area. Indonesia's popu­ share of the world's plywood market lation grew at an average annual rate of reached close to 50 percent in 1988. In 2 to 3 percent between 1965 and 1980, that year, Indonesian sawnwood ex­ but a successful family plannIng ports accounted for about 17 percent of programme is lowering this rate. In the world market. 1989, the Indonesian labour force num­ In 1988, Indonesia produced about bered about 74.5 million. 9.8 million m3 of sawntimber and about IndoneSian forest covers around 144 8.2 million m 1 of wood-based panels. In million ha of land area of which 113.5 that year, exports amounted to 6.9 mil­ million ha have been designated as lion m' of wood-based panels and 3.5 permanent forest. Dipterocarps, the million m3 of sawn wood. Forest prod­ dominant timber species of Indonesia, uct exports exceeded US$3 billion in are distnbuted mainly in the outer is­ 1988, and reached about $4 billion in lands of Java. About 3 million ha of 1989. In 1987, forestry contributed about plantation forests are dispersed in Java. 16 percent to Indonesia's total export During the last 25 to 30 years, Indo­ earnings, or about 27 percent of non-oil nesian forestry has changed rapidly. In exports. the early 1960s, timber production was In 1988, about 64 percent of the confined mostly to teak plantations in sawn wood and 16 percent of the wood­ Java and a limited number of valuable based panels produced were consumed species in the more accessible natural domestically. From 1961 to 1987, do­ forests of the outer islands. Since then, mestic sawn wood consumption per the major setting of forestry activities 1 000 persons increased from 18.09 to 204 National policies. programmes and expertences

38.2 m3; panel products from 0.1 to 7.3 jobs form the basis of whole settle­ 3 m ; and paper and paperboard from 0.6 ments. Additionally. the statistics only to 4.7 toones. In 1987, estimated na­ concern direct employment and ignore tional consumption of fuelwood (mostly attributable employment in downstream from home gardens and non-forest industries such as furniture making, 3 lands) was about 115 million m • wood carving and others. Input-output Forestry. together with forest-based tables for the Indonesian economy sug­ primary and downstream industries, is gest that, for each job in forestry, there an important sector in the Indonesian will be 1.18 jobs elsewhere. The em­ economy. In 1987, forest management ployment multiplier for sawmilling and contributed 1.2 percent to Indonesian plywood 10dustries is 1.47, and 2.06 for GDP. and the forest-based industries pulp and paper. another 1.5 percent. bringing the total Including direct and attributable em­ for forestry to 2.7 percent. In the same ployment in the formal sector as well as year, agriculture and fishing contrib­ labour components in the informal sub­ uted 25.5 percent. T~e plywood indus­ sistence sector, forestry IS estimated to try is currently the most important for­ provide a livelihood for about four mil­ est industry, contributing 56 percent to lion families. the sectoral added value. Sawnwood contributed 21 percent, and pulp and National forest policy and paper manufacturing contributed around implementation 10 percent. The basic Forestry Law, as stipulated 10 There are also considerable back­ Act No.5 of 1967. indicated that forests ward and forward linkages for forestry are managed accord1Og to their func­ and forest industries. The forest prod­ tion, which is characterized by physi­ uct industries have many interindustry cal, biological, climatological and eco­ transactions which raise the proportion logical factors. Technology, social and of these intermediate inputs above the institutional values and the life sup­ average for the economy. porting system should also be con­ In 1987, forestry and forest industries sidered. For these purposes, there are contributed approximately 1.2 percent four major forest land uses: protection to total employment. Forestry employ­ forest, conservation and recreation ment is widely distributed and in cer­ forest, production forest and conversion tain places forestry or forest industry forest. A supportive environment for sustainable forest management

In line with the World Conservation given to accelerating forest inventory, Strategy, Indonesia's nature manage­ establishing forest boundaries and to­ ment and conservation policy aims at pographical mapping of forest areas. achieving three main objectives: Further emphasis is concentrated on • maintaining essential ecological improving forest land productivity, for­ processes and ecosystems; est protection and nature conservation, • preserving genetic diversity; and forestry extension, forestry science and • ensuring the sustainable utilization technology and education, training and of species and ecosystems. management systems. This is as stipulated in Act No.5, People's welfare needs to be enhanced 1990, on the Conservation of Living by the improved production of goods Resources and their Ecosystems. and services and better environmental Indonesia has set aside 49 million ha quality to meet economic development of totally protected areas (TPA). These objectives. Forestry development is cat­ TP As comprise 30 million ha of pro­ egorized as economic development. tected forests and 19 million ha conser­ Policy on sustainable development vation areas and represent 25.5 percent was implemented early in Five-Year of the nation's lands; production forest Plan V (1989-1990): limiting log pr0- constitutes 64.4 miJIion ha and forest duction to 31.4 million rn1 per year, for conversion to agriculture and other imposing and increasing reforestation uses 30.5 million ha. taxes, and raising taxes on sawntirnber To achieve the maximum benefit and exports. Sawntimber exports and in­ sustained yield principles of forest uti­ dustries then significantly declinedcaus­ lization, policies are aimed at strength­ ing a temporary drop in log production ening forest-based industries and natu­ as a knock-on effect. Small sawntimber ral resource conservation and at main­ factories were the most affected. How­ taining sustainable environmental con­ ever, more manufacturing wood indus­ ditions. These strategies are being tries developed, such as moulding, fur­ implemented by encouraging the c0op­ niture and finger jointing in anticipa­ eration and active participation of local tion of export opportunities for finished people, especiaHy those living in or products. Furthermore, there were more near forests. pulp and paper industries utilizing Jow Given the current development situ­ quality wood from low quality forests. ations and constraints, high priority is A projected 1.5 million ha of new 206 National policies. programmes and experiences

forest plantation may not be achievable of responsibility between central and by the end of Five-Year Plan Y because provincial government, underde­ of serious constraints such as site iden­ veloped organization, a lack of trained tification, species selection, certified and skilled labour and incomplete forest seed and seedling production and a boundaries. shortage of skilled workers and con­ Issues that will dominate forestry tractors. practices in the future include: A more ambitious target was set for i)The delineation of permanent forest rehabilitating degraded forest and criti­ lands-l 13.5 million haofpermanent callands: 4.9 million ha of logged forest forest will have to be delineated with areas, 1.9 million ha of degraded protec­ functional boundaries. tion forest and 5 million ha of critical ii) Wood-based industrial develop­ agricultural land. Only the reforestation ment - this should respond to market of degraded protection forest and critical demands and will become another agricultural lands has been organized important issue in production forest well, involving local government and and concession management. village communities. During the first iii) Increasing concern about tropical year of Five-Year Plan Y, only 400 000 forest depletion and its environmental ha of critical agricultural land and 40 000 Impacts - the emphasis will be on ha of degraded protection forest were better conservation management of rehabilitated. Concessionaires were in protection and nature reserves and charge of rehabilitating logged forest better utilization management of areas; but a lack of supervision, skilled production forest. and trained labour and site identification iv) Emphasis on regional develop­ as well as weak organization have slowed ment and the equitable distribution progress. of income - this will become impor­ Forest conservation and environmen­ tant in managing forests for local and tal protection focused on developing regional benefit, especially regard­ national parks and managing protec­ ing shifting cultivation, cooperative tion forest and nature reserves. Nature forestry and social forestry, infra­ reserves and protection forests have not structure development in remote ar­ been managed consistently. eas and increasing employment. Major constraints include institutional v) Increasing concern about product problems related to the unclear division diversification - this will change A supportive environment for sustamable forest management 207

forest management for multiple • converting certain unproductive yields. forest lands into cultivated forests vi) Biodiversity conservation and in order to achieve a higher stand global climate changes, which have volume per unit area and to produce been linked to industrial development industrial timber; and deforestation in developing • improving and enriching less countries. productive natural forest areas and Indonesia has responded to these is­ maintaining sustainability of the sues In many different ways: programmes productive area; on increased energy diversification; • rehabilitating and reforesting bare environmental Impact assessment lands to tum them into production procedures to combat pollution and en­ forest areas, forming part of inte­ vironmental quality degradatIOn; rIver grated land management; cleanIng programmes; the Imple­ • establishing multiple-use forest; mentation of selection systems in • conserving natural resources to forestry; reforestation and soil conser­ ensure environmental stability and vation programmes; Improved manage­ preserve biodiversity. ment of national parks and reserves; Within these broad objectives, the dif­ coastal management programmes; the ferent Five-Year Plans have focused on delIneation of 113 million ha of perma­ certain specific aspects of forestry in nent forest; and the regulation of pro­ line with national policies: promoting tected areas. National development forest utIlizatIOn in the outer islands plans and strategies have addressed these during Five-Year Plans I and II; reha­ issues for almost 25 years. bilitation, conservation and reforesta­ tion in FIVe-Year Plan III; and balanc­ National forestry development ing utilization and conservation objec­ plans tives in Five-Year Plan IV. Five-Year The national goals of Indonesia's for­ Plan V (1989-1994) focuses on the estry development plans have been in­ sound and sustainable management of fluenced by the following activities: forest resources and related institutional • utilizing the mixed- tropical strengthening. hardwood forests outside Java and The first long-tenn National Forestry the cultivated forests for promoting Plan was prepared for the period 1975- national development; 2000. This document was revised in 208 National policies. programmes and experiences

1986 to cover the period of 1986-2000. If Five-Year Plan VI (1995-1999) is to The second 25-year long-tenn develop­ achieve its intended goals in the forestry ment plan is now being prepared. With sectors, Five-Year Plan V should pro­ the start of the second 25-year develop­ vide: ment period, Indonesia will move into • an adequate database of the nature, the economic take-off stage, building on extent and character of the forest the achievements of, and conditions de­ lands and resources; and veloped by, Five-Year Plans I to V. • a realistic forest management plan­ Long-tenn development planning ning and implementation pro­ consciously invokes the process of gramme with a genuine environ­ building successively on past achieve­ mental orientation. ments. Thus, the 25-year plan reflects Activities are being implemented to long-tenn national goals in forestry. satisfy the first condition. The World The opening of the outer islands for Bank-assisted, FAO-executed National forestry development, the rapid devel­ Forest Inventory Project is under way opment of forest-based industries and within the MOF. The project will pro­ market achievements concerning for­ vide accurate maps, based on the field est products (from Five-Year Plan I situations for the gazetting of the vari­ through Five-Year Plan IV) typify the ous categories of forests, and williden­ positive effects of conscious planning tify areas of conversion forests to be in meaningful stages. allocated for agricultural uses. The second long-tenn plan will em­ The second condition requires pro­ phasize socio-economic and regional tecting the entire pennanent forest es­ development. The Ministry of Forestry tate effectively; implementing national (MOF) has initiated the long-tenn plan­ environmental regulations and integrat­ ning process for the forestry sector. Regu­ ing them into forestry regulations; lar consultations between the MOF and adopting management systems that en­ university institutions have been arranged sure long-tenn sustainable yields from to organize seminars and public hear­ all production forests; and gazetting ings on various subject matters: forest the proposed pennanent forest estate, land use, customary rights, forest con­ i.e. production forests, conservation for­ servation, forest utilization systems, for­ ests and protection forests, giving prior­ est industry development, science and ity to those included under the protected technology and other relevant topics. area (conservation) system. A supportive environment for sustainable forest management 209

Outlook, strengths keen national awareness of the environ­ and weaknesses mental influences and importance of Major constraints in early Five-Year forests; a national commitment to sus­ Plan VI will be almost identical to those tainable forest management; a strong in Five-Year Plan V, i.e. organizational and confident private sector involved in and institutional: especially concern­ forestry and forest-based industry; and ing local and central government, pri­ a significant amount of investment in vate sector capacity to manage conces­ the sector during the last 20 to 25 years. sIOns and a lack of skilled and trained Indonesia still has considerable for­ personnel, especially formanaging natu­ est resources. Unlike other countries in ral forests and national parks. Interna­ the region, the productive potential of tionally, environmental issues will seri­ forests has not yet been drastically re­ ously hamper the trade of Indonesian duced. Even assuming some deforesta­ products on world markets and will tion and land-use changes at reduced continue to endanger Indonesian ex­ rates, more than 40 percent of the total ports of plywood and other products. land area will still have forest cover. Employment problems will dommate This is partly due to expected improve­ the development issue. Dunng Five­ ments in forest management and the Year Plan VI, labour will increase by standard of livmg by the year 2030. 2.4 million units annually or a total of There will also be increasing areas of 12 million units in five years. The un­ highly productive forest plantations. derdeveloped forestry sector, especially Concerning human resources, Indo­ in forest management and regenera­ nesia is fortunate to have cheap labour tion, has ample opportunity to absorb available. The labour force is projected such an employment demand. to expand at an increasing rate during In its management policy, Indonesia the next several years because of a high has tried to enhance its strengths while percentage of younger people in the reducing or, when possible, eliminat­ population. Labour productivity and ing its weaknesses. The strengths in­ the general labour situation in the outer clude the long history offorest manage­ islands have generally improved. ment in Java; an established system of Indonesia has a developed industrial forest administration supported by na­ infrastructure. Forest industries have tional policies and legislation; an estab­ developed very fast during the last de­ lished forest-based processing industry; cade, although development and ad- 210 NatIOnal policIes. programmes and experiences

justment are still needed, particularly in Strengths in some areas may often the pulp and paper industry and for prompt unbalanced development. The improving the utilization of residues and main weaknesses of the forestry sector wastes, while forest industries also need are caused by such imbalances. Log to be more diversified. However, these production in the outer islands grew so structural adjustments will be relatively fast that it was difficult to ensure appro­ easy to achieve. This presupposes re­ priate implementation mechanisms and moving market distortions, providing operational supports because of inad­ appropriate incentives to the private sec­ equate infrastructure, facilItIes and tor, having infrastructures in place as labour. Land-use aspects did not re­ well as market channels that work and ceIve adequate attention either. processing technologies available. All The following factors highlight the these need qualitative improvement. weaknesses or constraints to be removed; Indonesian forest products are well the need for: institutional strengthemng; established on international markets. In improving efficiency in production and fact, Indonesia is now the world's domi­ processing; strengthening the labour base nant plywood exporter and IS also well and education and traInIng faCIlIties; placed for sawn wood, wood products enhancmg the social and environmental and rattan. It will be t":tsy to move into contributions of forestry; reviewmg the marketing alternative and further down­ policies, strategies and legislation re­ stream processed products. garding future targets and goals; sCien­ An independent miHistry is respon­ tifically managing productIOn forests; sible for public forest administration in improving and reaching the less produc­ Indonesia. However, forest protection, tive natural forests and managing the con­ conservation, forestry research and for­ servation and protection forests est product processing are implemented adequately; expanding the resource base by the private sector and regulated by by supplementing natural forest resources the public sector. Indonesia has accu­ with timber plantations; improving re­ mulated a wealth of experience in insti­ search and extension facilities; and ensur­ tutions related to policy formulation, ing adequate controls and monitoring. planning strategies and developing regu­ Forestry programmes under the Five­ latory frameworks. Moreover, Indone­ Year Plans have been addressing the sia is firmly committed to sustainable sector's needs. They have helped to forest management. improve the situation but much more A supportive environment for sustainable forest management 211

