How Reading Recovery Teaches the Five Essential Elements of Reading Instruction and More: Second of a Two-Part Series

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Spring 2004

Salli Forbes University of Iowa

Mary Anne Doyle University of Connecticut

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Recommended Citation Forbes, Salli and Doyle, Mary Anne, "How Reading Recovery Teaches the Five Essential Elements of Reading Instruction and More: Second of a Two-Part Series" (2004). Curriculum & Instruction Faculty Publications. 29. https://scholarworks.uni.edu/ci_facpub/29

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Faculty Work at UNI ScholarWorks. It has been accepted for inclusion in Curriculum & Instruction Faculty Publications by an authorized administrator of UNI ScholarWorks. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Teaching How Reading Recovery Teaches the Five Essential Elements of Reading Instruction and More Second of a Two-Part Series Salli Forbes, The University of Iowa Mary Anne Doyle, University of Connecticut

This article is the second in a two-part Reading Recovery instruction in those sion instruction at various grade lev- series that provides information about three areas. In addition to a detailed els. In contrast to the focus of the how Reading Recovery instruction fits description of these elements and NRP’s work, Reading Recovery proce- the recommendations of the National Reading Recovery instruction, we pro- dures are designed for only the lowest- Reading Panel (NRP; NICHD, vided a brief description of what we achieving readers and writers after one 2000a, 2000b). In the first article, refer to as the sixth essential element: year of literacy instruction in the published in the fall 2003 issue of the processing. It is through processing classroom (first grade only in the Journal of Reading Recovery, we that readers gain control of and use United States). The objective of explained how and why the NRP was the five essential elements. Teaching Reading Recovery instruction is for created and described its recommen- for processing is indeed the heart of the lowest-achieving students to accel- dations. The NRP investigated Reading Recovery instruction. erate their learning so that they can research in three areas of reading com- read and write (process text) as well as This article will review the NRP rec- petence that were identified as essen- successful readers and writers do. ommendations for the essential ele- tial for reading instruction: alphabet- ments of vocabulary and comprehen- In addition the procedures used in ics, fluency, and comprehension. In sion instruction and describe Reading Reading Recovery were developed for relation to these three areas, the NRP Recovery teaching for these elements use in one-to-one instructional set- detailed the five essential elements of the reading process. Perhaps most tings, not for use with groups of chil- listed below: importantly, we will address what we dren in a classroom. Many of the A. Alphabetics are calling the sixth essential element approaches studied by the NRP are 1. Phonemic Awareness of processing and its critical impor- not suitable for Reading Recovery Instruction tance in the literacy development of instruction because they are intended 2. Phonics Instruction young readers. for classroom group instruction. B. Fluency Conversely, in this article we are not Note of caution: We emphasize that 3. Fluency Instruction recommending the use of procedures the purpose of the NRP’s work was to C. Comprehension designed for Reading Recovery consider research related to reading 4. Vocabulary Instruction instruction either in a classroom set- instruction for use in the classroom. 5. Text Comprehension ting or for children who can learn to Although some of the studies in the Instruction read and write from classroom NRP’s review of research were of instruction alone. Reading Recovery teachers provide struggling readers, the objective of the instruction in all five essential ele- NRP was to consider research that Reading Recovery teachers and ments. In the previous article we was “relevant to instruction of reading teacher leaders should consider the described the NRP’s recommenda- or comprehension among normal recommendations of the NRP critical- tions in three of the five essential ele- readers” (NICHD, 2000b, p. 4-41). ly, giving attention to the age, grade, ments—phonemic awareness, phon- In addition, the NRP considered and ability level of the students in the ics, and fluency—and discussed studies of vocabulary and comprehen- studies and the instructional setting

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instruction, the Panel searched the methods” (NICHD, 2000b, p. 4-18). The term vocabulary research literature published from Therefore, the Panel suggests the encompasses all the words 1979–2000 on vocabulary and text importance of considering age and comprehension instruction. Even ability differences when planning learners understand and though the identification process vocabulary instruction. use in meaningful acts of yielded 50 vocabulary studies that met The term vocabulary encompasses all the criteria for inclusion, this was not communication: speaking, the words learners understand and use a sufficient number to conduct a for- listening, reading, writing. in meaningful acts of communication: mal meta-analysis. Instead, the Panel speaking, listening, reading, writing. examined the identified set to discern The Panel labels those words known trends across studies. Their examina- and used in listening and speaking as tion revealed a wide range of method- for which the recommendations are the oral vocabulary and the words ologies, implementations, and concep- intended. Despite the differences we known and used in reading and writ- tions of vocabulary instruction. The have noted, Reading Recovery teaching contexts as the print vocabulary. Panel also reported that while the ers do effectively teach the essential The Panel states that “the larger the studies involved 73 grade-level sam- elements of vocabulary development reader’s vocabulary (either oral or ples, almost three-fourths of that and comprehension, using procedures print), the easier it is to make sense of number (53) were distributed from that are highly effective with the spe- text” (NICHD, 2000a, p. 13). cific population of struggling students Grades 3 to 8. It reported finding very Nonreading first-grade children enter they teach. few studies of vocabulary instruction with pupils in Grades K, 1, and 2. school with an oral vocabulary that is Vocabulary Instruction The Panel offers several possible The NRP report explains that the explanations for the limited research identification of vocabulary as an of vocabulary instruction in the early essential element of reading instruc- grades. One suggestion is that vocabu- tion emerged from an initial analysis lary instruction at these levels is “not of reading comprehension research. separate from other instruction” The Panel’s review confirms that read- (NICHD, 2000b, p. 4-18) and is ing comprehension “cannot be under- therefore not a specific focus of stood without a clear description of research investigations. Another obser- the role that vocabulary development vation is that “much of early reading and vocabulary instruction play in the is, at least theoretically, done with understanding of what has been read” texts that do not exceed the vocabu- (NICHD, 2000a, p. 13). The report laries of most early readers” (NICHD, references the seminal work of F. B. 2000b, p. 4-18). On the other hand, Davis (1942) and echoes the conclu- even little books contain new and sions of other researchers in linking interesting language and terms (e.g., knowledge of word meanings to read- vintage car, earwig), and teachers pro- ing comprehension (Adams, 1990; vide instruction in new or unfamiliar Clay, 1991; Snow, Burns, & Griffin, vocabulary in order to support com- 1998). Therefore, the goal of the prehension. Panel’s review was to examine the sci- In spite of the limited amount of entific evidence related to the effect of research evidence, the Panel reports vocabulary instruction on reading per- that one trend in the data “suggests Interesting writing messages are built from interest- formance. that various ability levels and age dif- ing vocabulary, and growth in vocabulary knowl- In order to establish evidence-based ferences can significantly affect learn- edge may be observed over time. Writer Christopher recommendations for vocabulary ing gains from vocabulary instruction Haskins is a Reading Recovery student at North Franklin Elementary, South-Western City Schools.

