Deliverable A.1 of Action A.1 Study Evaluation of the Quantities Of

LIFE+ 2013

Deliverable A.1 of Action A.1 Study evaluation of the quantities of tomato production and the related waste in different European geographical areas including an evaluation of the periodicity of the tomato waste production

Concerning the LIFE project LIFE BIOCOPACPlus LIFE13 ENV/IT/000590

Project Start Date June 1st 2014 End Date May 31st 2017 Coordinator Stazione Sperimentale per l'Industria delle Conserve Alimentari (SSICA) Deliverable No A.1 Document Type Report Action No A.1 Action Leader SSICA Due date 30/09/2014 Submission Date 29/10/2014

LIFE+ 2013

Document summary information Authors and contributors

Initials Author Organizatio Role n AM Dr. Angela Montanari SSICA Action Leader NS Dr. Nadja Sändig SSICA Assistant Project Manager

Rev Who Date Comment 01 I. Cigognini 13-10-2014 First draft 02 A. Montanari 22-10-2014 First revision 03 Dr A. Montanari 28-10-2014 Second revision 04 Dr. A Montanari 29-10-2014 Final revision 05

Quality Control Who Date Checked by Action Leader Dr. A. Montanari (SSICA) 27/10/2014 Reviewed by Approved by Coordinator Dr. A. Montanari (SSICA) 29/10/2014

Disclaimer

The content of the publication herein is the sole responsibility of the publishers and it does not necessarily represent the views expressed by the European Commission or its services. While the information contained in the documents is believed to be accurate, the authors(s) or any other participant in the BiocopacPLUS consortium make no warranty of any kind with regard to this material including, but not limited to the implied warranties of merchantability and fitness for a particular purpose. Neither the BiocopacPlus Consortium nor any of its members, their officers, employees or agents shall be responsible or liable in negligence or otherwise howsoever in respect of any inaccuracy or omission herein. Without derogating from the generality of the foregoing neither the BiocopacPlus Consortium nor any of its members, their officers, employees or agents shall be liable for any direct or indirect or consequential loss or damage caused by or arising from any information advice or inaccuracy or omission herein.

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Table of Content Executive Summary 3 Introduction 4 Database consulted 4 1. Tomato production 4 1.1 Overview about tomato 4 1.2 World Tomato production 8 1.3 European tomato production 11 2.Tomato residues availability 17 3.Composition of tomato residues (skins and peels) 22 3.1 Composition of tomato pomace 23 3.2 Composition of seeds 23 3.3 Composition of skins 24 4. Actual use of tomato residues 27 Conclusion 29 Bibliography 30

Executive Summary The tomato is the edible, red fruit of the nightshade Solanum lycopersicum. In Action A.1 we show an overview about tomato: origin of species, tomato crop spreading in the world and the adaptation to a wide variety of climates, characteristics of the tomato plant, morphological and structural characteristics of tomato fruits, phytonutrients in tomato and tomato- derived products, composition of tomato residues (in particular skins and peels). An overview about tomato production is proposed as fresh and processed good in the world, focusing on annual turnover of the top five tomato producers China, India, the USA, Turkey and Egypt, which represent about the 60% of the world tomato production. In commercial terms, exchange volumes and commercial results also position the tomato processing sector among the main players of the European food industry. The main European producing countries are Spain Italy, Holland, France and Belgium. A brief survey has been carried out about tomato residues availability resulting by the production of major subcategories of processing tomato products, that are Peeled tomatoes, passata, crushed tomato, tomato concentrate, tomato juice. Because during tomato industrial processing, nearly 2.5 to 3.5% of fresh tomatoes ends up as waste solids (mainly skin and seeds) and, the refuse are an additional cost for companies productive because of the disposal processes, besides the waste are a source of recoverable chemical compounds. For these reasons, today, besides tomato waste common use as fertilizer or for animal feed, there are a lot of researches about re-use of tomato residues as food additives, in the production of ethanol, biodegradable plastic, biogas and other products for consumer goods.

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Introduction Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) is one of the most important vegetable plants in the world. It is the world’s third largest vegetable crop after potato and sweet potato. It originated in western South America, and domestication is thought to have occurred in Central America. Tomato is a widely distributed annual vegetable crop, which is consumed fresh, cooked or after processing. Tomato crop is adapted to a wide variety of climates.

Database consulted To trace all the data regarding the tomato and tomato waste production, the following databases have been consulted: - FAOSTAT, for the global data - EUROSTAT, for the European data - ISTAT, for the Italian data. These open-data sources are the official database respectively of the FAO Organization (Food and Agriculture Organization Corporate Statistical Database), of the European Union (EUROSTAT is the statistical office of the European Union) and of Italian Institute of Statistics, therefore the data published in these sources are the official data.

1. Tomato production 1.1 Overview about tomato The tomato is the edible, often red fruit/berry of the nightshade Solanum lycopersicum, commonly known as a tomato plant. The species originated in the South American but are now found all over the world. Tomatoes are thought to have first grown in western South America, in the region of modern day Peru and Ecuador and its use as a food originated in Mexico, and spread throughtout the world following the Spanish colonization of the Americas. Tomatoes were brought to Europe in the 1500s, where they soon became popular and were exported around the world . Its many varieties are now widely grown, sometimes in green houses in cooler climates. [1] In 1753, Linnaeus placed the tomato in the genus Solanum (alongside the potato) as Solanum lycopersicum. In 1768, Philip Miller moved it to its own genus, naming it Lycopersicon esculentum. Recent work by scientists has now shown that Linnaeus was correct to put the tomato in the genus Solanum, making Solanum lycopersicum the correct name. Today scientists and plant breeders all use the name Solanum lycopersicum for the cultivated tomato.[2] The tomato belongs to the nightshade family, Solanaceae. The plant typically grow to 1-3 meters in height and have a weak stem that often sprawls over the ground and vines over other plants. It is a perennial in its native habitat, although often grown outdoors in temperate climates as annual. An average common tomato weighs approximately 100 grams.[3] Tomato fruit consists of 94 – 95% water and 5-6% organic compounds (solids) [4]. The percentage of solid in tomato varies over wide limits for a number of reasons, such as variety, character of soil and especially the amount of irrigation and rainfall during the growing and harvesting season. Tomatoes and tomato products are rich sources of folate, vitamin C, and potassium. Relative to phytonutrients, the most abundant in tomatoes are the carotenoids. Lycopene is the most prominent carotenoid followed by beta-carotene, gamma-carotene and phytoene as well as several minor carotenoids. The antioxidant activity of lycopene as well as several other carotenoids and their abundance in tomatoes makes these foods rich sources of antioxidant activity. In addition to lycopene, violaxanthin, neoxanthin, lutein, zeaxanthin, a-cryptoxanthin, b-cryptoxanthin, a-carotene, b- carotene, g-carotene, z-carotene, neurosporene, phytoene, phytofluene, cyclolycopene and b-carotene 4