needs to be done to enable the sector to non-forestry activities. Yet, almost no meet the environmental, social and eco­ revenue has been reinvested to main­ nomic challenges. Moreover, the expe­ tain and develop natural forests. rience accumulated in Java often does This scant reinvestment in sustainable not apply to the outer islands without forest management was due to: the scarce modification. Forestry research and de­ knowledge and technology of private velopment in the outer islands are ur­ sector participants in tropical forest gently needed. management; opportunities to invest in Another major issue in development more profitable non-forestry business; is population growth. In the last ten poor-quality and poor-quantity labour in years or so, Indonesia's population has remote areas where forestry was operat­ increased by 33 million, reaching 182.6 ing; weak government supervision; and million In 1991. This trend WIll con­ the very little international interest in tinue despite successful efforts in fam­ natural resource pricing and develop­ ily planning programmes. Security of ment in developing countries. forested lands will become more diffi­ In the 1970s, the emphasis on private cult to maintain without real conces­ sector forestry seemed to neglect the sionaIre effort and local participation. basic objectives of national develop­ Together with Improving people's wel­ ment: harmonizing forestry develop­ fare, development must create economIc ment and the environment; managing growth, increasing productIOn and jobs forests sustainably; distributing wealth In all sectors. EconomIc growth em­ eqUItably, especially for local people phasizes manufacturing industries and near forests; increasing employment agriculture too much. Forest industrial and business opportunities for all people; growth is becoming a more serious improving knowledge and technology issue as the productIOn capacity of natu­ in natural forest management; improv­ ral forests diminishes. ing forestry production; and develop­ In the last 25 years, forestry develop­ ing forest-based industries. ment has basically been carried out by Emphasis on logging instead of the private sector and has been export­ natural forest management reduced the oriented. Huge revenues generated by potential employment opportunity forestry are reinvested in forest indus­ of forest development as well as the tries, such as plywood, pulp and paper opportunity to develop skills and and sawnwood industries as well as in managerial capability in manal!:inl!: na- 212 NatIOnal policies, progranunes and experiences

tural forests and the opportunities for and training, extension) and people's large-scale participation in forestry participation. development. The National Forestry Action Pro­ The private sector will still have a gramme has been driven by three policy very important role in future Indone­ imperatives: sian forestry development. However, a Protection: protecting ecosystems, new kind of forestry private sector is soil and water. needed to improve the beneficial Production: sustaining multiple sustainability of natural forests. goods and services provided by forests to benefit present and future genera­ The National Forestry Action tions. Programme Participation: ensuring the proper Indonesia is committed to concerted consideration of the views and exper­ efforts launched by international agen­ tise of all people affected and involved cies in the Tropical Forests Action in forest-related activities. Programme (TFAP). It believes that The subprogrammes of the National conservation efforts must be made Forestry Action Programme are adopted through multidisciplinary measures, as follows: emphasizing five main programmes: • Institutional and human resources i) using tropical forests for soil and development. water protection to support agncuhural • Forest resource inventory and land­ production (Forest in Land Use); use planning. ;;) developing an efficient industry • Improving forest land productivity and securing the market for forest and establishing industrial timber products (Forest-Based Industrial plantations. Development); • Improving the efficiency of forest­ iii) utilizing timber as renewable fuel based industries. and energy resources (Fuelwood and • Conserving living natural resources Energy); and their ecosystems. iv) conserving flora and fauna as • Improving natural production genetic resources (Conservation of forests. Tropica1 Forest Ecosystems); • Promoting popular participation. v) promoting institutional capability • Soil and water conservation. (JeSeaJ'Ch and development, education • Forest protection. A supportIve envIronment for sustamable forest management 213

Conclusion REFERENCES Indonesia, one of the world's largest archipelagoes, still has considerable for­ Government of Indonesia. 1991. In­ est coverage. Historically, forests have donesia Forestry Action Programme, been associated closely with the Indo­ Vols. I, II and III. Jakarta, Ministry of nesian people. Forestry has contnbuted Forestry. significantly to the economic and wel­ Government of Indonesia. 1992. fare development of the people, espe­ Policy paper onforestry development. cially In the last 25 years. Jakarta, Ministry of Forestry. Indonesia tries to implement forestry GovernmentofindonesiaIFAO.1991. policy and management by enhancing An af?enda for forestry sector devel­ Its strengths and minimizing or elimi­ opment in Indonesia. Jakarta, Direc­ nating its weaknesses. Indonesia is com­ torate-General of Forest Utilization, mitted to sustainable forestry manage­ Ministry of Forestry. ment, and the management of tropical Haeruman, H. 1992. National devel­ natural forest has improved consider­ opment issues in relation to forestry. ably; however, there are still challenges Paper on Indonesian Forestry Action to be faced and problems to be solved. Programme Round Table III. (unpubl.)

A supportive environment for sustamable forest management 215

Sweden: using the forest as a renewable resource B. HAgglund

This paper considers the possibility of combining the conservation of forest re­ sources with extensive utilization. The example is taken from Sweden but could also apply to other Scandinavian and northern European countries. With less than 1 percent of the world's closed forests, Sweden accounts for 4 percent of world paper production. Economic development has been accompanied by a steady increase In forest resources. Part of the reason for this success is that Swedish forestry has evolved in an environment that IS largely characterized by positive industrial, economic and social conditions. Other reasons Include consensus and stability in the political process affecting forestry; effective marketing strategies for forest products; extension serVices, subsidies and operational services. Historical perspectives on Swedish forestry and its development are also outlined in this paper, while problems regarding pollution and other environmental concerns are discussed.

INTRODUCTION products give a big positive trade net, With less than I percent of the world's thus "paying" for Swedish imports of closed forests, Sweden accounts for 6 oil, food, chemicals, clothes, etc. percent of global sawnwood produc- Swedes' welfare is to a large extent tion and 4 percent of world paper pro- founded on their forests. duction. In the national economy, forest The economic development of the Swedish forest sector has been accom- The author is Managing Directorof Stora Skog panied by a steady increase in the forest AB, Falun, Sweden Note: This IS the edited resource. Since the first National Forest version of an article that originally appeared in Unasylva, 42(167): 3-10. Survey (1923-1929), the standing vol- 216 NatIOnal policIes. programmes and experiences

ume has increased from I 800 to in the ashes - was used extensively as 3 2800 million m • The current total har­ an agricultural method in the less fert~e vest is about 65 million m3 per year; the parts of Sweden. Furthermore, cattle allowable cut (the volume that could were grazed in the forests, thus hinder­ be harvested sustainably), according to ing natural regeneration. the latest calculations, is at least 85 mil­ As the popUlation grew and agricul­ lion m3 and increasing. ture expanded. local conflicts occurred How has this come about? Situated - for example. between agriculture and between latitudes 55 and 69°N, Sweden the need for construction timber. Rather cannot be considered a country with detailed legislation concerning tree cut­ exceptionally favourable biological or ting and protection (such as oaks for ecological forestry conditions. To a con­ shipbuilding) eXisted in the seventeenth siderable extent, the answer is found in century. However, these laws were not the country's social and industrial de­ effectively supervised, nor did they velopment, combined with its proxim­ constitute any rules regardmg forest re­ ity to the Western European market and generation after the cutting. Most im­ relatively large per caput forest area - portant, no law can stop a starving popu­ about 3 ha. lation from cutting trees for food, fuel and housing if there are no alternative OLD TIMES ways of obtaIning these baSIC necessities. Ever since humans arrived in Sweden, there has been some interaction be­ 1800-1900 tween forests and people. Forests were The nineteenth century brought dramatic initially used for huntmg, to provide changes to Swedish society. The popUla­ fuel for cooking and as a source of raw tion increased faster than agricultural materials for dwellings and other con­ productivity, leading to poverty and ex­ structions. This "hunting and gather­ tensive emigration, mainly to the United ing" stage meant a rather harmonic States, dunng the second half of the symbiosis between people and forests. century. In fact, about one-third of the But when human societies learned to Swedish population emigrated in that domesticate and grow crops, forests penod. A lack of food also increased the often became an obstacle and were pressure on forests, which were devas­ burnt down. Shifting cultivation - burn­ tated in many parts of southern Sweden. ing the forests and planting a few crops Although there was never a lack of A supportive environment for sustainable forest management 217

wood or forests nationally, transport dif­ 1900-1945 ficulties created serious local wood A silvicultural act prescribing compul­ shortages. sory regeneration after clear-cutting was The nineteenth century witnessed the fmally passed by the Swedish Parlia­ advent of European industrialization. ment in 1903, followed in 1906 by a Lumber demand increased and, when second law banning further acquisition trade regulations were liberalized of forest land by the sawmills. The pass­ around 1850, the market was opened ing of these laws was partly the result of for Nordic lumber. The exploitation of a political trade-off - the politically northern Sweden's virgin softwood for­ strong farmers who still owned about ests expanded rapidly. Sawmill com­ one-half of Swedish forest areas accepted pames bought or leased forests, often at the silvicultural act as the "price" for the unfairly low prices from farmers unin­ permanent control of their land. Thus, the formed about the true value of their cornerstones of modem Swedish land­ resources. In just a few decades, the use policy were set, with one law con­ sawmill companies bought about 25 cerning who could buy land and another percent of Sweden's forest lands. This setting the owner's responsibilities re­ created major social problems, such as garding that land's use. landless farmers forced to leave their Since this time, the ownership pat­ homes and search for new jobs in the tern of Swedish forests has been stable: growing industries. A rough but neces­ half of the productive forest land is sary restructuring of Swedish economIc directly owned by private persons, one­ life took place, during which poor quarter by companies and one-quarter people paid the price of industrializa­ by society in different forms, mainly tion and better welfare for later genera­ the state. Thus, three-quarters of the tIOns. forests are in private hands, which means Two key political issues arose in con­ that society has to use forest policy junction with this process: the right of the when it wants to influence forestry. In companies to buy land from farmers and countries where most forest land is the question of compulsory regeneration owned by the state, the situation is quite after clear-cuttmg. The latter issue was different. debated for at least 50 years in the Swed­ Legislation does not work without ish Parliament before a solution was supervision. Consequently, the admin­ found. istration hecessary for supervising the 218 National policies. programmes and experiences

siIvicultural act, the County Boards of as vitally important national tasks. This Forestry, was set up in 1905. From the was manifest, for example, in the estab­ beginning, these boards were com­ lishment of non-governmental organi­ pletely separate from the management zations for afforestation and silvicul­ of the state-owned forests. Th'eir main ture. instruments were extension and service Not all developments could be con­ through which they promoted the vol­ sidered progress, however. Silvicultural untary silvicultural and forestation ini­ methods were the subject of intense tiatives which were the foundation for debate at the beginning of the century. rebuilding Sweden's forest resources. The concept of selective cutting instead Initial progress was intimately linked of clear-cutting was introduced and be­ to two key factors: came popular. Although research i) Increased efficiency in agricul­ showed that clear-cutting was needed ture. Enough food was produced, former to activate microbial activity and thus agricultural land became available for create the nutrient flow necessary for forestry and cattle grazing in the forests successfully regenerating pool soils in diminished. This was immensely im­ a cold climate, practical forestry ex­ portant for further development. panded large-scale selective cutting. ii) Development of the pulp and pa­ One important reason for this was the per industry. A market for smaller trees low price of wood during the 1930s. was created, which set the economic Consequently, only a small area of new, incentives for thinning and, more gen­ young forests was established dunng erally, provided the financial basis for the selective cutting penod. This had improved silviculture. It also enabled a long-lasting effects, including the ex­ shorter rotation period to be established. istence of small areas of middle-aged Progress was recorded by a National forests today and the lack ,of forests Forest Survey, a nationwide sampling ready for future final cutting. This so­ of the forest based on sound statistical called "age decline" has strongly af­ principles. The first survey was started fected modem Swedish silviculture. in 1923. The same year, the silvicul­ A positive force behind forestry de­ tural act was complemented by a rule velopment in the 1930s was the increas­ prohibiting the final cutting of young ing number of forest owners' asso­ stands. Both the public and industry ciations. These associations aimed at promoted forestation and silviculture rationalizing forestry operations, im- A supportive environment for sustainable forest management 219

proving the knowledge of the forest 1970s when the use of herbicides in owners and strengthening their position forestry became a key political ques­ in wood price negotiations. In southern tion. Herbicides were banned in for­ Sweden, the associations started to estry in 1976. establish their own industries; the pri­ Furthermore, in ]975 rules concern­ mary idea was to increase the demand ing nature conservation were added to for wood and thus increase forest value. the silvicultural act. A new act was adopted by parliament in 1979, intro­ 1945-TODAY ducing new rules for pre-commercial A new forestry act was established in thinning and use of different genetic 1948, incorporating the rationing of old sources, etc. The new act was also more forests with the earlier rules concerning specific and concrete than the earlier the regeneration and cutting of imma­ ones. Forexarnple, regeneration require­ ture stands. The reason for rationing ments were formulated as a minimum was to ensure that the supply of wood number of good plants per hectare at a and jobs was spread reasonably evenly given number of years after regenera­ over the forest area. tIOn. The legislation was combined with The disadvantages of selective cut­ extensive forest inventory operations, tings became evident after 1945 and aiming, inter alia, at identifying stands clear-cutting returned as the most widely where conditions did not comply with practised method in forestry. Starting the new rules. This combination formed in the early 1950s, big restoration cam­ a very efficient tool for the forest au­ paigns were launched in northern Swe­ thorities, and consequently the silvicul­ den. Huge areas of residual stands were tural state of forests improved signifi­ clear-cut (and often sprayed with herbi­ cantly during the 1980s. cides), scarifIed and planted. Other important means for forest This restoration often yielded good policy implementation are extension silvicultural results but it created dis­ services, subsidies and operational putes with people outside forestry, es­ service. pecially concerning the relatively new Extension has always played a major and often ecologically questionable role in the work of the County Boards of mechanized logging methods. Over Forestry. All methods are used, from time, these disputes escalated into seri­ personal guidance for individual forest ous conflicts, culminating in the mid- owners, often in their forest, to exten- 220 National policies, programmes and experiences

sion in groups or classes and even mass years, the forest owners' associations communication through papers, etc. Sil­ also offered the corresponding services viculture and long-term planning have and today there is a discussion concern­ dominated the topics, but practical for­ ing the extent of the state's involve­ est operations, safety in forest work, ment in operational services. etc., are also covered. In the last few The different means mentioned are years, nature conservation has become often integrated. At least during periods an important topic. of strong emphasis on building up forest Subsidies, often in combination with resources, this has been a most effiCient extension and law supervision, have and productive way of working. been an important aid for improving The National Forest Survey has been forest resources. The principle has been developed constantly and has been in­ to use subsidies to stimulate long-term strumental in forming the basis for a measures that are not purely motivated forest "balance sheet". Nationally and from a short-term economic point of regionally, it has been possible to check view: forestation is one example, refor­ continuously that forests are not overcut estation in remote areas another. Dur­ and that proper silvicultural practices ing the last decade, subsidies were fi­ are performed, etc. The information is nanced by a silviculture fee, paid by all very precise and up-to-date. The survey forest owners and based on the forest has also provided information needed value. Recently, this fee-subsidy sys­ to forecast the development of forests tem has been abolished as part of a new under different management regimes, economic policy for Sweden. The ef­ as the effects of different silvicultural fects of this measure on forestry remain programmes can be studied and Impor­ to be seen. tant conclusions concerning forest Operational service has long been policy drawn. part ofthe work of the County Boards of The survey and its results are thus Forestry. Examples include the produc­ used extensively in determining forest tion of seedlings, operational silvicul­ policy. As such, they more or less con­ ture and forest planning. It has been stitute a guarantee for the sustainability very important for all forest owners to of forestry, making it possible to har­ be able to obtain good seedlings. At the monize the dimensions of the Swedish same time, this has been an important forest industry with existing and fore­ part of the Board's financing. In later cast levels of sustainable yield. A supportive environment for sustainable forest management 221