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knowledge through authentic reading should include task restructur- Reading Recovery instruc- experiences. ing as necessary and should actively engage the student. tion provides opportunities The Panel found that oral and print Finally, dependence on a single vocabularies are acquired through for the instruction of word vocabulary instruction method both indirect methods and direct meth- meanings across the lesson. will not result in optimal learn- ods. Indirect methods do not involve ing (NICHD, 2000a, p. 14). direct teacher planning and instruction. Oral language experiences and These recommendations focus on independent wide reading, both of instruction for extending a learner’s the result of their oral language devel- which provide learners with meaning- knowledge of word definitions so that opment and the unique and specific ful contexts that support word learn- the child’s understanding and use of opportunities they have had to extend ing, are examples of indirect instruc- words gradually grows in breadth and their language competencies. This is tion. The implicit learning resulting depth. The Panel’s review of the the vocabulary knowledge available to from such experiences accounts for vocabulary research does not include the learner in beginning reading. In the rapid and extensive vocabulary components of word recognition such addition to their lexicons (sets of growth that exceeds the expectations as development of a sight vocabulary known words), learners also have a of classroom instructional practices (i.e., those words identified immedi- system for expanding their vocabular- and the amount of instructional time. ately) or development of a writing ies and oral language. Clay (1991) The Panel concurs with other vocabulary (i.e., common words a refers to this system as a self-extending researchers in concluding that indirect child writes fluently). Instruction and or self-improving system that gener- methods are an important component assessment of these vocabularies are ates and extends the child’s control of vocabulary development. not included in the Panel’s discussion. over language as a consequence of conversations with others (see also Even though extensive research evi- In summary, the Panel suggests that a Clay, this issue). An important key to dence confirms that much vocabulary variety of approaches for vocabulary extending the young child’s vocabu- knowledge is gained incidentally, the instruction can be effective, and the lary knowledge is the opportunity Panel also found that vocabulary methods must be appropriate to the to engage in rich oral language increases with direct instruction and age and ability of the reader. Reading experiences. that explicit vocabulary instruction Recovery instruction provides oppor- should be incorporated into reading tunities for the instruction of word As children are introduced to begin- instruction. The Panel states that the meanings across the lesson. In the fol- ning reading, the reading acquisition direct instruction of vocabulary terms lowing discussions of indirect and task involves gaining proficiency with required for a given text should be a direct approaches to teaching the word recognition in order to go from part of the reading lesson. The Panel’s meanings of words, we present aspects print to meaning by identifying words identification of trends that might of Reading Recovery instruction that that are a part of the reader’s oral suggest how word meanings can best support vocabulary development for vocabulary. Highly proficient word be taught and related to the reading Reading Recovery children. analysis skills are of little value to comprehension process includes the reading with comprehension if the following recommended practices: decoded words are unknown to the Vocabulary Instruction in reader (NICHD, 2000b). As the read- First, vocabulary should be Reading Recovery er gains proficiency with literacy pro- taught both directly and indi- Opportunities for Indirect Instruction cessing and is able to read more exten- rectly. Repetition and multiple in Word Meanings sively (in terms of both a range of exposures to vocabulary items In expanding on the NRP report’s familiar and less familiar content and are important. Learning in rich conclusions that most vocabulary is increasing levels of text difficulty), the contexts, incidental learning, acquired through indirect means, the learner’s print vocabulary expands. and use of computer technology authors of Put Reading First The prolific reader, even at beginning all enhance the acquisition of (Armbruster, Lehr, & Osborn, 2003) levels, is able to acquire vocabulary vocabulary. Direct instruction identify three important ways children

