Five Brave Pagan Women in the Work of Tertullian

Page 1 of 7 Original Research Five brave pagan women in the work of Tertullian Authors: Historical exempla have been employed as a rhetorical stratagem since the 8th century BCE. The 1 Marianne R. Dircksen Christian apologist Tertullian, who received thorough training in rhetoric, was familiar with Beate Britz1 this device. Lucretia, Cleopatra, Dido, ‘the wife of Hasdrubal’ and Leaena also appear in the Affiliations: works of Roman authors as typical examples of bravery. In his Ad Martyres (4), Tertullian groups 1School of Ancient Languages together all five as fine examples of bravery when facing death. Four of the examples appear in and Text Studies, North-West his Ad Nationes (1.18) and two in the Liber Apologeticus (50). Both the Ad Nationes and the Liber University, Potchefstroom Campus, South Africa Apologeticus were written in defence of the Christians. In Tertullian’s De exhortatione castitatis (13.3) and the De Monogamia (17), Lucretia and Dido are referred to as exempla of chastity and Correspondence to: monogamy. The first four paragraphs preceding the analysis of these texts provide the context Marianne Dircksen and contain background information on the Christian apologists, a short biography of Tertullian, Email: a few remarks on the use of history as a rhetorical tool and a discussion on the place of these marianne.dircksen@nwu. women in ancient pagan literature. The investigation of Tertullian’s use of the exempla to bolster ac.za his argument reveals how he adapted these stock examples of pagan women to fit the Christian Postal address: context, and illustrates how and why ancient rhetoric became part of Christian literary tradition. PO Box 147, Private Bag X6001, South Africa Vyf dapper heidense vroue in die werk van Tertullianus. Historiese exempla word al sedert Dates: Received: 30 Oct. 2013 die agtste eeu v.C. as ’n retoriese strategie benut. Die Christen apologeet, Tertullianus, wat Accepted: 16 Apr. 2014 ’n grondige opleiding in retoriek ontvang het, was vertroud met hierdie tegniek. Lucretia, Published: 09 Dec. 2014 Cleopatra, Dido, ‘Hasdrubal se vrou’ en Leaena kom ook in die werke van Romeinse outeurs voor as tipiese voorbeelde van dapperheid. In sy Ad Martyres (4) groepeer Tertullianus al How to cite this article: Dircksen, M.R. & Britz, B., vyf saam as goeie voorbeelde van dapperheid in die aangesig van die dood. Vier van die 2014, ‘Five brave pagan voorbeelde kom in die Ad Nationes (1.18) voor en twee in sy Liber Apologeticus (50). Albei women in the work of hierdie werke is geskryf om die Christene te verdedig. In Tertullianus se De exhortatione Tertullian’, In die Skriflig castitatis (13.3) en die De Monogamia (17) word na Lucretia en Dido as voorbeelde van kuisheid 48(2), Art. #1777, 7 pages. http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/ en monogamie verwys. Die eerste vier paragrawe wat die analise voorafgaan, gee die konteks ids.v48i2.1777 en bevat agtergrondinligting oor die Christen apologete, ’n kort biografie van Tertullianus, ’n paar opmerkings oor die gebruik van geskiedenis as retoriese instrument en ’n bespreking van Note: die plek van die vyf vroue in antieke heidense letterkunde. Die ondersoek na Tertullianus se This article is a reworking of a chapter from Beate Britz’s gebruik van hierdie exempla om sy argument te versterk, dui aan dat hy die standaardvoorbeelde MA thesis (2011) entitled van heidense vroue aangepas het om by die Christelike konteks te pas, en illustreer hoe en ‘History as a rhetorical waarom antieke retoriek deel van die Christelike literêre tradisie geword het. instrument in Tertullian’s Ad Nationes: A critical investigation’. The Christian apologists Copyright: © 2014. The Authors. Since the Roman authorities initially regarded the Christians as a Jewish group (Wedderburn Licensee: AOSIS 2004:186), Christians benefitted from the Roman tolerance of Judaism (Clark 2004:6). Moreover, OpenJournals. This work is the Romans made no attempt to establish a universal cult or belief system in the Roman Empire licensed under the Creative nor did they suppress any cult, unless Roman religious feeling was offended or public order Commons Attribution endangered (Clark 2004:5). However, after the Jewish revolt in 66 CE, the Christians were License. perceived as a separate religious sect. As an entity with a unique identity, they were viewed with suspicion since their monotheistic exclusiveness was thought to anger the gods, to endanger the pax deorum1 and to be the cause of disasters (De Ste. Croix 1963:24). The Apologists, who were learned leaders and theologians, spearheaded the defence of Christians against this suspicion and persecution. Norris (2004) describes the Apologists as … authors who enjoyed a fuller education in the Greek manner than the majority of Christians, who could therefore envisage and present their faith in a way that might make it appear comprehensible and tolerable, if not attractive, to initially hostile readers. (pp. 36–37) Read online: Scan this QR code with your Their education incorporated a thorough grounding in classical rhetoric, philosophy and pagan smart phone or literature – influences that are evident in their works. mobile device to read online. 