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5,6-epoxide are other carotenoids commonly cited in tomato and tomato-derived products [5]. Among these, a-carotene, b-carotene and b-cryptoxanthin have pro-vitamin A activity, since they are converted to retinal by mammals. The provitamin A activity of beta- and gamma-carotene, their modest levels in tomato products, and the high consumption of these foods results in a rich supply of vitamin A activity from tomato-based foods. Tomatoes also contain several other components that are beneficial to health, including vitamin E, trace elements, flavonoids, phytosterols, and several water-soluble vitamins. However vitamins account only for a small portion of the total dry matter [6]. Minerals commonly found in tomato fruit are potassium, calcium, magnesium and phosphorus and may reach to 8% of dry matter. Free amino acids form about 2-2.5% of the total dry matter of tomatoes.[7] Chemical analysis reveals that sugar and organic acids make major contribution to the total dry solid. The sugars are mostly glucose and fructose and constitute about 65% of total soluble solid in expressed fruit juice [8]. Whereas the acids are mostly malic and citric acids, organic acid comprise about 15% of the dry content of fresh tomatoes. Citric acid is the most abundant organic acid with some malic acid also present.[4]

Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum), raw, Nutrition value per 100 g. (Source: USDA National Nutrient database) Principle Nutrient Value Percentage of RDA Energy 18 Kcal 1% Carbohydrates 3.9 g 3% Protein 0.9 g 1.6% Total Fat 0.2 g 0.7% Cholesterol 0 mg 0% Dietary Fiber 1.2 g 3% Vitamins Folates 15 µg 4% Niacin 0.594 mg 4% Pyridoxine 0.080 mg 6% Thiamin 0.037 mg 3% Vitamin A 833 IU 28% Vitamin C 13 mg 21.5% Vitamin E 0.54 mg 4% Vitamin K 7.9 µg 6.5% Electrolytes Sodium 5 mg >1% Potassium 237 mg 5% Minerals Calcium 10 mg 1% Iron 0.3 mg 4% Magnesium 11 mg 3% Manganese 0.15 mg 6.5% Phosphorus 24 mg 3% Zinc 0.17 mg 1.5% Phyto-nutrients Carotene-ß 449 µg -- Carotene-α 101 µg -- Lutein-zeaxanthin 123 µg -- Lycopene 2573 µg -- Tab. 1: Nutritional value of tomato

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Tomato fruits are berries with different forms and dimensions. The Tomato is a fruit because fruits are the edible part of the plant that contains the seeds, while a vegetable is the edible stems, leaves, and roots of the plant.[9] Under the morphological appearance, starting from the outside to the inside the tomato consists of:  exocarp - the external layer of polygonal flattened cells of yellow colour (skin)  mesocarp - the compact part of the fruit, formed by round-ovoid cells with thin round walls. These contains, when ripe: - granules of a red pigment insoluble (licopene), - a liquid which is chemically an acqueous solution of flavor and savory compounds In the mesocarp there are also small vessels or tracheae spiral that give consistency to the whole berry and chemically consist of cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin and pectin substances.  endocarp - the thicker tissue that divide and limit the pulp sections [10]

Fig. 1 : Tomato sections

Tomatoes are available in a wide variety of shapes, sizes, and colors. While red tomatoes are the most common, yellow, orange, and pink tomatoes are sometimes grown. Tomatoes may be round, slightly flattened, or pear-like in shape. Sizes range from the bite-size cherry types to the giant beefsteak tomatoes. New cultivars appear on the market each year, expanding selection and improving disease resistance. At present, there exist a large number of tomato cultivars with a wide range of morphological and sensorial characteristics which determine their use. There are around 7,500 tomato varieties grown for various purposes.[11] Tomato varieties are roughly divided into several categories, based mostly on shape and size.  "Slicing" or "globe" tomatoes are the usual tomatoes of commerce, used for a wide variety of processing and fresh eating.  Beefsteak tomatoes are large tomatoes often used for sandwiches and similar applications. Their kidney-bean shape, thinner skin, and shorter shelf life makes commercial use impractical.  Oxheart tomatoes can range in size up to beefsteaks, and are shaped like large strawberries.  Plum tomatoes, or paste tomatoes (including pear tomatoes), are bred with a higher solids content for use in tomato sauce and paste, and are usually oblong.  Pear tomatoes are pear-shaped, and are based upon the San Marzano types for a richer gourmet paste.  Cherry tomatoes are small and round, often sweet tomatoes generally eaten whole in salads.  Grape tomatoes, a more recent introduction, are smaller and oblong, a variation on plum tomatoes, and used in salads. 6

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 Campari tomatoes are also sweet and noted for their juiciness, low acidity, and lack of mealiness. They are bigger than cherry tomatoes, but are smaller than plum tomatoes.[12] Early tomatoes and cool-summer tomatoes bear fruit even where nights are cool, which usually discourages fruit set. There are also varieties high in beta carotenes and vitamin A, hollow tomatoes and tomatoes that keep for months in storage. Tomato cultivars can be classified according to their growth habit. Determinate tomatoes are plants that grow to a height determined by their genetic makeup. When they reach their pre-determined height, they produce a cluster of flowers at the growing tip. The flowers along the stem of the plant tend to both open and set fruit within a couple of weeks time. Thus, determinate tomatoes are good choices for canning and sauce-making. Indeterminate tomatoes increase in height throughout the growing season because the terminal of the stem continues to produce foliar growth rather than set flowers. The flowers and thus fruits on these plants are produced continually through the season along the side shoots of the plant. As an intermediate form, there are plants sometimes known as vigorous determinate or semideterminate; these top off like determinates, but produce a second crop after the initial crop.