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learn word meanings indirectly: dents for whom English is a second language, children who are native They engage daily in oral lan- The extensive reading English speakers with limited oral language. done by Reading Recovery guage proficiency, and children who They listen to adults read to are shy and reticent. The one-to-one children affords them them. setting allows teachers to personalize opportunities to build They read extensively on their the communication, to listen closely, own (p. 45). vocabulary knowledge to respond appropriately, and to by encountering words, Reading Recovery teachers capitalize ensure that the learner has frequent on oral language opportunities and and ongoing opportunities to con- often repeatedly, in extensive reading in each lesson. verse. These are the conditions that meaningful contexts. While there is no time for the extend- allow for the learner’s ed listening experiences recommended continuing development and by the report during the 30-minute increasing precision in the use lesson, Reading Recovery teachers them opportunities to build vocabu- of the sound system, the vocab- strongly concur with this recommen- lary knowledge by encountering ulary, the sentence patterns and dation and rely on classroom teachers words, often repeatedly, in meaningful the rules for combining words to provide frequent listening experi- contexts. “The more meaningful read- and making them agree, and a ences as one component of their com- ing that children do, the larger will be growing richness in the way he prehensive literacy programs. their repertoires of meaning,…and the puts his meanings into words stronger, better defined, and more Oral Language. Each Reading (Clay, 1991, p. 73). productive will be their associations Recovery lesson is a rich opportunity Extensive Reading. One of the bene- between words and meanings” for oral language development. fits of extensive reading by beginning (Adams, 1990, p. 156). Because the setting is individualized, readers is enhancement of their print each learner is engaged in personalized The practice of wide reading is initiat- vocabulary. Research evidence con- conversations that allow the teacher to ed during Reading Recovery lessons firms that the more “children read on support and extend the child’s oral and supported after lessons are com- their own, the more words they expression, vocabulary, and thinking pleted. Many teachers continue to encounter and the more word mean- (Clay, 1998). As the teacher and child provide reading selections from their ings they learn” (Armbruster et al., discuss story content, converse to Reading Recovery collections to 2003). identify writing topics, or share issues encourage their students’ independent of interest beyond the content of the Reading Recovery children read an reading habits after completing lesson, the teacher supports effective extensive amount of connected text Reading Recovery lessons. These and meaningful communication. daily. Within each 30-minute lesson, opportunities allow for ongoing bene- Children are allowed time to explain four to six books are read with the fits of extensive reading, including the their thoughts and are valued for their teacher. These include the familiar implicit learning of new vocabulary. attempts to construct and express books (two to four), the running To the extent that wide reading their ideas. Teachers elaborate, provide record book (one), and the newly becomes a self-selected habit for our models of appropriate word usage and introduced book (one). Children are young readers, this practice continues language structures, and attempt to also provided books to be read beyond to impact vocabulary development create connections between known the lesson time each day (one to positively and importantly in subse- concepts and terms and new ones. As three). When teachers find that this quent years. a result, children hear, use, and learn reading cannot be completed after new vocabulary as well as gain oral school, they negotiate opportunities Opportunities for Direct Instruction language proficiency. for extra reading time during the in Word Meanings school day. Direct approaches to vocabulary Reading Recovery teachers are very development include providing stu- attentive to the language development The extensive reading done by dents with specific instruction in word needs of all students, including stu- Reading Recovery children affords

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through both reading and conversation. Occasionally, these book topics are suggested by the child for the daily writing activity, and the use of related vocabulary terms is a natural consequence. The authors of Put Reading First also recommend three areas of instruction to develop students’ abilities to define and learn words independently. They refer to these as word learning strategies and suggest the need for teachers to provide direct instruction in how to use word parts to determine word meanings, how to use context clues when reading connected text to define new words, and how to use dictionar- ies and other reference materials as Reading Recovery teachers address concept development and related vocabulary needed (Armbruster et al., 2003). Of instruction through conversation as they provide an orientation to each new book. these, Reading Recovery instruction in Chris Deubner, a Reading Recovery teacher at North Franklin Elementary, South- word parts and in monitoring syntac- Western City Schools in Ohio, introduces a new book to Andrea Palma. tic and semantic information sources have specific relevance to a reader’s meanings and teaching students pro- sonal message, or when working with ability to determine and learn word cedures for defining words independ- words in isolation. Most often, this meanings independently. Because ently. In regard to specific word direct instruction is based on observed these skills are more adequately devel- instruction, the Put Reading First needs and the child’s ability to com- oped at higher reading levels when (Armbruster et al., 2003) document prehend or communicate meaningful students encounter passages with lists the following evidence-based rec- messages. Therefore, the teacher’s more complex writing and vocabulary, ommendations aligned with the NRP attention to vocabulary development we will discuss them only briefly. report: is directly linked to reading with comprehension or communicating effec- In the following sections, we discuss Teach specific words before tively in speaking and in writing. direct instruction in word meanings reading to help both vocabulary by reviewing how Reading Recovery learning and reading compre- In general, Reading Recovery teachers teachers attend to vocabulary terms in hension. maintain learner engagement and new book introductions, in discus- Provide extended instruction plan for both echoes across lesson sions about stories, in writing activi- that promotes active engage- components, which allow for repeated ties, in developing understanding of ment with vocabulary. exposure to new leaning in many con- how words work, and in attending to Provide repeated exposure to texts, and the flexible use of new syntactic and semantic information vocabulary in many contexts learning in a variety of reading and sources in text. (p. 36). writing activities. Books are chosen purposefully for each learner, and New Book Introductions. Intro- Reading Recovery teachers respond to this allows the teacher to mediate the ducing a new reading selection pro- each child’s unique vocabulary chal- reading demands, including vocabu- vides opportunities to focus on vocab- lenges and provide direct instruction lary. Teachers are also able to link ulary specifically and directly. The in word meanings throughout the les- and build on familiar content across Reading Recovery teacher’s plan for son as needed, i.e., before or after books, allowing for the repeated expo- the child’s instruction begins with the reading a story, while writing a per- sure of concepts and vocabulary book selection. Teachers strive to pro-

