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The Transformation of Ethnic Conflict and Identity in Syria

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The Transformation of Ethnic Conflict and Identity in Syria THE TRANSFORMATION OF ETHNIC CONFLICT AND IDENTITY IN SYRIA by Randall Salm A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of George Mason University in Partial Fulfillment of The Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Sociology Committee: ___________________________________________ Director ___________________________________________ ___________________________________________ ___________________________________________ Department Chairperson ________________________________________ Program Director ___________________________________________ Dean, College of Humanities and Social Sciences Date: _____________________________________ Fall Semester 2016 George Mason University Fairfax, VA The Transformation of Ethnic Conflict and Identity in Syria A Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at George Mason University by Randall Salm Masters of Science George Mason University, 1992 Director: John Dale, Professor Department of Sociology Fall Semester 2016 George Mason University Fairfax, VA This work is licensed under a creative commons attribution-noderivs 3.0 unported license. ii DEDICATION This is dedicated to my family, especially my two amazing children, Giovanny Alexander and Gabriel Eduardo, and Maria Doris Garay Novoa, who allowed me the time to complete this work. It is also dedicated to all the people of Syria who are suffering through this difficult and dangerous time. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank the many friends, relatives, and supporters who have made this research possible. My friends Nesrin, Sarah and Talal assisted me in various, valuable ways during data collection and transcription. A special thanks goes to all the informants who shared their personal experiences. The members of my committee, Dr. Dale, Dr. Best and Dr. Kurtz, were of invaluable help. The financial support from the George Mason University Sociology Department was also deeply appreciated. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page List of Tables ................................................................................................................... viii List of Figures .................................................................................................................... ix Abstract ............................................................................................................................... x Chapter One: Overview and Methods ................................................................................. 1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 1 Problem statement and research question ....................................................................... 4 Justification ..................................................................................................................... 7 Research methods and ethical issues ............................................................................. 12 My personal role in Syria and Turkey ........................................................................... 15 Chapter Two: Literature Review and Theoretical Framework ......................................... 18 Key concepts ................................................................................................................. 18 Historical perspective on ethnicity in Syria .................................................................. 25 The Assad regimes..................................................................................................... 27 The 2011 revolution and competing narratives ......................................................... 28 Identity models .............................................................................................................. 32 Identity and armed conflict studies ............................................................................... 35 Ethnic and religious identity literature in Syria ............................................................ 37 Chapter Three: Commonalities in Ethnic Identities for Five Syrian Ethnic Groups ........ 45 Language: dominant Arabic, repressed Kurdish ........................................................... 45 Names and family: important values ............................................................................. 51 Gender inequality and marriage norms ......................................................................... 54 Honor is crucial in the traditional Arab society ............................................................ 66 Ethnic group salience, segregation and inter-group interaction .................................... 69 A legacy of mistrust and fear ........................................................................................ 76 A stratified socioeconomic class system ....................................................................... 79 v Geographic barriers and urban/rural differences ........................................................... 82 A larger, but limited, Syrian identity............................................................................. 86 Conclusion on commonalities ....................................................................................... 89 Chapter Four: Unique Ethnic Identity Distinctions for the Five Syrian Groups .............. 90 The hidden yet prevailing Sunni Arab identity ............................................................. 91 Sunni social roles, relationships and groups .............................................................. 96 Alawites: oppressed, yet celebrating life ....................................................................... 99 Alawi values, beliefs and customs ........................................................................... 107 Alawi women, more independent yet marginalized ................................................ 112 Alawi poverty, social class and status ..................................................................... 117 Alawi identity conjoined to the Syrian regime ........................................................ 122 Christians: multiple sects, common histories .............................................................. 131 The importance of Christian values and social organization ................................... 133 The tight Armenian Christian sub-group ................................................................. 136 Christian social status and discrimination ............................................................... 138 Conflict, cooperation and group boundaries ............................................................ 140 Other identities for Syrian Christians ...................................................................... 144 Diverse Kurdish identities: marginalization, struggle and pride ................................. 146 Kurdish history ........................................................................................................ 147 Kurdish marginalization, oppression and struggle .................................................. 153 Kurdish values, beliefs and gender roles ................................................................. 159 Kurdish within-group relations: particularism and competition.............................. 164 Cooperative Kurdish relations with other ethnic groups ......................................... 167 Druze: a close and warm community .......................................................................... 170 Druze historical events ............................................................................................ 172 Druze values and beliefs .......................................................................................... 175 Economics, migration, and remittances ................................................................... 182 Druze neutrality and the revolution ......................................................................... 185 Chapter conclusion ...................................................................................................... 187 Chapter Five: Religious Identity in Syria: Minority Fears of Sunni Extremism ............ 193 The centrality of the Sunni Muslim religion ............................................................... 198 The secretive Alawi religion ....................................................................................... 205 vi The central role of Christianity in the Christian community ...................................... 211 Kurdish religion, diverse sects with low salience ....................................................... 214 The Druze religion: a long history, yet secretive and tolerant .................................... 216 Contested religion: Syrian youth and atheism............................................................. 224 Minority fear of Sunni religious extremism ................................................................ 225 Theoretical reflections on religious identity................................................................ 230 Chapter Six: Ethnic Identity as Opposition to or Support for the Assad Regime ........... 233 The impact of stereotyping .......................................................................................... 235 The power of regime propaganda................................................................................ 236 A long history of regime terror ..................................................................................
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