Cherry tomatoes Cherry tomatoes – Roma or Bangalore A variety of specific cultivars, various colors upon Tomatoes (Indian including Brandywine (biggest ripening hybrid) red), Black Krim (lower left) and Green Zebra (top left)

Fig. 2: Some examples of tomato cultivars

Tomato is a rapidly growing crop with a growing period of 90 to 150 days. It is a daylength neutral plant. Optimum mean daily temperature for growth is 18 to 25ºC with night temperatures between 10 and 20ºC. Larger differences between day and night temperatures, however, adversely affect yield. The crop is very sensitive to frost. Temperatures above 25ºC, when accompanied by high humidity and strong wind, result in reduced yield. Night temperatures above 20ºC accompanied by high humidity and low sunshine lead to excessive vegetative growth and poor fruit production. High humidity leads to a greater incidence of pests and diseases and fruit rotting. Dry climates are therefore preferred for tomato production. Tomato can be grown on a wide range of soils but a well-drained, light loam soil with pH of 5 to 7 is preferred. Waterlogging increases the incidence of diseases such as bacterial wilt. The fertilizer requirements amount, for high producing varieties, to 100 to 150 kg/ha N, 65 to 110 kg/ha P and 160 to 240 kg/ha K. The seed is generally sown in nursery plots and emergence is within 10 days. Seedlings are transplanted in the field after 25 to 35 days. In the nursery the row distance is about 10 cm. In the field spacing ranges from 0.3/0.6 x 0.6/1 m with a population of about 40,000 plants per ha. The crop should be grown in a rotation with crops such as maize, cabbage, cowpea, to reduce pests and disease infestations.

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The crop is moderately sensitive to soil salinity. The most sensitive period to salinity is during germination and early plant development, and necessary leaching of salts is therefore frequently practised during pre-irrigation or by over-watering during the initial irrigation application.

Stages of Development Plant date Region

Crop Crop characteristic Initial Mid-season Late Total Development

Stage length, days 30 40 40 25 135 Jan Arid Region 35 40 50 30 155 Apr/May Calif., USA 25 40 60 30 155 Jan Calif. Desert, USA 35 45 70 30 180 Oct/Nov Arid Region 30 40 45 30 145 Apr/May Mediterranean Tab. 2: Periodicity of tomato

1.2 World Tomato production

Between 2002 and 2012, global tomato production rose by 38% from 116 to 161 million tonnes. China increased its production from 27 to 50 million tonnes and thus accounted for 50% of the overall production increase. India even more than doubled its production from 7.5 to 17.5 milllion tonnes. Turkey is a strong tomato producer and realized a 16% increase during the last 10 years. Europe’s production remained rather stable and ranges between 15 and 20 million tonnes. USA production is fluctuating between 11 and 14 million tonnes.[13]

Fig. 3: Map of the world tomato production (2012)

Fig. 4: Top 20 tomato producing countries (2012)

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In 2012, China accounted for 30% of the global tomato production, followed by India with more than 10% and USA (7.9%). The top five tomato producers are China, India, the USA, Turkey and Egypt, representing about the 60% of the world production. Within the EU Italy and Spain are found among the 10 top producers [14].

Fig. 5: Top 10 tomato producing countries (2012)

Fig. 6: Global tomato production share by region (FAOSTAT 2012)

Tomatoes are the world's most consumed vegetable, present in 2 sectors: fresh and processed. The fresh tomato market is primarily regional due to weak conservation and fragility. Production is mainly in greenhouses with the main production countries being Spain, Italy, Holland, France and Belgium.[15] Production under glass greenhouses (originally a Dutch speciality) is now practised all over Europe and allows for an almost year-round production. On a global scale, the annual production of fresh tomatoes amounts to approximately 100 million tonnes. More than a third of those 100 million tonnes are grown for the processing industry, which makes tomatoes the world’s leading vegetable for processing. More than 35 million tonnes of tomatoes are processed every year in factories belonging to the greatest labels of the global food industry. [16] The quantities processed between 2011 and 2013 is approximately 34 to 35 million tonnes annually. The main production regions are located in temperate zones, close to the 40th parallels North and South, as illustrated on the following map. However, most of this production is based in the Northern hemisphere, where an average of 91 % of the world’s crop is processed between the months of July and December. The remaining 9 % are processed in the Southern hemisphere between January and June. Brazil is an exception, being the only country of the Southern hemisphere to process more than one million tonnes per year at the same time as the Northern hemisphere.

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Fig. 7: Main tomato production region

Despite the fact that many countries have a tomato processing industry, this production is strongly concentrated and the 10 largest producing countries account for some 86 % of the world’s yearly production. In commercial terms, exchange volumes and commercial results also position the tomato processing sector among the main players of the global food industry. It can be said that in the 2009/2010 financial year, the 14 main production and exchange countries (8 in the EU, China, Turkey, the USA, Mexico, Brazil and Chile) exported approximately 3.6 million tonnes of finished products in the two leading tomato categories : processed (2.4 million tonnes) and whole peeled tomatoes (1.2 million tonnes). Processed is the main tomato product, both in production volume and in commercial value: annual exports of tomato processed generated more than USD 4.1 billion (EUR 3 billion) of the USD 5.5 billion (EUR 4 billion) generated by this market. Processed tomato products include tomato purèe or passata, crushed tomato and tomato concentrate. According to the United Nations international trade statistics, UN Comtrade, for the year 2012 Mexico is the leading exporter of fresh tomatoes, followed by the Netherlands and Spain. The USA, despite its high level of production, is the leading importer of fresh tomatoes, followed by Russia and Germany. With regard to processed tomatoes – mainly passata, canned or other preserved tomatoes - Italy clearly dominates exports, even over China. The third category of tomato products listed in the international trade statistics is tomato ketchup or other tomato sauces not included in the “processed” category, however with much smaller trade volumes.

