The State of Planning in Africa

An Overview Project Team

Waheed Kadiri APA Chairperson Kabir Yari APA Ashraf Adam APA Yusuf Patel SAPI President Nthato Gobodo SAPI Vice-President and APA Secretariat Musa Jack GIZ Laura Petrella UN-Habitat Michael Kihato South African Cities Network (SACN) Cecil Madell Researcher, Madell Planning Associates

Acknowledgements

Country Report Contributors Mali Abdoulaye Sylla, Association of Urban Planners of Mali Ouedraogo Dahoud, Association of Town Planners of Burkina Faso Mohammed Alhassan, Ghana Institute of Planners Nathaniel Atebije, Nigerian Institute of Planners, Julius Olujimi, Federal University of Technology, Akure Sénégal Alexis Campal, Direction Aménagement du Territoire Marius Diagne, Association Sénégalaise des Urbanistes Isaac K Mwangi, Chairman, Kenya Institute of Planners Vincent B. Byendaimira, Ministry of Lands Housing and Urban Development South Africa Martin Lewis, CEO, South African Council for Planners Resetselemang Clement Leduka , associate professor, National University of Lesotho, Masetori Makhetha, Ministry of Local Government Mtafu A. Z. Manda, Malawi Institute of Physical Planners Rube Hemoo, Town Planning Association of Mauritius Wilson Billawer, City of Windhoek Alphonce G. Kyessi, professor, Institute of Human Settlements Studies, Francis Muwowo, Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Copperbelt University, Psychology Chivaku Chiwanga, Zimbabwe Institute of Regional and Urban Planners

Publication Co-ordinator: Ndinda Mwongo Design and Layout: Peter Cheseret Cover Design: Thamara Fortes

Project Support Giz, UN-Habitat

COVER: Graphic © Shutterstock Photos: Ibadan, Nigeria © Flickr/IITA Image Library Nairobi, Kenya © Flickr/Exfordy Windhoek, Namibia © Flickr/Terry Feuerborn

HS Number: HS/010/14E 6 The State of Planning in Africa

1 Introduction

Africa is experiencing significant economic growth1 public authorities and local communities to access and associated demographic changes, including rising land, housing and other urban resources within urbanization 2 without the requisite infrastructure, growing settlements. The provision of these urban spatial and settlement planning. The proportion services requires research, planning, implementation of urban residents living in informal settlements and monitoring of policies, frameworks, strategies, is higher in Africa, as a region, than any other programmes and projects by a wide range of political, part of the world (UNDP, 2012). Inhabitants of social, built environment, civil society, and community informal settlements often have inadequate access organizations and institutions through varied to basic utility services, lack security of tenure, and partnership arrangements.

experience precarious environmental, health and slum

conditions. This research aims to provide a perspective of the roles of urban and regional planners4 within the process The current economic growth and urbanization in of settlement formation, urbanization and rural Africa should be guided by appropriate planning3 development. Mostly, the intention of this research is and land use management at continental, regional, to consider the spatial manifestation of the problems national, sub-national, and local scales. This is to Africa faces and assess the legislative, policy, human, 2002 ensure that Africa’s new towns, cities and rural areas institutional and educational capacity that exist within are effective in terms of meeting the basic needs of the planning profession. It aims to evaluate the The year African all their inhabitants; and to ensure that economic status of urban and regional planning and how the delegates from and social growth are inclusive. Key questions profession is being called upon, and is responding to a number considered by this State of Planning in Africa Report the challenges of rapidly growing cities and changing include the following: what role is planning playing rural areas in Africa. of planning at this juncture; what is the capacity across Africa for organizations forward development, spatial planning and land use management; and how effective is planning? Background and Research decided to Objective establish the Urbanization in Africa is stimulated by increasing African Planning investment in natural resource extraction (minerals African delegates from a number of planning Association and oil in particular), growth in commercial organizations decided at the Planning Africa 2002 agriculture and other sectors, coupled with rural- Conference to establish the African Planning urban migration and natural population growth. Association. Delegates identified the following key This growth is evident by the rapid expansion of objectives for the association: existing settlements, as well as the construction of new towns and the inevitably changing character of • Ascertain the status of urban and regional rural areas, secondary towns and existing cities. This planning on the continent economic and physical growth brings opportunities • Contribute to the growth and development of for stimulating and increasing access to employment, Africa through responsive planning health, education, and other social facilities and • Determine how planners are responding to services. However, many recent arrivals in urban ongoing development challenges settlements are poor and have to negotiate with • Review and improve systems of planning on a regional basis

1 The economic outlook for sub-Saharan Africa is positive, with • Create continent-wide linkages among African growth rising to 5.3 per cent in 2012, and 5.6 per cent in 2013, planners over the pre-crisis average level of 5 per cent (World Bank, 2013) • Develop and expand the planning profession 2 The urban population of East Africa is estimated at 21.7 per cent; West Africa, 44.95 per cent; Southern Africa, 48.0 per cent; capacity in Africa North Africa, 51.5 per cent; and Central Africa, 58.4 per cent. • Facilitate capacity building amongst planners UNDESA (2012) • Facilitate better understanding, cooperation and 3 The term ‘planning’ refers to all its dimensions, including spatial planning, forward planning, land use management, tenure improved networking amongst planners reform, land ownership, housing/habitat development, slum upgrading, management of urbanization, etc. and across all scales: local, district, regional and national. 4 Also referred to as city or town and regional planners. The State of Planning in Africa 7