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vide new reading selections that nals from the child but they child’s new learning and provides account for the child’s existing knowl- switch the child’s attention from opportunities for new discoveries and edge and emerging competencies an unhelpful association to a new connections. while also providing opportunities for more helpful one (p. 181). Writing. During the writing compo- new challenges. Reading Recovery: A Clay (1998) continues discussion of nent of the lesson, teachers “help chil- Guidebook for Teachers in Training how teachers instruct children in new dren to compose oral messages and (Clay, 1993) directs teachers to con- vocabulary by sharing her observation recount simple events in their lives. To sider meaning and book language that teachers frequently “talk toward write these down children are: first. Because there “should be a mini- the meaning of a word, describe some mum of new things to learn” (p. 36), • going from ideas relevant object or use, explain some the new book should not present the • to spoken words aspect of the word, and only lastly child with many new vocabulary • to printed messages” (Clay, provide the word” (p. 181). She has terms. 2001, p. 27). inferred from her observations that “Learning new concepts and the teachers assume “children need a men- Interesting messages are built from words that encode them is essential tal context as preparation for receiving interesting vocabulary, and growth in for comprehension development” a new word” (p. 181). More impor- vocabulary knowledge may be (Snow et al., 1998, p. 217). Teachers tantly, teachers “push children to be observed over time. must anticipate challenges resulting active in linking new knowledge with The child’s writing topics arise from from the book’s concept load and things they already know” (p. 181), genuine conversations initiated and vocabulary, consider the learner’s and they expect the learner to demon- guided by the teacher who begins by strengths and language competence in strate understanding of new knowl- suggesting topics of interest to the relation to any challenges, and deter- edge by talking about the book and child. In conversation, the teacher mine how to weave attention to such story concepts and by using new may extend the child’s utterances, challenges into the book introduction. vocabulary in such discussions prior modeling appropriate language struc- to reading. Reading Recovery teachers address tures and incorporating rich vocabu- concept development and related Follow-up Discussions and lary. As stated previously, such interac- vocabulary instruction through con- Rereading. Discussions of story con- tions provide experiences that enhance versation as they provide an orienta- tent following the child’s reading (the oral language learning, including tion to each new book. Clay (1998) new book, the running record book, vocabulary knowledge. The child’s provides the following example of or a familiar book) engage the reader messages may not incorporate new such instruction: in personal reflection and response to vocabulary immediately, and that is story content. Such conversations also not the teacher’s initial purpose. The When teachers suspect that provide opportunities to revisit new teacher will always accept the child’s children do not have the ideas, learning, rehearse words and language, language (words and usage) and aim words, or usage to read and experiment with new vocabulary for more complexity, variety, and rich- understand a part of the text, terms, hear the teacher’s modeling ness over time. Ultimately, the they present the children with again, and review understandings. teacher’s interactions can encourage that new knowledge. They may These exchanges allow the teacher to and support the child in writing more use a particular phrase, explain support rich language expression and complex sentences, longer words, and some part of the story, or con- vocabulary usage, to identify and new vocabulary terms (Clay, 2001). trast a feature of the story with resolve confusions, and to review something the children have While daily writing experiences pro- vocabulary terms as needed. encountered in another book. vide an authentic context for vocabu- They may help the children dis- The rereading of stories on subse- lary development, Reading Recovery criminate between things, like a quent days helps solidify new terms procedures for developing writing school desk and a large adult- and concepts as discussed previously. vocabulary (Clay, 1993, p. 31) do not type desk. They may anticipate Repeated exposure to new concepts represent methods of direct vocabu- the problem or respond to sig- and related vocabulary advances the lary instruction as the NRP report

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defines it. The scope of this activity is the Guidebook, Clay, 1993, Sections concepts and related terms defined too restricted, and the functions of 10 and 11). within the author’s text (e.g., as in this writing vocabulary are quite spe- content materials). The ability to identify affixes, base cific. As children record their mes- words, and root words is a beginning sages, they are encouraged to write as step in learning how to use word parts Summary much as they can independently. to determine word meanings (e.g., The NRP report confirms that a read- Gradually, each child acquires a fluent consider happy, unhappy, unhappily). er’s knowledge of word meanings is an writing vocabulary, i.e., a core of Consequently, the knowledge of word essential aspect of reading with under- words known in detail and written structures gained in Reading Recovery standing and therefore an essential with a minimum of attention. For the becomes a foundation for later class- component of reading instruction. most part, these are high-frequency room instruction that provides more The Panel observed that children words that the learner understands in-depth study of strategies for explor- acquire word meanings through both and uses in speaking and writing. ing word meanings. indirect and direct methods and that Often, these are words with a spelling teachers should consider both the ages pattern that allows the writer to gen- Using Context Clues. Word meanings and ability levels of learners when erate other similar words by analogy. are occasionally presented in text as planning instruction. While this writing vocabulary repre- definitions, examples, descriptions, or sents important and helpful items of restatements. It is recommended that Reading Recovery instruction engages knowledge, it is only a subset of the the use of such context clues be learners in a variety of indirect and child’s lexicon, i.e., the entire set of taught directly (Armbruster et al., direct approaches to vocabulary vocabulary terms understood and used 2003). instruction across the full range of les- by the child in oral and print con- son activities (both reading and writ- Strategic readers are very attentive to texts. The child’s writing vocabulary ing). In Reading Recovery, direct syntactic and semantic information supports the fluent writing of mes- instruction in word meanings is con- sources, and Reading Recovery chil- sages. In terms of the child’s vocabu- nected to reading with comprehension dren learn to monitor all information lary development, the focus on the and communicating effectively in sources to read with meaning. writing vocabulary is not intended speaking and in writing. Therefore, Development of strategic processing is to teach new word meanings or to Reading Recovery teachers meet the key to successful reading, and this is deepen understandings of words. goals of the NRP recommendation the focus of instruction in Reading that attention to vocabulary instruc- Using Word Parts. Reading Recovery Recovery. Because readers acquire new tion must extend the child’s breadth teachers develop readers’ abilities to vocabulary through wide reading, one and depth of word knowledge as construct words and to take words might infer that readers use context well as support reading with com- apart in both contextual (reading and clues in an ongoing fashion, especially prehension. writing texts) and decontextualized since they are given meaningful texts. (making and breaking) activities. The In regard to direct instruction on Reading Recovery children are provid- aim is “to foster the visual analysis of using context clues to define words ed meaningful contexts for acquiring words” for reading texts fluently (Clay, (e.g., description or restatement), it is new word meanings indirectly by 1993, p. 51). In the process of discov- suggested that such instruction be • engaging in personalized con- ering how words work, Reading provided when the texts used for les- versations that allow them to Recovery children learn to hear and sons include clear examples of such hear and say new words. attend to syllables, prefixes, suffixes, devices. It is not anticipated that this These conversations occur and onsets and rimes. They become happens frequently in the early read- across all lesson components. facile with adding and subtracting ing texts presented to Reading • engaging in extensive reading inflections to base words (look, looks, Recovery children. Therefore, direct of familiar, meaningful texts looking, looked; book, books), with the instruction in the use of context clues that give children repeated, identification of syllables in multisyl- to determine word meanings appears multiple exposures to new labic words (little, today), and in the more appropriate for classroom vocabulary terms. manipulation of chunks of sound (see instruction in texts that present new