Fig. 8 : International trade with tomatoes (2012)

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The overview of producing and exporting countries demonstrates the great diversity in production conditions between the competitors on global tomato markets. Tomatoes are produced in open fields, in greenhouses or under plastic covers; in tropical, subtropical and temperate climates, and with machine harvesting (for processing) or manual harvesting (for fresh markets). The undeniable importance of the tomato producing industry is also rooted in the regular growth in consumption observed over the past twenty years. According to FAO statistics, world vegetable production has quintupled over the past five decades to reach about one billion tonnes of vegetables. Considering population growth, this has resulted in a doubling of the per capita consumption of vegetables from approximately 50 Kg in 1963 to 102 Kg in 2009. In the same period, tomato consumption increased from 7.5 Kg to 20.5 Kg / year / per capita, either fresh or processed, on world average. With 159 kg per year, Asia is the world leader in vegetable consumption, while Latin America ranks last with a per capita consumption of only 55 kg per year. However, tomato consumption in these regions of the world is very similar with 14 to 17 kg per year. Europe and North America have about the same level of vegetable consumption with 120 kg per year. North Americans consume a record 42 kg of tomatoes per year, much of it as sauce for pizza and pasta, while Europeans consume about 31 kg per capita and year – with the exception of Italy, where tomato consumption reaches 60 kg per year.[17]

Fig. 9 : Per capita consumption of tomatoes and other vegetables (2009)

Throughout these areas, the increase in tomato consumption has been steady for several years, albeit at different rates. This has led to the appearance of new tomato-producing countries on the market. Some of them, like China, have dedicated heavy capital investment to this branch of the food industry. In only a few years, they have become able to threaten the dominant position of the two main producers, the USA and Italy.

1.3 European tomato production

In the EU-28, the most important vegetables in terms of production were tomatoes, onions and carrots, while the most important fruits were oranges, apples and peaches. In 2012, Italy and Spain had the largest tomato production among the EU Member States, with a combined share that was equal to three fifths (61.1 %) of the EU-28’s production of 15.0 million tonnes. Turkey’s reported production of tomatoes was 11.4 million tonnes in 2012 [18].

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Legend Data Cases (million tonnes) 0 to 4.7 7 4.7 to 13.7 7 13.7 to 61.2 7 61.2 to 758.9 7 758.9 to 11350 7 Data not available 4 Minimum value:0 Maximum value: 11350

Fig.10: Map of the European tomato production for the year 2012 (Eurostat)

Fig. 11 : European tomato production 2012 – bar chart (Eurostat)

Legend Data Cases (million tonnes) 0 to 4.7 6 4.7 to 12.5 6 12.5 to 56 6 56 to 509.2 6 509.2 to 11820 8 Data not available 7 Minimum value:0 Maximum value: 11820

Fig.12: Map of the European tomato production for the year 2013 (Eurostat)

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Fig. 13 : European tomato production 2013 – bar chart (Eurostat)

The EU accounts for the largest proportion of the world’s processed and canned tomato exports. Within the EU, Italy alone is responsible for about 75% of the world’s canned tomato exports. As it can be seen from the graphs and maps over reported (Fig. 10-13), the European tomato production in 2012 has been about 15 million tons, while in 2013 has been 14,9 million tones, slightly decreasing. The top 3 producers of tomato have been both in 2012 and in 2013 Italy, Spain and Portugal [17]. In particular the Italian production of tomato has suffered a decrease from 2010 to 2013, ranging from 6 million tons in 2010 to 5.2 million tons in 2013, even though from 2012 to 2013 a slight increase of tomato production has been observed (from 5.1 million tons to 5.2 million tons). However the Italy remains the first European country for tomato production. Spain has registered a tomato production of about 4 million tons in 2010 and in 2012, while in 2011 and in 2013 its tomato production has been about 3.9 and 3.8 million tons. Even Portugal has registered this trend: in 2010 and in 2012 the Portuguese tomato production has been about 1.4 million tons, while in 2011 and in 2013 the Portuguese tomato production has suffered a slight decrease, ranging about 1.2 million tons. Another European country with an important tomato production is Greece, which has subjected a decreasing trend from 1,4 million tons of tomato production in 2010 to 1 million tons in 2013.

Legend Italy Spain 2010 2011 2012 2013

Fig.14: Italian and Spanish tomato production for the period 2010-2013

An interesting country is the Turkey, nation candidate to enter in the European Union, which have been a tomato production of about 11 million tonnes in 2012 and in 2013.

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To highlight the well-established role of the Netherlands in the cultivation of tomatoes for fresh consumption, the Netherlands in fact has registered an increasing trend in tomato production from 765000 tons in 2010 to 855000 tons in 2013. The Netherlands leads production in greenhouses. Another European country which has registered an increasing trend is Poland, which has registered a strong increase from 2010 to 2011 (from 250000 tons to 712000 tons), then the tomato production in 2012 and in 2013 has been around 759000 and 761000, as it is showed in the graphs below reported.

Legend Netherlands Poland 2010 2011 2012 2013

Fig. 15 : Dutch and Polish tomato production for the period 2010 - 2013

Other minor European country, which have however a significant tomato annual production are France, with an average tomato production of 800000 tons (808000 tons in 2010; 845000 tons in 2011; 763000 tons in 2012 and 776000 in 2013); Romania, with an average tomato production of 500000 tons (414000 in 2010, 590000 in 2011, 453000 in 2012 and 509000 in 2013); Belgium, with an average tomato production of 230000 tons (228000 in 2010, 218000 in 2011, 232000 in 2012 and 250000 in 2013) and finally Hungary, with an average tomato production of 135000 tons (134000 in 2010, 165000 in 2011, 110000 in 2012 and 138000 in 2013). Italy is the second largest processing tomato producer worldwide, second only to California, but its position is threatened by China. Italy produced 4 million tons of processing tomatoes in 2013, and China about 3.8 million, but its rapid growth trend suggests that in 2014 China's production may (after a period of decline) return to 5 million, reaching or even overtaking Italy's forecast production (while California's expected production of 12.2 million tons is unattainable). The other leading producing countries are: Turkey, Spain, Iran, Brazil and Portugal. Italy produces more than 6 million tons of tomatoes annually (Tab.3-4), roughly 90 percent of which is destined for processing. Italy leads the EU in tomato production, accounting for 38% of the total EU-27. The cultivated area dedicated to tomato production increased over the last few years by almost 8 percent, up to almost 68,000 hectors.

