THE OTHER SIDE of the STAGE Book, One Has to Experience Them

A HANDBOOK FOR MONITOR ENGINEERS Cover picture:  Soundcraft

Pictures and diagrams: Guido Tattoni, except where indicated.

 Guido Tattoni, 2003.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means, including information storage or retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the copyright owner.

For enquiries and comments, please write to:

Guido Tattoni Corso di Porta Vigentina, 21 20122 Milan Italy

Or email: [email protected] A HANDBOOK FOR MONITOR ENGINEERS

guido tattoni

NOTE:

For the purpose of this guide, the monitor engineer is often called stage engineer, and also words like monitor mixing, monitor engineering have sometimes been changed to stage mixing or stage engineering, without any difference in meaning. Similarly, the term Front of House referred to words like console, engineer, mix, etc. will be often abbreviated in FOH, house, or main.

There are other words in the guide that mean the same thing: the following is a complete list of these.

Desk, board, console, and mixer: they all mean what is commonly called mixer:

Speakers and wedges: they both have been used to indicate the kind of loudspeakers placed on the floor used for monitoring purposes.

Band and artists: these terms indicate the person(s) who performs on stage, who is the final user of the monitor. I used the plural most of the times, but of course what is said is valid also for solo artists.

I also used some abbreviations to the most used terms, for example:

IEMs: for In Ear Monitors PA: for Public Address EQ: for Equaliser LPF: for Low Pass Filter HPF: for High Pass Filter

Finally, you will notice that I always refer to the engineer and the artists using the masculine. I apologise to all the female readers for this discrimination, which is exclusively due to the reading cohesion.

Preface

This guide is written for sound engineers who wish to know more about monitor mixing. Being myself a sound engineer and being also very interested in live music, with particular regard to the monitor part, I found myself very often looking for information, techniques, advice and tips that could help me improve this skill. I have read several live-sound manuals, surfed dozens of live-related sites and looked through countless industry oriented magazines. After extensive researches I have found that:

(1) there is no specific literature (being it a book, a website or a magazine) on this subject.

(2) if something is said, it is very generic and certainly not as detailed as other subjects.

If one picks up any live-sound book, for instance, one will find that the section dedicated to the basics of sound (waveforms and wavelength, acoustic, etc.) is usually very detailed, and so is the explanation of how to run a P.A., but when it comes to monitors, things are different. In most cases monitor engineering is not mentioned at all, but sometimes one can find a small section at the end of the book titled “monitors”, or an article about monitor techniques in a live music magazine. Books are usually very generic, articles, on the other hand, are usually very specific and useful, but they appear too rarely.

This constructive criticism is not intended to be based against those books (or articles, or websites) and their authors, whom I truly respect (being experienced professionals and to whom I have nothing to teach), it is rather aimed at the lack of information available on this subject. It is this lack of information which made me decide to write something that was dedicated to monitor engineering only.

This guide is intended to be read by a sound engineering graduate who has a knowledge on sound basics and equipment, but no experience in this field. By reading this book, the reader will develop a

I better understanding of what is involved in monitor mixing. The guide will not explain to the reader the basic principles of sound, which is assumed that he will already be familiar with, nor will go into intense detailed theories. Its approach is rather practical than theoretical.

I tried to support any theory that I mention with a practical example, scheme or table. In some cases a real-life report will show the theory put into practice by a professional engineer.

This guide is not intended to make the reader capable of engineering a concert straight away, but rather it will help a beginner monitor engineer develop a good understanding of the purposes and the procedures of monitor engineering in a effective, and hopefully enjoyable way.

Guido Tattoni, January 2003

II Table of Contents

INTRODUCTION TO MONITOR ENGINEERING...... 1

The purpose of monitor engineering...... 2 Differences from other kinds of sound engineering ...... 3

SIGNAL FLOWS ...... 5

Mixing monitors from the FOH...... 5 mixing monitors from the stage...... 12

EQUIPMENT ...... 15

Mixing consoles ...... 16 Inputs...... 16 Quantity factor ...... 17 Quality factor...... 18 Preamps...... 18 EQ section...... 19 Dynamics controls...... 19 Outputs...... 19 Aux sends/mixes/busses ...... 21 groups...... 21 Matrix ...... 21 masters ...... 21 monitors ...... 22 Grouping...... 22

III Audio groups...... 22 Mute groups ...... 22 VCA groups...... 22 Automation/recall...... 23 Outboard effects...... 23 Microphone preamps...... 23 Reverbs, delays and other special effects ...... 24 Compressors/limiters/noise gates ...... 24 input ...... 25 output ...... 25 Graphic EQs ...... 25 loudspeakers (wedges)...... 25 Placement...... 26 Floor wedges ...... 26 sidefills ...... 27 Frequency range ...... 27 sub-woofers ...... 27 Shakers...... 28 In Ear Monitors (IEMs) ...... 28 Sound-proof IEMs...... 30 Ambience IEMs ...... 30

DESIGNING A MONITOR SYSTEM ...... 35

basic designing principles ...... 35 talking to the artists ...... 36 choosing the equipment...... 37 Testing the equipment...... 39

RUNNING THE SYSTEM...... 41

building up the system ...... 41 ringing out the system...... 42

IV line- and sound-check...... 45 conclusion ...... 46

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 49

Books ...... 49 Magazines...... 51 Articles ...... 51 Web...... 51

INDEX...... 55

Chapter one

Introduction to Monitor Engineering

The Live Concert industry has grown very quickly in the last few years: live concerts are now big events, where the audience can experience the latest audio and visual effects. Due to this high degree of technology, organising a concert is much more difficult than before: everyone involved in the event has to be very skilled and specialised in order to guarantee the best outcome. For sound engineers, particularly, this trend of the industry brought about the separation of two careers that before were one the continuation of the other. Being a stage (or monitor) engineer nowadays does not mean being an apprentice front of house engineer. The growing number of electronic instruments and the always higher demands of the artists, make the job of the monitor engineer so complex and specialised, that it can be considered without doubt a real career.

If you are reading this guide, it means that you are taking your first steps in monitor engineering, so you are probably doing some small jobs for local bands or maybe you are working in a company that hires sound systems as technician. Both these cases are excellent sources of experience, and represent the way that famous engineers began their career.

If you are not working, I strongly advice you to start gaining experience, even if unpaid. Do not worry if the only jobs you have been asked to do were small ones, it does not really matter (and it is perfectly normal). Very often from these situations that seem to be pointless, one can learn a lot.

This guide is intended to be integrated with a certain amount of practice, for the simple reason that some things cannot be taught in a

1 THE OTHER SIDE OF THE STAGE book, one has to experience them. So, if you do not know where to turn, just ring up your a local band and offer yourself as an engineer, it is the best way to learn.

THE PURPOSE OF MONITOR ENGINEERING Generally speaking the purpose of monitor engineering is to allow the artists on stage to hear themselves and their bandmates. As a result, if they are comfortable with their monitors, they can play and sing better, and the performance as a whole will be more enjoyable to the audience. In other words, it could also be said that a monitor engineer is responsible for the sound on the stage. In fact, this “being responsible” is not as simple as it sounds, since it involves three main tasks, that define the purpose of monitor engineering:

To provide musicians with personalised mixes that must meet their needs.

To make sure that the stage noise does not spill into the sound addressed to the audience, either directly or via the PA system.

To avoid the stage sounds generating feedbacks.

Besides, if one considers not only the performance of the concert, but also its preparation, the responsibilities of a monitor engineer also entails:

The designing of the monitor system around the artists’ needs.

Making sure that the system is effectively operating on site. As we will see later on, these last two points are the most important and complex parts of the job.

2 INTRODUCTION TO MONITOR ENGINEERING

DIFFERENCES FROM OTHER KINDS OF SOUND ENGINEERING It is well known that every branch of sound engineering has its peculiarities that make it different from another one. Being a recording engineer, for instance, is extremely different from being a mastering or a FOH engineer. What distinguishes a monitor engineer from other kinds of engineer is:

A monitor engineer has to handle several mixes at the same time: a medium sized concert of a four-members band can require even eight to ten different mixes.

The balance required by the artist is often unpleasant to listen to. Depending on their position on stage, artists may hear an instrument louder than another, and therefore they would need a mix that sounds nice to them but completely unbalanced to whom is not in their same position. This means that there are no references for the engineer to judge if a mix sounds good or not, apart from what the artist says.