Overall, the present state of the Swed­ tect them: the creation of nature re­ ish forests is rather good. Growth ex­ serves; and proper consideration of small ceeds cut by about 30 percent. The and critical biotopes in regular forestry. regeneration is in good shape and most The latter aspect has, as mentioned of the young and middle-aged stands above, become a part ofthe 1979 Swed­ are properly cleaned and thinned. But ish Forestry Act. of course there are problems: the most Recently, an extensive education serious one is the acidification and campaign was started for forest owners pollution offorest soils by airborne pol­ and workers in order to improve knowl­ lutants such as sulphur and nitrogen edge of, and increase interest in, nature oxides and acids. conservation. The campaign, "A richer This is a difficult problem because the forest", started in 1990 and already more most important sources of these pollut­ than 50 000 people have bought the ants are industries in other countries, published materials. At the moment, and yet extensive countermeasures such politicians, environmentalists and for­ as liming must be performed on large esters seem to agree firmly that educa­ areas in southwestern Sweden. tion is the main road to a better under­ Another significant problem is that standing of nature in practical forestry. relations between environmentalists and This agreement holds as long as we are the forestry sector are still not good, discussing more conservative, normal despite the fact that forestry has started methods of forestry. Ditching, heavy giving more consideration to conserva­ scarificatIon, the use of new species tion aspects. The changes in attitude and and genetically improved trees, etc., knowledge have not been fully acknowl­ are methods questioned by environ­ edged outside the forestry sector. mentalists who call for environmental Today, nature conservation focuses impact statements. on sustaining the biological diversity in The question of nature reserves, i.e. forests, especially the survival of plant large areas set aside from forestry for and animal populations in danger of nature conservation purposes, is rather extinction. These threatened species are complicated. There have been obvious often associated with old forests or bio­ difficulties in finding a national strat­ types created by agricultural methods egy for nature reserves, including the which are now being abandoned. In establishment of a goal for their total general, two methods are used to pro- area. At present, about 9 percent of 222 National policies, programmes and experiences

Sweden's land area (3 percent of the Future success depends on the productive forest land) consists of na­ indUStry's ability to identify and pro­ ture reserves or national parks. Most of duce these products on an ongoing ba­ the reserves on forest land are situated sis. Yet, one prerequisite is naturally at high altitudes. Environmentalists ar­ that technological effiCIency improves, gue for a considerably increased pro­ thereby keeping costs reasonable. Envi­ tected area; however, at least in north­ ronmental aspects will also be more ern Sweden, forestry argues that the important in the future than today. large, existing reserves, especially in A reasonable balance between pro­ the mountain forests, are already seri­ duction and conservation, based on mu­ ous obstacles to productive forestry and tual respect for different aims, must be should not be increased. For southern established and promoted by all parties Sweden, most parties agree that more with an interest in the country's forests. reserves are needed but there is still The positive interlinkages between pro­ some debate over financing. This de­ duction and conservation are already bate has been hampered by a significant quite strong and must be strengthened lack of knowledge regarding the envi­ even further. ronmental requirements of different The revenue generated by industnal species, and it is likely to contmue for forestry proVIdes the resources needed some time. for conservation, and it is through con­ servation that production sustain­ AND THEN? ability can be guaranteed. Forestry can What about the future for Swedish for­ also playa posItIve role as a sink for estry? Of course, the future will largely carbon dIOxide, mtrogen and other pol­ depend on the commercial terms of lutants. forestry and forest products in a global Sweden's forests are situated close to perspective. Swedish forestry produces the industrial sources of long-range air­ high-quality wood at generally high borne pollutants such as nitrogen and costs and its customer is almost 100 sulphur oxides. These pollutants are percent high-tech forest industry. The likely to figure prominently in future main strategy for the future must there­ discussions on forestry. The emissions fore be to use good wood in products must be reduced considerably; how­ that are expensive enough to bear a ever, forest soils may have to be limed high price. in the short term to reduce acidity. A supportive environment for sustainable forest management 223

CONCLUSIONS straightforward as has been the case for Finally, some conclusions can be drawn a long time. There is an evident risk of regarding the present state of Swedish further population concentration in cit­ forestry. These conclusions might ap­ ies resulting from a fast reduction in job ply to other countries, but the develop­ opportunities in forestry and agricul­ ment of Swedish forestry is based on a ture. If this leads to a significant break­ number of circumstances that are not down of rural infrastructure - roads, present anywhere else. schools, services - Swedish forestry will face increasing problems. The Social development. It is evident, in growing importance of ecological val­ Sweden as well as in many other parts ues - recycling, etc. - will pose new of the world, that sustainable forestry is challenges for forestry which might be difficult if people's elementary needs difficult to handle during a transition are not secured. A long-term forest de­ period. In the long term, forestry will velopment programme must therefore benefit from this development. Include food security as a high priority from the outset. Markets. Swedish forestry is almost Swedish forestry has evolved in an entirely based on wood for industrial environment largely characterized by a use. An expanding free market for its positive development of industrial, eco­ products, comprising a wide variety of nomic and social conditions. Forestry products and with a certain stability and forest industry have significantly over time, is necessary for motivating contnbuted to this development but investment in new forests. Clearly, it is have simultaneously benefited from possible to expand forest resources other sectors. For example, the mecha­ and simultaneously use forests for nIzation of forest operations was tech­ large-scale industrial purposes. I be­ nically and economically stimulated by lieve Sweden's forest industry repre­ similar but earlier development in agri­ sents a very positive experience which culture and construction. It is difficult could also be used in other parts of the to say where Swedish forestry would world. stand without these positive synergies. For the future, certain problems could The political process. A leading factor be identified. The continued develop­ in the political process affecting Swed­ ment of society and industry is not as ish forests has been consensus and sta- 224 National policies. programmes and experiences

bility. With few exceptions, the suc­ consensus on these questions to obtain cessive forestry acts reflected views good results. already adopted by professional forest­ ers because they reflect good forestry. I Development. Forests represent a truly believe this is necessary during a period renewable resource, providing a num­ in which forest resources are being built ber of important products and services up. In addition, strong links between from a process involving the sun, water, ownership and management have been carbon dioxide and nutrients. Compared maintained and such links are positive with almost all other means by which in developing forests and forestry legis­ humans obtain essential commodities, lation, especially for new environmen­ forestry and forest industry should be tal protection laws. These laws, the preferred environmentally. Against this majority of which are outside the for­ background, I believe that ensuring sus­ estry act, have begun to regulate for­ tainable forestry development in the

estry in detail and in a way that is new world and In Sweden wIll be a most for foresters as well as being, in my important task in the years to come and opinion, not very appropriate in the perhaps one of the most viable strate­ long term. It is also necessary to reach gies for the future. A supportive environment for sustainable management 225

Sustainable forest conservation and development in France J. Gadant

This paper discusses the experience of France in the sustainable management of forests. First, a distinction IS made between the concepts of sustained yield and sustainable management. Sustainable management is a broader and more comprehensive concept in that It promotes action aimed not only at rationalizing harvesting but also at developing other economic, environmental, social, scenic and cultural components. French forest policy is examined from the point of view of its continuity and the permanent allocation of forest lands through legal provisions. Regionalized forestry policies and local application of forestry legislation to the needs of production and conservation are outlined. The association and partnership of all actors involved in forestry are essential prerequisites for effectively managing and conserving forests. The importance of communication in this regard is also stressed.

INTRODUCTION French foresters are more familiar Sustainable forest management was one with the concept of "sustained yield", of the important recommendations of which they have been applying for many the 10th World Forestry Congress; its years in the management of public or implementation is the effective way to communal forests under forest tenure. assure conservation of the world's In this management, logging operations logged or cleared forests. are planned both in time and in space. Their purpose is to regulate the volume of wood extracted from the forest as The author is former Head of the Direction well as to ensure the conservation of the des Fort'its, 1. rue Auband. 92330-Sceaux. France. forest patrimony. 226 National poilcles, programmes and experiences

In the present decline of the world Public forest legislation. Stemming from ' forest patrimony, the tenn "sustainable" the 1927 Forest Law, France's public suggests the goal of forest longevity, and forest legislation is drawn from all laws. management the means to achieve it. It comprises logical regulations that im­ This approach rejects the negative con­ pose certain obligations on public (state cept of foregoing all interventions to or communal) forests. These regulations, obtain total forest conservation; on the which require a competent manager (Na­ contrary, it promotes active forest ac­ tional Forestry Board), ensure the con­ tions aimed not only at rationalizing servation of the patrimony and submIt felling but also at developing economic, each forest to a management plan (in environmental, social, scenic and cul­ order to regulate fellings and interven­ tural components. Thus sustainability is tions). a broader and more comprehensive con­ cept than the mere sustained yield that Private forests: obligations and incen­ French foresters know. tives. Private forest ownership accounts for two-thirds of French forests. The FOREST POLICY public interest should be reconciled Three factors are required to ensure sus­ with the legitimate interests of their tainable forest management: the avail­ owners. ability of well-trained and competent staff; research facilities that can promote knowl­ Limitations of ownership rights. For­ edge in engineering forest ecosystems; est policy guarantees ownership rights. and appropriate funding to cope With the When pubhc interest limits such rights, long-tenn and low prodUCtiVity offorests. this is clearly stipulated in the law and What measures has France taken to ensure may entail compensations. Limitations sustainable management? We will limit may include: subjecting forests of more ourselves here to stressing the necessary than 25 unbroken ha to a management continuity of forest policy and the perma­ plan, which the owner submits for ap­ nent allocation of forest lands required. proval to the regional centre of forest ownership (a public establishment run Continuity by the profession and under the Forest activities are long-term in na- administration's control); making re­ ture. It is therefore essential that na- forestation compulsory after the clear­ tional forest policy be continuous. cutting of a softwood stand; prohibiting A supportive environment for sustaznable management 227

the depletion of a hardwood stand be­ that this financial aid be granted yond certain limits; etc. first to owners who can guarantee sound management practices and State incentives to private forests. Thus, who pledge not to divide their the law limits an owner's rights. On the property. other hand, forests offer tangible biological, environmental, social and Permanent land allocation scenic benefits which cannot be quan­ Forest management can contribute to tified. Another point is that forest forest conservation only in so far as profitabilIty is rare. These considerations clearly defined legal provisions ensures justify the compensations that are granted stable land allocation to forest. Obvi­ to private forests, some of which are ously, some changes are necessary but listed here: these should be exceptions, justified by • Fiscal exemptions. An owner who public interest and sometimes subject undertakes reforestation is exempted to compensatory forestation. from paymg land taxes for 3D years. A highly protective forest tenure ad­ For capital taxes, the exemption minIstration ensures the integrity of amounts to three-quarters of its value public and communal forests. For pri­ both for transferring and calculating vate forests, various conservatIOn mea­ annual property taxes. sures have gradually been introduced However, these advantages are offset into the Forest Law. at the management level. The three­ quarter exemption is accompanied by a Clearing control. Owners are required 3D-year commitment from the owner to to inform the administration of all submit his forest to sound logging un­ projects involving forest clearing. The der administrative supervision. Thus state authorities may oppose a project the service justifies the fiscal compen­ on the grounds of the public interest, as sation by imposing sound management. specified by law. Furthermore, autho­ • Financial contributions. For the past rized clearings are subject to a tax. 4Dyears, the National Forestry Fund has been financing active reforesta­ The place offorestry in rural manage­ tion policy using a timber tax. The ment. In many tropical countries, forests state also subsidizes investments in still represent reserves of land that can private forests. The 1985 law states be farmed as populations expand. A 228 National policies, programmes and experiences

land-use management plan should iden­ ment following concerted management tify the areas of total conservation; those plans: where the preserved forest can be man­ • reforestation should be preceded by aged and harvested more rationally; agricultural and forestry zoning lands available for reforestation; and combined with the appropriate the populated areas where agriculture regulations; and forestry can be combined. • for forest protection, the demarca­ This problem was discussed at the tion of a "classified wooded area" 10th World Forestry Congress (see in a land-use scheme would make Gadant, 1991). The Congress noted that any clearing request unacceptable; there is no purely forestry solution to • for management, a "protection forest problems. Therefore the world's forest" area classification imposes foresters should abandon their tradi­ silvicultural restrictions on the tional isolation in order to design and manager. ensure the protection and development of forests in the context of decentral­ Forest land management. However, ized, integrated rural management this permanent allocation offorest lands agreed with the local populations and also raises major land problems. This is their elected representatives. The fol­ particularly true in countries such as lowing two forestry problems have been France, where inheritances passed from solved through rural management. one generation to another have frag­ In areas affected by rural exodus, mented holdings. forests have sometimes become over­ Consequently, the 1985 land and for­ developed and it has been necessary to est laws provided the rural and forest set up norms restricting planting rights. manager with a wide variety of tools to Second, urbanization and industrial promote global land reorganization: the plants near towns have encroached on exchange of ownership and utilization the forest, and a number of protective rights, both in agriculture and forestry; regulations have been required. the development of lands that are However, ad hoc and administrative unexploited by farming or forestry; the applications of these restrictive regula­ consolidation of fragmented farm or tions have proved ineffectual. The real forest lands; agricultural and forest land solution lies in assigning the areas to management. the most appropriate forms of develop- Because of agricultural production A supportive environment for sustainable management 229

surpluses, lands are now being aban­ Depending on the regions and the doned. In a continent such as Europe, needs expressed, management should which has a large timber deficit, this be given specific guidelines: here refor­ land release offers attractive opportuni­ estation policy, there intensifying pro­ ties for expanding forests. But this can tective measures, elsewhere promoting only be achieved by promoting suffi­ recreational facilities, etc. Furthermore, ciently extensive consolidated forested differentiated policies should be imple­ areas, with good services to facilitate mented within the same region. It may their management and use. not always be possible to reconcile production and conservation in a single REGIONALIZED FORESTRY forest, but separate management units POLICIES consistent with priority aims can be set During the past 20 years, the excessive up: for instance, pockets of highly pro­ powers of an extremely centralized state ductive cultivated forests could reduce have either been: the pressure on nearby natural forests. • deconcentrated to the local admin­ To this effect, the law prescribes that istrative authorities, in particular every region must prepare concerted the prefectures; guidance documents for managing pub­ • decentralized to the distrIct com­ lic and private forests . munities (communes, departments, regions) responsible for land-use FOREST MANAGEMENT management. In the debate between producers and Nevertheless, forest policy has not conservationists, the 10th World For­ been decentralized and is still run by the estry Congress stated that "protecting state, which embodies the supreme con­ forests means in the first place manag­ trol and continuity essential in forest ing them and giving them an economic management. The 1985 Forest Law, value". Obviously, forests will be pro­ however, provided procedures to adapt tected better if they provide economic and shape its application locally. In benefits to local communities, owners fact, the French forest patrimony is not and populations. homogeneous; its forests consist of a Forest management is a long-term wide variety of stands required to carry operation, however. Forestry interven­ out different and often contradictory tions are spread over a long period of functions. time; to regenerate a fir wood every 100 230 National policies. programmes and experiences