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Territorio Italia Misura valori assoluti Annata agraria fine 2010 superficie superficie in produzione produzione raccolta - totale - produzione - totale - quintali (migliaia di unità Tipo variabile ettari ettari quintali foraggere per i gruppi erbai, prati e pascoli)

Tipo coltivazione pomodoro in piena aria 18509 18509 6292927 6120758 pomodoro da industria 94229 94229 57210098 55760931 pomodori in serra 4749,88 4749,88 4286348 4136552 Tab.3 : Italian tomato production 2010 (ISTAT)

Territorio Italia Misura valori assoluti Annata agraria fine 2011 superficie superficie in produzione produzione raccolta - totale - produzione - totale - quintali (migliaia di ettari ettari quintali unità foraggere per i Tipo variabile gruppi erbai, prati e pascoli)

Tipo coltivazione pomodoro in piena aria 19453 19453 6376094 6211811 pomodoro da industria 84325 84325 54709551 53403471 pomodori in serra 7611,4 7611,4 5305951 5173086 Tab. 4 : Italian tomato production 2011 (ISTAT)

Generally, conditions in Italy allow for production of high quality and quantity tomatoes throughout the year. However, the bulk of the processing is done between the months of July and December. The cultivation of processing tomatoes is possible in many parts of Italy, but three regions account for almost 90 percent of the production. Nearly 40 percent of the production is in the Puglia region, another 40 percent is centered in Emilia-Romagna, and 10 percent in Campania [19]. Growing conditions vary substantially between the different regions. In the south, water is plentiful, but expensive to use. Many utilize either drip systems or sprinklers. Direct seeding is rare and only used for the cultivation of paste tomatoes, which are sown with precision sowing machines using coated seeds. Tomatoes for paste, less than 30 percent of volume, are all machine harvested, but those for the production of canned tomatoes are mostly harvested manually, although machine harvesting is developing rapidly. In northern Italy, the soil ranges from predominantly clay, to sandy-clay, to silt. The climate is ideal for tomato cultivation, with a big difference between day and evening temperatures. Production in the north is completely mechanized and hybrids are predominantly used. Approximately 90 percent of the plantings are plug-seeding transplants, but direct seeding still accounts for nearly 10 percent. Irrigation is still partly applied by sprinklers, with coiled hose water guns, but drip irrigation has become widespread. The harvest is totally mechanized with self- propelled Italian harvesters. In Italy the tomato processing industry is comprised of passata, sauce and concentrate and, as in the U.S., it is distinctly separate from the fresh market industry. Specific characteristics differentiate the tomatoes entering the two markets, in fact tomatoes produced for processing are very different from those intended for the fresh market. Typically they are of the plum variety, always picked red ripe they contain higher percentages of solids, typically they have a thicker skin and packaged 15

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aseptically, i.e. drummed, canned, or bagged in a sterile environment to prevent contamination. Processing tomatoes can be peeled and packaged in their whole form, or alternatively they can be processed into many products including chopped tomatoes, crushed, purèe, concentrate, juice and powder. At the processing plant, the tomatoes are continuously unloaded using vast quantities of water (typically around 3-5 times the volume of unloaded tomato). The tomatoes are rinsed under clean water spraying system and the green, damaged and excessively small tomatoes are removed while those suitable for processing are transported to the chopping station. Instead the fresh market varieties are juicier and harvested prior to being ripe.

The marketing methods of the two industry segments differ as well. The majority of fresh tomatoes are handpicked and sold on the open market, while all processed tomatoes are mechanically harvested and sold under contract. A simple classification of the main products obtained from the processing of tomato can be the following:  Peeled tomatoes: canned whole peeled tomatoes, of the elongated variety, to which tomato juice is added, whence skins can be removed by steam-processing, treated with liquid N2 or NaOH.  Tomato purée or passata: is the product obtained (as is a thick liquid) by pressing and refining, in order to remove seeds and skins. Tomato purée has approx 14% solids content. Lower solids content is due to filtering, higher content is due to concentration of the product.  Crushed tomato: is the product obtained from crushed peeled tomatoes.  Tomato concentrate: is the product obtained, concentrating the refined product (with evaporators or reverse osmosis). Different types of products are commercially available with solid content from 12% to 55%.  Tomato juice: is the pulposus liquid obtained by crushing and sieving of fruit devoid of the skins and seeds. and also powder tomato (obtained by drying, by boiling under vacuum, with the spray-drying method and lyophilization), and ketchup (obtained from fresh tomato or concentrate with added salt, sugar, vinegar and spices) [20].

Fig. 16 : Tomato processing

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2. Tomato residues availability

By-product is generally defined as a product generated during the production of something else. By- product is also sometimes referred to waste as it is not the actual product desired in a process. By-products of fruits and vegetables processing represent a major disposal problem for the industry concerned, but they are also promising sources of compounds which may be used for various purposes in the food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. As it can be seen in Figure 16 the tomato products obtained by each processing step in the different production lines are different and several. During tomato industrial processing, waste solids obtained, comes both from defects in fresh tomato supplied (immature tomatoes, lesioned tomatoes for mechanical or microbial action) and from processing stages (processing residues, wastes of refining, cleaning, skins and seeds). The refuse are an additional cost for companies because of the disposal processes, up to 30% of the raw material ends up as residues, mainly skin and seeds, nearly 2.5 to 3.5% of fresh tomatoes ends up waste [21]. Tomato by-products quantities deriving from industrial processes are growing annually, if we consider a mean tomato production in Europe of about ten million tons of tomatoes processed by the food industry, the deriving wastes can be quantified in approximately 0.1 million tons. Therefore to estimate the quantities of waste, the quantity of tomato processing production must be considered. In particular for the main European tomato production countries the following data have been collected:

Spain Total tomato Processing tomato Percentage of Tomato waste production production processing tomato production (mln ton) (mln ton) production (%) (ton) 2010 4,312 2,360 54,73 47200 – 70800 2011 3,864 1,985 51,37 39700 – 59550 2012 4,046 1,936 47,85 38720 – 58080 2013 3,777 1,650 43,68 33000 - 49500 Tab. 5: Spanish data for tomato production Mean percentage of processing tomato

production : about 50%

Mean percentage of tomato waste production: about 49500 ton

Greece Total tomato Processing tomato Percentage of Tomato waste production production processing tomato production (mln ton) (mln ton) production (%) (ton) 2010 1,406 0,640 45,52 12800 - 19200 2011 1,170 0,324 27,69 6480 – 9720 2012 0,980 0,390 39,79 7800 – 11700 2013 1,040 0,425 40,86 8500 - 12750 Tab. 6: Greek data for tomato production Mean percentage of processing tomato production : about 40%