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Reading Recovery children are also theory of when it is appropriate to provided direct instruction by teachers teach comprehension. The Panel con- “Comprehension is cluded that the “instruction of com- • incorporating explanations of involved in all reading prehension appears to be effective on new or unfamiliar words Grades 3 through 6” (NICHD, and writing of continuous when introducing a new 2000b, p. 4-51). Very few of the stud- text, even a one-sentence book. ies reviewed by the NRP included • drawing the reader’s attention message.” children from Grades K–2. The Panel to important words in a story, concluded that researchers in most of Marie Clay, 2001, p. 107 including words that convey the studies “taught readers who had important ideas or concepts achieved decoding and other basic as well as language structures. reading skills before they were taught •revisiting concepts and related strategies” (p. 4-51). Comprehension is a complex terms in conversations follow- process. There exist as many ing reading. In contrast, Clay (1991) has stated interpretations of comprehen- •supporting strategic reading that “children can focus on compre- sion as there are of reading. for meaning and integration hension from the beginning under This may be so because com- of all information sources. certain conditions” (p. 318). In prehension is often viewed as •providing models of and Reading Recovery, children are taught “the essence of reading” support for the use of rich to monitor their reading to see if it (Durkin, 1993). Reading com- language and new vocabulary makes sense and to search for and use prehension is further defined as in writing. meaning, as well as other sources of “intentional thinking during • helping children learn more information, to problem-solve which meaning is constructed about how words work, unknown words. Clay explains the through interactions between including awareness of affixes, conditions in which beginning readers text and reader” (Durkin, root words, and base words. can focus on comprehension. 1993). According to this view, “For enhancement of children’s vocab- They read texts that are mean- meaning resides in the inten- ulary growth and development, there ingful to them (such as stories). tional, problem-solving, think- can be no substitute for voluminous They read texts which use lan- ing processes of the reader that experience with rich, natural language that is close to things occur during an interchange guage” (Anderson & Nagy, 1991, they would say or are learning with a text. The content of p. 722). Reading Recovery lessons to say (and not the stilted, meaning is influenced by the provide each child with rich, reductionist primerese of context and by the reader’s prior meaningful contexts for developing trolled vocabulary texts), and knowledge and experience that language, including oral language, they have high levels of interac- are brought to bear on it writing, and reading. (For further tion with teachers who help (NICHD, 2000b, p. 4-5). discussion of theory and instructional them to develop a variety of The NRP uses the term comprehen- recommendations, see Clay, in this strategies for working with sion to refer to cognitive processes issue.) texts. They gradually take more involving the use or construction of control and responsibility for meaning while reading. “Reading dealing with the ‘hard bits’ in Text Comprehension comprehension was seen as the con- the texts they are reading Instruction struction of meaning of a written text (p. 318). We now turn to three key issues in the through a reciprocal interchange of discussion of how Reading Recovery A second key issue we identified is ideas between the reader and the mes- instruction fits the recommendations ambiguity or breadth of meaning of sage in a particular text” (NICHD, of the NRP for comprehension the term comprehension in the litera- 2000b, p. 4-39). instruction. First, we note a difference ture. The NRP address the many In Change Over Time in Children’s between the NRP’s focus and Clay’s views there are of comprehension.

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Literacy Development, Clay (2001) has ing so that the reader can study the text the child is called upon to assem- addressed the various interpretations meaning of the text. ble a system that will allow for these of the term comprehension. various searches as needed and the Clay (2001) explains the ambiguity “Comprehension is involved in all integration of the information in the use of the term strategy, in reading and writing of continuous obtained. Clay (2001) refers to this writing: text, even a one-sentence message. It type of mental process as strategic is often reserved in educational writ- Unfortunately the term ‘strate- activity. ing for the text or discourse level of gy’ has several meanings in edu- Such descriptions of strategic understanding” (p. 107). Clay empha- cational literature, and one of behaviour are close to Singer’s sizes the importance of understanding these refers to directing oneself 1970 concept of assembling for processing at each level of lan- verbally (which implies also ver- input-mediation-output systems guage. “We probably want to reserve balising about what one is which pick up, integrate, inter- the terms ‘comprehension’ and ‘under- doing). While this might be pret and infer in-the-head. standing’ for some overarching conceptually valid when dis- Behavioural records usually only processes but at least the word-by- cussing the reading of older capture combined behaviours word decision-making (as in parsing) children, my studies of profi- and do not reveal the separate marks out a path towards comprehen- cient young readers suggest that input-mediation-output systems sion” (p. 106). it is not appropriate to teach for which produce those behav- that type of meta-cognitive The third key issue we note is the dif- iours. I have used the term awareness in five- to six-year-old ference between the NRP and Clay in ‘strategic activity’ to refer to children. Most things we do as the definition and use of the term what goes on in any of the readers need to operate below strategy. The NRP (NICHD, 2000b) aspects of processing which the conscious level most of the defines comprehension strategies as Singer proposes, when the time so that fast and effective “specific procedures that guide stu- brain: processing of the print is dents to become aware of how well achieved and attention is paid • picks up information, they are comprehending as they to the messages rather than to • works on it, attempt to read and write” (p. 4-40). the work done to get to the • makes a decision, This is a common use of the term message (p. 127). • and evaluates the response, strategies in the comprehension literature (Palinscar & Brown, 1984; Clay ascribes to Bruner’s (1957) defi- as well as to the overarching Pressley, Almasi, Schuder, Bergman, nition of a strategy as a “decision execution of that sequence & Kurita, 1994; Rosenshine, Meister, process which involved the search for (pp. 127–128). & Chapman, 1996). The NRP con- discriminatory cues that will code the In summary, the discussion of com- cluded that seven particular strategies stimulus into appropriate categories” prehension instruction we present in appear to be effective and most prom- (Clay, 2001, p. 127). Beginning read- this article focuses on instruction of ising for classroom instruction: com- ers are learning to search for various students who are younger than those prehension monitoring, cooperative sources of information (cues) and to for whom the NRP recommendations learning, graphic and semantic organ- check one source with another, are intended. The term comprehen- izers, question answering, question attempting to get a match. The search sion reflects both the processing sys- generation, summarization, and mul- for sources of information includes tems that the beginning reader has tiple strategies. Used in this context visual recognition of letters, letter developed before learning to read and the term strategy is synonymous with clusters, words, and word parts; pars- those that are developing during read- an approach that is procedural, which ing the sentence for recognizable ing acquisition. The terms strategy or the reader can describe verbally, and grammatical structures and phrases; strategic activity refer to the “directing that the reader can apply independ- and constructing the understanding of of in-the-head activities which are ini- ently to support understanding and the current word, phrase, or sentence tiated by the learner” (Clay, 2001, p. retention of content. These proce- which carries the meaning of the text 130). The explanation of how dures slow down the process of read- forward. When reading continuous