Mistakes cannot be corrected: this is valid for everyone involved in a live event. Everything is done in real-time, so if one makes a mistake, the audience will notice it. Sometimes the pressure is really high, and one has to think really quickly: unlike other situations, there is no “undo” for a live engineer.

Chapter two

Signal flows

There are two main ways of engineering monitors: one can manage the stage speakers from the FOH console using the FOH facilities, while the other one implies the use of equipment completely dedicated to the monitors -usually located at one side of the stage- and a monitor engineer. The latter is of course more expensive, but it definitely gives better results. Mixing for the PA at the front of house does not allow the FOH engineer to pay enough attention to the monitor mix, and, being the main console usually far away from the stage, it makes the communication between artists and engineer quite problematic. More rarely, it happens to see some hybrid situations, such as using a separate smaller monitor console placed in the FOH position and operated by an assistant engineer, but most of the time the methods employed fall into these two main categories. In the next section we will examine the pros & cons of both situations.

MIXING MONITORS FROM THE FOH It is very common not to employ any dedicated equipment or engineer, especially in situations where one has to keep an eye on the expenses. It would be wrong however, to think that this solution is always worse than the other one just because is cheaper. There are some situations that do not require a separate monitor console, so an all-in-one desk that handles both the monitors and the PA is the best thing to have. Most small venues for example, do not have enough space on stage for more than three or four monitors, even less for a whole monitor desk with outboards. In these cases, engineering monitors from the FOH is the only way to do it, and most of the time -if done properly- it works really well. It would not work that well, of course, with a higher number

5 THE OTHER SIDE OF THE STAGE of monitors, or when the PA is more demanding (in terms of attention that the engineer has to dedicate to it), when particular kind of monitoring systems are required (such as IEMs or stereo monitoring), or when the monitors are heavily processed. Fig. 1 shows a typical signal flow in situations where monitors are engineered from the FOH.

As you can see, this is a very basic sound system, that could be suitable for a small venue. The stage is also not very big, so only smaller bands can perform on it. The PA consists of two speakers (or two arrays of speakers) only, without sub-woofers or front-fills. A four- element band is performing: a lead singer, a guitarist, a bass player, and a drummer. In order to provide a minimal decent monitor system, each member has to have his personal wedge, but in this case we have been able to provide the lead singer with two (in dual mono configuration). This system can be easily run by one person using a 24-channels/6- aux. outputs/2 busses console, but its capabilities are very limited.

This is how the system can be configured:

The signal is routed to the desk from the three stage boxes, directly from the microphones (or D.I.) to the mic inputs.

Four of the six aux. outputs feed the monitor wedges, whilst the other two could feed two reverb units, which return into four channels. These reverbs can be used both for the PA and for the monitors.

The PA is fed from the console’s stereo bus, through a stereo compressor and a graphic EQ. Even if extremely basic, this kind of system can work well in certain circumstances. It presents, however, some major limitations that make it unsuitable for any situation that is bigger or even a bit more complicated than this one.

Tab. 1 summarises the pros and the cons of this kind of monitoring system.

6 SIGNAL FLOWS

drumkit

Bass player Guitarist Lead singer

PA Left PA Right

These areStereo guidelines bus to PAo di til Graphic EQ

Ext. compressor

These areFOH guidelines mixer only, so, used in a particular way, it do Signal from everyone’s creativity and practic stage boxes to the best. Aux out to stage main desk’s mic monitors inputs

Stage monitor Stage box Amplifier Lines in

Lines out KEY

Fig. 1: A very basic monitor system, run from the FOH.

7 THE OTHER SIDE OF THE STAGE

PROS CONS Very cheap Limited capabilities Easy to operate (both monitors and It does not allow the use of sub- PA can be operated by the same woofers or front-fills for the engineer) audience. Also, it is not possible to have side-fills or drum-fills on stage. It allows the PA engineer to have If the situation is any more direct control on monitors. This complex than the one shown, it gives the engineer more control on will be very difficult for a single feedbacks engineer to handle it. It considerably reduces the time There is very little one can do to dedicated to the soundcheck. the monitors sound, since there is no dedicated EQ or compression. It sounds good in most small It is unsuitable for larger venues venues. or when a complex monitoring is required. Tab. 1: Pros and cons of running monitors from the FOH.

The situation pictured in Fig. 1, however, is very basic and shows the signal flow in its simplest form. The capabilities of this kind of system can be drastically improved with a little effort, i.e. using a better console, or employing more outboard units (dynamics, EQs, and effects) that will deliver better quality monitors. Adding a graphic EQ before each monitor will reduce sensibly feedback-related problems, that are more likely to happen in a small venue.

Fig. 2 shows how this system can be improved in order to make it capable of delivering good quality sound in bigger venues. When this set-up is employed, however, there is often someone who assists the engineer with the monitors. The use of such gear, of course, will ruin the most favourable point of this system, its relative cheapness, but will equally improve all the others, making this solution a valid one even for bigger events.

8 SIGNAL FLOWS

drumkit

Bass player Guitarist Lead singer

Graphic EQ Graphic EQ Graphic EQ

Graphic EQ Graphic EQ Graphic EQ Aux. 1: sidefills 1: Aux. guitarist 2: Aux. singer 3: Aux. sub-woofer 4: Aux. drumfill 5: Aux. bass player 6: Aux.

Fig. 2: A monitor set-up that includes sidefills, a sub-woofer, and graphic EQs, run from the FOH.

As Fig. 2 shows, it is still possible to run a more complex monitor system from the main console, but it is not common practice. In this case, we have a graphic EQ on each wedge, two sidefills linked together, and an extra sub-woofer for the drummer. That makes the system (that requires at the very least a 24 channel-8 aux-2 busses console) more difficult to run, making it necessary for the engineer to have an assistant. Moreover, it will fill the FOH position with monitor- dedicated equipment. That’s why, this solution is very rarely used.

9 THE OTHER SIDE OF THE STAGE

T H E C H I E F T A I N S – U.S.A . T O U R 2002 TheR Chieftains’ E U.S.A. TourP 2002 O R T The Chieftains, which after more than 40 years of touring are now a milestone in Irish music, employ the monitors-from-the-FOH system, engineered since 1998 by Mark Horton. He is assisted in mixing monitors by tour manager Cleland, who used to be the band’s engineer before him. The band’s line-up is as follows:

- Kevin Conneff: bodhran and vocals - Derek Bell: harp and keyboards - Matt Molloy: flute - Sean Keane: fiddle - Paddy Moloney: uillean pipes and tin whistle

For the U.S.A. tour 2002, some special guests joined the band: - Alison Moorer: guest singer - Nathalie MacMaster: guest fiddler - Jeff White: guest guitarist

As shown in Fig. 3, Horton runs four different monitor mixes from a Harrison SM4 console, although his favourite is the Midas Heritage 3000. Most musicians play acoustic instruments, and stages were usually quite small, so they did not need a different monitor mix each. Basically this is how Horton arranged their listening:

Mix 1 - Sidefills: this mix gave the musicians an overall band stereo monitor. It was made up of an ensemble of all instruments, except for the drums which “were loud enough on stage” he says, and it go to two outside wedges. Mix 2 - Guest singer: a wedge was dedicated to Alison Moorer only, and it had her voice only with “a lot of the guitar”. Mix 3 - Guitarist: an overall mix with some drums in. Mix 4 - Kevin Conneff: his monitor, like the mix one, had a bit of everything in, but his voice was very loud, and drums and guitar were predominant. This set-up worked well so far, however, Derek Bell experienced some trouble hearing his organ, which is not in the overall mix. That is why Horton planned to add an extra wedge for him in the future.

Source: Candace, H. (2002). ‘The Chieftains: the sound of Ireland heard round the world’

10 SIGNAL FLOWS

Uillean pipes + whistle Bodhran + vocals Flute

Harp + keyb. Fiddle

Guest vocals Guest guitar

Mix 4: Kevin Conneff

Mix 3: guitarist

Mix 2: guest singer

FOH mixer Mix 1: sidefills

Stage monitor Musicians Mono signal Stereo signal KEY

Fig. 3: Mark Horton’s monitor setup for The Chieftains U.S.A. tour 2002.