Mean percentage of tomato waste 17 production: about 11100 ton LIFE+ 2013

Italy Total tomato Processing tomato Percentage of Tomato waste production production processing tomato production (mln ton) (mln ton) production (%) (ton) 2010 6,025 5,080 84,31 101600 - 152400 2011 5,961 4,950 83,04 99000 – 148500 2012 5,132 4,500 87,68 90000 – 135000 2013 5,208 4,080 78,34 81600 - 122400 Tab. 7: Italian data for tomato production Mean percentage of processing tomato production : about 85%

Mean percentage of tomato waste production: about 116300 ton

Portugal Total tomato Processing tomato Percentage of Tomato waste production production processing tomato production (mln ton) (mln ton) production (%) (ton) 2010 1,406 1,280 91,04 25600 – 38400 2011 1,245 1,065 85,54 21300 – 31950 2012 1,393 1,190 85,43 23800 – 35700 2013 1,187 0,997 83,99 19940 - 29910 Tab. 8 : Portoguese data for tomato production Mean percentage of processing tomato

production : about 86%

Mean percentage of tomato waste

production: about 28300 ton

In the tables over reported the total tomato production data have been taken from the Eurostat database, while the processing tomato production data have been collected from tomatonews. The percentages of processing tomato production and the amount of waste production have been calculated and estimated by SSICA. In fact to estimate the amount of tomato waste production it has been considered that the tomato waste, skins and seeds, comprises in general about 2-3% (w/w) of the total tomato processed for tomato products. The following considerations can be outlined: - For Spain about the 50% of the total tomato production is used for processing tomato by food industry - For Greece about the 40% of the total tomato production is used for processing tomato by food industry - For Italy about the 85% of the total tomato production is used for processing tomato by food industry.

- For Portugal about the 86% of the total tomato production is used for processing tomato by food industry.

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The data collected for France from Foodnews indicates that only about the 30% of the total tomato production is in general used for processing tomato by food industry. Finally for Belgium and Netherlands almost all the tomato production is used for the fresh market.

Italy has the major tomato waste production, therefore it is reasonable to locate the first plant for cutin extraction from tomato peels in Italy.

The data reported in the tables over reported have been graphically elaborated by SSICA in the following graphs:

Spain - Percentage of processing Spain - Tomato waste production tomato production 70000 60 60000 50 50000

40 40000 30000 30 20000 20 10000 10 0 2010 2011 2012 2013 2010 2011 2012 2013

Fig. 17 : Graphs for the Spanish tomato data

Greece - Percentage of processing Greece - Tomato waste production tomato production 20000

50 15000 40 10000 30 20 5000 10 0 2010 2011 2012 2013 2010 2011 2012 2013

Fig. 18 : Graphs for the Greek tomato data

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Italy- Percentage of processing tomato Italy - Tomato waste production production 140000 90 88 86 120000 84 82 80 100000 78 76 74 80000 72 70 68 60000 66 64 62 40000 60 58 56 20000 54 52 50 0 2010 2011 2012 2013 2010 2011 2012 2013

Fig. 19: Graphs for the Italian tomato data

Portugal - Percentage of processing Portugal - Tomato waste tomato production production 94 92 35000 90 88 86 30000 84 82 80 25000 78 76 74 20000 72 70 68 15000 66 64 62 10000 60 58 56 5000 54 52 50 0 2010 2011 2012 2013 2010 2011 2012 2013

Fig. 20 : Graphs for the Portoguese tomato data

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Percentage of processing tomato production 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 2010 2011 2012 2013

Spain Greece Italy Portugal

Fig. 21 : Percentage of processing tomato production in Spain, Greece, Italy and Portugal for the period 2010-2013

Tomato waste production 140000

120000

100000

80000

60000

40000

20000

0 2010 2011 2012 2013

Spain Greece Italy Portugal

Fig. 22: Percentage of tomato waste production in Spain, Greece, Italy and Portugal for the period 2010-2013

For example in Emilia-Romagna about 50.000 t/year of solid waste are produced, from tomato processing industry, as it can be seen in the figure below (Fig. n.23).

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Fig. 23 Amount of wastes in the tomato processing italian industry.

Tomato processing mainly yields the following by-products: pomace, skins, seeds and tomato paste. In addition to the above by-products, the tomato industries also produces cull tomatoes, fibrous matter and tomato seed cake. Tomato processing by-products represent 5-13% of the whole tomato according Ventura et al. [22]. The amount of processing waste depends strongly on the target production. The amount of solid wastes resulting by the production of major subcategories of processing tomato products is the following [23]:  Peeled tomatoes and crushed tomatoes: nearly 0,6% of solid wastes are obtained, compared to the fresh tomato supplied;  Tomato concentrate and purée: nearly 2.2% of solid wastes are obtained, compared to the fresh tomato supplied;  Tomato juice: there is a gain of about 1.13 % of dry waste, of which 46.1% is seeds and 53.9 % skins.

3. Composition of tomato residues (skins and seeds)

The solid waste mainly consists of skins, seeds and tomato pomace which is a mixture of tomato seeds and skins, with different amount of humidity. As already mentioned in paragraph 1 of this document, the skins are located in the morphological external part of tomato named exocarp, while the seeds are present in locules bordered located in the internal morphological part of tomato named endocarp. The exocarp includes also the cuticle, the epidermis, and a variable number of hypodermal cell layers. The cuticle covers the external part of epidermis cells (from the Greek "επίδερμίδα", meaning "over- skin") and it is a thin membrane that covers the aerial organs of plants of primary origin, namely, leaves and fruits. The cuticle acts as a skin, protecting against biological attack and weather variability, and allowing controlled exchanges, namely of water vapor, with the environment. Besides its vital role in plants, the cuticle is also of economic importance. In agricultural crops, the cuticle avoids premature desiccation and rotting and is the frontier biocide or surface treatments must deal with. Cuticles have a thickness of up to a few micrometers and are attached to the underlying epidermis cells by a network of polysaccharide fibrils. [24]

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3.1 Composition of tomato pomace

Pomace [25] consists of crushed skin and seeds being rich in protein (20-23%, dry basis), fat (12- 18% contained mostly in seeds) and crude fiber (12-30%) (Table 9).