years, thinnings are carried out at ten­ Management year intervals. For their own benefit as Our societies demand more and more well as that of their successors, present from forests to satisfy an increasing owners should therefore bear in mind number of needs. It is therefore essen­ even the remotest goal they have set tial to establish priorities, set an order themselves in order to guide future man­ of importance to their functions and to agers. This management plan has been harmonize them. applied for many years to public forests. The purpose of a forest management In the 1960s, it became apparent that unit is to select the targets to be at­ illegal logging in private forests had to tained (timber production, public rec­ be restricted. A lengthy debate ensued reatIOn, hunting. nature reserves, ar­ on how to achieve that objective: by tistic arrangements, etc.) and to pro­ state management, through a list of gramme the necessary interventions prohibitions, by administrative autho­ (silvicultural and other) to attain them. rization? Wisely, the lawmakers opted It seeks to achieve a good balance for a liberal solution and gave the re­ between overproductivity and statIc sponsibility to the owners. The 1963 conservation. Finally, these units maxi­ law obliged owners to manage their mize forest revenues, minimize envi­ forests "in a way that would ensure the ronmental losses and ensure capItal biological balance of the country and sustainability. the satisfaction of its timber needs". This type of management views the The 1985 law stipulates that "the devel­ ecosystem for its ecological diversity opment and protection of forests are in and its global functions: not only tim­ the public interest". To guarantee these ber production but the other environ­ obligations, the law subjects forests of mental and social uses too, not only more than 25 ha to a management plan stands but also wildlife and landscape. approved by the regional centre of for­ As Bourgenot (1965) puts it, "taking est ownership. into account what can be done, [man­ Thus, two disciplines govern forest agement] defines what is intended and maintenance: management, which es­ infers what must be done". tablishes a medium-term logging and works policy; and silviculture, which What can be done: ANALYSIS. As the implements the policy and shapes the result of the past, which has marked it stands. deeply, each forest has its own original- A supportive environment for sustainable management 231

ity and personality, its topography, its classes of stands; trees and game; growth soils and its microclimate. It is also and logging; biological balances; etc. called upon to playa special role suited to its economic and social environ­ What must be done: PROGRAMME. ment. Finally, it is necessary to identify the The first step that managers should way to achieve the envisaged goals. take is to survey the state of the ground First, managers select a treatment and assess previous management. They system (high forest, coppice, etc.) and a must analyse the existing situation and method of management. They establish make a quantitative and qualitative in­ an exploitability age to determine the ventory of the stands, but they must also annual area to be regenerated and iden­ gather opinions and identify the local tify possible annual harvesting: the sur­ needs that forests can satIsfy. face (coppice, thinning) or the volume (high forest, extractive logging). The What is intended: STRATEGY. Most purpose is to reach an age class balance of the time the same forest is intended and to obtain a regular yield from the to fulfil several functions: timber pro­ fellings, thus ensuring constant rev­ duction, recreation and soil protection. enues, a steady supply of raw material This multiple use can generally be to the wood industries and the preserva­ achieved within a single forest; how­ tion of the current state of the forest. ever, priorities must be set and uses The ideal sItuation is to harvest the harmonized. volume of the annual growth each year. Some functions may be conflicting To achieve their objectives, manag­ or difficult to reconcile: setting up an ers can use three types of measures:

exclusive recreational area where hunt- o Fellings - which generate income. 109 is forbIdden: creating a strict nature Management outlines a group of reserve; establishing declared hunting plots and establishes a schedule grounds, etc. If so, the forest must be which plans the fellings both in divided into separate management units time (year by year) and in space which foresters name compartments. (plot by plot). A manager's actions More generally, the fine art of the are dictated by the schedule and the manager is to administer balances be­ plot plan.

tween: protection and conservation; the o Works. These may be either functions assigned to the forest; age silvicultural (conversion, stocking) 232 National policies, programmes and experiences

or concerning forest equipment and thinnings that improve them for in­ (roads, recreational facilities, etc.) creased vitality and sustainability. Dy­ and they are also mapped and namic forest conservation is ensured by implemented over time. annual or periodic timber harvesting that • Regulations. Regulations can extracts carefully defined and localized impose some public interest volumes suited to regrowths and age constraints on a manager, such as classes. setting up biological reserve or a protection forest, etc. ASSOCIATION AND PARTNERSHIP Silviculture Very recently, foresters were unknown The choice of species is extremely im­ to the general public and no one was portant. In the past, the focus was on interested in forests. Today, they both environmental suitability and timber­ playa leading role and forest policy is producing capacity. Nowadays, con­ now more open to environmental con­ cerns are more rational and involve: cerns (qualitative aspect) and land-use • the role of the species in maintaining management (spatial aspect). For ex­ soil fertility, e.g. the introduction of ample, in France the Forestry Depart­ soil-improving hardwoods in a ment has now become the Department softwood plantation; of Rural Areas and Forests . • biodiversity, e.g. the conservation After being too long confined within and mixture of indigenous species. their administrative structure and Jeal­ Genetic selection, which has perhaps ous of theIr technical skills and their given too much importance to eco­ prerogatives, foresters are now dealing nomic performance, will stress envi­ with a society that is increasingly con­ ronmental adaptation and resistance to cerned with forests. disease and climatic stress. The 10th World Forestry Congress uni­ Foresters should also verify that a versally recommended that local popula­ sound balance in game populations is tions be associated with implementing for­ maintained. When excessive, game may estry interventions. In France, two roads severely damage the stand. can lead to this: creating greater account­ However. sound felling is the silvicul­ ability among the actors involved; and twists' main tool. The whole forest should a better communication effort on the part be subject to feilings that regenerate stands offoresters vis-a-vis the general pUblic. A supportive environment for sustainable management 233

Accountability portant rights and can decisively influ­ True forest protection will not be ob­ ence the promotion and protection of the tained through prohibitions issued by a forest stands in their commune. Munici­ centralized and police-like administra­ palities also represent an irreplaceable tion, but by the association and ac­ link with the population. Moreover, de­ countability of all concerned. This rec­ centralization has transferred important ommendation is primarily addressed to management powers to the district com­ countries whose forests are unallocated munities. and where management is administra­ These private owners, farmers and tive and state-controlled. rural municipalities are essential actors Fonunately France has a large popu­ in France's forest policy. Beyond simple lation of private forest owners with association, these forms of account­ sizeable forestry intervention power: ability are starting to influence the for­ one family out of every five owns a estry policies of countries where forests wooded area. For the forest authorities, are declining, e.g. through farm forests they represent an irreplaceable suppon (agroforestry is the developing aspect) to the sector. The forest service only has and communal forests (especially the to help them organize, form groups and idea of village forests). Forms of col­ invest as well as providing training. lective and individual appropriation This private forest category also includes should also be conceived in forest es­ the so-called "farm" forest: I ha out of 3 ha tates that are subject to too much state is part of a farm. With appropriate assis­ control and remote and impersonal tance and an extension effort, mobilization management. could contribute to developing these forest plots as well as to their monitoring and to Communication management actions and interventions in In an increasingly urbanized and indus­ other owners' forests nearby. trialized society, forests become a rem­ Finally, France possesses a large com­ edy to the drawbacks of cities which are munal forest patrimony: one commune now prey to pollution and other prob­ out of three owns a forest. These forests lems. The town dweller is returning to are administered by the National For­ nature and increasing claims put for­ estry Board, which guarantees their in­ ward in favour of forest protection - the tegrity and sound management. But the last genuine natural refuge - are trig­ municipalities that own them retain im- gering passionate debates. 234 National policies, programmes and experiences

Nature protection associations could ment of excessive fuel wood extraction be useful aids for forest managers against with coal and petrol. Reforestation cam­ those clearing and polluting land. Envi­ paigns have increased the area of French ronmentalists and foresters should fight forests from 8 million ha at the begin­ together to safeguard forests. Unfortu­ ning of last century to 14 million ha at nately, this is not the case; forest manage­ present. Today, further agricultural sur­ ment is often criticized and even blamed pluses are releasing more land and open­ for forest decline. Why? No doubt ing up new prospects for forestry. because of a lack of dialogue. The worlds' foresters face three chal­ In the past, foresters were good man­ lenges: the decline of forests, their nec­ agers because they were able to main­ essary expansion and the conservation tain prestigious forests in their contem­ of what has been saved. porary state while logging them ratio­ We have tried to show that non-utiliza­ nally and deriving benefits. tion or rules alone cannot preserve this Today, forest functions are being di­ living endowment. Only management versified, the demands of foresters' fel­ can achieve truly sustained and sustain­ low citizens are multiplying and forest able conservation. management is becoming increasingly complex. Foresters are increasingly REFERENCES obliged to take into account various aspi­ rations and criticisms, and especially to Bourgenot, L. 1965. Manuel pratique answer questions regarding softwood d' amenagement. Pans, General Direc­ plantations. instances of clear-cutting, torate of Water and Forests, Ministry etc. They do this increasingly through the of Agriculture. media, training activities for the young, Gadant, J. 1991. Integrations des ac­ organizing forest visits and publishing tions forestieres dans I' amenagement extension material. des espaces ruraux". In Proc. 10th World For. Congr. Nancy, France, CONCLUSION ENG REF. France has known periods of intense clearing during its history. French for­ ests have been saved by land made available as a result of agricultural pro­ duction surpluses and by the replace- A supportive environment for sustainable forest management 235

New Perspectives for Managing the United States National Forest System H. Salwasser, D.W. MacCleery and T.A. Snellgrove

This paper briefly describes the United States' forestry situation: relationships between people, forests. forest products and environmental quality; historical trends that have conditioned United States forests today; and the capabilities of national forests and grasslands. An example is offered of how the USDA Forest Service is responding to these Issues and policy choices through a project called New Perspectives for Managing the National Forest System. New Perspectives projects have four primary purposes: to learn how to sustain ecosystems better at multiple geographic scales for a richer variety of current and future benefits and uses; to Improve the effectiveness of public participation in resource decision­ making; to strengthen teamwork between researchers and resource managers in carrying out adaptive land and resource management; and to integrate all aspects of land and resource management.

INTRODUCTION

The authors are. respectively. Director of Americans are concerned about the fu­ New Perspectives. Assistant Director of ture of forests with regard to their health, Timber Management and Branch Chief of wildlife diversity, re~ilience to stress Forest Products and Harvesting Research in the Untted States Department of Agriculture and climate change, productivity for (USDA) Forest Service in Washington, DC. wood and other resources and their man­ This is the edited version of a paper originally agement for diverse uses, environmen­ presented at the 16th Session of the North American Forestry CommiSSion in Cancun. tal services and aesthetics. Consequently, Mexico in Februarv 1992. National policies, programmes and experiences

dress these concerns. Forestry educa­ roomental doom (Knudsen, 1991) or the tion and research are also changing (Na­ imminent loss of the last great forests in tional Research Council, 1990). They the nation (Caulfield, 1990). While this are expanding to address new knowl­ is not true, there are still valid reasons edge about the dynamics of forests as for concern over the conditions of Ameri­ ecological systems and the connections can forests and how our society's insti­ between forest product technologies, tutions manage them. forest management, economies and our The condition of United States forests society'S changing values and needs. has significant economic, social, envI­ The fundamental principles of forestry ronmental and aesthetic ramifications. and natural resources management in the But wise policy choices do not depend United States are not changing. Science­ on emotional reactions to distorted in­ based land stewardship, efficiency in pro­ formation. ducing and conserving natural resources They depend on valid information and socially responsible management to regarding forest conditions and capa­ meet landowner objectives remain the bilities and the economic and environ­ bedrock of current and future directions mental ramifications of various man­ in United States forestry. agement option!.. Current changes in American forestry This paper briefl y describes the United are good. However, substantial issues States' forest situation and offers an that merit attention inclu<;Je conflicts over example of how the USDA Forest Ser­ . the spotted owl, ancient forest and tim­ vice is responding to these issues through ber supply (Johnson et al., 1991; a new management direction and a Caulfield, 1990); forest sustainability project called New Perspectives for (Botkin, 1990; Fri, 1991; Sample, 1991a; Managing the National Forest System. Gale and Cordray, 1991; Greber and Johnson, 1991); clear-cutting; endan­ FORESTS, PEOPLE AND THE gered species; the economics of forestry ENVIRONMENT decisions (O'Toole, 1988; Baden, 1991); Forests and national well-being sustained supplies of forest products, Part of the reason for such high concern and loss of forest-related jobs. about forests is that they are great sources Unfortunately, the continuing debate of a nation's wealth and well-being about United States forest issues often (Marsh, 1864; Clawson, 1979; Williams, gives the impression of pending envi- 1989; Perlin, 1991); a part of every A supportive environment for sustainahle forest management 237

generation's heritage of biological and restrial surface - 4.1 billion ha (WRI). cultural diversity and a part of the legacy This is about 66 percent of the forested each will leave for future generations; a area that existed before the industrial nation's factory for many renewable natu­ revolution (Fig. I). Meanwhile, popula­ ral resources (Frederick and Sedjo, 1991 ); tion has grown elevenfold: from an esti­ vital organs of planetary health (Silver mated 500 million to about 5.5 billion. and DeFries, 1990); playgrounds; and Each world citizen had an average of also important factors in the standard of about 12 ha of global forest resources in hvmg that United States citizens enjoy. 1750; in 1990, only 0.75 ha (Fig. 2). Forests in the United States cover Trends in forests available for about 32 percent of the nation's area, or use, enjoyment and environmental 296 million ha (Haynes, 1990). This is services also about 66 percent of what existed Forests and woodlands now cover an prior to European settlement (Clawson, estimated 31 percent of the planet's ter- 1979). ApproxImately 150 million ha of

FIGURE 1 Estimated area of land covered by forests with 10 percent or greater canopy of trees

Million hectares 71

6 ~~~/ ~-- "'/r------.-1 I . /' J I r//' ,,/; ..~-: - i 5 ------\ ------1I 4------1 i 3 f------{/'// /. -l 2 ------i

World United States v.:.;JJ 1700 _ 1980 I

Source Clawson (1979). WRI (1990) 238 NatIOnal policies, programmes and expenences

F1GUR£2 Eatlmated change In forest area per caput from 17008 to late 19008

Hectares 50 r------~--~------

40~------K

~~------4

20~------4

the original forest have been converted residence, to find or produce resources to other uses, mostly agriculture, and or to provide for various environmental some previously converted lands have services. returned to forest cover during the twen­ This general trend app/tes to all re­ tieth century (Fig. 3). sources in the biosphere (Fig. 4). Yet, It The population of what is now the IS precisely the growing human popula­ United States has grown by 25 times tion, with its intellectual capacity and since the 1600s: from an estimated ten ingenuity, that has improved both envi­ million to 250 million in the late twenti­ ronmental quality and standards of liv­ eth century. In other words, forested ing for most people. area per caput dropped from 45 ha in the 1700s to 1.2 ha in 1990 (Fig. 2). Differences in how humans. use , This dramatic decline in forested area forests per person over the past four centuries People in rural areas and developIng means less potential forest area for each countries use forests to meet subsis­ current and future human to occupy as a tence needs (Marsh, 1864; Thomas Jr, A supportive envIronment for sustainable forest management 238