11 THE OTHER SIDE OF THE STAGE

MIXING MONITORS FROM THE STAGE Instead of having four hands on the same console, the trend nowadays when monitors need to be accurate, is to create two separate environments: the FOH in front of the stage, and the monitor console at one side of it. This way, the two engineers are completely independent, and they both have more control on their mixes, without being in each other’s way. To do this, one has to feed the two consoles independently, so the signal from the stage boxes goes first of all into a device called splitter (Fig. 4), which splits the signal into two equal ones.

1-8 1-8 splitter 1-16 to monitor desk

9-16 9-16 1-16 to FOH

1. mic/D.I. cables 2. multi-core cables 3. two bigger cables go into stage boxes carry the signal into deliver the same signal the splitter to both desks

Fig. 4: Functioning of a splitter box.

Whit his solution there are several advantages with its only weak point of being expensive: therefore, when the budget allows, this is the most used system. Having a dedicated console and equipment means makes the whole monitor set-up able to be configured completely around the artists’ needs, without the troubles of sharing the gear with the FOH. The monitor engineer will deliver better sound, the artists will be able to have what they want (whether they use IEMs or wedges), and feedback problems and troubleshooting on stage will not interfere with the work of the FOH engineer, who will be able to look after the PA properly. Tab. 2 is a summary of pros and cons of mixing monitors from the stage.

12 SIGNAL FLOWS

PROS CONS It allows both the engineers to It doubles the amount of gear, work independently. rising the costs for hiring and transportation. As the equipment is of exclusive It requires a skilled monitor use of the monitor engineer, it will engineer to operate it. be easier for him to deliver better quality sounds and service. Being closer to the stage improves It requires a specifically communication between the dedicated area that is often not engineer end the musicians. available on smaller stages It makes the designing the system more accurate. Tab. 2: Pros and cons of running monitors from the stage.

As Tab. 2 shows, the advantages compensate largely the few weak points of this solutions: in a big production, one will definitely go for this system, being usually enough funds to hire both the engineer and the equipment, provided that the venue can host the gear on stage (almost all the “big ones” do). If the concert is supposed to be quite loud, the monitor system (if it employs wedges) could be as powerful and as complex as the P.A. of a small/medium gig. The use of IEMs simplifies the system in some ways, but requires more attention in some others (see IEMs section later on).

Fig. 5 shows a medium sized monitor system, where each member of the band has his own wedge (plus: the singer has a stereo pair and the drummer has an extra sub-woofer), and two arrays of sidefills improve the overall listening. If the arrays are fed with different signals, it is not to make a stereo mix between the two (it would not make sense, since it would be difficult for someone to hear the one at the opposite side): they are fed independently because musicians performing on different sides are likely to need different mixes. Considering the two arrays of sidefills as a stereo pair is one of the most common mistakes, and in fact, their proper name (which better describes their function) is Cross Stage Monitors.

13 THE OTHER SIDE OF THE STAGE

Stage console

In a separate-console situation, Lines-in go through multi-core cables from stage boxes into the splitter, and then into the consoles. Monitors are usually fed by aux. outs or matrix outs when available, because they offer the best mixing facilities.

splitter FOH

Stage monitor Fig. 5: A monitoring system run from Stage box the stage. Amplifier Lines in

Lines out KEY

14 Chapter three

Equipment

The equipment of a monitor engineer, with only a few exceptions, can be easily split into two main categories, that will make it easier to understand its use:

Equipment especially designed for monitor mixing purposes, that features characteristics and functions specifically thought for an “on stage” use only, and therefore it is very hard to find in other situations.

Equipment that is employed in other kinds of sound engineering, but that is used in a particular way for stage mixing purposes.

The way a particular piece of equipment is employed, of course, varies in different situations, but there are some general rules that are followed in designing or using equipment for monitor engineering. In the next section we will examine thoroughly a stage engineer’s toolbox, in order to show the peculiarities of each piece of equipment.

These are guidelines only, so, if a particular machine is said that it can be used in a particular way, it does not mean that it has to be. It is up to everyone’s creativity and practicality to use any device the way that he findsfinds thethe best.best.

What follows is a comprehensive list of the equipment used by monitor engineers.

15 THE OTHER SIDE OF THE STAGE

MIXING CONSOLES Mixing consoles, also called desks, boards or mixers, are the heart of the monitor system. Many major brands developed consoles that make a monitor engineer have more control on his mixes more easily. Very often these mixers are exploited as the monitor version of an already existing FOH console. Yamaha and Soundcraft, are among the brands that developed a monitor adaptation of their best console or series of consoles: Yamaha’s most popular is its PM4000 for the FOH and the PM4000M for the monitors, while Soundcraft’s latest set of consoles is the Series Five for the house and Series Five Monitor for the stage. Midas is also very well known for its extremely high quality (and expensive) desks. After establishing a standard with its XL250 and later on with its XL4 (also used for FOH), it launched its new Heritage series: three powerful consoles (H1000, H2000 and H3000) that embody enough features and capabilities for the most demanding engineers. Consoles specifically designed for monitors are intended to be used in situations where the monitoring system is completely separated from the PA system. Other brands, or less expensive products of the above brands, developed some hybrid consoles that can be used both for the FOH and for the monitors, or in case the monitors are engineered from the main mixer. The features that we are going to examine refer mostly to stage-dedicated mixers. So, what distinguishes a monitor console from a normal desk? What are the features that a monitor engineer requires most? And least? In order to make it easier to understand, those features can be divided into four categories: inputs, outputs, grouping and automation/recalling.

Inputs The input section is very important in a monitor desk: in order to understand its importance, two factors have to be considered:

The more inputs the console has, the more instruments can be independently monitored (quantity factor).

High-quality components of each input module allow the engineer to achieve better sounds easier (quality factor).

16 EQUIPMENT

Mostly due to budget problems, it is not always possible to have as many inputs or the very best components available as one would like, so very often one has to try to get the best out of equipment that is not state-of-the-art. It is important to know how these factors can affect the quality of your monitor mix.

QUANTITY FACTOR The first thing that one’s eye falls on while looking at monitor console is the incredible number of input channels that it features. In fact, it is very rare to find a monitor mixing desk with less than 24 channels, and more often they have 36, 48, or 60, and have the possibility of being linked to another console, in order to extend the number of channels available. If you are wondering why should one need so many inputs, simply think about how many channels you would need to engineer monitors for a standard four-member rock band (a lead singer, guitarist, bass player, and drummer). At the very least, this is the amount of channels that you need to dedicate to each instrument:

- Singer: 1 channel - Guitar: 1 channel - Bass: 1 channel - Drumkit: 8 channels (miking kick, snare, hi-hat, 2 toms, 1 floor tom and overheads) - 1 Effect return: 2 channels

that makes a total of 13 channels. But sometimes, you may wish to mike the guitar twice, or to have the bass signal both miked and from a D.I. box, or put two mikes on the snare, or add an extra effect; sometimes you may need to mike backing vocalists, or an extended drumkit. And what if the bands are more than one? what if they use sequencers? As you can see the amount of inputs that one requires can rise very easily: very often more than 24 input channels are used.

Besides it is important that every instrument is discretely monitored (which means that one cannot sub-group them to reduce the number of

17 THE OTHER SIDE OF THE STAGE inputs), since the mixes addressed to the artists can be extremely different, so that what one wants loud, the other might not want it at all. So, this is why monitor consoles have so many channels, but most of them offer even more possibilities. Some desks (like Soundcraft’s series Five Monitor) now feature two different XLR mic inputs per channel, other than the line-in. This is particularly useful if one has to engineer two bands: just by pressing a button one can switch from input A to input B, and have the desk ready for the second band very quickly. The need of a line-in on every channel came with the use of more sequencers, keyboards and sound generators. However, as previously mentioned, all of this equipment is not always available due to its cost, leaving the engineer with a console smaller than is required. If you run out of channels you have to decide what to leave out, which is always a difficult choice. Generally speaking, things should be fine even if you reduce your inputs to the above “essential” list: the artists may complain (they always do anyway…) but at least your mixes will be intelligible.

If you are already using the “essential” list and need to further reduce the number of channels (yes, sometimes it happens), you could possibly leave out the overheads, which are generally loud enough on a medium-sized stage.