Tab. 9: Tomato pomace dehydrated

3.2 Composition of seeds

Tomato seeds contain between 18 – 30% fat, unsaponificable matter, vitamins (A, D, E and K), phytosterols and other components with an important role in nutrients that play an important role in the human health and diet (Table 10).

Tab. 10 : Components of Tomato Seed.

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3.3 Composition of skins

The skins are a component of the cuticle of tomato. As regarding the composition, the cuticle contains a number of components lipid such as polysaccharides (mainly cellulose and pectin), polypeptides and phenolic compounds. Thus, the plant cuticle can be considered a polyester waxes complex associates, with a very small hydrophobic nature reactivity, since most of the carboxylic groups present in the membrane are esterified with aliphatic hydroxyl groups of other fatty acids. Cutin is the main component (between 40% and 85%, w/w) of the plant cuticle. Considering the average weight of an isolated cuticle (around 600 Ag cm2), cutin can be considered the major lipid plant polymer. From a chemical point of view, cutin is defined as a polymeric network of polyhydroxylated C16 and C18 fatty acids cross-linked by ester bonds [26]. Cutin plays an important role in cuticle as a structural component, as a defense barrier against pathogens [27], as protection against the uncontrolled loss of water together with waxes [28], as well as in transporting substances across plant tissues [29]. In addition to cutin in the cuticle there are cuticular waxes or lipids soluble, which are embedded within the matrix cuticular waxes intracuticulares, or deposited on the outer surface of the cuticle waxes epicuticular. In Figure 24 a diagram of the plant cuticle can be seen where its various components are indicated.

Intracuticular waxes Cutins Epicuticular waxes

Cell wall Pectin

Fig. 24: Scheme of a cross section showing a major plant cuticle constituent components.

Data in Table 11 summarize the proximate composition, protein, ash, crude fibre, total sugars, amino acids and fatty acids percentages, and mineral content of the tomato skins.

Tab. 11 : Chemical composition of tomato skin.

The proximate chemical composition reveals that tomato skin contained 10.5 g protein, 5.9 g ash, 4.04 g oil and 78.56 g carbohydrates per 100 g on dry weight basis (Table 7). These results are not in accordance with [30] who stated that tomato peel has higher amounts of protein (13.3%) and lipid (6%) and lower content of ash (3%). 24

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Tab. 12 : Minerals content of tomato skin.

The results in Table 12 show that tomato skini has high levels of K (1097) Na (73.6), Ca (160), Mg (149), Zn (3.12) and Fe (1.5) mg/100 g. In addition, it contains Mn (1.4), Cu (1.1), Cr (0.06), Ni (0.66), Se (0.01) and Co (0.01) mg/100 g. On the other hand, some heavy metals namely Lead and Cadmium are found in concentrations of 0.05, 0.02 mg/100 g, respectively. These results agree to a less extent with that of Gonzalez et al. (2011) who reported that the major elements in tomato peel are K, Mg, Ca and Na. In addition, tomato peel shows a low Na/K ratio.

Tab. 13 : Chemical composition (g/100g fatty acids) of peel oil.

The results in Table 13 illustrate the fatty acids identified in tomato peel oil, although the amount of peel oil usually extracted is small. The main unsaturated fatty acid are linoleic acid (52.41%) and oleic acid (19.14%), that constitute about 77.6% of the total fatty acids; while the saturated fatty acids found in tomato peel oil were myristic (0.34%), palmitic (15.19%) and stearic acid (6.84%) with a total percentage of 22.37%. In Table 14 is shown that tomato peel protein contains nine essential amino acids with a total percentage of 47.57% whereas tryptophan has not been determined. The non essential amino acids represent about 52.41% of total amino acids. Concerning essential amino acids, leucine, valine, lysine, arginine, isoleucine and phenylalanine had the highest values whereas methionine had the lowest. On the other hand, the non essential amino acids with high values were glutamic, alanine, glycine and tyrosine, whereas cysteine and aspartic acid were the lowest among all the amino acids.

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Tab. 14 : Amino acids content (g/100g protein) of tomato peel.

The main phenolic acids identified in tomato skin are presented in Table 15. These are caffeic, procatchoic, vanillic, catechein and gallic acid. Their corresponding concentrations were 0.50, 5.52, 3.31, 2.98 and 3.85 mg/100 g, respectively. It was clear that procatchoic was the abundant phenolic acid followed by gallic, vanillic and catechein acids whereas caffeic was the least one [31,32].

Tab. 15 : Phenolic acids of tomato skins.

Monitoring of pesticide residues in tomatoes has showed that, although, the skins are directly exposed to these chemicals such as insecticides, weed killer, etc. [33], washing with water and/or detergent solution, freezing or cooking of tomatoes (including processing tomato to paste) is sufficient to decrease the intake of pesticide residues in the skin by up to 95% [34,35]. The pesticide mostly studied are HCB, Dithiocarbamates, lindane, dieldrin and DDT derivatives.

mg/kg PermetrineFluvalinate - tau(I+II)Cipermetrine Chlorpirifos Methyl Chlorpirifos Sample A_1 0,01 - - - - Sample A_2 - - - - - Sample A_3 - 0,05 - - - Sample B_1 - - 0,32 0,27 - Sample B_2 - - 0,08 0,26 - Sample B_3 - - 0,16 1,19 0,01

- < QL (Lower the limit of quantification)

Tab. 16 : Pesticides residues found in tomato waste

The results obtained by A.A.K Abou-Arab et al. [34] are in agreement with the study carried out in the project Biocopac where it was developed a multi-residue analytical method for 128 pesticides in tomato. The list of pesticides researched includes over 14 families of different pesticides, with wide physical-chemical properties. The Table 16 shows pesticides residues found in tomato waste using an extraction method followed by a gas chromatography analysis with mass detection (GC-MS).

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4. Actual use of tomato residues

The actual use of tomato residues are:

 for animal feeding and as fertilizers;  edible oils and food additives;  other uses (bioplastic film, biogas).