APA Affiliate Member Countries

Planning institutions from the following 26 countries are affiliates of the African Planning Association:

West & Central Southern North Horn and East • Benin • Lesotho • Algeria • • Burkina Faso • Malawi • • Kenya • • Mauritius • Morocco • Uganda • Chad • • Tunisia • Côte d’Ivoire • Namibia • Ghana • South Africa • Mali • Tanzania • Nigeria • Zambia • Senegal • Zimbabwe •

APA initiated the State of Planning Report in Africa cooperation and improved networking amongst with the aim of producing a document that would APA affiliates and its membership and amongst role provide an understanding of the status of urban players and decision-makers across the continent and regional planning on the continent. The South in general. This research will also engage with the African Planning Institute (SAPI) functions as the initiative from the African Centre for Cities (ACC) APA secretariat and assisted with the preparation based at the University of Cape Town, to build a of the Report, while the United Nations Human platform for urban land reform in Africa south of the Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat) and Deutsche Sahara, as well as the efforts of the Association for Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) African Planning Schools (AAPS), aimed at reforming GmbH provided technical and financial support for planning education so that future urban practitioners this initiative. It is anticipated that the outcomes of could respond to city challenges meaningfully. this research will facilitate better understanding, 8 The State of Planning in Africa

The report aims to determine how countries are equipped to respond to development challenges and the existing roles of planning in Africa

Scope of Work growth is defined, given that the current settlement development models are based on low densities, The focus of the research is on APA affiliate high mobility demand, reduced public facilities and countries and the findings have been captured amenities that are producing towns and cities that per country. Countries were grouped in terms exclude the majority of their residents. of broad geographic locations, recognizing that many countries belong to more than one political C. Planning Status Quo or economic development community. The main This is the main focus of the report. It aims to purpose with this approach is to facilitate subregional determine how countries are equipped to respond discussions amongst APA members. to development challenges and the existing roles of planning in Africa. The report deals with the The research has been captured in the following two following research areas: reports: • An appraisal of the legal and policy frameworks i. The State of Planning in Africa (Full Report)(This that exist for planning report is available from the APA on request) • An assessment of forward planning instruments and land use management systems, including ii. The State of Planning in Africa: An Overview development plans and how this impacts on economic development and environmental The State of Planning in Africa: Full Report considerations (approximately 160 pages) deals with the following • The role and participation of community, civil aspects of the research, while this report serves as an society and government departments in planning overview and summarizes the main findings. processes • An assessment of the link between planning, A. Background budgeting and implementation; within the context This sketches the context of the relevant country, of efforts at decentralization of powers and focussing on the demographic and economic functions from central to local authorities indicators; the planning situation in the context of • Examples of innovation in planning that have the precolonial, colonial and postcolonial periods; been successfully undertaken; that may constitute political and administrative systems; the key drivers of best practice and lessons that could be explored the economy; as well as urban and rural settings. The elsewhere intention was not to be comprehensive, but rather • An assessment of the planning resource capacity to set the context for the planning legislation, policy per country, including the quantity and quality of and practice of these countries. The World Bank, UN- the human and institutional resources in terms of Habitat, as well as formal State websites, were also students, technicians, professionals, professional visited to access country specific information. bodies, statutory and regulatory bodies

B. Key Country Development The assessment aims to understand the impact Challenges of planning, particularly given challenging An attempt was made to identify the key circumstances, such as limited resource capacity and development challenges each country is facing. ineffective legal frameworks The intention was not to be comprehensive, but to focus on the development challenges to which D. Conclusion the urban and regional planning profession could This summarizes the country economic and social respond. These challenges cannot be delinked from context; key development challenges; the status quo the country-specific historical, political, cultural and of planning assessment; and the potential role of institutional contexts and have implications that could urban and regional planning in this process. vary significantly within various regions of the same country and within settlements. These challenges require evaluation in terms of how sustainable The State of Planning in Africa 9