QUALITY FACTOR It is hard to provide good mixes starting from bad sounds, and this is why it is important to have good inputs (in terms of level and sound quality). Generally speaking, the quality of a mix depends very much on the quality of one’s equipment; this is true for a monitor mix as well. In other words, with particular regard to the preamps section, the role played by the input channel is extremely important. Quite often the overall quality of a console is judged by its preamps and its EQ section.

Preamps The purpose of the pre-amplifier (preamp), is to amplify the microphone level. The ideal preamp, amplifies the signal without interfering with the frequency spectrum of the sound, and it is noiseless. In fact, due to physical limitation a completely flat and noiseless

18 EQUIPMENT amplifier does not exist, however, good quality ones get very close to this. On the other hand, poor quality preamps add unwanted frequencies to the sound and have a loud background noise. Even though someone likes the preamp to “colour” the sound in a particular way, it is important to have control on how the sound changes and to keep the background noise down.

EQ section The EQ section is what allows the engineer to achieve the sound he wants for his mixes. The electronic components of an EQ are quite expensive, so a good EQ section makes the price rise, but it is worth it. A very good console usually features a four-bands parametric EQ plus an independent adjustable HPF, while cheaper ones may not have the extra HPF and sometimes not even a fully parametric EQ, featuring a shelving for treble and bass frequencies.

Dynamics controls Unlike almost every high quality recording console, even the most expensive monitor mixers do not usually feature any on-board dynamics control, partly to leave more room on the module for the auxiliary outputs. Compressors and gates are more often external units, fed through the insert points.

Outputs Without any doubt, the most distinctive feature of a monitor desk is the incredibly huge amount of outputs. Again, a real-life example will help to see that output channels are never enough. If the example given for the inputs was an extremely simple situation, for the outputs, on the other hand, we’ll see what happens with a pretty tough line-up.

Björk’s gig at Royal Opera House in 2001 was a really complicated situation: she was touring with a 56-piece orchestra and a 16-voice choir. Her monitor engineer Bob Lopez, behind a Midas Heritage 3000, created 16 different stereo mixes plus a 4-channels sidefill to imitate the

19 THE OTHER SIDE OF THE STAGE surround system used for the PA. None of the musicians used any In Ear Monitor system, so he could keep the number of outputs used to 36 (Source: Mann, M. (2002). ‘Björk - The Vespertine Goddess Makes Her Debut at Covent Garden’).

Monitor consoles are designed to give the highest flexibility as far as outputs are concerned, featuring many auxiliary outputs, busses, and other facilities that can only be found in this kind of desks. Unfortunately the way that output channels are named, often generates a bit of confusion, since it is different from consoles designed for other purposes, so, same features may have different names. Generally this is how names change from a recording console to a monitor one:

Feature Recording console Monitor console Output send with level - aux control both on each - mix (Depending Auxiliary send on the channel and in a master - send brand) section - bus - group (with master Output send with no level Bus level control in larger control on each channel consoles) Additional output send with multiple input routing possibility, with level Usually not present -matrix control in the master section Monitors (sometimes Monitors (usually control also Communication Output send section used room’s nearfield and Module), but the for the engineer’s farfield monitors, and outputs are usually listening headphones) called A, B, (or 1 and 2) and headphones. In both kinds it could be called L-R or Master Master outputs/section output Tab. 3: A comparison between outputs features of a recording desk and a monitor console.

From now on, the names used to indicate a particular feature, will be the ones listed in the monitor console column.

20 EQUIPMENT

AUX SENDS/MIXES/BUSSES It is now a standard to have 16 busses in a monitor desk, but some consoles features up to 32 aux sends. Whether they work as mono or as stereo sends, it is usually possible to switch each of them pre or post fader. An optional additional EQ section is sometimes available in the aux master section, but more often additional EQing is made by external modules. Aux masters should feature muting and soloing possibilities.

GROUPS Larger consoles also feature grouping possibilities (see next section for more details) that give even more output channels. One of the best group section is probably in Midas’ XL4 console, which allows the creation of 16 independent audio groups. However, independent signal processing on groups is very limited in any console, being usually nothing more than a bass/treble EQ.

MATRIX This facility is usually available on larger monitor desks only, and is almost never featured by other kind of desks. Its purpose is to provide the engineer with additional output channels. The capabilities of a matrix section are indicated by two numbers, i.e. 23x12: in this case it means that each matrix module can be fed from 23 different sources simultaneously, and that the desk features 12 different matrix outputs. Signal sources are usually some of the group masters, plus L-R master, plus (sometimes) an external input. Some brands feature matrix modules specifically designed for In Ear Monitors The matrix module varies very much in different brands, so for more detailed information you have to refer to a specific desk’s user’s manual.

MASTERS This section is usually very similar to the one featured by other kinds of consoles. Depending on the console’s size, one can find, other than the main L-R out, one or two additional stereo outputs as well as a mono out.

21 THE OTHER SIDE OF THE STAGE

MONITORS Again there are no major differences in this section. In this part of the desk oscillators, noise generators and talkback facilities are also fitted.

Grouping Groups are widely used when it comes to engineer gigs with a large number of instruments, since it allows one to control more signals via a single fader or section. There are different kinds of grouping possibilities in a monitor console: depending on the model, one can find audio groups, mute groups, and VCA groups.

AUDIO GROUPS As we have seen in the previous section, these groups do what busses do in a recording console. Any input channel can be assigned to one or more of these groups, and then controlled by the group master fader. They usually come in pairs, to allow an easier stereo grouping. This facility is generally used to sub-group instruments that use more than one input channel (such as drumkits), or instruments ensembles such a horns or strings section or backing vocals. Changes made to the group master will not affect single channels.

MUTE GROUPS Group muting is particularly useful when a given instruments section is not used for a while, since it allows the engineer to close a group of microphones on stage by simply pressing a button. It is important to reduce the number of open microphones to the minimum at all times, because it is the most effective way to reduce the risk of feedbacks. There can be several mute groups, but the average for big consoles is usually 8.

VCA GROUPS This feature is extremely powerful and must be used carefully. Basically one can group his input channel’s faders into up to 8 VCA groups (some consoles feature more), controlled by the same number of master VCA faders. Moving a master VCA fader therefore, will be like

22 EQUIPMENT moving the same way all the faders assigned to that group, which will affect any post-fader derivation of those signals. Each fader can be assigned to more than a group, and sometimes it is easier to get lost in your own routing, ending up not knowing what effect moving a certain master VCA fader will have. To make things easier, some desks feature motorised faders that allow the engineer to actually see what happens.

Automation/recall Only the biggest and most expensive desks have on board automation and recall facilities. However, not every feature of the console can be always automated: while digital consoles offer almost always complete automation and recall of any function of the desk, on analogue ones (which are still the most used) it is more difficult to find really complete automation. Depending on the model, the possibilities offered can vary a lot, but at least faders, mutes and routing automation is always available. When the desk can be fully automated many engineers set up a scene (or snapshot, or act) for each song of the show during rehearsals: this allows them to develop very sophisticated mixes that can be recalled quickly during the gig. Most desks can be controlled via MIDI, giving even more possibility of synchronisation.

OUTBOARD EFFECTS This category includes any signal processing device that is not built-in on the console. The most commonly used are microphone preamplifiers, reverb/delay units, compressor/gate modules, EQs and, more recently, digital sound processors (such as the BSS Soundweb) which feature all the previous devices in one single unit.

Microphone preamps A microphone preamplifier is a very expensive device, that sensibly affect the quality of the sound. However, even though it would be great to have a state-of-the-art preamplifier also on that floor-tom that the drummer hits only once in a gig, sometimes one has to face budget

23 THE OTHER SIDE OF THE STAGE problems, and realise that it is not always possible to have 48 or more very good preamps. So, instead of hiring an expensive console that features high-quality preamps on every channel, it is a common practice to go for a cheaper desk, and have a few good preamps as external units. Sometimes however, when the budget is not a problem, some engineers use a particular external preamp even if they have an expensive console, simply because they like its sound.

Reverbs, delays and other special effects The use of effect units is very limited for the purpose of monitor engineering: if it is not required for artistic reasons (when the artist needs to listen to a particular effect to achieve a certain sound) it is very hard to find more than a couple of reverbs in the stage engineer’s rack. Besides, when the artists need to hear specific effects, they usually have their own rack (especially guitarists), and they change their sounds themselves. A bit of reverb is used to make the mixes more realistic, and, especially with IEMs, to add ambience to the sound. This very limited use of effects is mostly due to the higher risk of feedbacks that they may generate.

