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“Female Patriotism”: How Esther Reed and Deborah Sampson Broke Female Expectations in the SHANNON GOSSE

Female patriots of the American Revolution were strong and hard-working women who were devoted to the fight for liberty. Many of these women contributed to the Revolution in different ways based on wealth and social status. Whether their actions were big or small, female patriots felt it was their duty to join the fight, and men encouraged their involvement by establishing certain roles for women.1 Ray Raphael asks: “how far did “American patriotism” extend “even to the Fair Sex?””2 This paper will explore the lives of Esther De Berdt Reed and Deborah Sampson and focus on how “American patriotism” extended deep into the experience and contributions of these women throughout the American Revolution. Esther, a member of the British elite and American newcomer, and Deborah, an indentured servant sent away by her mother; both felt a compelling urge to join the fight for liberty in ways that went outside the conventional boundaries of women’s roles. An examination of their experience and contributions during the Revolutionary Era will reflect economic and social restrictions on how women participated in the Revolution. Both women living in a patriarchal society were able to use their actions to break social boundaries and gain much attention showing how their “American patriotism” extended far above what was expected. Before the era of the American Revolution, women had been systematically excluded from all aspects of the political arena but suddenly were encouraged to join the political crusade of the Revolution.3 Men saw a need for female patriotism through the production of materials and purchasing choices. Raphael mentions how men allowed “women to exert political leverage through the management of their household economies.”4 American women were given a new opportunity to exercise control over their households and their actions in order to contribute to the American cause. Women’s new roles were established by male figures with the expectation they would not extend themselves beyond these tasks. When women of low economic status followed military divisions and joined their camps to help soldiers, leaders such as felt uncomfortable with their company.5 On August 4th, 1777, Washington expressed, “the multitude of women…especially those who are pregnant, or have children are a clog up on

1 Ray Raphael, A People's History of the American Revolution: How Common People Shaped the Fight for Independence (New York: New Press, 2016), 148. 2 Ibid., 140. 3 Ibid., 136 4 Ibid., 136-137. 5 Ronald Hoffman and Peter J. Albert, Women in the Age of the American Revolution (Charlottesville: published for the Capital Historical Society by the University Press of Virginia, 1989), 12.

46 every movement,”6 and encourages that all women not “absolutely” necessary must be removed. No regard was given to the fact most of these women were poor and had nowhere else to go, and were they received less respected than the women working from their homes. Meanwhile, the women of the Philadelphia Ladies Association presented Washington with 2000 shirts for his army in December 1780 where he expressed great gratitude.7 He reaffirmed female roles in his response stating, “The love of a country is blended with those softer domestic virtues, which have always been allowed to be more particularly your own.”8 It is evident that Washington did not enjoy the presence of women when they were acting outside their expected role and consistently complains about their presence when fighting in the war. In comparison, he reacts much differently to women acting within their domestic sphere. He encourages women’s “softer domestic virtues,” expressing gratitude for their actions which directly helped him and stayed within their traditional gendered expectations. Raphael argues, “As much as men wanted women to become patriots, they did not expect any transgressions of traditional boundaries or demands for additional rights.”9 Woman’s contributions and participation in the American Revolution is shown to be divided by their representation by male figures. Washington is one example of how men expected women to stay within the domestic sphere and reflects present attitudes towards women in the Revolution. The extent of participation in patriotic actions was limited to women based on their social class and economic status. Lower class women were restricted in their ability to play noticeably significant patriotic roles. This was due to limited political connections and inadequate economic means which prevented their entry into the political sphere. Economic status subsequently created a divide in women’s ability to act on their patriotic call to duty. Esther De Berdt Reed was a woman of elite status, allowing her to pursue actions that kept her in the home and organize beneficial contributions to the war. She was able to stay within the domestic sphere while challenging expectations of her patriotic role. Esther was more than comfortable economically, but like most women, she still suffered immense stress and confusion from the outbreak of war. At the beginning of the Revolutionary Era, Esther, a British native, was frightened by the conflict between what she believed to be homeland, Britain, and her current residence, Philadelphia.10 The contrasting political opinions between Esther and her husband Joseph Reed also contributed to her growing disillusionment of living within Revolutionary Era America.11 In June of 1775, Joseph left with the commander in chief, George Washington.12 Joseph’s leaving is said to have “disrupted Esther’s daily life, intensified her, and compelled her to think about the future in very specific terms,”13 leaving Esther with growing anxieties surrounding her new role as head of

6 Ray Raphael, A People's History of the American Revolution: How Common People Shaped the Fight for Independence, 153. 7 Ibid., 146. 8 Ibid., 146. 9 Ray Raphael, A People's History of the American Revolution: How Common People Shaped the Fight for Independence, 139. 10 Owen Ireland, Sentiments of a British American Woman (Pennsylvania: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 2017), 118. 11 Ibid., 118. 12 Ibid., 121. 13 Owen Ireland, Sentiments of a British American Woman., 121.