FIGURE 3 United States land area In crop and forest cover from 1850 to 1980

Million hectares 400 - 350 --

* * ~ _____ -A- 300 ---~-----______lY"~ 250 ------200 -----

----4 ___ ~ 150 -- 100 ~ ~/ 50 / ~ o ____ L_~ ___L_ __ l __ --L._~ _ __L___ L _____1. ____L _____ ~ __ 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 Year

,r------~ Estimated --+ Cropland ~~-_;o~est land I

Source Waddell, Oswald and Powell (1989)

1956; Toynbee, 1976; Perlin, 1991),Just human population becomes too dense, as people did in the United States until this can devastate forest sustainability. we)] into this century (Clawson, 1979). Wood use in the United States has In some cases, this relationship has been changed over time. In 1850, wood pro- sustained forcentunes and perhaps even vided about 95 percent of the domestic mi)]ennia, while In others, food, shelter, and industnal energy (measured as Brit- I, medicines and fuels are taken from for- ish thermal units or BTUs) used in the ests until the forest disappears or until United States (Fedkiw, 1989). Today, economies develop to the point where far less wood is used to supply the people find their baSIC resources else- country's energy needs, as most of its where and can afford to conserve their energy comes from fossil fuel. forests for other values. Between 1980 and 1988, 44 percent In some developing countries, about of all timber products in the United 70 percent of the wood harvested from States was for construction (lumber, ply- forests is used for domestic energy. If the wood and veneer); about 27 percent was 240 NatIOnal potlnes. programmes and experiences

FIGURE 4 Proportional change In the area of the biosphere relative to the estimated human population over the past 300 years

1700 1850 1925

for pulp and paper; and 22 percent was United States per caput use of wood for fuelwood (Ulrich, 1990). other than for fuel IS about 1.5 times that of other industrial countries and at least Wood consumption and supply as 100 times that of some non-mdustnal forest Influences countries (Postel and Ryan, 1991). Its Wood use has long been and still is a major wood production and consumption both influence in the relationship between people mcreased by 28 percent from the 1970s and forests (Clawson, 1979; Perlin, 1991). to the 1980s, primarily as a result of Both global and United States wood pro­ increased wood use in construction, duction and use are continuing to rise (Figs. home heating and wood-fuelled pro­ 5 and 6; Haynes, 1990; Sedjo, 1990; Ulrich, cesses in the forest products industry 1990; Haynes and Brooks, 1991). The (Table I; Fig. 6; Ulrich, 1990). United States produces about 25 percent Between 1980 and 1988, the United and uses about 33 percent of world indus­ States' total net timber product imports trial roundwood production while using were 9 percent of total national con­ about 50 percent of world paper production sumption, making it a net importer of (Haynes and Brooks, 1991). It is both the wood products by an average of 448 000 world's biggest total user and biggest per m 1 per year. Net imports averaged 12 caputuserofwood(PostelandRyan, 1991). percent for wood pulp and 16 percent for A supportive environment for sustainable forest management 241

TABLE 1 TABLE 2 Total United States consumption Estimated energy required In the of all timber products from 1950 to manufacture of various wall 1988, Including fuelwood systems for building construction

Total Umted States Per caput Type of wall Energy Energy consumptIOn consumptIOn to construct equivalent (roundwood eqUIvalent) a 100m' wall

(mililonm') (m') (million BTUs oil eqUivalent) 1950-1954 340 22 Plywood siding. 1955-1959 337 20 no sheathing, 2 x 41rame 21 10 1960-1964 332 1.8 MDFsidlng, 1965-1969 362 18 plywood sheathing, 2 x 4 frame 27 13 1970-1974 372 18 Aluminium Siding. 1974-1979 411 19 plywood, insulation board, 1980-1984 466 20 2 x 41rame 53 25

1985-1988 542 22 MDFsldlng, plywood sheathing, SOU" es Table 4 In Ultlch (1989). Tahle 4 In Ulnch steel studs 55 26 (1990) and Umted State; Depanments of Agtleulture and Commerce Concrete building block. no insulation 184 88

lumber and plywood prooucts during this Brick veneer over sheathing 193 92 perioo (Ulrich, 1990). About 27 percent of Note E.tlmate. Include energy consumptIOn Involved the lumber used in the United States was In loggmg (or extractIOn). manufacture. transport to the bUildIng Site and construction imported from Canada in the late 19808_ Sourres Ba'le data are from CORRIM (! 976) as cited In Bowyer (1991 c) and convened to the memc The United States recently proouced equivalent about 23 percent of the softwood sawtim­ ber used annually from trees harvested in Material alternatives to wood the national forests. This percentage is What if the United States substitutes declining as a result of policy choices to non-wood materials for wood? Some protect public forests for other values, materials can substitute for wood in e.g. watersheds, aesthetics and wildlife. construction applications but have both Will the United States use less wood as environmental and economic conse- public forest production declines or will it quences (Table 2; Koch, 1991; find its wood elsewhere, such as from its Alexander and Greber, 1991; Bowyer

private lands or the forests of other nations? 1991 a: 1991 h: 1QQl r) 242 National polIcies, programmes and expenences

AGURE5 Trend In world roundwood and Industrial roundwood production from 1950 to 1990

Billion m3 4 r------

3.5 1------.--=-.,-j . .-- 3 f------______.' _. L __

• . • • • *..,-" %

': ~~;:~, ~~h,~H*~*'''' u ,- "'~*''''=:=J 05 r ------

O~III II ! I IIIII I I ~.L-...... -L-1-~ I 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990

Roundwood production , Industrial roundwOOd production I

Source FAO (1991) as pre~ented by Haynes and Brooks (1991)

Compared with its alternatives, wood (199 I) estimates that steel studs may is one of the most envllonmentally be­ require about nine times more energy to nign of all construction materials. It is produce and transport to the site than virtually the only renewahle resource wood studs. that is economically suitable for struc­ The amount of wood used In the United tural and architectural purposes (Koch, States is approximately equal by weight 1991). to the combined amount of all metals, The alternatives to wood in those uses plastics and cement used in the country - steel, aluminium and other metals, annually (Bowyer, 1991a). Thus, re­ concrete and plastics - are not renew­ placing any significant percentage of able (although they are recyclable at wood with manufactured stibstitutes varying energy costs). They use consid­ could substantially increase both na­ erably more energy per unit of produc­ tional energy consumption and global tion than does wood. For example, Koch carbon dioxide emissions (Koch, 1991). A supportive environment for sustamable forest management 243

FIGURES Trend In United States production of timber products from 1800 to 1988

Billion cubic feet 20 r------~-

15r------~

10r------~

51------~

ol=~~- 1800 ------_ Lumber a Plywood and veneer L-=:J Pulp I [ZJ Exports/pulp and logs _ Miscellaneous D Fuelwood

Sourc,. SedlO (1990) for 1800-1949, Ulnch (1989) for 1950-1959, Ulnch (1990) for 1960-1988

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE ON lation and to produce lumber and struc­ FORESTS IN THE UNITED STATES tural timbers to build the growing cities. This is not the first generation to worry N ationall y, forest growth rates were a about forest conditions; a look at recent fractIOn of harvest levels. history should dispel any doubts about Wildlife was also W1derassault(Trefethen, this (Fedklw, 1989). 1975; Dunlap, 1989). There was virtually In the later half of the nineteenth cen­ unrestricted market hW1tmg of all kinds tury, the American population was ex­ of wildlife for food, furs and feathers and panding rapidly, and settlement of the habitats were modified through forest American frontier was conSidered a laud­ c1eanng for farms, logging and by wildfire. able national objective. One unfortu­ By 1900, populations of many wild­ nate consequence of settlement was the life species were extremely depleted. depletion of much of the nation's forests These now include common game ani­ and wildlife as forests were cleared for mals, such as white-tailed deer; wild farmland to feed arapidly growing popu- turkey; pronghorn antelope; most fur- 244 NatIOnal policies, programmes and experiences

bearers, especially the beaver; many wa­ ii) promoting and encouraging forest terfow I, including swans and wood ducks protection, regardless of ownership, and several other species ofducks; Canada from wildlife, insects and disease; geese; and all manner of plumed wading iii) encouraging the productive birds, such as herons, egrets and ibises. management of private forest lands Many other species were highly depleted. through tax incentives and technical Today it is easy to criticize those re­ and financial assistance; sponsible for resource conditions in ear­ iv) adopting and enforcing strong state lier times. However, people generally do and federal wildlife conservation laws; what they think is necessary to feed them­ .y) acquiring and managing public selves and their families and to build their lands for both commodity and amenity communities and nations. This period of uses and values. A key element of the the late 1800s and the early 1900s in the public policy framework was strong United States was a logical extension of cooperation among federal, state and a long settlement history. By the 1870s, private sector interests. the impact of settlement was magnified These poliCIes resulted m the general by a rapidly expanding population and and dramatic recovery of American for­ advancing technology. ests and wildlife (MacCleery, 1991). Most important, far-sighted individu­ als in the latter half of the nineteenth Forest conditions and wood century recognized that new approaches use today were needed and began to take the ac­ Today, United States forests and forest tion necessary (Trefethen, 1975). wildlife have recovered substantIally. In This set the stage for emergence of the the aggregate, the country's forest pro­ first national environmental movement. ductivity has increased throughout the The new policy framework emphasized latter part of this century (Fig. 7). protecting forests from wildlife and wild­ About 20 percent of the }96 million life from overharvesting while manag­ ha of United States timberland is ca­ ing both forests and wildlife scientifi­ pable of producing 1.4 m3 of industrial cally. Specific actions focused on: roundwood per hectare annually and is i) acquiring scientific knowledge on not reserved for uses that preclude tim­ forests and wildlife as well as the ber harvest (Fig. 8; Haynes, 1990). Na­ application of this knowledge by tionwide, wood growth on these lands, public and private professionals; which in 1900 was a fraction of wood A supportive envIronment for sustamable forest management

FIGURE 7 United States trends in net timber growth by malor owner from 1952 to 1987

m3/hectare/year 5 -----~------

4~~--~------~

3r------~r-

2

o National forests Other public Forest Industry Other private All ownerships r------Ownership _ 1952 [22211962 _ 1970 ~1977

Source USDA Forest Service (1982) and Haynes (1990)

FIGURE 8 Timberland ownership as a percent of total United States timberland In 1987

Foresllndustry Other public Forest Industry 15% 10% 31% Other public

National forest 14%

Other pnvate Other private 49% 57%

Timberland area Timberland harvest volume

Source Haynes (1990) 246 National policies. programmes and experiences

FIGURE 9 United States timber growth and removal. 'rom 1920 to 1986

Thousand m3/year 700------

400~------

300 200 100 o 1920 1933 1952 1962 1970 1976 1986 Year

_ Net growth ~ Removals I

SOUrt'9 Haynes (1990) and USDA Forest SeNlee (1973,1982)

removal, attained a general balance wIth Forest areas burnt by uncontrolled harvest by the I 940s. In recent decades, wildfire decreased from 1930 to 1987 average timber growth has continually (Fig. 10). We need to rethink the role of exceeded harvest (Fig. 9; Hayne~,1990). fire in keeping wildland ecosystems Total wood volume in United States diverse and stress-resilient. But invest­ forests is now 25 percent greater than in ments in reforestation, forest manage­ 1952. Actively growing forests are great ment and forest fire control have carbon "sinks", and the country'sforests resulted in 3.5 times more forested areas sequester the equivalent of about 9 per­ with tree growth in the United States cent of total carbon dioxide emissions today than in 1920(Fedkiw, 1989). This from all sources in the United States (M. is significant because the first step in Fosberg, personal communication). any forest conservation strategy is to Tree planting was at record levels maintain covered forest areas. throughout the 1980s when more than Owing to forest abundance and pro­ 10.5 million ha oftrees were planted. This ductivity, the country can protect and is is an area the size of the state of Virginia. protecting more of its forests, both na- A supportive environment for sustalnahle forest management 247

FIGURE 10 United States trends in area burnt by wildfire from 1930 to 1987

Million hectares 25,------~

20

15r--++r------4

10r----*~~+_~------~

51-----

35 40 45 75 80 85 90

Source W,ldf,re StatIstIcs, USDA Forest Service

tive and restored, for environmental ser­ has also increased dramatically. Fur­ vices, aesthetic values and amemty uses. ther, the proportion of harvested trees Smce the late 1980s, about 14 million ha effectively converted into lumber or of biologically capable timberland in veneer has increased by about 20 per­ the Umted States have been designated cent In sawmills and about 22 percent In for non-timber values and uses (Haynes. plywood plants (Haynes, 1990). Ad­ 1990). nearly double the area desig­ vanced technologies such as thinner saw­ nated in 1970 (MacCleery. 1991). blades, electronic measurement systems Harvest and manufacturmg efficien­ and computer-assisted milling have all cies have also increased considerably contributed to improved fibre recovery. since the tum of the century. Despite New technologies for improved utili­ sketchy records. logging residues have zation, preservation and recycling have decreased by an estimated 10 percent reduced by hundreds of thousands ofha for softwoods and about 40 percent for the area of annual harvest otherwise hardwoods since the 1950s. Utilization necessary to supply the United States of trees killed by fire, insects or diseases with wood products. 248 NatiofUJ/ policies. programmes and expertences