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Reading Recovery teachers teach com- Children have learned to expect lan- prehension requires us to consider guage to make sense. When they hear what systems the beginning reader is the beginning of a sentence, they can developing to read with meaning and often anticipate the words and phrases processes that will eventually lead to which will follow. Clay (1991) comprehension of various texts for describes a particular preschooler’s various purposes. The instructional ability to anticipate language with this procedures used in Reading Recovery example: “Betty aged five years was are not designed for classroom listening to her brother reading. He instruction, group instruction, or stumbled over ‘he never makes mis…’ instruction with older children, so Betty from the other side of the room they will not match the specific muttered ‘mistakes’” (p. 94). Betty instructional recommendations of could use her knowledge of oral lan- the NRP. guage to anticipate a highly probable next word. The processing systems Comprehension Instruction In which preschoolers like Betty use to Reading Recovery anticipate language—words and Although Clay rarely uses the term phrases—provides them with a system comprehension in her writings, she that can support their anticipation of language in printed text. “Oral lan- repeatedly refers to the role of mean- Familiar books provide the beginning reader with guage creates appropriate expectations ing. “I regard meaning as a ‘given’ in the opportunity to comprehend the author’s message which narrow the field of possible all reading—the source of anticipa- at the word, phrase, sentence, episode, and story responses and make final selection tion, the guide to being on track, and levels. Reading Recovery student Zachary Prak is quicker and more accurate…This the outcome and reward of the effort. a student at North Franklin Elementary, South- applies to the anticipation of mean- Meanings provide the purpose of Western City Schools, Ohio. reading and writing” (Clay, 1991, pp. ings” (Clay, 1991, p. 246). 1–2). Clay’s explanation of the role of Children have also learned how to even though he cannot always meaning provides clearly stated objec- construct their understandings of peo- describe what it is he knows tives for Reading Recovery instruc- ple, things, and events in their envi- (p. 27). tion: to teach for the use of meaning ronment. They learn to negotiate and Seeking out regularity requires some as the source of anticipation, the communicate their messages about anticipation of what might be found, guide to being on track, and the out- and to the people in their world. Clay receiving the feedback from the come and reward of the effort. The (1991) explains, following discussion of instructional search, and evaluating the feedback to The child has also developed procedures in Reading Recovery make decisions about whether further models of his own about what are organized in relation to these searches are necessary and how to goes on in the world and what objectives. integrate the new information into the steady state of that world is. what the child already knows. He can carry out actions, or talk Meaning As the Source of Reading Recovery teachers build on about carrying these out, and Anticipation the child’s ability to anticipate lan- can make links and predictions This anticipation of what may guage and meaning (relationships and about what will happen if…the follow creates a pleasing ten- events). Teachers observe the child’s child is actively seeking out and sion—a puzzle to be solved. It is knowledge of language and experi- finding regularity in the experi- related to a skill that will be ences in the world and use this infor- ence he has with the world, and needed in reading as the child mation to select books for the child he is able to work out what anticipates the structure of the and to guide conversations. By pro- some of the invariances are. He sentence and the next step in viding the child with literacy experi- is able to act on this knowledge the story (Clay, 1991, p. 94). ences that capitalize on the child’s

Spring 2004 Journal of Reading Recovery 25 Teaching

whole story. The teacher also convers- es with the child about the new book during and after the first reading. That conversation fosters the child’s anticipation of the meaning throughout that first reading and for the second reading of the book in the next lesson. “Understanding what you read today and the ways in which the meanings were expressed give the reader prior knowledge for reading at some other time” (Clay, 1991, pp. 335–336). Conversation before and during the rereading of a familiar book reminds the student of events and language in that book so that the meaning and language can be antici- In Reading Recovery, teachers scaffold students’ understandings before, during, and pated while reading. Conversation after reading continuous text. Reading Recovery teacher Cindy Gregory works with while the child is reading “fits com- Reading Recovery student Amanda Natividad at North Franklin Elementary, fortably into pauses as the pages are South-Western City Schools, Ohio. turned” (Clay, 1993, p. 38). The child has other opportunities to learn to prior experiences and the language for a fluent reading” (Clay, 1991, anticipate meaning when rereading structures the child controls, the p. 335). the written story or reassembling that teacher provides the child with the When children reread familiar books, story in the cut-up sentence. Clay opportunity to anticipate language they are able to anticipate the mean- (2001) explains, and events as the child reads books. ing and language from their prior I am discussing a simple level of The selection of a new book and experience with the books. “On famil- comprehension, a word by introduction before reading provide iar material, anticipations can be word, sentence by sentence, and those opportunities. Clay (1993) rec- made and checked on the basis of a page by page understanding of a ommends that teachers “choose the few cues without the undue risk of very simple story such that an reading book very carefully. First of error” (Clay, 1991, p. 311). Children ending could be anticipated by all take meaning and language into are able to orchestrate all of the strate- the young reader who has com- account” (p. 36). Further, Clay gies they control and those that are in prehended the strings of words describes what information the development to read for the author’s for their collective meaning teacher might include in the book precise message. Familiar books pro- (p. 107). introduction. By providing this infor- vide the beginning reader with the This is a significant accomplishment mation, particularly the meaning and opportunity to comprehend the for the beginning reader. language structure, “the teacher is author’s message at the word, phrase, ensuring that the child has in his head sentence, episode, and story levels. the ideas and the language he needs to Meaning As the Guide to Being on Teachers support anticipation in produce when prompted in sequence Track familiar books through conversation. by print cues” (p. 37). “As the child Conscious attention during suc- The shared conversation in the book approaches a new text he is entitled cessful reading can be predomi- orientation is one way in which the to an introduction so that when he nantly on meaning. Teaching a teacher fosters the child’s anticipation. reads, the gist of the whole or partly child to expect reading to make The teacher builds on the child’s prior revealed story can provide some guide sense provides him with an knowledge while introducing the easy-to-learn signal that process-