Research Method cultural, political, economic, environmental and social differentiation between the 26 APA affiliated member The following methods were used in this research: countries. The process of preparing the report was informed by evidence-based research that moves • Questionnaire: The Planning Status Quo was beyond normative generalities of Africa and enables assessed through a questionnaire that was better understanding of continent-wide praxis. It is circulated to all APA affiliate-members and non- anticipated that the outcomes of the research will members. A number of countries subsequently guide ongoing legislation reform, planning education, joined the APA during the research process. The and improve planning competencies and practice. This questions dealt with the issues discussed above research should be regarded as “work in progress” and and aimed to understand the legal, policy, and it is anticipated that subsequent research will focus on institutional contexts within which planning occurs and will build on what has been achieved. in specific countries. Responses to the questions raised were captured verbatim as far as possible in the APA State of Planning in Africa: Full Report. Gaps, Anomalies and Study • Conference Engagements: Use was made of Limitations the opportunity to engage with planners from member countries attending planning conferences The research encountered the following gaps and during 2012. The preliminary findings of the limitations: research were presented at the SAPI 2012 (17-19 September) Conference. African delegates from • Although the initial stage of the research was Malawi, Mauritius and Namibia were interviewed at aimed at including all of the APA members, the conference. Representatives from the APA also the following countries, affected by the “Arab attended the Nigerian Institute AGM held from 7 Spring”, did not respond during the process: to 9 November 2012 in Abuja, the Kenya Institute of Planners Conference on 24 November 2012 in ›› Algeria Nairobi, as well as the AfriCités Conference held ›› Egypt from 2 to 5 December 2012 in Dakar, Senegal. ›› Morocco • Country Visits: Meetings were held with ›› Tunisia representatives from the relevant national planning institutes, UN-Habitat and senior city officials in • Communication with French-speaking countries Zambia and Zimbabwe during 2012. was difficult as well as accessing relevant literature. • Literature Review: Limited literature dealing with However, responses were received from Burkina case studies was sourced and reviewed, guided Faso, Mali and Senegal. It is possible that the by the research questions. This was aimed at a interpretations of responses could be slightly preliminary assessment of the historical context different with the translation from French to English and its relevance, as well as an assessment of the • In a number of cases the relevant country changes and impact of planning on development. institute has become non-operative. This could The available information was captured, evaluated be attributed to a change of a chairperson of and assessed per country. Use was made of papers institutes without the APA being informed delivered at conferences in order to best capture • The field covered by this research topic is immense, an understanding of the praxis of planning and its therefore the findings should be regarded as only impact on development outcomes. a first step in documenting the country specific circumstances and challenges The overall purpose of the research was, therefore, to assist with the development of an understanding It is strongly recommended that this research be of the role of urban and regional planning, given the extended to other African countries, and that development challenges APA member countries are countries which are not members of the APA be facing. It is recognized that the research questions encouraged to join. The remainder of this report are exceptionally substantive, given the historical, aims to synthesize the main findings this research. 10 The State of Planning in Africa

2 Background

Patterns of urbanization and the associated planning customary practices, overseen by kings, chiefs and response can be traced back to the precolonial, other traditional leaders, were effective in ensuring colonial, post-colonial and modern periods. that their subjects were educated in traditional practices, fed and sheltered within the communal milieu. Private and individual ownership of land Precolonial Period was only introduced with the arrival of the colonial powers - and for many traditional societies this was Most parts of northern and central Africa were an inconceivable concept. occupied by various ethnic groups and kingdoms during the precolonial period; characterized by ongoing regional and continental migrations, Colonial Political Systems and occupations and the establishment of a wide range Planning of small and large settlements. In West Africa, this included the Mossie Kingdom which founded Modernist planning in Africa can be traced to its settlements such as Ouagadougou, Yatenga, colonial roots and the interests of colonialists in the Tengkodogo and Gourma (present-day Burkina Faso) continent’s natural resources, including agricultural and the Akan kingdoms, which included the inland produce, fresh water, minerals and, in particular, Ashanti Empire (present-day Ghana). Precolonial humans as slaves. The colonialists were from countries settlements in present-day Nigeria include Kano, that had relatively high levels of urbanization, and Zaria, Koton-Karfi, Toro, Abeokuta and Ondo; Djenne occupation was initiated through the establishment and Timbuktu in Mali; Kilwa, Zanzibar and Dar-es- of new settlements along the African coastline from Salaam in Tanzania; amongst numerous others. In the 16th century onwards. It was common for settlers Southern Africa, numerous settlements (notably to establish new settlements away from existing Great Zimbabwe, the capital of the Kingdom of traditional settlements, thereby limiting the growth Zimbabwe, and Bulawayo, Shaka’s capital) were of these settlements and ignoring the traditional land established by Bantu and Nguni peoples, settling in management systems that existed. present-day Kenya, Zambia, Zimbabwe and South Africa, and joining the San who were the first Towards the end of the 19th century, the Europeans reported inhabitants of the southern region. Many of scrambled to acquire African territory; France these settlements accommodated large populations enforced their governance on West Africa; Britain on and were administered through traditional kingdoms. West, Southern and East Africa; and Portugal and Germany colonized Southern Africa. With large scale Land was vested within traditional leaders, families colonial occupation, planning systems that existed in and communities, and controlled and managed Britain, Belgium, France, Portugal and elsewhere in through customary practices. Access to land was Europe were applied within the colonies. British Town linked to usage and centred on agrarian practices, and Country Planning dominated Southern Africa tribal villages and expansive settlements. In Nigeria, (e.g. Kenya, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe) indigenous authorities administered settlements and parts of West Africa (e.g. Ghana and Nigeria). through spatial land allocation and management. French planning was enforced in West and Central For example, the Sokoto Caliphate and large parts Africa (e.g. Benin, Burkina Faso, Chad, Côte d’Ivoire, of the Oyo Kingdom - seats of government - had a Mali and Senegal), while the Portuguese installed form of deliberate spatial arrangement of land uses their planning practices in Angola, , around the palaces. By the middle of the 1800s many Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, and São Tomé e indigenous settlements, some with populations of Príncipe. These planning systems were largely aimed up to 20,000, existed throughout the area, informed at controlling the development of settlements, land by the need for defence and religious practices (NITP, use management and the construction of buildings 2012). Settlement patterns and locations throughout in the colonies. A key objective of these planning Africa were also informed by the location of natural systems was to accommodate the settlement resources, land for grazing and other farming of indigenous people in colonial towns to meet practices, watercourses and religious practices. These the demand for cheap labour in the mining and The State of Planning in Africa 11