Even more could be done in the future • the red-cockaded woodpecker and to improve wood utilization and encour­ gopher tortoise, which are natives of age recycling (Ince and Alig. 1991). fire-created southern pine savannahs Postel and Ryan (1991) estimate that and woodlands; conservation technologies can poten­ • the Kirtland's warbler, which is tially reduce raw material demand by up native of young jack pine forests in to 50 percent. Conservation technolo­ Michigan; gies to reduce per caput use of raw • the spotted owl, which occupies ma­ material could help take pressure off ture and old growth forests in the west. forests until population growth again Many forest wildlife species need raises total demand. large, contiguous areas of habitat, such as grizzly bears, wolves, elk and forest Forest wildlife today interior birds. Some require very old Several species ofAmerican wildlife have and ecologically diverse forests. How­ become extinct through forest changes ever, it is possible to proVide for the and human uses during this century, for needs of habitat specialists through pur­ example the passenger pigeon and Caro­ poseful and often active forest manage­ lina parakeet. Many others, however, ment (e.g. the use of ground fires to poised on the brink of extmction in 1900, create open savannahs and woodlands have staged remarkable comebacks ow­ for the red-cockaded woodpecker) to ing to actions set in motion in the early recreate or mamtain desired conditions decades of this century (Thomas, 1989). and processes, although not always for The pattern since the 1930s is a substantial early successional habitats. increase in forest wildlife that can tolerate a Even the old growth Douglas fir forests relatively broad range of habitat conditions. required by the northern spotted owl are Fortunately, most United States forest wild­ subclimax forest types that will eventually life species are habitat generalists. One rea­ move towards different forest conditions son may be the natural dynamics of North without occasional stand-replacing wildfires. American forests and the disturbance fre­ quency in the natural regime. FRAMING THE ISSUES AND Yet, there are still problems. Species POLICY CHOICES with specialized habitat requirements are The first challenge in policy is to seek to of increasing concern today. Examples understand better the relevant linkages include: between people, natural resources, en- A supportive environment for sustainable forest management 249

vironmental service and standards of significant challenges in resource man­ living. The second is to find ways to agement in the 1990s. including reduced articulate and frame those linkages and energy consumption and better natural their implications so people can make resource conservation. However. the truly informed choices. public is unaware of past gains and the There will soon be six billion people relative effectiveness of previous policy in a place where 500 million used to live choices. Similarly. people are ill-served at what some perceived to be its natural when environmental issues are covered carrying capacity. In the United States so narrowly as to make it impossible for between 250 million and 300 million them to understand the full dimensions people now reside, or soon will, in an of choices available. or even what those area where ten million used to live. choices are. Americans can and should increase their An example is the protection of the efforts to conserve and recycle natural remaining stands of old growth forest in resources. Even if gains are made, how­ the west. ever, more resources will probably be consumed in the future than now, and the Old growth forests as a policy resources will need to come from some­ example where. Increased pollution from more Protection of old growth forests actually consumption must also be dealt with. started with the designation of national On the positive side, the United States parks and wilderness areas in the national today has almost four times the human forests several decades ago, but Ameri­ population it had a century ago, living at cans have been told by certain groups and a substantially higher standard ofliving. the communications media that the last Yet our forests and wildlife are in many remnant stands of old growth in public ways m significantly better condition forests are about to be logged and will today than they were in 1890. This has disappear within a decade or two. significantly expanded the scope avail­ National forests contain about 12 to able for forest and wildlife conserva­ 14 million ha of old growth forest. More tion. These conditions directly result than half of this old growth forest is from the relative affluence and techno­ protected in wilderness areas and other logical capacity of Americans and con­ land-use designations prohibiting tim­ scious policy choices made in the past. ber harvest. The United States does, however, face In the Pacific Northwest states of Or- 250 National policies, programmes and experiences

egon and Washington and northern Cali­ Complexity and scale fornia. about 2.6 million ha of old growth Forest policy choices are complex and remain on national forest lands. about integrate many social values and needs 10 to 15 percent of the original mature as well as biological knowledge. Thus, and old growth forest of the region. sustainable policies will not often, if More than half of this old growth is also ever, be found in single-dimension in wilderness and other land uses that choices, such as to preserve public for­ prohibit timber harvest. ests and produce more wood from pri­ At projected timber haIVest rates, about vate lands, or save this or that species. 2.3 million ha of Pacific Northwest old As the ecologist Garrett Hardin (1985) growth will remain in ten years. After revi­ has noted, it is not possible to do only sion to include additional protection for the one thmg in an ecosystem because ofthe northern spotted owl and other forest values degree of interconnections. (Johnson et at., 1991). substantially more Scale is also critical in framing ques­ than 2.3 million ha of old growth will prob­ tions and choices on forest policies. both ably remain after ten years. in time and space. What people do to The policy choices are not obvious protect forests or produce forest resources from these facts alone. The United States in their backyards affects their own eco­ can accelerate the development of ma­ nomic well-being, environmental quality ture forests into old growth. However, it and biological diversity, but it also affects is important to consider how choices for other people's economic prosperity and protecting and managing old growth in environmental quality. This is because the western United States might affect markets and environments are global. local and regional economies and envi­ There are global ramifications to the ronments. It is also important to con­ United States' consumption of fossil sider the possible effects on national and fuels. the worldwide use of chlorofluo­ global timber supplies, the energy and rocarbons, the green revolution of the greenhouse gas implications of using 1960s, wilderness designation and high­ substitutes for wood and the biodiversity yield silviculture. Whether these are that may be influenced by increased positive or negative influences on for­ timber harvests in other regions and ests, biological diversity and the quality nations. We may still reach the same of human life depends on how broadly decisions but at least we will be aware of and how far we view our goals for sus­ the larger dimensions. taining ecological systems. A supportive environment for sustainable forest management 251

We must also look outside the forest trees in ways that leave soils, waters and to understand the inner workings of the ecosystems healthy for the future? larger ecosystems that set the context Is it environmentally ethical or globally for forests, i.e. at the regional, national responsible for a nation to import large and global human societies (Clark and amounts of any natural resource that the Stankey, 1991), economies (Binkley, same nation can produce with minimal 1991) and environments (Silver and undesired consequences if it exports the DeFries, 1990) that forests mfluence. environmental impacts to othernations or A national or global perspective may regions or burdens the global environ­ yield opposite conclusions from local or ment further by using less environmen­ regional perspectives. For example, if tally benign materials (Bowyer, 1991 a)? steel, concrete or aluminium materials are These questions indicate the chal­ substituted for the wood that IS protected lenges in forest conservation, or in what for environmental values in American has been termed "sustainable forestry". forests, how much addItional carbon di­ The real challenge is to conserve forest oxide will be released into the global ecosystems for desired current and fu­ atmosphere? ture conditions, framed in a global con­ In the long term, national and global text ensuring local and regional equity perspectIves are needed because It may in meeting social needs. do lIttle good to conserve biodiversity in local and regIonal ecosystems if human CAPABILITIES OF THE NATIONAL consumption merely depletes the same FOREST SYSTEM resources somewhere else. Global respon­ The United States' forests and grasslands sibility requires that local actions be posi­ encompass 77 million ha of land, about tive nationally as well as globally. 8.5 percent of the national land area. They are managed under a multipurpose man­ Linking people, forests, wood, date for both commodity outputs, such as wildlife and conservation timber, livestock grazing, fishing and min­ Given the global wood supply, the large erals, and for amenity uses and values, capacity to grow more wood in managed such as wildlife, recreation, nature study stands and the conservation potential, and wilderness. They also serve for wa­ people may reasonably question the tershed protection. wholesale cutting of native old growth Currently, national forests play an im­ forests. But is it unethical to grow and cut portant role both in the economy and as a 252 National policies. programmes and experiences

FIGURE 11 Area In different land-use dellgnatlon in integrated land and resource management plans for the National Forest System in 1990 - there is an overlap in some designations, for example livestock grazing can occur In certain wilderness areas and on land suitable for timber production

Million hectares designated for use Mr------~------~-

60

40

20

o L--'

source of natural and amenity values. For vertebrate species m the United States, example, national forests provide: including more than 200 threatened or • more than 70 percent of the wild and endangered plant and animal species; scenic river system and 84 percent • about one-fIfth of the nation's of the wilderness preservation consumption of softwood timber; system in the lower 48 states; • minerals and much of the current • watersheds encompassing one-half unexplored potential foroil, gas and ofthe west's water supply, 5 percent minerals in the United States. of the east's water supply, and one­ halfofthenation 'scold water fishery; Recent trends in national forest • more than 40 percent of all federal timber harvesting outdoors recreation; About 70 percent ofthe National Forest • habitat that supports 70 percent of the System is forest land. About 30 percent A supportive environment for sustainable forest management 253

of that forest land is classified as being and natural methods occurred on an aver­ suitable for timber production, where tim­ age of 183 000 ha per year during this ber harvest is permitted as one of the period. Intermediate harvests for improv­ multiple-use objectives, along with wild­ ing timber stand conditions or salvaging life, recreation, grazing, watershed protec­ dead, dying or diseased trees occurred on tion and other uses and values (Fig. 11). an average of 130000 ha per year. This is About 2.9 million ha of the land available slightly less than 0.6 percent of the area for timber production is of the highest available for timber production. Timber productive quality for growing wood. harvest for special purposes such as sce­ Nationally, annual growth of wood on nic vistas and campground safety and national forest timberlands continually preparation for future seed tree or exceeds wood harvest. Growth exceeded shelterwood harvests, accounted for an removals by about 55 percent in 1986. average 9 000 ha of harvest per year. Since 1952, net annual growth of tim­ There are 31 million ha of forest land ber stock (the annual growth of timber that are not available for timber produc­ volume minus the losses through mor­ tion in the National Forest System, i.e. 58 tality and cull volume) in the National percent of the total forest area. These Forest System has mcreased by about 67 forests continue to change annually: percent (Haynes, 1990). through natural processes such as veg­ According to USDA Forest Service etative succession, most of which lead to data, annual timber harvest volume from a maturing forest; and disturbances such the national forests declined from about as wildfires, storms, droughts and dis­ 86 million m3 per year from 1984 to ease epidemics, most of which induce 1989, to 65 million m3 in 1991. It could earlier successional stages of forest. go lower if recent timber programme trends continue. Posing the policy questions From 1984 to 1991, timber harvest for In recent years, the growing urbaniza­ producing forest products and regenerat­ tion, affluence and mobility of Ameri­ ing a new forest (clear-cutting, removal cans have virtually revolutionized the cuts and selection harvests) occurred on expectations and demands placed on the an average of 138 000 ha per year. This is country's forests (particularly public for­ about 0.6 percent of the area available for ests). Some of the trends pose direct timber production in the National Forest conflicts between new expectations and System. Reforestation through planting traditional forest values and uses. 254 National policies, programmes and experiences

The national forests and national grass­ NEW PERSPECTIVES FOR lands can produce more wood products MANAGING THE NATIONAL to meet domestic and foreign needs, FOREST SYSTEM they can provide more recreation, etc., New directions but they cannot keep doing these things Strategic direction for managing the Na­ and others without limits or tradeoffs. tional Forest System is set for five-year Choices must be made on which uses periods under the Resources Planning and values to favour and how to balance Act (RPA) of 1974. The current version, management to get the best mix from a the 1990 RPAProgramme, identifies four limited land base (Niemi, Mendelsohn themes and 19 contemporary issues for and Whitelaw, 1991). attention. Because the United States is such a The balance of management invest­ large force in global resource consump­ ments among the various multiple uses tion and its environmental ramifications, is being improved through increased the choices made for national forests and attention to recreation, wildlife and grasslands should consider what they are fisheries. Commodity production pro­ best capable of providing and the likely grammes are being examined and ad­ knock-on effects in other countries. justed when necessary to ensure con­ The essential policy question is this: formity to environmental protection given the full array of capabilities of the standards. Research, resource manage­ national forests and grasslands relative ment, technical assistance and interna­ to other wildlands, and gi ven the Ameri­ tional programmes are addressing glo­ can people's requirements for the eco­ bal resource issues. Principal resource nomic and environmental benefits of issues ranged from below-cost umber these lands, what are the desired current sales and clear-cutting to biological di­ and future conditions, uses and values versity and global stewardship. of the national forests and grasslands? Each national forest has an integrated The answers will lead to further ques­ land and resource management plan tions, such as how should these condi­ which, as appropriate, addresses these tions, uses and values be restored, cre­ and other local issues and needs. The ated or maintained? How should those plans are developed and kept current who most directly benefit from these through an open public involvement conditions and roles pay for the benefits process, often together with conserva­ or compensate those who do not benefit? tion partners. A supportive environment for sustainable forest management 255

FIGURE 12 Hierarchy of ecosystems - ecosystem conservation requires the integration of management actions across multiple geographic scales, from sites (even mlcrosltes) to watersheds, landscapes, regions and continents

Source SocIety of Amencan Foresters 1991 Task force repOr/ on bIodIversIty Tn for~st ecosystems

Conserving ecosystems for essentIally aim at Improving the practi­ broader benefits cal applicatIOn of well-balanced, On-the-ground projects have been es­ multiple-use land and resources man­ tablIshed as New Perspectives projects. agement for broader values, uses and These have four prImary purposes: I) to servIces. learn how to sustain ec%f.:ica/ systems New PerspectIves projects address the better at multiple geographic scales for broader view of wildland management more varied current and future benefIts that IS emerging in the United States and uses; ii) to Improve the effective­ (Franklin et al., 1989) and other coun­ ness of public partiCipatIOn in resource tries (Plochmann, 1989; Maim, 1990). decIsIon-makIng; Iii) to strengthen the The Swedish call it "Rikare Skog", a teamwork between researchers and re­ richer forest (Skogsstyrelsen, 1990). It source manaf.:ers in carrying out adap­ requires a landscape perspective because tive land and resource management; it is not possible to provide for all uses,

and IV) to inte?,rate all aspects of land values and services from every site. The and resource s mana?,ement. The projects foundation for this variety is the role of 256 NatIOnal poliCIes. programmes and experiences

RGURE13 Con ..rvlng ecological systems at any geographic scale requires management actions to be ecologically sound, economically feasible and socially desirabie. If any of these factors is over­ or underemphasized, ecosystem management goais cannot be met on a sustained basis - the "fire" goaa out

Ecosystem conservation 4\-

Ecology

biologIcal diversity in overall land health ecologically sound, economically fea­ and productivity (Society of American sible and socially responsible (FIg. 13). If Foresters, 1991; Keystone Center, 1991 ; anyone of these elements IS missmg or Hansen etal., 1991; Reid etal., 1992). out of balance, the desired ecosystem Conserving biologically diverse and conditions will not be sustainable. productive landscapes is a primary theme The key point is that there is not a of New Perspectives projects (Salwasser, single natural purpose or set of biologI­ 1991); so is the application of ecosys­ cal condItIOns for which partIcular eco­ tem concepts to managing national for­ systems must be conserved. However, ests and grasslands at multiple scales. the biological and physical complexity Figure 12 illustrates the multiple geo­ of any ecosystem will define its capa­ graphic scales of ecosystems. bilities, resilience and long-term sustainability. Therefore, it is not pos­ Principles and guidelines for sible to defme ecosystem conservation ecosystem managers solely by economIc or social criteria. To conserve ecosystems, regardless of Ecosystem conservation can only be the specific goals, management must be: continually defined and refined at the A supportive environment for sustainable forest management 257

intersection of three factors: ecology, version of these principles "sustainable economics and society. Because all three development" . constantly change, scientifically based, The essence of conserving ecological socially responsive and adaptive man­ systems at landscape and larger scales is agement (Walters, 1986) is essential. managing for diversity: in biological sys­ To help land stewards achieve man­ tems, in economic systems and in human agement, there are four principles that social systems. In a rapidly changing and serve as useful guides: unpredictable environment, all these forms of diversity are needed. Principii! 1. Taking care of the land by protecting or restoring its soils, air, waters, Implementing New Perspectives - biological diversity and ecological processes. taking a landscape view Landscape management to conserve eco­ Principle 2. Servmg the people by help­ logical systems means sustaining their ing individuals, families and communi­ integrity, diversity, productivity and re­ tIes who depend on the land for food, silience so the land can continue to pro­ fuel, shelter, livelihood and recreation vide the kinds of resource products, meet their basic needs within the sus­ uses, values and services that people tainable capability of the land. need and desire. Foresters historically managed eco­ Principle 3 . Improving or sustaining the logical systems for certain desired uses economic well-being and security of and conditions: for example, producing communities. regions and nations by and sustaining yields of selected prod­ wisely producing, using and conserving ucts, such as wood and wood fibre. natural and human resources. Management for these purposes usually involves simplifying the system: through Principle 4. Strivingfor balance. equity clear-cutting, followed by the planting and harmony between people and land of desired tree species and reducing in meeting this generation's resource competing vegetation. needs while maintaining similar options A landscape approach to ecosystem for future generations. and resource management seeks to fit management practices at different geo­ The World Commission on Environ­ graphic scales to suit the characteristics ment and Development (1987) called its of the land and the specific purposes for 258 National policies. programmes and experIences