26 Journal of Reading Recovery Spring 2004 Teaching

ing is necessary. At the moment With the familiar story book of making an error a child read- the child begins with memories Teaching for effective ing for meaning will notice it. of the ideas that are in the book and efficient integration To continue, the reader has to and each page triggers more take some action. At this memories, often of the precise of information and orches- moment he is observing his language used. Some memories tration of the strategic own behaviour very closely are already alerted before the processes the child knows because he will have to decide page is turned and so the and is developing con- which response he should retain response is made more quickly and which he should discard (Clay, 1991, p. 94). stitutes teaching for (Clay, 1991, p. 341). comprehension. Familiarity with the language of the As teachers teach for strategic activity, book will help the child to parse the the child is learning to search for and phrases and grammatical structures, so use all the available sources, including that the child reads with appropriate he then reads for meaning, then meaning, to construct an understand- phrasing and expression. Reading with monitoring his own problem- ing of the author’s message. phrasing and expression makes the solving could lead to extending language structures and meaning The reading acquisition task is the system because: available to the child, thus supporting to build the inner strategic con- effective and efficient strategic activity. • success will be confirmed trol that allows the reader, with Teaching for phrasing in fluent read- by meaningfulness the greatest efficiency to relate ing provides the child with access to • the use of the problem- information within these levels, the meaning and structure of the text solving strategies will be and across these levels, to in familiar reading and on the new reinforced remembered information, on book. •new features and informa- the run and without loss of tion are highlighted meaning or fluency. When In writing a message, the child’s because of their contribu- instruction directs students to meaning and memory of the message tion to the solution conscious manipulations of let- guides the child to monitor the pro- •new discriminations are ters, sounds, or single words it duction of the composition, when made turns their attention away from rereading it, and when reconstructing • the checking includes an such important developments it on the run in the cut-up sentence. outside frame of reference (Clay, 1991, pp. 320–321). “Before long the completed story is beyond the reading task— something the child can read inde- Teaching for effective and efficient in the meaningfulness in pendently, monitoring the reading integration of information and orches- the real world (Clay, 1991, against his inner knowledge of what tration of the strategic processes the p. 338). he intended to write” (Clay, 1993, child knows and is developing consti- p. 31). During that first reading the teacher tutes teaching for comprehension. teaches for the use of many sources of In a similar way the information pro- In the familiar reading component of information and strategic activity so vided in the book introduction can be the Reading Recovery lesson, the that the child can comprehend the used by the child to self-monitor dur- child’s understanding of the language message of the text. ing the first reading of the new book. and meaning of the book supports If a problem is detected, the child can A listener can sometimes sense self-monitoring. The familiarity with take action to search for the necessary when the child reader is relating the sources of information in the information to get back on track the current page to what has book increases the possibility that again. happened so far in the story. the child will detect and correct When I discover ambiguity in errors made. When the child is given some my own writing I have usually introduction to a story, which reread the text only to discover

Spring 2004 Journal of Reading Recovery 27 Teaching

it could mean more than one way, the teacher can detect when the encountered in the book while read- thing. As both reader and writer child does not understand a particular ing enhances the child’s understanding I hasten to reduce the ambigui- language structure, phrase, word, or and enjoyment of the experience. “He ty and reconstruct the word event in the story. This allows the will understand what he reads if it sequences (Clay, 2001, p. 107). teacher to support the child in taking refers to things he knows about, or action to search for the language has read about previously, so that he is The teacher monitors how the reading structure and meaning. “Being sensi- familiar with the topic, the vocabulary sounds, what sources of information tive to the learner’s thinking allows or the story itself” (Clay, 1991, the child is using to detect and correct the teacher to draw the child’s atten- p. 335). A child sometimes makes a error and to problem-solve a new tion to things overlooked, to new link between one book and another or word, and the apparent understanding aspects of the task, or to other possi- between a book and an event in the the child is gaining from the text. The ble interpretations” (Clay, 1998, child’s own life. Teachers can support teacher analyzes reading behaviors on p. 13). the child’s connections by selecting running records for evidence that books with the same characters or indicates the use of various sources of similar themes and by conversing information to read with meaning. Meaning As the Outcome and Reward about how this new book is similar For instance, rereading is an indica- of the Effort to another book the child read tion that the child is searching for In Reading Recovery, teachers scaffold previously. information to construct the author’s students’ understandings before, dur- precise message. These behaviors pro- ing, and after reading continuous text. vide the teacher with insight into how Teachers help students to search for Summary this child is using meaning as a guide and use meaning while reading. The Comprehension is a broad concept to being on track. Clay (2002) conversation before, during, and after that addresses using meaning at all describes how the teacher monitors reading provides enjoyment and levels of language in written text. and records a description of the child’s extends the child’s understandings. Meaning is a source of information reading performance on the running Sometimes a child chooses to write a which the active reader and writer record: story related to a book just read. In uses in the process of reading and Clay’s (1993) suggestions of possible writing. The concept of active process- Immediately following the read- topics for conversation before writing, ing, which is a key factor in successful ing and before you begin to three of them relate to a book that has reading, seems to be more clearly con- analyze the detail of the [run- been read or heard. veyed when discussing the use of ning] record, write a few lines meaning rather than the acquisition of First talk with the child. Guided on what you just observed, your comprehension. intuitive summation of the by what you know of the child child’s reading, at the end of the start up a conversation about We have emphasized in this discussion record. This should be an over- things like that beginning readers learn to search for and use meaning at all levels of all reaction. Comment on what •Something he has done strategic activity. Teachers provide the reader did well. Was the •A story he has heard or access to the meaning of books before reading done at a good pace, or read reading and teach for the use of was it slow, or too fast? Are •A TV programme he has meaning throughout the reading of things in balance or out of bal- seen continuous text. Teachers provide ance in your judgment? Is he •Something that interests learning opportunities through mean- reading groups of words togeth- him ingful conversations in various parts er in a phrased way? Attend par- • An experience you have of the lesson for various purposes. The ticularly to change over previous had together opportunities to compose, write, com- readings (pp. 60–61). •A book he enjoyed reading pose again on the run in the cut-up • The best part of a story he The teacher monitors the child’s read- sentence, and reread the message writ- has just read (p. 29). ing in a similar way at all times. ten all contribute to the child’s under- Monitoring the child’s reading in this The student’s familiarity with what is standings of meaning at many levels