1.The harmonious relationship between the gods and men. http://www.indieskriflig.org.za doi:10.4102/ids.v48i2.1777 Page 2 of 7 Original Research The Christian apologists did not invent a unique genre, moral treatises long before the time of the Christian authors since Hellenised Jewish2 authors, earlier Christian authors3 (Carlson 1948:93). Rhetoric distinguishes three kinds of as well as writers from the Graeco-Roman world,4 already examples: examples from everyday life, examples from produced works that were apologetic in nature. The structure history and the poetical example. Of these three, the historical of argumentation the Apologists used, was therefore example is most frequently used since it provides a proven underpinned by established and well-known generic and well-known effect that increases its power of persuasion conventions, which ideally suited their purpose of defending (Ueding 1996:71–72). the Christians. All ancient rhetoricians knew and appreciated the value of Tertullian the historical example. Aristotle (Rhet. 1.9.40; 2.20.8) stated that historical examples are most suitable since we predict One of the apologists was Quintus Septimius Florens the future from the past, and Seneca (Ep. Mor. 1.6.5) explains Tertullianus or Tertullian, as he is known in the English- why examples are such an effective rhetorical device when speaking world. Since Tertullian is the earliest Christian he says: ‘Longum iter est per praecepta, breve et efficax per author who wrote in Latin and whose works are extant, exempla’ [‘The journey by way of precepts is long, but short he is an important figure in Christian literature.5 Barnes and efficient through examples’]. Both Cicero (Top. 44)7 and (1971) established what is currently held to be the most Quintilian (Inst. 5.11) independently attest to the efficacy reliable biography of Tertullian.6 Basing his calculations of examples from history in the art of oratory. The great on Tertullian’s own testimony, he proposes that Tertullian Roman rhetorician, Quintilian, explains why history is such was born c. 170 in Carthage in Roman Africa (Barnes a valuable tool in arguing a case: 1971:58). Barnes discredits the widely held assumptions that Est et alius ex historiis usus, et is quidem maximus sed Tertullian’s father was a centurion and that he himself was non ad praesentem pertinens locum, ex cognitione rerum a jurisconsult or became a priest. The date of his conversion exemplorumque, quibus in primis instructus esse debet orator; from paganism to Christianity and subsequent marriage to a nec omnia testimonia expectet a litigatore, sed pleraque ex ve- Christian wife is uncertain, but we know that he belonged to tustate diligenter sibi cognita sumat, hoc potentiora quod ea sola the literary circles and intellectual culture of Carthage during criminibus odii et gratia vacant. [Another important and valu- the reign of Septimius Severus and his son Caracalla (Barnes able advantage to be gained from history, though irrelevant for 1971:57–59). Carthage was undoubtedly the intellectual the present discussion, is the author’s own thorough knowledge centre of the African provinces (Barnes 1971:187–210). of historical facts and examples. This would enable him to prove Barnes convincingly argues that Tertullian was well-read in his case by utilising his accurate knowledge of history and not being totally reliant on his client for all evidence. Such argu- both the classical authors and those of silver Latinity (Barnes ments are all the more persuasive, as they alone are exempt from 1971:192–206) and that he was familiar with the precepts of the charges of prejudice and partiality.] (Inst. 10.1.34, [author’s rhetorical theory (pp. 206–210; also see Dunn 2004:5; Sider own translation]) 1971:126–132). Preferring the austere doctrines and practices of Montanus to Catholicism, he became a Montanist and Africa was well-known for its schools of rhetoric. Our subsequently the head of the Montanist party in Africa – sources attest to the fact that the study and practice of a party that existed until the 5th century under the name eloquence was met with even greater encouragement in this Tertullianists. He wrote all his extant treatises over a relatively province than in Rome (Woodham 1848:xii), and Tertullian short period, from 196 to 212 CE. Barnes estimates that he undoubtedly had more than a passing knowledge of its possibly died in middle age, perhaps as a martyr whom the technicalities. The church fathers knew that it would be Church preferred to forget, but the date and circumstances advantageous to refute their pagan opponents with their of his death remain blurred (Barnes 1971:59). own arguments and their own examples.

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