which different areas are being man­ mosaic of sites in watersheds and land­ aged. At the extremes, this can range scapes that will sustain the ecosystems. from the intensive culture or develop­ In ecosystem conservation, all poten­ ment for high yields of products or uses tialland uses and practices are valuable. on some sites to the strictest forms of Most ecological sites can serve different protection or ecological restoration on purposes. Many resource and environ­ others. In most cases on public wild­ mental goals can only be effectively lands, it will feature less intensive forms addressed at larger geographic scales, of resource production or protection, such as landscapes and regions. At these i.e. multiple-benefits management. scales, people are part of the ecosystems Management for site or local diversity and need resources from somewhere, means that less of the primary productiv­ and some places in these landscape­ ity of some sites will be channelled to a scale ecosystems must protect unique single or few products of choice. Thus, for environmental values. Therefore, all at least the short term, wood volume or places m landscapes and all practices game-wildlife yields from those sites may that can sustain the ecosystems or serve be lower. On the other hand, managing the needs and aspirations of people are for diversity at a landscape or regional potentially valuable (Fig. 14). scale means that a larger area of land may Consequently, managers and scien­ be suitable for less intensive uses or forms tists must increasingly mteract with of management Overall, the land's ability people who depend on the landscape to to sustain a wide array of values, uses and determine how best to provide the de­ services and respond to stresses or cli­ sired balance. Integration of goals and mate change may offset short-term pro­ actions; coordination of plans and ductivity losses. This is the ecological projects across multiple spatial and tem­ rationale of New Perspectives. poral scales; and collaboration among Landscape management to sustain all the interested parties - all these are richer benefits and future options does not necessary for managing landscapes and mean that all sites receive the same treat­ their ecosystems for broader benefits. ment or serve identical purposes (Forman and Godron, 1986; Hunter Jr, 1990). Be­ Balancing land-use classes and cause each site can potentially serve dif­ management direction ferent purposes, the challenge is to deter­ Forest plans have designated large areas mine the balance of purposes and the of the National Forest System for the A supportive envIronment fo,. sustamahle forest management 259

FIGURE 14 Conserving ecosystems for desired values, uses, products and services requires blending the application of resource protection, restoration, management and enhancement at watershed, landscape and larger geographic scales

BALANCE

primary purpose of restoring and pro­ large, live trees, standing and fallen dead tecting native ecosystems and rare ele­ trees, native hardwoods, etc. (Franklin et ments of biological diversity. In these al , 1989; Skogsstyrelsen, 1990; Hansen areas, natural processes are encouraged, et al., 1991; Swanson and Berg, 1991). although some human intervention may These "legacIes" contribute to the long­ be necessary to sustain desired ecologi­ term diversity, productivity and resilience cal conditions, e.g. prescribed fires. of ecosystems. Other areas are designated for multiple The National Forest System also des­ benefits, includmg appropriate resource ignates substantial areas for economi­ uses and, at times, for considerable inter­ cally efficient production of wood, en­ vention to achieve specific objectives, ergy, minerals, water, recreation and e.g. dispersed recreation areas, habitats fibre to help serve the nation's resource for neotropical migrant birds, selective needs. Management in some of these timber harvest and ungulate winter ranges. areas is patterned after successful pri­ Much ofthe land in multiple-benefit areas vate sector programmes on appropriate will contain substantial amounts and dis­ sites (Bingham, 1991). However, even tributions of "biological legacies" such as these intensively managed wildlands wi\l National policies. programmes and experiences provide considerable environmental ser- future as biological diversity (Reid et vices and values: clean water, carbon at., 1992). We cannot choose to have sequestration, habitat for early succes- one without the others. sional wildlife and outdoor recreation. Because the National Forest System SUMMING IT UP: CONSERVATION is so diverse, productive and resilient, IS STILL THE BEST MODEL the locations, amounts and management To address resource depletion in the late direction for each of these land-use des­ nineteenth century, conservation was ignations could vary in the future. offered as the model forethical behaviour regarding forests and forest resources. It Choosing desired present and stressed protecting basic resources, sci­ future conditions entific management, and wisely using The choice of what to do about United resources to serve people's needs. Over States' national forests and grasslands the years, new dimensions emerged: should address the desired present and multiple use, sustained yield, wilder­ future conditions of three things: envi­ ness preservation, endangered species ronments, economies and the conditions protection and integrated land manage­ of human families and communities lo­ ment and planning. cally, regionally, nationally and globally. While some problems remain and oth­ Ecosystem conservation and its sub­ ers have emerged in the last few years, set of sustaining desired forest condi­ on balance, multiple use and conserva­ tions means protecting the environment tion have definitely worked. The condi­ and meeting people's needs for natural tions of United States forests, wildlife, resource products and services for the rangelands, agricultural lands and re­ short and long term. The challenges in lated resources have improved dramati­ doing this can only be met by bringing cally during the last century, and these people and nature together. This has trends are continuing. Thus, the current been known for a long time resource situation in the United States (Prabhavananda and Isherwood, 1944; offers more choices than if these poli­ Gia-Fu Feng and English, 1972; cies had not been implemented. Easwaran, 1985; Weatherford, 1988; Sahtouris, 1989; Wall and Arden, 1990). Adding the ecosystem dimension Economic well-being and human cul­ Ecosystem conservation for multiple tural diversity are as vital to our desired benefits is an emerging model for land A supportive environment for sustainable forest management 261

and resources management in the 1990s. humans want it or not. It will not be It is conceptually broader than the pre­ possible to conserve ecosystems and vious models of sustained yield and have a healthy environment in a chang­ multiple use but builds directly on the ing world without reasonable human foundation established by previous poli­ well-being and vice versa. Thus. educa­ cies. concepts and accomplishments. tion. economic development. equity in Because of what prior generations of distributing resources. adaptability and political leaders. scientists and resource conservation of natural resources must managers created. we can explore land all complement good land management management that considers more than as the necessary and sufficient parts of a selected resource outputs. more than global stewardship ethic (Reid et al .• single species and more than a mecha­ 1992). nistic. reductionist view of nature. This does not mean that controversy REFERENCES over forest uses in the United States WIll soon subside. Americans are still split Alexander, S. & Greber, B. 1991. EnVI­ over the appropriate uses of national ronmental ramifications of various forests and are increasingly concerned materials used in construction and about private lands as well. This con­ manufacture in the United States. Gen­ cern will not diminish until people agree eral Technical ReportPNW-GTR-277. on the need for diversity and the relatIve Pacific Northwest Research Station. purposes and juxtapositions of aJl sites USDA Forest Service. 21 pp. on the landscape. Baden,J.1991. Spare thattree! Forbes. More emphasis on managing national December 9. p. 229-233. forests and grasslands for broader ben­ Berry, W. 1987. Home economics. San efits in the future does not mean that the Francisco. Calif.• USA, North Point. challenges stop at the border of distinct 192 pp. landownerships. These are regional and Bingham, C.W. 1991. Forest resource national concerns. requiring coordina­ availability and use: wood and timber tion among neighbouring landowners from a United States perspective. Pa­ and land managers. per presented at the Society of Ameri­ And we must be constantly ready for can Foresters Annual Convention. San change. One thing is certain about the Francisco, Calif., USA. 15 pp. (proc. future: the biosphere will change whether in press) 262 National policies, programmes and experiences

Binkley, C.S.l991. The global economy The importance of asking the right and rising expectations. Paper presented question. Forest Perspectives, 1(1): at the Wood Product Demand and the 9-13. Environment Conference, 13-15 No­ Clawson, M. 1979. Forests in the long vember. Vancouver, Canada, Forest sweep of American history. Sci­ Products Research Society. 9 pp. ence, 204: 1168-1174. Botkin, D.B. 1990. Discordant harmo­ CDRRIM. 1976. Wood for structural nies: a new ecology for the twenty-first and architectural purposes. Commit­ century. New York, Oxford University tee on Renewable Resources for In­ Press. 241 pp. dustrial Materials/NatlOnal Research Bowyer, J.L. 1991 a. Responsible envi­ CouncIl. Wood and Fibre, 8(1): 1-72. ronmentalism - the ethical features of Dunlap, T.R. 1989. Saving America's forest harvest and wood use. Paper wildlife. Princeton, N.J., USA, presented at the National Conference Princeton University Press. 222 pp. on Ethics in America. Long Beach, Easwaran, E. 1985. The Dhamapada. Calif., USA. 8 pp. Petaluma, Calif., USA, Nilgiri. 208 pp. Bowyer, J.L. 1991b. Responsible envi­ FAD. 1991. FAO Forest Products Year­ ronmentalism: the ethical features of book, 1978-1989. Rome. 336 pp. forest harvest and wood use on a glo­ Fedkiw, J. 1989. The evolVing use and bal scale. Forest Perspectlves, 1(4): management of the nation's forests, 12-14. grasslands, croplands and related re­ Bowyer,J.L.1991c. Resource manage­ sources. GTR-RM-175. Fort Collins, ment: a need for realistic assumptions, Colo., USA, Rocky Mountam Forest global thinking. Paper presented at the and Range Experiment Station, USDA National Stewardship Conference. Forest Service. 66 pp. Dultuh, Minn., USA. 8 pp. Forman, R.T.T. & Godron, M. 1986. Burgess, R.L. & Sharpe, D.M., eds. Landscape ecology. New York, Wiley. 1981. Forest island dynamics in man­ 619 pp. dominated landscapes. New York, Franklin,J.F., Perry, D.A., Schowalter, Springer. 310 pp. T.D., Harmon, M.E., McKee, A. & Caulfield, C. 1990. The ancient forest. Spies, T.A. 1989. Importance of eco­ The New Yorker, May 14, p. 46-84. logical diversity in maintaining long­ Clark, R.N. & Stankey, G.H. 1991. term site productivity. In D.A. Perry, New Forestry of New Perspectives? B. Thomas & R. Meurise. eds. Main- A supportIve envIronment for sustamable forest management 263

taining the long-term productivity of Forest and Range Experiment Station, Pacific Northwest forest ecosystems. USDA Forest Service. 268 pp. Portland, Oreg., USA, Timber. Haynes, R. W. & Brooks, D.J. 1991. Frederick, K.D. & Sedjo, R.A., eds. Wood and timber availability from a 1991. America's renewable resources.' Pacific Rim perspective. Paper pre­ historical trends and current chal­ sented at the Society of American lenges. Washington, DC, Resources Foresters Annual Convention. San for the Future. 296 pp. Francisco, Calif., USA. (proc. in Fri, R. W. 1991. Sustainable develop­ press) ment: can we put these principles into Hunter, M.L. Jr. 1990. Wildlife ,forests practice? 1. Forest., 89(5): 24-25. and forestry. Englewood Cliffs, N.J., Gale, R.P. & Cordray, S.M. 1991. What USA, Prentice Hall. should forests sustain? Eight answers. Ince, P.J. & Alig, J.T. 1991. Wastepaper 1 Forest., 89(5): 31-36. recycling and the future timber mar­ Gia-Fu Feng & English, J. 1972. Lao ket. Paper presented at the Annual Tsu:TaoTeChrng. New York, Vintage. Outlook Conference, 2 December. Gillis, A.M. 1990. The new forestry; an Washington, DC, USDA. ecosystem approach to land manage­ Johnson, K.N., Franklin, J.F., Tho­ ment. Bioscience, 40(8): 558-562. mas, J.W. & Gordon, J. 1991. Alter­ Greber, B.J. & Johnson, K.N. 1991. natives for management of late-suc­ What's all the debate about cessional forests in the Pacific North­ overcutting? J Forest., 89( 11): 25-30. west: a report to the United States Hansen, A.J., Spies, T.A., Swanson, House of Representatives; Committee F.J. & Ohmann, J.L. 1991. Conserv­ on Agriculture, Subcommittee on For­ ing biodiversity in managed forests. ests, Family Fanns and Energy; and Bioscience, 41(6): 382-392. the Committee on Merchant Marine Harding, G. 1985. Filters againstfolly.' and Fisheries, Subcommittee on Fish­ how to survive despite econonomrsts, eries and Wildlife, Conservation and ecologists, and the merely eloquent. the Environment. 59 pp. New York, Penguin. 240 pp. Keystone Center. 1991. Final consen­ Haynes, R. W. 1990. An analysis of the sus report of the Keystone Policy Dia­ timber situation in the United States: logue on Biological Diversity on Fed­ 1989-2040. GTR-RM-199. Fort eral Lands. Keystone, Colo., USA. Collins, Colo., USA, Rocky Mountain Knudsen, T. 1991. The sierra in peril. 264 National policies, programmes and experiences

The Sacramento bee. Special report, Perlin, J. 1991. A forest journey: the Sacramento, CA. role of wood in the development of Koch, P. 1991. Wood vs non-wood ma­ civilisation. Cambridge, Mass., USA, terials in US residential construction: Harvard University Press. 445 pp. some energy-related international im­ Ploch mann, R. 1989. TheforestofCen­ plications. Working Paper 36. Centre tral Europe: a changing view. The for International Trade in Forests Starker Lectures. Corvallis, USA, Or­ Products. University of Washington, egon State University. Seattle, USA. 38 pp. Postel, S. & Ryan, J.C. 1991. Reform­ MacCleery, D. W. 1991. Condition and ing forestry. In L.R. Brown, edt State trends o{USforests: a brief overview. ofthe world 1991: a Worldwatch Insti­ Washington, DC, Timber Management tute report on progress towards a sus­ Staff, USDA Forest Service. tainable society, p. 74-92. New York, Maini, J.S. 1990. Sustainable develop­ Norton. ment and the Canadian forest sector. Prabhavananda, S. & Isherwood, C. Forest. Chron., August: 346-349. 1944. The song of God: Bhagavad Marsh, G.P. 1864. Man and nature: or Gita. Hollywood, Calif., USA, physical geography as modified by Vedanta. 179 pp. human actions. New York, Scribners. Reid, W., Barber, C., Miller, K. (writ­ 560 pp. ers) Courrier, K., edt 1992. Global National Research Council. 1990. F or­ bIOdiversity strategy: gUidelines for estry Research: a mandatefor change. action to save, study and use earth's Washington, DC, National Academy biotic wealth sustainably and equ/ta­ Press. 84 pp. bly. Washington, DC, WRI/IUCN/ Niemi, E., Mendelsohn R. & Whitelaw, UNEP in cooperation with FAO/ E. 1991. New conflic.ts stir managers Unesco. 244 pp. of United States forests. Forum Appl. Sahtouris, E. 1989. Gala: the human Res. Public Policy, 6(3): 5-12. journey from chaos to cosmos. New Nyland, R.D. 1991. Exploitation and York, Pockett. 252 pp. greed in eastern hardwood forests. J. Salwasser, H. 1991. New perspectives Forest., 90(1): 33-37. for sustaining diversity in the US Na­ O'Toole, R. 1988. Reforming the For­ tional Forest System. Conserv. Bioi., est Service. Washington, DC, Island. 5(4): 567-569. 247 pp. Sample, V.A. 1991 a. Bridging resource A supportive environment for sustainable forest management 265