47 a growing household.14 She began to question herself and society, faced with the question of whether to stay in America or return home out of fears that siding with the Americans would brand her a traitor.15 Esther’s interest in public affairs and her inclusion into political conversations with prominent Revolutionary figures helped encourage them to discuss serious public matters.16 Her desire to inform herself was based on her exposure to figures that helped her understand the American Revolution Era from a first-hand perspective which gave her the knowledge and power required to question her role and where she stands politically. By October of 1775, she made an independent and political decision to refer to the American Revolution as “the cause of liberty and virtue,”17 stating, “we shall declare for independence.”18 Her experience during the American Revolution can be seen as confusing and stressful but Esther turns this difficult experience into a force that drives her to make a change. Esther believes it is best for her family to side with the “American cause” and begins to take action to contribute to the Revolutionary War. Her political awareness and elite status helped her navigate her changing role within the Revolutionary context. Esther began meeting with women from “leading, wealthy households in Philadelphia…to discuss ways of supporting both the troops and the treasury.”19 In 1780, Esther and Pennsylvania’s elite women established the Ladies Association of Philadelphia, becoming the first female voluntary association in the United States.20 The group raised money and worked together to help organize ways to gather money for the war. Prior to 1780, women of Philadelphia are mentioned to be entering into an “association,” according to the Pennsylvania Evening Post on November 29th 1777.21 It is unknown whether Esther was involved in this group, though it is possible due to her decision in 1775 to join the American Revolutionary cause. The women in the newspaper are said to have refrained from purchasing any “dry goods whatever of any person that shall presume to make a different betwixt hard money and the legal paper currency.”22 These women joined together to make changes in the economic structure of the state reflecting the ways women took action and contributed in towards the American Revolution. It is unknown the progress of this association from 1777, but Esther and her group of women were able to develop a well-structured institution using their status and wealth. Their elite status and knowledge allowed them to go beyond the roles established by men. Emily Arendt argues in her paper, Ladies Going about for Money, how these women were “offered a way for elite women to lay claim to a form of politics out of doors traditionally unavailable to them because of

14 Owen Ireland, Sentiments of a British American Woman, 122. 15 Ibid., 123. 16 Ibid., 123. 17 Ibid., 133. 18 Ibid., 133. 19 Emily J. Arendt, ""Ladies Going about for Money": Female Voluntary Associations and Civic Consciousness in the American Revolution," Journal of the Early Republic 34, no. 2 (2014): 158 20 Ibid. 21 "Philadelphia," Pennsylvania Evening Post (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania) III, no. 426, November 29, 1777: 557, Readex: America's Historical Newspapers. 22 Ibid.

48 their class and gender.”23 Their ability to establish non-conventional female roles in the American Revolution was due to their ability to gain firsthand understanding of what was occurring on the ground level due to their husband’s direct involvement. Esther was a very charismatic woman and during a time of loneliness, stress and fear from her husband in the war; she directed these emotions towards tackling issues within her state. Esther targets what she believes to be the problems in America by reaching out to all women through The Sentiments of an American Woman. She calls women to their patriotic duty to live a “simple life,” which she sees as being one of the problems in society.24 This “life” includes, wearing practical clothes, simple hair, refraining from the “highest pleasures” and keeping soldiers in mind when spending money.25 Using her education and status to publish this announcement. she encourages women to take control in their own lives in ways that will also support the American Revolution. Esther breaks boundaries by founding a Ladies Association which has never been done before and produces a successful response. Esther also attempted to claim similar or equal status to men’s patriotic actions. Esther expresses: Our ambition is kindled by the same of those heroines of antiquity, who have rendered their sex illustrious, and proved to their universe, that, if the weakness of our constitution, if opinion and manners did not forbid us to march to glory by the same paths as the Men, we should at least equal, and sometimes surpass them in our love for the public good.26 This quote shows how Esther claims that “American woman” feel the same patriotic ambition and urge as men, whom she claims have already rendered their sex as well-known and respected. Therefore, she believes women deserve to have equal or greater action regarding their actions and contributions of public good toward their communities. Esther’s desire to claim a sense of equality for women’s efforts during the American Revolution is demonstrated when she mentions how women are forbidden to “march the same paths as the Men” who will receive their honour and gratitude. Esther utilized both class and knowledge to challenge America’s patriarchal society by arguing for stronger appreciation for women’s contributions done in the name of patriotic love for America. Within two years of arriving in America, Esther’s life completely changed as she began taking action in something she truly believed in. Regardless of what she hoped to gain from the Revolution, she established a model for women of other states to develop female volunteer associations. As well, her powerful and well-known document challenged beliefs that women’s actions were unequal to men’s. Men wanted American women to join the fight for liberty, but these women went above and beyond what was expected of them. For Deborah Sampson, she did not see a future in traditional female patriotic roles. Due to her low economic status, she had limited choice in how to she could take action, but