One of the first rules in monitor engineering is to keep the sound on stage as simple as possible: try not to add any extra sound unless it is really indispensable. Reverbs especially reduce the available gain-before-feedback, so, if you think your headroom is too small, try to make your mixes a bit more dry by turning down your reverbs before changing anything else.

These effects are usually the same employed in other situations, such in studio or for the FOH, they are not specifically designed for monitor applications.

Compressors/limiters/noise gates Unlike other outboards effects, dynamic controllers are a must for the monitor engineer. They can be used either in the input or in the output path, both for artistic reasons and to reduce feedbacks.

24 EQUIPMENT

INPUT Compressors are employed in the input path to reduce the dynamic of a signal, so that more gain can be achieved before clipping. Usually patched in the insert connection, they make the sound easier to handle. While compressors are widely used on almost every instrument, gates are used more carefully: it is too risky to rely on a given threshold in a noisy environment like a live show, so engineers are usually not very keen on using gates, and if they do they keep the ratio pretty low compared to their studio colleagues: setting the threshold too tight and the ratio too high may easily result in loss of signal.

OUTPUT It is very common to use compression on the outputs. Combined with a graphic EQ, a good compressor is one of the outboards used more often in monitor engineering. When possible, one should try and have compression on every channel that feeds a wedge, and always, with no exception, on an output routed to an IEMs (see IEMs section). Use of compressors/limiters is not very different from the way they are used in the studio, being their main purpose to control dynamics and peaks.

Graphic EQs A graphic EQ is the most powerful tool that a monitor engineer can use to fight feedbacks. The more accurate it is, the more effective: the best kind is a 31 bands (or 1/3 octave) EQ. It means that one can control 31 different frequencies, or, in other words, three frequencies in each octave. A graphic EQ should be patched into any output channel routed to a loudspeaker, in order to maximise your gain before feedback. Graphic EQ, therefore, are not intended in first place for an artistic/creative equalisation: their main function is strictly technical.

LOUDSPEAKERS (WEDGES) Loudspeakers used for monitoring purposes, usually called wedges, are normal loudspeakers as far as components are concerned, but they

25 THE OTHER SIDE OF THE STAGE are a bit different in the shape, since they are conceived to lie on the stage floor and direct the sound towards the artists’ head. This is the most common shape for floor wedges:

There are different kinds of speakers however, and they all have different functions. Their purpose depends on two factors: firstly one can distinguish different wedges by their physical placement on stage, and secondly by the frequency range that they are able to deliver.

Placement There are basically two main uses of wedges, that have different position on stage:

FLOOR WEDGES This is the type above pictured. Its function is to direct the sound towards the artists’ head. They are placed on the stage floor, next to the area where the artist is performing. They can be used in mono, or as a stereo pair for better quality. They usually have a narrow diffusion angle, or a high directivity, to make sure that the sound remains in the vicinity of the designated area, and does not bleed into others. The wider the diffusion angle, the more likely are feedbacks.

26 EQUIPMENT

SIDEFILLS Loudspeakers placed at one or both sides of the stage are commonly called sidefills, even though their proper name is Cross Stage Monitors (to differentiate them from the P.A. sidefills).These are basically P.A. speakers used in a monitor environment. Their function may seem superfluous, since every artist has his personal floor wedge, but it is not so. One has to take into account that performing musicians very rarely stand in the same position at all times: they walk, run, jump, dance and generally they move around the stage for artistic reasons. Having their monitors, as before said, high directivity, a few steps to one side is enough to lose the listening. So the engineer usually places some sidefills at both sides of the stage that are less directive, and allows the artists to listen themselves at all times. Most of the times the sidefills mix is an overall mix with no or little drums, but of course it can be different. Sidefills are usually placed on stands at head level.

Frequency range

SUB-WOOFERS Normal floor wedges and sidefills have an average frequency range between 60Hz and 20kHz. However, sub-woofers, which can deliver

27 THE OTHER SIDE OF THE STAGE usually between 35Hz and 300Hz, are widely used as drumfills. Most drummers like to hear their kick and the bass line above all, which are low frequency sounds. So it is common to provide drummers and percussionists with an extra sub-woofer that will give to these sounds enough power to satisfy those artists.

SHAKERS Also called “butt-woofers” they are actually not proper loudspeakers, since they deliver no sound at all. Basically they are just drivers mounted on the bottom of a drum stool. Feeding them through a LPF, makes them vibrate to low frequency signals, giving the drummer a vibe through the spine equal to the one experienced with a loud sub-woofer pointed at him.

Shakers are not really a common solution, but they are sometimes employed. Rod Stewart’s drummer Dave Palmer used two in the last tour. It won’t happen very often to use them, but you may find them useful in case you are monitoring with IEMs only, or if you don’t want an extra speaker on stage. Not every drummer likes it though, so check with him before shaking his butt!

IN EAR MONITORS (IEMs) Widely used across the nineties, even if first prototypes were invented in the early eighties, In Ear Monitors (or IEMs) represent the latest innovation in monitor engineering. The basic principle of IEMs is to deliver a stereo mix through two micro-speakers, which is only a few millimetres far from the eardrums. The speakers are mounted in a silicon-based support that fits perfectly the artist’s ear channel, being the ear piece a mould of the channel itself. Their main advantage is that using them, an artist can have a high quality monitor stereo mix at all times, without worrying about losing his mix if he moves around the stage. IEMs mixes are usually better in brightness, but they often lack low frequencies. IEMs can be either hard-wired or wireless, but the latter is definitely more common. In order for the sound to be delivered to a radio IEM, the

28 EQUIPMENT artist needs to wear a body-pack, which is a radio receiver, that picks up the signal sent by the transmitter, usually placed at the monitor engineer’s position.

The first researches started in the late seventies, and the first models were available on the market in the early eighties (Stevie Wonder was one of the first artists that used IEMs). They did not have a wide exploitation until the nineties, when many brands started producing them commercially at more reasonable prices. IEMs are nowadays very common, and some people are wondering if they will completely replace wedges. We won’t get into this debate (it would take way more than this tiny guide), we will just examine how do they work both alone and in combination with traditional speakers.

First of all, without distinguishing between hard-wired and wireless models (the kind of transmission does not affect the audio quality), we can divide IEMs into two main categories: sound-proof and ambience.

IEMs are designed to be very close to one’s eardrums! Carelessness in using IEMs may result in serious hearing damages. To prevent loud signals, a limiter MUST be patched in the output path. Some manufacturers now provide built- in limiters, always refer to the product’s specifications provided. The monitor engineer is liable for any damage he may cause!

29 THE OTHER SIDE OF THE STAGE

Sound-proof IEMs This kind of IEMs is designed to completely isolate the person who wears them from external noises. In other words, an artist who uses sound-proof IEM, will only hear what is in his mix, and very little of the rest. In a way this is very good because it will keep the artist free from extraneous noises, allowing him to concentrate on his mix. Sometimes, on the other hand, this isolation prevents the artists from “feeling the vibe” both of his bandmates and of the audience, with the result that he feels separated from what surrounds him. Sound-proof IEMs are not completely sound-proof of course: they allow a little of the external sound to bleed in, even if extremely attenuated. These characteristics make them the best choice for artists performing on very loud stages, or for the ones who do not mind that feeling of isolation that they may give.

Ambience IEMs This other type of earpieces on the contrary, allows the wearer to hear external sounds. As it is easy to imagine, their characteristics are the opposite of the previous kind: the artist who chooses ambience IEMs, will hear a combination of monitors and external noises. These earpieces are recommended in situations that require an ensemble sound, or when the artist likes to hear the sound of the public.

It is important to point put that there is not a better kind, they are simply two different products that offer different performances. The feeling of wearing earmolds at all times is very particular: some artists are not keen on using IEMs and still prefer to continue using traditional wedges. Many musicians, on the other hand are real enthusiasts of In Ear Monitors and perform with no wedges at all (see Brooks & Dunn report).

Tab. 4 summarises pros and cons of IEMs, and it is valid whether the artists chooses one kind or the other.