28 Journal of Reading Recovery Spring 2004 Teaching

of language use. During Reading adjusted to incorporate the under- References Recovery instruction, the child devel- standings gained through reading and Adams, M. (1990). Beginning to read: ops comprehension through under- writing text. Thinking and learning about print. standing the meanings of books, shar- Clay (1991, 1993, 2001) emphasizes Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ing a meaningful message, and devel- what beginning readers must learn as Anderson, R. C., & Nagy, W. E. (1991). oping a tapestry of meaningful com- they work across connected text. They Word meanings. In R. Barr, M. L. munications with a particular signifi- must attend to several different Kamil, P. Mosenthal, & P. D. Pearson cant adult (the teacher). In these vari- (Eds.), Handbook of reading research, sources of information and check one ous and integrated ways, Reading volume II (pp. 690–724). White Plains, against another. They must learn to Recovery teachers do indeed teach for NY: Longman. direct their attention to the most use- comprehension. Armbruster, B. B., Lehr, F., & Osborn, J. ful bits of information while learning (2003). Put reading first: The research the arbitrary rules of written language, The Sixth Essential Element building blocks for teaching children to including sequence and layout. read. Jessup, MD: National Institute In this article we have stressed the “Sequential decision-making depends for Literacy. importance of the strategic activity on tentative understanding of the which the reader engages to expand Bruner, J. (1957). On perceptual readi- message so far, while allowing the lan- ness. Psychological Review, 64, understanding of new and partially guage user to change direction en 124–152. known vocabulary and to compre- route” (Clay, 1991, p. 106). hend continuous text. While the NRP Clay, M. M. (1991). Becoming literate: Conversely, the processing that the The construction of inner control. does not address the notion of pro- reader engages in on continuous text Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. cessing or strategic activity as an helps the child to develop understand- essential element, in Reading Clay, M. M. (1993). Reading Recovery: A ing of the text. guidebook for teachers in training. Recovery we recognize that it is the Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. most essential. Without strategic Reading Recovery teachers know the activity or processing, the child would importance of teaching for the child’s Clay, M. M. (1998). By different paths to common outcomes. York, ME: not develop self-regulation and would inner control of the processes, skills, Stenhouse. not be able to make progress in learn- and items being learned. “Supported ing the five essential elements. Any at first by social contacts the literacy Clay, M. M. (2001). Change over time in children’s literacy development. learning would be in isolation and learner gradually has less need of the Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. would not be used to interact with scaffolded support of the expert, and and learn from new texts. Any the reader begins to perform alone Clay, M. M. (2002). An observation survey of early literacy achievement (2nd ed.). instruction in the five essential ele- but improves his or her reading and Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. ments of reading must include a con- writing processing as those activities are sideration of strategic activity. pursued, learning more on his or her Davis, F. B. (1942). Two new measures of own” (Clay, 2001, pp. 102–103). reading ability. Journal of Educational As a child learns how to learn new Psychology, 33, 365–372. vocabulary through experiences with Durkin, D. (1993). Teaching them to read the words in texts and conversation, (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & the child is developing a more com- Bacon. plex processing system for learning Harris, T. L., & Hodges, R. E. (Eds.). and using vocabulary than was devel- (1995). The literacy dictionary: The oped before learning to read. Now the vocabulary of reading and writing. child adjusts the earlier system of Newark, DE: International Reading vocabulary development to incorpo- Association. rate experiences with language and National Institute of Child Health and meanings in texts. Likewise, the sys- Human Development (2000a). Report tem of searching for meaning in lan- of the National Reading Panel. Teaching guage and environment, which the children to read: An evidence-based child relied upon before school, has assessment of the scientific research litera-

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ture on reading and its implications for Pressley, M., Almasi, J., Schuder, T., reading instruction (NIH Publication Bergman, J., & Kurita, J. A. (1994). No. 00-4769). Washington, DC: U.S. Transactional instruction of compre- Government Printing Office. hension strategies: The Montgomery National Institute of Child Health and County, Maryland, SAIL program. Human Development (2000b). Report Reading & Writing Quarterly: of the National Reading Panel. Teaching Overcoming Learning Difficulties, children to read: An evidence-based 10(1), 5–19. assessment of the scientific research litera- Rosenshine, B., Meister, C., & Chapman, ture on reading and its implications for S. (1996). Teaching students to gener- reading instruction: Report of the sub- ate questions: A review of the interven- groups (NIH Publication No. 00- tion studies. Review of Educational 4754). Washington, DC: U.S. Research, 66(2), 181–221. Government Printing. Snow, C., Burns, M., & Griffin, P. (Eds.). Palinscar, A. S., & Brown, A. L. (1984). (1998). Preventing reading difficulties in Reciprocal teaching of comprehension- young children. Washington, DC: fostering and comprehension-monitor- National Academy Press. ing activities. Cognition and Instruction, 2, 117–175.

About the Cover

Fidel Campuzano is a second-grade student at Darby Woods Elementary school in the South-Western City Schools in Ohio. Fidel’s Reading Recovery teacher, Vicki Burlingame, reported that Fidel was a first-round student who was reading at Level 3 in the fall and discon- tinued at Level 12. At the end of the school year, he was reading at Level 20. This year, Fidel’s second-grade teacher says that he is a very hard worker and enjoys reading and writing in the classroom. He likes mysteries and is writing about cowboys. In his current story, he is the cowboy hero.

30 Journal of Reading Recovery Spring 2004