manufacturing sectors, but in a highly regulated Postcolonial Political Systems manner by controlling the size and location of black and Planning townships under the guise of health and sanitation concerns. Land uses were restricted to housing and Ghana was the first African country to receive its local stores to protect the interests of colonial and independence from the colonial powers (1957), white businesses in the historic core areas. while most of the other nations followed during the 1960s5. Political instability was common for most “Country” planning was of limited relevance in countries throughout the initial independence period, rural areas, and land outside settlements was left characterized by coup d’états, political dictatorships, to traditional authorities to manage, under the presidents who occupied office for life, the banning supervision of a colonial administrator and, in some and imprisonment of political opposition, and the cases, internal white authorities (e.g. South Africa, induction of military governments. South Africa is Zimbabwe). Colonial administrations lasted for more notorious for institutionalized Apartheid for close than a century in many countries. In comparison, the to half a century and deliberate efforts at stifling post-independence period spanned a few decades, the development of the majority of its population. clouded by dictatorships and military rule. This pattern of political instability had a direct Informal settlements, 5 Burkina Faso, 1960; Nigeria, 1960; Mali, 1960; Senegal, 1960; Ibadan, Nigeria Kenya, 1963; Uganda, 1962; South Africa, 1961; Malawi, 1964; Mauritius, 1968; Tanzania, 1964; Zambia, 1964; Namibia, 1990. © UN-Habitat 12 The State of Planning in Africa

and the United States (neighbourhood concept; suburban settlements; freeway development). As the administrations within the independent countries were based largely on an “imported planning system”, planning administration remained largely unchanged. Till recently, most African planners were educated at European and American universities and had no other knowledge base. Consequently, amendments to the British Town and Country Planning system did not challenge its content of blue print planning, development control, permits and licences. Development control, especially in English-speaking African countries, was continued under Town and Country Ordinances, while forward planning remained influenced by tools such as master planning, structure planning and spatial development frameworks. These planning approaches were based on the assumption that future land uses could be accurately predicted and planned for, and that all developments would be mainly formal and modern. This belief-system contrasts significantly with realities of the slow or no growth of manufacturing and Housing in Johannesburg, impact on the establishment of post-independence formal commercial activities, and the rapid expansion South Africa. administrations and governance. In terms of of informal settlements and slums in most African © UN-Habitat development models, countries such as Tanzania urban settlements. Rural development has remained (Ujuma villages under President Julius Nyerere, 1967) the domain of central government ministries and attempted to formulate indigenous practices, while aid agencies, focusing on development strategies others followed rural modernization practices as with strong state intervention, such as Meeting Basic advocated by the colonial powers and aid agencies. Needs, Betterment Schemes and Integrated Rural With the majority of the population rooted in rural Development Programmes. areas, the emphasis was on rural planning as the spatial manifestation of development. In urban settlements, Town and Country Planning6 frameworks PLANNING REFORMS AND were retained. The planning systems and laws INNOVATION introduced in the colonial era therefore remained entrenched for the post-independence and for the Planners in countries such as Nigeria have current periods. recognized that old planning paradigms, theories and even practices are inadequate to meet current development challenges such as rapid urbanization, Modernist Planning slum proliferation, other informal and illegal settlements, climate change, urban crime and The growth of urban settlements in the post- violence as well as post-conflict and post-disaster independence period (1970 onwards) was influenced situations. Numerous attempts have been made to to varying degrees (South Africa in particular, warped rejuvenate urban planning processes to make them by apartheid ideology) by planning ideas from more effective in dealing with current development the United Kingdom (Garden Cities, Milton Keys) challenges. Common elements in the new planning processes in Nigeria include the following:

6 See Addendum 1: Summary of Policies, Frameworks, Legislation and Plans per Country The State of Planning in Africa 13

• Strategic spatial planning and its variants In spite of the dismal patterns of post-independence • New ways of using spatial planning to integrate administration, the list of countries that have government interventions achieved high-levels of political and administrative • Land regularization and management approaches stability and significant levels of community • Participatory and partnership processes participation over the last few decades has • Approaches promoted by international agencies grown. This includes nations such as , and dealing with sectoral urban concerns Ghana, Kenya, Namibia, Nigeria, South Africa and • New forms of master planning Zambia. These countries have made some strides • Planning aimed at producing new spatial forms in developing their administration and associated planning systems, although many substantial Master planning is still very much in vogue in Nigeria political, institutional, financial and administrative and widely used, particularly in cities within the challenges remain. northern part of the country (NITP. 2012).