30 EQUIPMENT

PROS CONS The mix is usually better in There is very often a lack of low brightness and dynamics. frequencies. The artist can move freely, without Some people do not tolerate worrying about losing his monitor. earmolds. The artist has a handy volume- They require a limiter patched in control on the body-pack. for safety reasons. Wireless systems avoid the use of Sometimes the receiver picks up a considerable number of cables. external radio signals. Tab. 4: Pros and cons of using IEMs.

BROOKSR & EDUNN – NEONP CIRCUS O AND WILD R WEST SHOWT Featuring hi-tech lightning and state-of-the-art sound equipment, Brooks & Dunn toured across the U.S.A. with an IEMs only monitor set-up. Monitor engineer Dave “Hud” Haney mixes from a Ramsa SX-1A console: he handles ten separate in-ear mixes for ten musicians that are all fitted with the latest Future Sonic’s single driver IEMs.

He uses dbx Quantum 4-band compressors to compensate the lack of low frequencies:

“I squeeze the lows and also the high-mid band” he says “narrowly around 100Hz and 2.5kHz, then, depending on the instrument in each mix, I use the other two bands to compress the hottest frequencies”

31 THE OTHER SIDE OF THE STAGE

As for the effects, he uses four Lexicon PCM 80s and a PCM 70: while using IEMs he has to add more effects compared to wedges, since the In Ear Monitors always lack ambience.

Having run out of auxiliaries outputs to feed the reverbs, he uses the channels direct outs. He also added external Drawmer 1960 compressors on the vocal, kick and snare inputs.

The drummer, who uses hard-wired IEMs, also uses a pair of throne-mounted Aura shakers and a sub-woofer. As a precaution, in case one of the artists pops an ear piece out, he also installed a series of sidefills enclosures, that is fed with the stereo FOH mix, so that the sidefills leakage does not upset the FOH mix, being essentially the same.

Source: Frink, M. (2001). ‘Brooks & Dunn tour profile: Neon Circus and Wild West Show’

Fig. 9 shows the signal flow of a mic line in a dedicated-console monitor system. Optional or essential components are distinguished assuming that the sound has to be of a medium-high quality. Therefore, just after the mic, a compression module is strongly advisable, while an external preamp and EQ would be great but not essential. Outboards can be patched through the desk in countless different ways; the example shown is one of the most common ones: an optional compression in insert and reverbs/effects via aux. outs. A mix of dry and processed signal is sent out to the monitors via an aux. master, through a graphic EQ. X-over and power amps are required only if the monitors are passive, while the limiter becomes a must if using IEMs.

Optional component Essential component Stereo signal

Mono signal Output path KEY

32 EQUIPMENT

Input path Output path

to artist’s IEMs

to stereo stage wedges

before the console after the console Power amplifier Ext. preamp Ext. crossover Ext. EQ Ext. compr./limiter

Ext. compr./gate Graphic EQ

console to aux/group preamp masters

insert point

built-in EQ

aux. outputs/ groups outboards dry signal

to stereo aux returns Ext. compr./gate Ext. processing

Ext. processing

Fig. 9: Signal flow of a medium sized monitor system with dedicated console and outboards

Chapter four

Designing a monitor system

As previously mentioned, designing the system is a key stage in monitor engineering, if not the most important. Before talking about the designing process, however, it is important to say that, as a beginner, the reader is not likely to find himself in a situation of designing a whole monitor system. Most of the time, especially in smaller productions, one has to work with what he finds on site, having a very little (if any at all) decision power. Nonetheless, understanding the designing process, is important for a beginner too, so that when it comes to making a decision, he will not be unprepared, and he will act with reason. If you are going to engineer a gig in a venue that owns its sound systems, for example, there will be no designing at all, but if one knows the principle of designing, he will be able to configure an existing system to his needs without problems. This is the most common situation for beginners. A complete designing process happens in big tours only, where the production is wealthy enough to afford to hire whatever the artists need, and even in that case is not the monitor engineer only who decides what to hire: usually there is a consultation between him and the hiring company’s engineers that leads to the final decision. So, even if it does rarely happen for a monitor engineer to design a whole system alone, it is important to know what criteria are to be employed in the process.

BASIC DESIGNING PRINCIPLES Like P.A. systems, every big monitor set-up is the result of several hours spent by the engineering team choosing and testing the right machines, techniques and methods, in order to provide the artists with

35 THE OTHER SIDE OF THE STAGE exactly what they want. Not everything depends on the monitor engineer, however: there are many factors that limit the engineer’s freedom, that have to be taken into account. Sometimes the tour production imposes a limit to the expenses, or it asks for a particular brand of products which it has a sponsorship agreement with, or countless other requests. The artists themselves sometimes prefer a specific product or piece of equipment, or they may particularly dislike some others. In order to realise an effective monitor system that satisfies the artists, three are the steps that one should take: talking to the band, choosing the equipment, and testing the system.

TALKING TO THE ARTISTS As it is the most important part of the most important process, this is absolutely a major issue of monitor engineering. The artists’ satisfaction is actually the whole point of the job. In other words, the more one knows about the people he will work for, the better he will do the job. As we will see in the next chapter, getting to know the artists is the only way to understand their needs. Whether you are working for the local band or for a superstar, you should always go and talk to them before doing anything else. Even if there is no designing involved at all (if you are going to work in a small venue, for instance), at least there will be a planning. The engineer must know in advance what each member of the band likes to hear in his monitor and how (more about this will be said in the next chapter). So, assuming that he is working in a concert (or a tour) of a band he does not know at all, after the first meeting the monitor engineer should know:

The band line-up for that concert/tour. This includes the following questions: How many members are there in the band? What does each one play? How many of them sing? What kind of music do they play? And in what kind of venue(s)? Are there any guest musicians?

36 DESIGNING A MONITOR SYSTEM

The way they like to be arranged on stage, if there is any. Some artists are very concerned about that, some others do not mind at all, so it is better to find it out.

The kind of monitors they prefer. Wedges, IEMs, or both? If wedges, do they have to be a stereo pair or will one do?

What they like to hear in their mixes. This will help in the choice of sub-woofers and other special needs. Note that the answers to these questions may vary widely depending on the band’s experience. Generally speaking, more experienced bands have precise ideas of what they want, which makes the engineer’s job a lot easier. New bands on the other hand, may have no clue of what is better for them, so they will rely on the engineer’s advice. Of course this is not all you need, you will learn more about the band in the future, but this is enough to start thinking about the monitor system that would suit them best.

CHOOSING THE EQUIPMENT Once you know the kind of artists you are working with and what they want, you have to start thinking how to provide them with it. There is no rule at this stage, since the same results can be achieved in many different ways, but there are some general procedures that are usually valid in choosing the equipment. The choice, in fact, is not completely in the engineer’s hand: when you think about something, you should always discuss it with the artists or the production (depending on the size of the event you are engineering). This may disappoint you at first, but one has to keep in mind that is the people he is working for that must be happy, not the engineer himself: you may be more comfortable working with some machines/equipment rather than some others, but is always the artists that has the last word. To be more precise, there are some issues that are completely up to the engineer and some others that always has to be discussed. The final set-up is usually a compromise between the engineer practicality, the artists’ taste and the production’s budget.

37 THE OTHER SIDE OF THE STAGE

Tab. 5 shows what an engineer can usually decide to employ independently, and what, on the other hand, is more often subject to someone else’s approval, it being the artists, the tour production, or someone else.

Do not stick to the letter of these lists: their purpose is to show what generally speaking is up to engineer’s choice, and what is not. It is unlikely, for instance, that one member of the band would interfere with your decision of which console to employ, but you never know. Artists are unpredictable, and even more are tour productions, so be prepared and expect anything…

Of course what the engineer is free to choose has to be chosen reasonably. Every decision must be subordinated to the artists’ requirements

ITEM ENGINEER ARTISTS Console It is the piece that he must be most Since it does not affect their comfortable with. He usually perception of the sound, they do not chooses the console independently. usually rise any objection.

Wedges/ He may suggest what he think is They are likely to prefer one of the IEMs more suitable for the kind of gig. two solutions, so the engineer has to attain to what they like better. Brands and He may be free to choose IEMs’ They do not usually object to the models and wedges’ brand according to his engineer’s choice of wedges, but taste and experience. they may possibly have a favourite IEMs model. Use of When he foresees that they may be They will ask for them in case they sidefills/ needed, he includes them in his need them. drumfills design. Outboards He chooses them according to the They will tell the engineer what they (type of) artists needs. If no preference is want in their monitors and he will indicated, he will make a decision pick the ones that satisfy them. basing on his experience. Outboards He is usually free to choose the In some cases they may have a (brands and ones he likes or knows best. favourite reverb or compressor that models) they wish to be used.