23 "Philadelphia," Pennsylvania Evening Post, 171. 24 Anonymous, The Sentiments of an American Woman (Philadelphia: John Dunlop, 1780) as reproduced in Early American Imprints, Series 1, no. 16992. 25 Ibid. 26 Ibid.

49 regardless, Deborah became a hero and fascination to the American people. In 1797, Herman Mann, “a citizen of ,” wrote over two hundred pages on the life of Deborah Sampson; whose character is described as “particularly distinguished.”27 This memoir written in the late eighteenth century by an unknown individual depicted her as: “not a stickler for tradition.”28 American society attempted to understand Deborah’s choices by creating a persona that broke with tradition in order to aid in their comprehension of her radical actions. A newspaper article written in 1784 answers the question of why Deborah entered the war claiming it was for romantic love and patriotism.29 Local newspapers reported Deborah running off to war because she wanted to escape a suitor given to her by her parents.30 Her actions were explained through her love of America and her fear of marrying which led her to join the military, but, in reality Deborah’s parents were not in her life.31 The newspaper on Deborah attempted to find justification surrounding her decision to join the military by using feminine objectives or stereotypes popular in the literature of the time aimed at romanticizing her enlistment, as well as her newfound status as a female warrior. The true nature of Deborah’s life was far from the romanticized version written in newspapers. Tragedy struck at a young age when Deborah’s father abandoned the family to start a new life with a common-law wife.32 Once her father was gone, her mother could no longer support her, sending her to homes of friends and eventually becoming an indentured servant.33 Despite her early hardships, Deborah was able to educate herself before eventually getting work as a teacher at the age of 18 between 1779-1780.34 There are few records of her life however it can be inferred she established a comfortable place in America before fostering the need to contribute to the Revolution. The year 1782 marked a huge change in Deborah’s life. She was a patriotic woman who wanted to help in the war but working as a nurse did not appeal to her.35 Deborah decided to disguise herself as a man, sewing her own clothes, and changing her name to Robert Shurtleff in order to join the Revolutionary Army.36 While other women were known to join the military, Deborah became the most well-known likely as a result of her extension three year service which marked her as the longest woman on record to serve in the war.37 The years Deborah spent fighting in the war were defined by brutality and starvation occurring throughout the Revolutionary War. Deborah endured battle wounds, periods of starvation, loneliness and fear

27 Herman Mann, The female review: or, Memoirs of an American young lady, (Massachusetts: Nathaniel and Benjamin Heaton, 1797) as reproduced in Early American Imprints, Series 1, no. 32417 28 Ibid., 8. 29 Alfred Young, Masquerade: The Life and Times of Deborah Sampson, Continental Soldier (New York: Vintage Books, 2005), 6. 30 Ibid. 31 Ibid. 32 Adrienne Kennedy, “Deborah Sampson,” Salem Press Biographical Encyclopedia, 2019. 33 Ibid. 34 Debra Michals, "Deborah Sampson," National Women's History Museum, 2015. 35 Adrienne Kennedy, “Deborah Sampson” 36 Ibid. 37 Alfred Young, Masquerade: The Life and Times of Deborah Sampson, Continental Soldier (New York: Vintage Books, 2005), 6.