use and sustainability: evolving con­ logical roots of new approaches to for­ cepts of both conservation and forest estry. Forest Perspectives, 1(3): 6-S. resource management. Paperpresented Terbourgh, J. 1990. Where have all the at the Society of American Foresters birds gone? Princeton, N.J., USA, Annual Convention. San Francisco, Princeton University Press. 207 pp. Calif., USA. 6 pp. (proc. in press) Thomas,J.W.19S9. WiIdliferesources. Sample, V.A. 1991 b. Land stewardship In R.N. Simpson & D. Hair, eds. Natu­ in the next era ofconservation. Milford, ral resources for the 21 st century. Wash­ Pa., USA, Gray Towers. 43 pp. ington, DC, American Forestry Asso­ Sedjo, R.A. 1990. The national forest ciationllsland. resources. Discussion Paper. ENR90- Thomas, W.L. Jr, ed. 1956. Man's role 07. Washington, DC, Resources for in changing the face of the earth. An the Future. 85 pp. international symposium under the Sedjo, R.A. & Lyon, K.S. 1990. The cochairman ship of e.O. Sauer, M. long-term adequacy of world timber Bates & L. Mumford. Chicago, Ill. , supply. Washington, DC, Resources USA, University of Chicago Press. for the Future. 230 pp. 1193 pp. Shugart, H.H. 1984. A theory offorest Toynbee,A. 1976. Mankind and mother dynamics: the ecolog ical implicatIOns earth: a narrative history ofthe world. afforest succession models. New York, New York, Oxford University Press. Springer. 278 pp. 641 pp. Silver, C.S. & DeFries, R.S., eds. 1990. Trefethen,J.B. 1975. AnAmerican cru­ One earth, one future: our changing sadefor wildlife. New York, Winches­ global environment. Washington, DC, terlBoone and Crockett Club. 409 pp. National Academy Press. 196 pp. Ulrich, A.H. 1989. U.S. timber produc­ Skogsstyrelsen. 1990. Rikare skog. 90- tion, trade, consumption and price sta­ Talets Kunskaper om Naturvard och tistics 1950-87. Miscellaneous Publi­ Ekologi. Jonkoping, Sweden. cation No. 1471. Washington, DC, Society of American Foresters. 1991. USDA Forest Service. 77 pp. Biological diversity in forested eco­ Ulrich, A.H. 1990. U.S. timber produc­ systems: a position statement of the tion, trade, consumption and price sta­ Society of American Foresters. tistics 1960-88. Miscellaneous Publi­ Bethesda, MD, USA. cation No. 1486. Washington, DC, Swanson, F. & Berg, D. 1991. The eco- USDA Forest Service. SO pp. 266 National policies, programmes and expeTlences

USDA Forest Service. 1973. The out­ forests: an historical geography. New look for timber in the United States. York, Cambridge University Press. Forest Resource Report No. 20. Wash­ 599 pp. ington, DC. 367 pp. Wilson, E.O. 1988. Biodiversity. Wash­ USDA Forest Service. 1982. An analy­ ington, DC, National Academy Press. sis ofthe timber situation in the United World Commission on Environment States, 1952-2030. Forest Resource and Development. 1987. Our com­ Report No. 23. Washington, DC. 499 mon future. New York, Oxford Uni­ pp. versity Press. 400 pp. USDA Forest Service. 1990. The F or­ WRI. 1990. World resources 1990-91. est Service Program for forest and New York, Oxford University Press. range/and resources: a long-term stra­ 383 pp. tegic plan. Washington, DC. WaddeD, K.L., Oswald, D.D. & Powell, D.S. 1989. Forest statistics of the United States, 1987. PNW-RB-168. Pacific Northwest Research Station. Portland, Oreg., USA, USDA Forest Service. 106 pp. Wall, S. & Arden, H. 1990. Wisdom­ keepers: meetings with native Ameri­ can spiritual elders. Hillsboro, Oreg., USA, Beyond Words. 128 pp. Walters, C. 1986. Adaptive manage­ ment of renewable resources. New York, Macmillan. Waring, R.H. & Schlesinger, W.H.1985. Forest ecosystems: concepts and man­ agement. New York,Academic. 340 pp. Weatherford, J. 1988. Indian givers: how Indians of the Americas trans­ formed the world. New York, Fawcett Columbine. 272 pp. W'dliams, M. 1989 . Americans and their FAO TECHNICAL PAPERS

FAO FORESTRY PAPERS

1 Forest utilization contracts on public land, 1977 (E F 5) 2 Planning forest roads and harvesting systems, 1977 (E F S) 3 World list of forestry schools, 1977 (E/F/S) 3 Rev.1 World list of forestry schools, 1981 (E/F/S) 3 Rev.2 World list of forestry schools, 1986 (E/F/S) 4/1 World pulp and paper demand, supply and trade 1- Vol. 1, 1977 (E F S) 4/2 World pulp and paper demand, supply and trade - Vol. 2, 1977 (E F S) 5 The marketing of tropical wood In South America, 1976 (E S) 6 National parks planning, 1976 (E F S··) 7 Forestry for local community development, 1978 (Ar E F S) 8 Establishment techniques for forest plantations, 1978 (Ar C E* F S) 9 Wood chips - production, handling, transport, 1976 (C E S) 10/1 Assessment of logging costs from forest inventories in the tropics - 1. Principles and methodology, 1978 (E F S) 10/2 Assessment of logging costs from forest Inventories In the tropics - 2. Data collection and calculations, 1978 (E F S) 11 Savanna afforestation In Africa, 1977 (E Fl 12 China: forestry support for agriculture, 1978 (E) 13 Forest products prices 1960-1977,1979 (E/F/S) 14 Mountain forest roads and harvesting, 1979 (E) 14 Rev.1 Logging and transport In steep terrain, 1985 (E) 15 AGRIS forestry - world catalogue of information and documentation serVices, 1979 (E/F/S) 16 China: Integrated wood processing industries, 1979 (E F S) 17 Economic analysIs of forestry projects, 1979 (E F S) 17 Sup.1 Economic analysIs of forestry projects: case studies, 1979 (E S) 17 Sup.2 Economic analysis of forestry projects: readings, 1980 (C E) 18 Forest products prrces 1960-1978, 1980 (E/F/S) 19/1 Pulping and paper-making properties of fast-growing plantation wood species - Vol. 1, 1980 (E) 19/2 Pulping and paper-making properties of fast-growing plantation wood species - Vol. 2, 1980 (E) 20 Forest tree Improvement, 1985 (C E F S) 20/2 A gUide to forest seed handling, 1985 (E S I 21 Impact on sOils of fast-growing species In lowland humid tropIcs, 1980 (E F S) 22/1 Forest volume estimation and Yield prediction - Vol. 1. Volume estimation, 1980 (C E F S) 22/2 Forest volume estimation and Yield prediction - Vol. 2. Yield prediction, 1980 (C E F S) 23 Forest products prices 1961-1980, 1981 (E/F/S) 24 Cable logging systems, 1981 (C E) 25 Public forestry administrations in latin America, 1981 IE) 26 Forestry and rural development, 1981 (E F S) 27 Manual of forest Inventory, 1981 (E F) 28 Small and medium sawmills in developing countries, 1981 (E 51 29 World forest products, demand and supply 1990 and 2000, 1982 (E F 51 30 Tropical forest resources, 1982 (E F SI 31 Appropriate technology in forestry, 1982 (E) 32 Classification and definitions of forest products, 1982 (Ar/E/F/S) 33 Logging ot mountain forests, 1982 (E F 5) 34 , Fruit-bearing forest trees, 1982 (E F S) 35 Forestry in China, 1982 (C E) 36 Basic technology In forest operations, 1982 (E F S) 37 Conservation and development of tropical forest resources, 1982 (E F SI 38 Forest products prices 1962-1981, 1982 (E/F/S) 39 Frame saw manual, 1982 (E) 40 Circular saw manual, 1983 (E) 41 Simple technologies for charcoal making, 1983 (E F 5) 42 Fuelwood supplies In the developing countries, 1983 (Ar E F 5) 43 Forest revenue systems In developing countries, 1983 (E F 5) 44/1 Food and fruit-bearing forest species - 1. Examples from eastern Afnca, 1983 (E F 5) 44/2 Food and fruit-bearing forest species - 2. Examples from southeastern ASia, 1984 (E F 5) 44/3 Food and fruit-bearing forest species - 3. Examples from Latin Amenca, 1986 (E 5) 45 Establishing pulp and paper mills, 1983 (E) 46 Forest products prices 1963-1982, 1983 (E/F/5) 47 Technical forestry education - design and implementation, 1984 (E F 5) 48 Land evaluation for forestry, 1984 (C E F 5) 49 Wood extraction with oxen and agricultural tractors, 1986 (E F 5) 50 Changes in shifting cultivation In Africa, 1984 (E F) 50/1 Changes In shifting cultivation In Afnca - seven case-studies, 1985 (E) 51/1 5tudies on the volume and Yield of tropical forest stands - 1. Dry forest formations, 1989 (E F) 52/1 Cost estimating in sawmilling Industnes: gUldehnes, 1984 (E) 52/2 Field manual on cost estimation In sawmllhng Industnes, 1985 (E) 53 Intensive multiple-use forest management In Kerala, 1984 (E F 5) 54 Planlficacl6n del desarrollo forestal, 1984 (5) 55 Intensive mUltiple-use forest management In the tropICS, 1985 (E F 5) 56 Breeding poplars for disease resistance, 1985 (E) 57 Coconut wood - Processing and use, 1985 (E 5) 58 5awdoctoring manual, 1985 (E 5) 59 The ecological effects of eucalyptus, 1985 (C E F 5) 60 Monitoring and evaluation of participatory forestry proJects, 1985 (E F 5) 61 Forest products prices 1965-1984, 1985 (E/F/5) 62 World list of Institutions engaged In forestry and forest products research, 1985 (E/F/5) 63 Industrial charcoal making, 1985 (E) 64 Tree growing by rural people, 1985 (Ar E F 5) 65 Forest legislation in selected African countries, 1986 (E F) 66 Forestry extension organization, 1986 (C E 5) 67 50me medicinal forest plants of Africa and Lattn America, 1986 (E) 68 Appropriate forest industries, 1986 (E) 69 Management of forest industnes, 1986 (E) 70 Wildland fire management terminology, 1986 (E/F/S) 71 World compendium of forestry and forest products research institutions, 1986 (E/F/S) 72 Wood gas as engine fuel, 1986 (E 5) 73 Forest products: world outlook projections 1985-2000, 1986 (E/F/S) 74 Guidelines for forestry information processing, 1986 (E) 75 Momtorlng and evaluation of social forestry In India - an operational guide, 1986 (E) 76 Wood preservation manual, 1986 (E) 77 Databook on endangered tree and shrub species and provenances, 1986 (E) 78 Appropriate wood harvesting in plantation forests, 1987 (E) 79 Small-scale forest-based processing enterprises, 1987 (E F 5) 80 Forestry extension methods, 1987 IE) 81 GUidelines for forest policy formulation, 1987 (C E) 82 Forest products prices 1967-1986, 1988 (E/F/S) 83 Trade in forest products: a study of the barriers faced by the developing countries, 1988 (E) 84 Forest products: World outlook projections - Product and country tables 1987-2000, 1988 (E/F/S) 85 Forestry extension curricula, 1988 (E/F/S) 86 Forestry policies In Europe, 1988 (E) 87 Small-scale harvesting operations of wood and non-wood forest products involving rural people, 1988 (E F 5) 88 Management of tropical mOist forests In Africa, 1989 (E F P) 89 Review of forest management systems of tropical ASia, 1989 (E) 90 Forestry and food security, 1989 (Ar E 5) 91 Design manual on basIc wood harvesting technology, 1989 (E F 5) (Published only as FAO Training Series, No. 18) 92 Forestry policies in Europe - An analysis, 1989 (E) 93 Energy conservation In the mechanical forest industries, 1990 (E 5) 94 Manual on sawmill operational maintenance, 1990 (E) 95 Forest products prices 1969-1988, 1990 (E/F/S) 96 Planning and managing forestry research: gUIdelines for managers, 1990 (E) 97 Non-wood forest products: the way ahead, 1991 (E 5) 98 Timber plantations in the humid tropIcs of Africa, 1993 (E F) 99 Cost control in forest harvesting and road construction, 1992 (E) 100 Introduction to ergonomics In forestry In developing countries, 1992 (E F I) 101 Management and conservation of closed forests in tropical America, 1993 (E F P 5) 102 Research management In forestry, 1992 (E F 5) 103 Mixed and pure forest plantations in the tropIcs and subtroplcs, 1992 (E) 104 Forest products prices 1971-1990, 1992 (E/F/S) 105 Compendium of pulp and paper training and research institutions, 1992 (E) 106 Economic assessment of forestry project impacts, 1992 (E F) 107 Conservation of genetic resources in tropical forest management - Principles and concepts, 1993 IE) 108 A decade of wood energy activities within the Nairobi Programme of Action, 1993 (E) 109 Directory of forestry research organizations, 1993 (E) 110 Proceedings of the Meeting of Experts on Forestry Research, 1993 (E/F/S) 111 Forestry policies in the Near East region - Analysis and synthesis, 1993 (E) 112 Forest resources assessment 1990 - Tropical countries, 1993 (E) 113 Ex situ storage of seeds, pollen and in vitro cultures of perennial woody plant species, 1993 (E) 114 Assessing forestry project impacts: issues and strategies, 1993 (E F 5) 115 Forestry policies of selected countries In ASia and the Pacific, 1993 (E) 116 Les panneaux ~ base de bois, 1993 (F) 117 Mangrove forest management gUidelines, 1994 (E) 118 Biotechnology in forest tree improvement, 1994 (E) 119 Les produits bois reconstitu~s, hants et enVlronnement, 1994 (F) 120 Decline and dleback of trees and forests - A global overView, 1994 (E) 121 Ecolog(a y ensenanza rural - Manual para profesores rurales del ;§rea andlna, 1994 (5) 1 22 Readings in sustainable forest management, 1 994 (E) 123 Forestry education - New trends and prospects, 1994 (E F) 124 Forest resources assessment 1990, Global syntesls (E 00) 125 Forest products prices 1973-1992, 1995 (MultL)

Availability' January 1995

Ar - Arabic Multil - Multilingual C Chinese Out of print E English In preparation I - Italian F - French P - Portuguese S - Spanish

The FAD Technical Paperl are available through the authorized FAD Sales Agents or directly from Distribution and Sales Section, FAD, Viale delle Terme dl Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy. This collection of papers on sustainable forest management had its origins in the 10th World Forestry Congress which issued the Paris Declaration in 1991. The Declaration called on the world's decision-makers to raise public awareness so that forestry' issues could be better ~nderstood and appreciated. The technical papers inthis,book'were,largely prep:~r,E!:~,and submitted in 1992. The delay in publishing them arose from the decision to issue an earlier "popular" version,'which was expected to make the niost impact in the immediate post-UNCED period. It is hoped that their publication will make-available valuable information of relevance to the work of professional foresters and others, involved in the sector.

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