Tab. 5: Choosing the monitor’s equipment.

38 DESIGNING A MONITOR SYSTEM

The comparison shown in Tab. 5, is between the engineer and the artists only, since their debate is mostly technical/artistic. The Production (or whoever pays for the equipment) usually rise financial objections only: in some cases, it will ask to pick a cheaper piece, or to use less wedges, etc. Sometimes the artists pay for the equipment themselves, so they will rise the issue.

TESTING THE EQUIPMENT The test stage is not the rehearsals (which will be described in the next chapter), it is the moment that the engineer, alone or with his crew, dedicates to checking if the system he designed works well. Basically it is a little bit more than a line-check, and it is usually done while the system is still in the hiring company’s warehouse. Its purpose is to verify that the connection works, that all the cables are in their place, that the desk’s layout is fine and all the outboards are patched the way the engineer planned. It is during this process that one may realise that he forgot to include something, or that something else is more handy if routed in a different way, and many other things that may help the system run smoothly. It is a lot easier to make up for any mistake or perform any adjustments at this stage, rather than once the gear is on the stage.

Mistakes ALWAYS happen. Even the world’s best engineers make mistakes, that’s why they do check their systems… Do not underestimate this stage! Remember that is much better to work things out when you have no pressures and you are still in the warehouse, rather than on a stage. Carelessness in testing the equipment, or not testing it at all, will easily lead to a lot of troubles during the show.

So, the only thing to do is to build up the whole system in the warehouse and make it work. If it does, you are more than half-way through the success of your performance.

Chapter five

Running the system

For obvious reasons, it is impossible to write in a book something like “how to run a monitor system”: that little “how” means all the knowledge, experience and skills that an engineer has to employ to do a good job. It is something that one learns from the practice, not from a book. If you have seen it in a book before, either it is a lie or the author is a genius. Since I believe I am not so, and I do not want to tell lies in this guide, I will not try to explain how to run a monitor system, I would rather give in this chapter a few pieces of advice that one may find useful. It is more like a checklist of what is to be done on the show day: in some cases there is a specific order to do things, in others one is free to do them the way he likes best. Needless to say, these are guidelines, so, like everything else in this field, what works well in a situation may not be the best solution in another.

What follows is valid whether if you are engineering the monitors only or if you also run the FOH. The only difference is that if you are doing both you are freer to decide when to do things, while if you work in a team you will have to compromise with other people’s needs.

BUILDING UP THE SYSTEM You will only have to do this if the system has been hired and needs to be built. If you work in a venue that has its own system already assembled and ready for use, you should then check it and adjust it to your requirements. If the gig is really big, you will probably have a crew to help you. Whether the system is already built, or it needs to be assembled, these are the main things of which you should be certain:

41 THE OTHER SIDE OF THE STAGE

Location: are all the pieces located where you wanted them? If not adjust them before you start patching. If that is not possible, you may also place them roughly where you want them and do fine adjustments later.

Is there everything you need? Try to work out if something is missing as soon as you can: you will have more time to make up for that.

Is everything patched the way you planned? Especially if you do not do it yourself, this is the mistake that happen more often.

When everything is in place and the stage is ready, make sure that the equipment is switched on and ready to use.

RINGING OUT THE SYSTEM The purpose of ringing out a system is to increase the available gain before feedback. The biggest problem of every monitor set-up is that the speakers are all pointed towards the microphones, making the risk of feedbacks very high. Every system is naturally more sensitive to one or more particular frequencies that ring easier than others.

This is, for instance, the sensitivity of a given system: the area above 0 dB is where we have continuous feedback, and the horizontal broken line is the system’s gain.

-5

-10 Relative Level in dB in Level Relative -15 100 500 1k 5k 10k 20k Frequency in Hz

42 RUNNING THE SYSTEM

We are already at our maximum available gain, since at this point a frequency at around 1kHz will start ringing. By cutting that frequency a little bit, we can increase our gain by 2-2.5 dB.

-5

-10 Relative Level in dB -15 100 500 1k 5k 10k 20k Frequency in Hz

At this point, three more frequencies will ring: approximately around 100Hz, 500Hz and 2.5kHz. We can do the same thing and achieve two more dB of gain.

-5

-10 Relative Level in dB in Level Relative -15 100 500 1k 5k 10k 20k Frequency in Hz

Now, the system’s sensitivity is roughly linear, so if we increase the gain further, almost all the frequencies will ring at the same time: this tells us that we achieved the maximum gain available

Putting this into practice will help to understand it better: in order to ring out a system, you must have a graphic EQ (preferably a 1/3 of octave one) on each wedge. Audience must not be present at this stage.

43 THE OTHER SIDE OF THE STAGE

1. With the system muted, point the mic that the artist will use to its correspondent wedge.

2. Make sure the EQ is flat, then rise the system level until you hear a frequency ringing.

3. Now, you have to identify what frequency is it on the EQ, and lower the correspondent slide a little bit, just until the ringing stops.

4. Then, rise the volume again until more frequencies start ringing: identify them and cut them using the EQ.

5. Keep repeating this process until the frequencies that ring simultaneously are as many as possible.

At this point, the system response is flat, so it is very good by a technical point of view, but it may not satisfy you as far as sound quality is concerned, so you may need to adjust the EQ in order to achieve a pleasant sound. By doing this, you will change the system’s response again, so you may create a new sensitivity to certain frequencies, causing the ringing of the system. In many cases you will have to compromise between the sound you like, and the system’s maximum gain before feedback.

Repeat the whole process for every wedge or group of wedges.

(Cf. Stark, H. S. 2002. Live Sound Reinforcement. pp. 110-111)

The acoustic conditions of a room are very much affected by factors like humidity and temperature. Besides, an empty venue sounds really different from a crowded one, so the system response will change from the one you set-up by ringing it out, so it may be that when the band is playing you will hear one or more early-ringing frequencies. If that happens, you will need to identify which monitor is ringing to which frequency: it may seem really difficult, but it is not as hard as it sounds…

44 RUNNING THE SYSTEM

LINE- AND SOUND-CHECK The line-check is an essential thing to do, but it does not take very long: you can do it in a few minutes while you are waiting for the artists (you always wait for the artists…) by simply playing a CD and routing the signal quickly through every device. The sound-check also has to be done anyway, the only difference is that if there have been rehearsals for the show, you should know precisely what each artist wants in his monitors, and hopefully you have calibrated/adjusted your outboards and console before. In this case, a simple recall (being it electronic or just sheets of notes) would set the system ready to operate, otherwise things are a bit more complicated. There is never plenty of time before the show, and usually more importance is given to the FOH soundcheck, so you are likely to find yourself trying to mix your monitors under pressure. If you have got to know the band properly, you should have at least a rough idea of what kind of monitors they like, but hopefully you have learnt precisely how they want their monitors to sound. The monitor soundcheck should be done before the FOH's one, and the reason is very simple: they need to listen to themselves to perform for the FOH engineer. This is a simple way to start your soundcheck (which usually does not last more than 10- 15 minutes):

Make sure you have rung out the system properly.

Before the band arrives, mix their monitors giving to each one what you know he likes to listen to. You do not know what the monitors sound like at this stage, you can only guess that they are more or less the way they want them.

When they arrive, ask them to play for a couple of minutes: during this time you can listen to the mixes from your monitors, and adjust them if they sound odd.

When they stop, ask them one at a time if their mixes were ok, or if they want to change something.

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Most of the time, artists will ask you to raise the volume of a particular instrument in the mix. If the stage is too loud already, instead of rising that instrument, you can turn down all the others in the mix. This usually works, but if the artist is still not happy, you have now enough headroom to raise the general volume a bit.

Hopefully your mixes were more or less ok, so you could quickly adjust them to their requirements.

If there is still time, you may ask them to play another minute to double-check their mixes.

If there is no time, do not worry; you can still refine them during the FOH soundcheck or, at the very worst, during the show’s first song.