In South Africa, post-apartheid spatial planning was significantly influenced by planning theories (by Christopher Alexander, Lewis Mumford, Jane Jacobs and others) advocated through the University of Cape Town planning school (e.g. Dewar et al, 1990; Dewar and Uytenbogaardt, 1991). This took the form of liberal, normative spatial performance principles In spite of the dismal patterns of post- such as access, equity, justice; and spatial tools such as activity and transport corridors, nodes, open space independence administration, the list of countries systems and densification. that have achieved high-levels of political and administrative stability and significant levels The global environmental movement also had significant impact on spatial planning, in particular as of community participation over the last few a subset of Environmental Impact Assessments and decades has grown. introduced sustainable settlement such as reducing carbon footprints and greening measures. Many of these ideas, as far as city form and structure are concerned, were part of the City Beautiful Movement during the late 1890s and 1900s, and were reintroduced into planning during the 1990s and 2000s. Some countries (for example, South Africa) have introduced national heritage and national environmental management legislation, which require impact assessments for most developments. 14 The State of Planning in Africa

3 Key Development Challenges

The following provides a brief profile of African cities, located, attracting significant infrastructure and the form and structure of urban settlements, features resource investment. In contrast, most secondary of rural areas and the critical challenges to which cities, smaller towns and rural areas lack basic planning needs to respond. services and social amenities (Kadiri, 2012). The growing urban population is characterized by a disproportionately larger share of youth, high rate Growth of African Cities of unemployment and underemployment, and high dependence on the informal economy. The It is anticipated that by 2015, approximately 41.1 percentage of urban residents living in informal per cent of Africa’s population will be urban dwellers settlements is higher in Africa, as a region, than (United Nations, 2011), while the estimate for 2020 any other part of the world (UNDP, 2012). Informal is 50 per cent (Kihato and Kururi-Sebina, n.d). All settlements (often lacking secure tenure, and regions of the continent (except those in Eastern environmentally precarious) are home to a majority of Africa) have urban populations greater than 40 per the inhabitants in most African cities. cent. Africa has the highest urban growth rate in the world. Most of this growth takes place in cities with populations of fewer than 750,000 people. An Form and Structure of African estimated 21.6 million Africans lived in cities in 2000; Cities in 2010 there were 30.7 million. It is estimated that the population of Africans in intermediate cities will Most African cities have taken at least two or more of increase to 47.2 million by 2025. Urban planning, the following spatial development forms: development and redevelopment efforts must, therefore, be concentrated in these cities which have • A Central Core: Incorporating the original evolved from villages and small towns, particularly settlements and, largely, the residential areas in peri-urban areas. Many rural settlements have, of the colonial descendants. In larger cities, through direct political intervention, been upgraded commercial centres were impacted upon by into administrative and local government centres and the withdrawal of the colonial power and annexed into existing urban areas. Current trends decentralization towards new suburbs (following Nairobi, Kenya. show a disproportionate focus on primate cities; US trends in the 1970s onwards). Population © UN-Habitat usually capitals and those geographically strategically densities in core centres have remained low. Planning authorities have sought to enforce development control with varying success. The exception is South Africa, where the Caucasian (relatively wealthier) population has retained land ownership of the historic core areas. • Locations, Townships and Suburbs: The locations were established by the colonial authorities for urban native Africans and informed by a distorted interpretation of planning models such as the garden city (UK) and neighbourhood (USA) movements. These resulted in racially separated settlements, both through legislative (South Africa) and non-legislative (Zimbabwe) enforcement. Middle-income suburbs were planned in terms of the Town and Country Act (e.g. in former English colonies), through formal establishment subdivision processes, while efforts at enforcing development control in townships were less vigorously pursued. The State of Planning in Africa 15

• Informal Areas and Peri-Urban Areas. These are largely located between the historic core areas and traditional rural areas. In some cases these spill over into the traditional areas (South Africa), while in other cases these are located close to the Central Business District (peri-urban areas), where informality was tolerated to varying degrees by city authorities (for example, forced removals in South Africa and Zimbabwe; and some level of acceptance in Zambia and Nigeria), but continue to grow nevertheless. Informal settlements also take the form of low-density urban sprawl, generally in the industrial side of towns. • Traditional Areas: These “out of town” areas have remained under traditional tribal control and customs. It was recognized, even by the colonial powers, that the Town and Country Act has limited relevance here. The last few decades have seen decentralized manufacturing and middle- income residential areas locating in these areas, through legislation (apartheid South Africa, to keep Africans out of the central core); or market forces (as is currently the case in Lusaka), and Dakar, Senegal. presented as new growth points. Critical Challenges Facing © UN-Habitat • Rural Towns: Informal acquisition, subdivision Spatial Planning Practice and disposal of land, as well as informal building construction in rural towns are common. An Cities are generally viewed as generating opportunities example can be found in Eldoret, Kenya, where for employment, income, education, wealth and an sale agreements are prepared by the Wazee improved quality of life. Most rural dwellers do not wa Mtaa (village elders) and thereafter formally move to cities for shelter, although this is considered recognized by the authorities. Informal procedures as a high priority need. Increased urbanization, in are preferred as these are shorter and cheaper particular of poorer residents, is associated with and enjoy the confidence of locals. In Tanzania, poverty, poor health and crime. The colonial, post- village councils collaborate with district councils to independence and recent development patterns have prepare village land use plans. resulted in a number of critical challenges for urban and regional planning:

Rural Areas • Rapid Urbanization: The rapid pace of urbanization is characterized by significant The majority of the continent’s population still resides socioeconomic, environmental and institutional in rural areas, characterized by high levels of poverty challenges for urban residents and local and subsistence farming. Rural areas, including government authorities. This, consequently, land ownership, remain largely under the control of leads to accelerated demands for housing and traditional authorities, with the exception of countries other municipal services, and an increase in such as Zimbabwe, where central government has political and social instability. Civil conflicts taken control of all traditional land. Rural areas across many cities have resulted in uneven urban are also characterized by the growth of smaller development. The growth of primate cities has settlements, the establishment of mining towns and been further enhanced by the high rates of investment in manufacturing plants. migration to capitals by refugees and internally displaced persons. Capitals such as Monrovia, 16 The State of Planning in Africa

in , and Kigali, in , are examples inequities are increasingly apparent across cities of the disproportionate urban hierarchies as a in Africa. A more recent phenomenon across the consequence of political unrest (Kadiri, 2012). continent is the visualization of high-technology • Informalization: Urban growth is dominated by satellite towns8 and the futuristic redevelopment informality in most African cities. Millions of urban of capital cities. Examples of these include satellite residents are living in overcrowded settlements towns such as Tatu City and Konza Technology and slums, lacking access to basic services such City (Greater Nairobi); Kalungulu City (Kampala); as water, sanitation and health care7. UN-Habitat Eko Atlantic City and Lekki-Epe corridor (Lagos); estimates that over 70 per cent of Africa’s urban Raphta City (Dar es Salaam) and Luanda Sul population does not have adequate shelter, (Luanda), as well as the redevelopment of capital water supply and sanitation. Informalization cities such as Kigali, Nairobi, Lagos, Kinshasa, of economic activities has also increased with Dar es Salaam and Maputo. Development of the pace of urbanization. The urbanization of these cities is intended to be mainly driven by poverty can be ascribed to a combination of three the private sector, and also developed with factors: the rapid urbanization of the developing foreign investments and catering exclusively for countries, the lack of decent jobs, and the lack of higher income earners. These projects have been adequate planning with efficient city management criticized, especially with regard to their elitist (Association of Urban Planners of Mali, 2012). This undercurrents and the fact that, in some instances, has been accompanied by increasing international low-income communities have to be evacuated pressures to secure “the right to the city” for to make way for them (Kadiri, 2012). However, the poor. Urban land use patterns in African it is recognized that while these developments cities have, up to recently, developed slowly over are indeed quite elitist and inward-looking, they decades and even then, the authorities had limited are a result of the failure of urban planning to control over the formal areas. Town and Country provide adequate responses to local development Ordinances have become irrelevant in informal challenges. Similarly, mass housing for the poor areas. has been developed by state agencies in far and • Inadequate Infrastructure Provision: Urban disconnected locations. (Kihato and Kururi-Sebina, settlements are not equipped to deal with n.d). the rapid growth of cities and towns. With • Inadequate Public Transport: The emergence the increasing pace of urbanization, African of cities distorted historically through colonial city officials have been unable to fund critical planning, and more recently by market forces with infrastructure such as road and rail networks, parochial interests; the continued likelihood of water and sanitation, telecommunications, energy, the poorest residents pushed towards the urban health and education facilities. In addition to the periphery (in South Africa in particular); and the need to provide additional infrastructure to the existence of a fragmented privately based taxi growing urban population, in many cases existing service in many cities, highlight the critical need infrastructure has depreciated and has become to establish integrated, affordable, efficient and obsolete and inadequate (e.g. Ghana). Traffic appropriate public transport systems in growing congestion is impeding the function of some cities cities. This is of importance to generate potential (e.g. Dakar, Senegal; Lagos, Nigeria). The growing opportunities for economic development, and demand for electricity is a major challenge for increase mobility and access to job opportunities countries that experience regular power outages and scarcely distributed public health and (e.g. Nigeria, South Africa). education facilities. • Polarized Development: Recent private • Ad Hoc Developments in Rural Areas: In developments have taken a laissez-faire form many cities and towns (e.g. Lusaka), rural areas with regard to market-led urban developments, are attracting private investment in the form of supported by tacit political support in an effort manufacturing and gated residential developments. to “make cities safe for capital” (Mabin, 1998). Manufacturing processing of raw materials must Enclaves of high-value residential development are being developed by mainly foreign private 8 “Neo-city” is a term used by Pauline Sabatini (2011). It is a investors, while affordable and lower middle- convenient but non-scientific catch-all, referring to the emerging income housing is being shunned. Urban trend of “new cities” that come to exist through various means and approaches, mainly as non-state sector led housing subdivisions. These tend to be peri-urban development enclaves, 7 For example, estimates in Ghana: 5 million; Mali: 2.9 million: sometimes becoming new satellite towns or charter cities (Kihato South Africa: 5 million; Namibia, 0.5. and Kururi-Sebina, n.d). The State of Planning in Africa 17