Usually, food industry by-products are disposed in landfills and only partially reused by composting or drying for animal feeding and the press cake is used in the manufacture of stock feed, while the skins are suggested as a fertilizer. Tomato by-products are usually fed to ruminants due to their high fibre content. They are not excellent feed ingredients, being less digestible than most major oil meal and protein sources. They can be bitter and should then be used together with more palatable feeds. However, they can be a valuable source of protein, energy and fibre and cost-effective [36, 37]. Caluya et al. [30] recommend to include tomato pomace at up to 50 % of the daily roughage requirement irrespective of whether it is fresh, dry or ensiled. The pomace should be given before the roughage or mixed (particularly when dry) thoroughly with the chopped roughage. In vivo organic matter (OM) digestibility of dried tomato pomace (skins and seeds) was estimated at 56 % in sheep, using a balanced diet containing 34 % of pomace. In vitro dry matter (DM) degradability was 48% [38]. A close value of 62 % for OM digestibility was obtained using the gas test method. Extremely wide estimates of metabolizable energy (ME) have been obtained: depending on the method (in vitro) and equation used, ME values of 4.9 [39], 7 to 9 [31] and 11.8 MJ/kg DM [38] have been proposed (Table 17).

Tab. 17 : Digestibility and energy values of pomace for ruminant feeding.

Also the use of tomato pomace, skins and seeds in non-ruminants feeding is common. For example, dried tomato pomace is a valuable ingredient for rabbits feeding because it is one of few products that are simultaneously rich in digestible energy (13.7 MJ/kg) (Gippert et al., 1988a), mainly as a consequence of the high lipid content, rich in digestible protein (71-74 % digestibility)[41]; and also rich in fibre and particularly in lignin, which is important fibre component necessary to control digestive diseases in the rabbit [42].

Tomato-seed oil has been utilized in the manufacture of soap, and the conversion of the crude oil into an edible oil is also receiving attention. The composition of tomato seed oil is quite similar to soil oil (Table 18) [43].

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Tab.18 : Fatty acid composition of Tomato Seed oil

The Table 19 shows the Characteristics of crude Tomato seed Oil [44].

Tab.19 : Characteristics of crude Tomato seed Oil

By-products of tomato processing are good sources of many important components. Tomato-seed oil has been utilized in the conversion of the crude oil into an edible oil. Another widespread utilisation of tomato waste is as a source of polyphenolic antioxidants, the extraction of caroteniods from tomato wastes in particular Lycopene, from tomato skin, using also innovative methods as supercritical carbon dioxide [45]. Paste and tomato skins have been incorporated in a refined olive oil, in an extra virgin olive oil and refined sunflower oil. The incorporation of the peel in refined oils increased the concentration of lycopene and β-carotene. In addition to the incorporation of the skins has led to enhance the content in total phenols in the refined oil. The results of this work show that the incorporation of skins tomato, such as agro-industrial wastes, is an effective means for extracting carotenoids and compounds phenolic in fat substrates, improving their bioavailability thus improving the low quality of edible oils. The extraction of coloring substances, to use as food additives, is carried out from waste (mainly peels) tomato processing in special cultivation microalgae (like Spirulina) plants. Furthermore, it has been proposed the possible use of the carbohydrates present in tomato pomace and in by-products of the lycopene extraction process as biomass for bioethanol production. The presence of large sucrose content makes tomatoes to be used for the production of ethanol, using for example Saccharomyces Cerevisiae as the organism [46].

But, today the eco-friendly and innovative re-use of waste tomato seeds and skins, is becoming increasingly important, as the extraction of polysaccharides from residues of industrial processing to realize biodegradable plastic products for consumer goods as packaging, container, bioplastic film.

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Fig. 25: Study example of the realization of a bioplastic film

In addition to recovery from waste tomato processing of high nutritional value compounds, there are alternative recoveries such as the use of such waste in terms of biomass. Biomass includes various materials of biological origin, waste from agricultural activities or from farming and industry reused in special thermal power plants to produce electricity generally waste. On the other hand, the biomass residues may represent an important environmental problem if it is stored or placed on the land without control. All these issues led to think of biomass as fuel to replace fossil fuels for heating and electricity production. Indeed, there are a lot works on the development of biogas production by digestion of tomato’s plant wastes. Biogas is a renewable energy source whose main components are methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2). The process using the tomato crop residues, also in codigestion with cow manure, to generate biogas is based on the anaerobic decomposition of organic substrates by a consortium of microorganisms including fermentative, acetogenic bacteria and methanogenic archaea [47]; obtaining good results in methane content [48]. At the end of the anaerobic digestion is produced a sludge rich in nutrients that can be used as fertilizer. Today the residues of tomato processing, especially skins and seeds, do not generate any benefit to industries that produce them. For this reason, there are a lot of researches about the study of biomass residues of the tomato industry and their re-use.

Conclusion

This study evaluation has provided a complete overview about the tomato fruit, where the tomato fruit has been presented with all its botanical, morphological and structural characteristics, including the origin of the species, its composition, the principal variety cultivars, environmental needed and periodicity. In particular a statistical investigation about the tomato production data has been performed, considering the world, the European and the Italian tomato production. From the data collected China is resulted the first tomato producers, while in Europe the two major tomato producers are Italy and Spain and in particular in Italy the main regions where the tomato is cultivated are Emilia-Romagna, Puglia and Campania. More than a third of the tomato produced are used for the tomato processing industry, where the tomato are processed for the production of the tomato products, that are Peeled tomatoes, passata, crushed tomato, tomato concentrate, tomato juice. From the analysis of these products it has been possible to find that the main tomato waste are constituted by skins, seeds and tomato pomace. The composition of these waste has been deeply investigated and it has been possible to conclude that the tomato skins are constituted by different and several chemical components and elements. In fact the tomato skins contain protein, in particular nine essential amino acids, fatty acids, of which the main is the linoleic acid, carbohydrates and even phenolics acids. Even though the skins are directly exposed to pesticides, these compounds were not found in skins.

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The research about the use of tomato residues has highlighted that the tomato residues can be used for traditional use such as for animal feeding, edible oils or fertilizers, utilization already used and well consolidated in industry from years, but also that tomato residues can be used even for other non traditional use such as for bioplastic film and biogas. In fact there is a great need to develop chemistry that is based on the use of biodegradable and renewable resources, alternative for petroleum products, and also a great need to develop innovative biopolymer materials. Nevertheless, there is a limited number of studies on the development of bio-polyesters [49, 50] using tomato cuticle as feedstock. For these reasons, in this project we propose the scale-up of an aliphatic polyester (derived from cutin) process production, to use as a lacquer for foodstuffs packagings.

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