CONCLUSION Ok, the show is about to start now. If the guide finishes here, there is a good reason: no one would ever be able to tell you what to do during the show, it is something that is beyond any planning. However, if you have managed to get to this point, you will handle the show without any problem. What an engineer does during the show, is mostly up to his personality, it is not a matter of applying rules. Of course, one could say that you have to be concentrate, and listen and watch the stage carefully, but this is quite obvious: you are there to do your job, so you do not need to be told that you have to do it well, you should already know that. What I think is most important, besides of course being professional and doing my job well, is to enjoy what I am doing, and be happy with it; at the end of the day, this is what I like to do best.

Enjoy the concert then, and good luck!

Bibliography

BOOKS

A.A.V.V. Sound Reinforcement voll. I and II. U.S.A.: Audio Engineering Society

A.A.V.V. Sound Reinforcement. Conference Proceedings. U.S.A.: Audio Engineering Society.

Ahnert, W. Sound reinforcement engineering. Routledge. ISBN: 0419218106

Ben, D. The live sound manual: getting great sound at every gig. Backbeat Books. ISBN: 0879306998

Capel, V. (1998) Public address systems. England: Focal Press

Carter, P. & Chiang, G. The backstage handbook: an illustrated almanac of technical information. Broadway Press. ISBN: 0911747397

Cunningham, M. (1999). Live & Kicking: the rock concert industry in the nineties. London: Sanctuary,. ISBN: 1-86074-217-3

Davis, G. & Jones, R. (1990) Sound reinforcement handbook. (second edition) U.S.A.: Hal Leonard Publishing Corporation. ISBN: 0881889008

49 THE OTHER SIDE OF THE STAGE

Eiche, J.F. (1990) Guide to Sound Systems for Worship. U.S.A.: Hal Leonard Publishing Co.

Fry, D. (1992) Live sound mixing. Mix Bookshelf/ Mix Books. ISBN: 9996352706

Giddings, P. Audio systems design and installation. Focal Press. ISBN: 0240802861

Hurtington, J. Control Systems for Live Entertainment. Unknown

Moscal, T. Sound check: the basis of sound and sound systems. U.S.A.: Hal Leonard Publishing Corporation. ISBN: 079353559X

Sokol, M. & Rapaport, D. & Rapaport, W. Acoustic musician's guide to sound reinforcement and live recordings. Prentice Hall. ISBN: 0134335090

Stark, H.S. (2002) Live sound reinforcement: a comprehensive guide to P.A. and music reinforcement systems and technology. Mix Bookshelf/ Mix Books. ISBN: 0918371074

Trubit, R. Live sound for musicians. Unknown. ISBN: 0793568528

Trubitt, D. Concert sound: tours, techniques & technology. (Mix Pro Audio). Hal Leonard Publishing Corporation. ISBN: 0793520738.

Vasey, J. Concert sound and lighting systems. Focal Press. ISBN: 0240803647

50 BIBLIOGRAPHY

MAGAZINES

Mix

Sound on Sound

Audio Media

Live!

SPL

ARTICLES

Frink Mark (2001). ‘Brooks & Dunn: Neon Circus and Wild West Show’, Mix, vol. 25 n. 7 (July 2001), pp. 180-183.

Horgan Candace (2002). ‘The Chieftains: the Sound of Ireland Heard ‘Round the World’, Mix, vol. 26 n. 7 (June 2002), pp. 144- 149.

Mann Mike (2002). ‘Björk - The Vespertine Goddess Makes Her Debut at Covent Garden’, Mix, vol. 26 n.1 (January 2002), pp. 80- 89.

WEB

www.bath.ac.uk/~su2bc/infoguides/smc/basicsound/monitor.shtml (17/10/02)

51 THE OTHER SIDE OF THE STAGE

www.carleton.ca/~tpatters/teaching/climatechange/sciencemethod .html (7/8/02)

www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/envrnmnt/drugfree/sa3const.htm (7/8/02)

www.prosoundweb.com/live/articles/chrisk/diary2/diary2.shtml (15/9/02)

www.prosoundweb.com/live/articles/davidweiss/davetobias.shtml (12/8/2002)

www.prosoundweb.com/studyhall/psw_studyhall/stage_terms.sht ml (17/10/02)

www.showco.com/products/SRM/ (28/82002)

www.soundcraft.com/pdf/technical%20datasheet/five_monitor_tec h_data.pdf (29/8/2002)

www.yamaha.com/cgi- win/webcgi.exe/Features/?gLMC00008PM4000M-44 (29/8/2002)

www.showcase-music.com

www.prosoundweb.com/live/articles/danlaveglia/xl32.shtml (17/10/02)

www.mediaevalbaebes.com (28/6/2002)

www.prosoundweb.com/live/news_04/bkirk.shtml (12/8/2002)

www.prosoundweb.com/studyhall/lastudyhall/iem.html (12/8/2002)

52 BIBLIOGRAPHY

www.prosoundweb.com/webexpo/namm02/senn/b_beck.shtml (12/8/2002)

www.ultimateears.com (12/8/2002)

www.aes.org (15/8/2002)

www.mixonline.com/ar/audio_tool/index.htm (28/8/2002)

www.crestaudio.com/html/lh5m.html (29/8/2002)

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www.midasconsoles.com/midas02/h3000_cs.html (29/8/2002)

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www.cascadesound.com/stagemon.htm (15/9/02)

www.roadieworld.com/show.php?goto=showlivetech&id=19 (15/9/02)

www.dmu.ac.uk/~jamesa/learning/reflecti.htm (5/11/2002)

http://euphrates.wpunj.edu/faculty/kerzner/SEA.html (15/12/2002)

www.crestaudio.com/products/lhseries/lh6m.cfm (18/12/2002)

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www.audible-difference.com/images/sensaphonics_2x_small.jpg (18/12/2002)

53 THE OTHER SIDE OF THE STAGE

54 Index

A E artists 1; 2; 3; 5; 12; 20; 26; 28; Earmolds ...... 32; 33 29; 30; 31; 32; 37; 38; 39; 40; EQ section...... 21 47 Equipment ...... 17 Audio groups...... 24 Choosing ...... 37 Automation/recall...... 25 Testing...... 41 Aux sends ...... 23 F B Feedback……2; 8; 12; 24; 27; Band members ...... 3; 19; 38 28;44; 46 Björk...... 21 Floor wedges...... 28 BSS Soundweb...... 25 FOH…………5; III; 5; 9; 12; 18; Busses ...... see Aux sends 26; 43; 47; 48 C G Channels (number of)...... 19 Gain...... 27; 44; 45; 46 Compressor ...... 21; 26; 27 Graphic EQ ...6; 8; 9; 27; 34; 45 Compromising...... 39; 43; 46 Groups...... 23 Cross Stage Monitors ..... 13; 29 I D IEMs………….6; 12; 13; 26; 27; Delays...... 26 30; 31; 32; 34; 39; 40 Digital sound processors ...... 25 Ambience...... 32 Directivity ...... 28; 29 Sound-proof...... 32 Drumfills...... 30; 40 Inputs...... 18 Dynamic...... 26; 27 Quality...... 20 Dynamics controls ...... 21 Quantity ...... 19 Insert ...... 21; 27; 34

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L R Limiter ...... 26; 27 rehearsals...... 25; 41; 47 Line-check...... 41; 47 Reverbs ...... 26 Line-up ...... 21; 38 S Location ...... 44 Loudspeakers ...... see wedges Shakers ...... 30 LPF ...... 5; 30 Sidefills ...... 9; 13; 29; 40 Signal………….6; 8; 12; 19; 20; M 23; 25; 27; 31; 34; 47 Masters ...... 23 Sound quality...... 20; 46 Matrix ...... 22; 23 Soundcheck...... 8; 47; 48 Matrix ...... 23 Soundcraft ...... 20 Microphone preamps ...... 25 Sub-woofers ...... 6; 8; 29; 39 Midas ...... 18 Synchronisation...... 25 MIDI ...... 25 T Mixes...... See Aux sends Mixing consoles ...... 18 Talkback ...... 24 monitor system Threshold (setting the) ...... 27 Building up...... 43 Designing ...... 37 V Ringing out ...... 44 VCA faders ...... 24 Running...... 43 VCA groups ...... I24 Mute groups...... 24 W N Wedges ...... 39 noise gate ...... 26 Frequency range...... 29 Placement...... 28 O Outboard effects ...... 25 X Outputs ...... 21 XLR ...... 20 P Y Preamps...... 20 Yamaha ...... 18

56 57