50 throughout her years in service. Alfred Young discusses the limited records regarding Deborah’s participation in the war, expressing heartbreak over the sparseness of her documentation and her infrequent communication with others.38 It is assumed her limited records were done strategically to keep a low profile, protect her identity, as well as her potential plan of attack.39 Deborah’s decision to challenge social norms was not without consequences as she faced internal doubts and external threats. Like other men in the military, she would have left behind her family and the comforts of home to face the frightening aspects of war, but unlike other women, Deborah’s participation in the war was uncharted territory due to the uncommon nature of her hiding her gender identity in the army. Deborah is different from other women in the military not only for her ability to fight for so long but for her attempt to claim equality. In 1783, A Letter from His Excellency George Washington to His Excellency Benjamin Harrison, Washington argues throughout the paper why men of the army deserve credit for their service.40 He states, “Where is the man to be found who wishes to remain indebted for the defence of his own person and property, to the exertions, the bravery, and the blood of others, without making one generous effort to repay the debt of honour and of gratitude?”41 Washington believes that it is only fair to supply the men who fought throughout the war with compensation so they can avoid financial debt. He explains how a pension must be offered to those who fought but fails to mention women like Sampson. Early in the war it became evident that Washington did not enjoy the presence of women within the army and applauded the domestic contributions of the Philadelphia Ladies Association. While Washington was apprehensive in terms of women’s participation in non-traditional roles such as the army, Deborah felt it was necessary to receive compensation for her actions despite her gender as she fought the same battles as men. Receiving a pension was an extremely difficult task even for male soldiers, but after years of perseverance Deborah became the first woman to receive a pension in 1805.42 As well, in 1802 she toured giving lectures on her experience becoming the first woman to ever do so.43 Deborah Sampson may have not been the only female to enter the military, but due to her actions during and after the war, she became a subject of interest to the American people. She experienced a sense of equality by fighting for a pension she felt she deserved and won. Despite her lower economic status, she was still able to go beyond the female patriotic roles established by male figures. Deborah was aware of the conventional female roles that she could have pursued instead but continued to fight for liberty on her own terms. The question of whether a woman’s “American patriotism” was stronger than men’s due to the unconventional nature of their contributions is unanswerable. Esther De Berdt Reed and Deborah Sampson both hailed from different economic classes and social upbringings yet

38 Alfred Young, Masquerade: The Life and Times of Deborah Sampson, Continental, 12. 39 Alfred Young, Masquerade: The Life and Times of Deborah Sampson, Continental, 12. 40 George Washington, A letter from His Excellency George Washington, Esq; commander in chief of the army of the United States, to His Excellency Benjamin Harrison, Esq; governour of the Commonwealth of Virginia, (Richmond, Virginia: Nicolson and Prentis, 1783), as reproduced in Early American Imprints, Series 1, no. 44493, 10 41 Ibid., 11. 42 Adrienne Kennedy, “Deborah Sampson” 43 Debra Michals, "Deborah Sampson”

51 they managed to create a legacy through their contributions on and off the battlefield. Esther’s role in the American Revolution was applauded for remaining in the female domestic sphere, while Deborah broke societal boundaries. Despite one woman’s contribution aligning more closely with gendered expectations of the time, both women challenged what it meant to be an American patriot. Esther utilized her wealth and elite status to create a volunteer women’s association, which was the first of its kind. While Deborah employed bravery and strength by acting outside of traditional gender roles by taking on a “man’s job” and entering the military. Both women claimed they deserved equality for their actions; asking for equal recognition to men’s contributions. Despite their apparent differences on the surface, underneath, these women faced the same feelings of fear, stress, inequality and confusion during the Revolutionary Era. Their shared experience shows how every woman, despite their differences were living in a time of fear that made them question themselves and their society. As well, their experiences throughout the American Revolution carried out the call for greater equality. Life during the Revolutionary Era called for action in the name of American liberty and freedom which was employed by women as a way to exercise liberty and freedom for their own actions. Esther called for equal recognition, while Deborah demanded equal pay. The idea of fighting for their own equality offers a deeper understanding to the topic of women in the American Revolution. It shows that through their “American patriotism” they saw a greater purpose in their contributions. These women saw the changes occurring in society and decided to fight for what they believed in, strengthening their own liberty. Each patriotic woman worked hard in diverse ways to contribute to the American Revolution, using their own experiences to reflect their changing understanding of their place in society. The American Revolution opened up an opportunity for women like Esther Reed and Deborah Sampson to take action in ways that differed from the expectation of women’s contributions to the war effort, but both challenge the way the Revolutionary Era viewed women’s abilities. ______