be lauded and further encouraged. However, developments in rural areas are occurring without any involvement of nearby city authorities The Urban inequities are increasingly apparent and without significant reliance on city utility infrastructure. In some cases, market forces across cities in Africa. A more recent phenomenon have a direct impact on the growth and pattern across the continent is the visualization of high- of settlements: for example in Mauritius, the technology satellite towns and the futuristic downward review of the price of sugar sold to the European Union by 36 per cent has caused cane redevelopment of capital cities fields to be developed into resorts and real estate schemes, large out-of-town shopping malls in rural areas, and office parks. In many cases where powerful market forces are at play, authorities do not have appropriate planning policies and • Corruption and Political Expediency: Corruption frameworks in place to ensure inclusive and within the public and private sector is a serious sustainable growth. hurdle in meeting the development challenges of • Poor City Management: Settlement planning most countries, and the management of urban and development have, to a large extent, areas in particular. This practice poses a challenge remained under the control of ministries in central to efforts to decentralize authority to regional and government and in collaboration with local local levels where there is insufficient capacity. authorities. Many African cities are unable to Parochial political agendas undermine urban growth manage rapid urbanization using static blueprint management initiatives and this is exacerbated by master plans, insufficient and inadequately trained poor political leadership and administration. planning staff and other resource limitations. Consequently, towns and cities cannot cope These and other examples demonstrate that and this can be attributed to the limitations of urbanization in African cities is taking a completely master planning with its assumption that cities different form in comparison with that of Western will be dominated by formal developments, as has and Asian countries. In this context, rethinking been in the case of cities in western countries. the planning agenda and approach is of critical Furthermore, in cases where city management importance and should be a preoccupation of and duties (for example in terms of planning) planners and policy makers. have been decentralized, this has not been accompanied by power and resources to drive these processes. 34 The State of Planning in Africa

Addendum 1: Summary of Policies, Frameworks, Legislation and Plans per Country

Country National/Provincial National Planning Powers and Functions Legislation Regulating Local Development Plans Development Plans Legislation and of Local Government Spatial Planning and Land Policies Guiding Use Management Development Planning • Burkina • National Policy of Habitat & • National Spatial • Local municipalities have • Laws exist to regulate • E.g. Ouagadougou City Faso Urban Dev. (2008) Planning Scheme the powers and functions to agricultural re-organization and Development Strategy (about to be undertake planning land development. • E.g. Plans for the Acquisition adopted) • Town & Urban Planning of Land Schemes • Ghana • National Development • The National • The Local Government Act, 1993 • The Town and Country Planning • Local socioeconomic Planning Strategy Development (Act 462) Ordinance, 1945 (CAP 84) development plans Planning (Systems) • The Local Government Act, Act, 1994, (Act 480) 1993 (Act 462) • The Land Use and Spatial Planning Bill (yet to be passed) • Nigeria • The National Urban • National Physical • Nigerian Urban and Regional • Guided Land Development • Local development plans Development Policy (2009) Development Plan Planning Law (Decree 88 of • Land use management (being prepared) 1992). schemes and systems • Mali • Strategic Framework for • Urban Development • Various Acts dealing with: • Ordinance No. 00- 027/P-RM, • Urban Sector Plan Growth and Reduction of (Strategy No. 4 • Est. the National Directorate of 2000, Land and Estate Matters; • Urban Plan Reference Poverty (2006) of 10) Local Authorities • Numerous Decrees relating • Master Plan for Major Cities • National Urban and • Strategy for the • Est. the National Agency for to real estate development, • Regional Master Plan (Secondary Regional Master Plan Development of Municipal Investment National Commission; costs for Cities) (1997) the Cities of Mali • Est. the National Directorate of plots and housing production; • National Strategy for (2009) Urban Planning and Housing and Urban Planning; physical Housing (2000); the Regulations for Operations planning; Urban Infrastructure; • National Policy for Land • Est. of National Directorate of Urban Public Utilities; Management (2006) Lands and Surveys Construction Permit; Town • Est. of Communes Planning Operations; Physical • Fiscal Resources of Communes; Planning Sectoral Plan • Senegal • National Development Plan • National Regional • Laws No. 96-06 and 96-07 of • Town Planning Code (2009) • Local plans (provide for spatial wDevelopment Plan March 22, 1996 planning)

• Kenya • Economic Recovery Strategy • The Physical • Local Government Act of 1965 • Towns and Urban Areas Act (13 • Few local area development and for Wealth and Employment Planning Act (1996) of 2011) spatial plans Creation (2003) • General • Part Development Plan Development Guidelines • Uganda • National Development Plan • National Physical • Local Government Act, 1997 • Department of Land Use • Regional Physical Development (2010) Planning Act (2010) Regulation and Compliance Plans • Uganda National • District Physical Development Land Policy (draft Plans 2011) • Urban Physical Development plans • Local Physical Development plans • South • Accelerated and Shared • Development • The Constitution (1997) • Integrated Zoning Schemes • Plans for metro areas, district and Africa Growth Initiative for South Facilitation Act • Municipal Systems Act (2000) • Provincial Ordinances and Laws local municipalities Africa (AsgiSA) (2006) (1995) • Municipal Structures Act (1998) • Spatial Development Frameworks • New Growth Path (2010) • Spatial Planning • Integrated Development Plans • Local Economic Development • National Development Plan and Land Use Strategies (2011) Management Bill • Human Settlement (Housing) • Integrated Human Plans Settlement Policy • Environmental Management • National Environmental Plans Management Act (2010) • Engineering Plans • National Heritage Act (1999) • Urban renewal strategies, etc. The State of Planning in Africa 35

Country National/Provincial National Planning Powers and Functions Legislation Regulating Local Development Plans Development Plans Legislation and of Local Government Spatial Planning and Land Policies Guiding Use Management Development Planning • Lesotho • National Strategic • The Constitution of • The Local Government Act 1997 • Town & Country Planning Act • Maseru Development Plan Development Plan Lesotho (1993) 1980 • Maseru Urban Planning and (2012/13-2016/17) • Town and Country Planning Transport Study • National Settlement Policy (Development) (Amendment) • National Strategic Regulations 1993 Development Plan • Town and Country Planning Order 1991 • Regulations 1991 • The Building Control Act 1995 • Malawi • Malawi Growth and • The National • Local Government Act, 1998 • The Town and Country Planning • Local development (strategic/ Development Strategy Physical Act, 1988 effective from 1991 implementation) plans 2006- 2011 Development • Land use management • However, not spatial plans except (1987) outdated schemes and systems in local areas targeted by special projects • Mauritius • National Development • The Town & Country • Local Government Act 1989 • The Town & Country Planning • Local plan for a local authority/ Strategy, Planning Act (1954) (amended 2006) Act (1954) municipality • National Physical Plan • Planning & • Planning & Development Act Development Act (2004) (2004) • Planning Policy Guidelines • Planning Policy Guidelines • Namibia • National Development Plan • Town Planning • Local Authorities Act (1992) • Urban and Regional Planning • Windhoek Structure Plan Ordinance (1954) Bill (current) • Other structural plans as amended • Townships and Division of Land Ordinance (1963) as amended • Urban and Regional Planning Bill • Tanzania • Tanzania Five-Year • National Land Use • Urban Planning Act. 8, 2007 • Urban Planning Act, No. 8, • District Strategic Development Development Plan Plan, 2008 • Land Use Planning Act 7, 2007 2007 Plans (not for all districts) 2011/2012 – 2015/2016 • Land Use Planning • Village Councils collaboration • Land Use Planning Act, 7, 2007 • Master Plans or Strategic Urban • Tanzania Long-Term Act 7, 2007 with District Councils to prepare • Planning Regulations are Development Plans for cities and Perspective Plan 2011/12 – • Urban Planning Act, village land use plans currently in draft form municipalities 2025/26 8, 2007 • Human Settlements • Mortgage Act 2008 Development Policy 2000 • Unit Title Act 2008

• Zambia • Sixth National Development • Town and Country • Town and Country Planning Act • Town and Country Planning • District spatial plans Plan-2011/2015 Planning Act, Act, Cap283 of the Laws of • City of Lusaka Master Plan Cap283 of the Laws Zambia of Zambia • Zimbabwe • Third National Development • Regional Town and • Regional Town and Country • Regional Town and Country • Most urban settlements have Plan (3) 2007/2008- Country Planning Planning Act Planning Act local development plans in place 2011/12 Act, 1976 This report presents an overview of the state of planning in Africa. It is the result of research carried out by the African Planners Association among 15 of its affiliate member countries - Burkina Faso, Ghana, Kenya, Lesotho, Malawi, Mauritius, Namibia, Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe. The research, carried out in 2012, provides a perspective of the roles of urban and regional planners within the process of settlement formation, urbanization and rural development. It focuses on the spatial manifestation of the problems Africa faces and assesses the legislative, policy, human, institutional and educational capacity that exist within the planning profession.

HS Number: HS/010/14E

February 2013

UN-Habitat (United Nations Human Settlements Programme) Urban Planning and Design Branch P.O.BOX30030 Nairobi 00100 Kenya Tel: +254 20 7623706 [email protected]

www.unhabitat.org