Third Report on the Advancement of

Women in ASEAN

Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration GENDER DIMENSIONS O GLOBALISATION AND REGIONAL INTEGRATION

Third Report on the Advancement of Women

in ASEAN

THE ASEAN SECRETARIAT The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) was established on 8 August 1967. The Members of the Association are Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Viet Nam. The ASEAN Secretariat is based in Jakarta, Indonesia.

or inquiries, contact: Public Affairs Office The ASEAN Secretariat 70A Jalan Sisingamangaraja Jakarta 12110 Indonesia Phone : (62 21) 724-3372, 726-2991 ax : (62 21) 739-8234, 724-3504 E-mail : [email protected]

General information on ASEAN appears on-line at the ASEAN Website: www.aseansec.org

Catalogue-in-Publication Data

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN Jakarta: ASEAN Secretariat, May 2007

vi, 171 p; 21.0cm

1. ASEAN – Women – Social conditions 2. Women – Social conditions – ASEAN

305.459

ISBN 978-979-3496-48-1

Printed in Indonesia

The text of this publication may be freely quoted or reprinted with proper acknowledgment.

Copyright © ASEAN Secretariat 2007 All rights reserved

The ASEAN Secretariat gratefully acknowledges the assistance provided by the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) in the production of this publication.

Cover photographs:

Clockwise from top left: The ASEAN Secretariat, Ministry of Community Development, Youth & Sports (MCYS) of Singapore, SILAKA of Cambodia, Ngo Thi Lan Phuong of Viet Nam, SILAKA of Cambodia, SILAKA of Cambodia.

ii - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration oreword

In 1988, ASEAN oreign Ministers signed the Declaration on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN signalling ASEAN’s commitment to involve women in all spheres of life at both national and regional levels. It also called for women to be active in the development of the region as they constitute half of the labour force. Since then, ASEAN has monitored the implementation of the 1988 Declaration through regional status reports. The first report was published in 1996, with data from 7 ASEAN countries, and the second in 2001 with data from all ten member countries.

The Third Regional Report on the Advancement of Women aims to be an innovative report as it synthesises the progress of implementation of the Declaration on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN with a special focus on women and economic integration. The Report highlights where progress has been made and what needs to be done to address gaps in advancing the interests of women in the context of intensifying ASEAN integration.

As ASEAN accelerates its goal of establishing an ASEAN Community from 2020 to 2015, Member Countries would need information that is differentiated on the basis of what pertains to women and their roles, and to men and their roles in society. Such information will enable planners to know the potential impact of proposed activities on women and men.

The compilation of indicators for documenting progress of women’s participation in economic and political life is the first step towards establishing or strengthening mechanisms for mainstreaming women’s issues as well as policies for promoting women’s participation in the political, social and economic development of their respective nations. Gender-disaggregated data enhance the

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - iii understanding of the economic realities and contribute to inform public dialogue and policy development.

Through the Third Regional Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration, ASEAN is taking a significant step towards making women visible in development statistics. This Report reaffirms ASEAN commitment to producing timely and appropriate gender- differentiated information to provide a better understanding of poverty, equity and human development issues in realising ASEAN’s goal of one caring and sharing community.

ONG KENG YONG Secretary-General of ASEAN

iv - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration Table of Contents

Introduction ...... 1 1Background, Objectives & Parts of the Report 1 2 Approach and Methodology 3 3 Collaborating Institutions and National Stakeholders 6 Consultations

Part One ...... 7 1Many /aces of Gender Inequality 8 2 Human and Gender-Related Development in ASEAN 11 3 Women and men in ASEAN 12 4 /aces of Gender Inequality in ASEAN: trends and patterns14 5 Conclusion 34

Part Two ...... 38 1 “Women in SMEs and Tourism in Thailand” 42 by Pawadee Tonguthai 2 “Market-Based Gender Issues in West Kalimantan 57 under the BIMP-EAGA” by Delima Hasri Azahar, Rita Nur Suhaeti and Edi Basuno 3 “The Gender Dimension of Health Professional 73 Migration from the Philippines” by Jean Encinas-/ranco 4 “Livelihood and Crop Diversification in Rural Viet Nam: 103 The Case of Thai Binh Province” by Ngo Thi Lan Phuong 5 “+oreign Direct Investment-led Growth Strategy: 115 Women in the Garment Industry” by Thida C. Khus

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - v 6 “Lao Women’s Cross Border Trading and New 133 Customs Regulations” by Gender Resource Information and Development Center [GRID]

Part Three ...... 160 1Proposed Gender Indicators for Economic Integration 160 2 Gender-based Wage Differentials: 163 Valuing Women’s Labour 3 Unemployment: Who are Excluded from Paid Work? 163 4 Underemployment: Who are Likely to have 164 Inadequate Work? 5 Housework: Who Works More Hours at Home 165 in Addition to Time Spent on Paid Work? 6 Informal Work: Who are Pushed to the Margins 166 of /ormal Work? 7 Technical-Vocational: Who are being Prepared for 168 Paid Work? 8 Science and Technology: Who are Geared to Propel 169 Economic Integration and Benefit from it?

Annex 1 ...... 171

vi - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration Introduction

The Association of Southeast society, ASEAN recognises the Asian Nations (ASEAN) is actual and potential committing to the inter-related contributions of half of the pillars of a thriving and population to economic integrated economic expansion and integration; community, vibrant socio- second, by addressing gaps cultural foundation and secure and differentials in access to environment for all (Bali human development such as Concord II). In moving towards health, education and welfare, an ASEAN community, productive assets and narrowing the development governance, ASEAN moves gap is considered among the towards a “community of key dimensions in unleashing equals”; and third, addressing the full potential of ASEAN. substantive inequality on 3or women in the region, account of gender fosters the among the priorities for inter-connections of rights, fostering the ASEAN solidarity and security. community is narrowing the “development gap” between 1 Background, objectives women and men, providing and parts of the report equal opportunities to unlock the productive and The report aims to provide reproductive contributions of all information on the progress of under an equitable, inclusive ASEAN Member Countries in and caring ASEAN community. implementing or addressing key regional priorities for the The advancement of women advancement of women in the through policies and context of intensifying ASEAN programmes upholding gender integration. This is the third equality reinforces the ASEAN regional report on women after pillars: first, by providing ASEAN came out with its first women equal opportunities in in 1996 covering seven

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 1 ASEAN Member Countries indicators to enhance followed by another regional measurements for monitoring report for all ASEAN Member progress towards the Countries in 2002. achievement of 2010 goals and regional coordination The report is strongly informed measures in the Vientiane by the need to engender the Action Programme (VAP); and monitoring indices proposed in (c) identify policy options for the ASEAN Baseline Report: integrated policies for Measurements to Monitor consideration by ASEAN. Progress Towards the ASEAN Community (Lamberte et al This technical report has three July 2006). As well, it builds parts that are inter-linked but upon the monitoring indices which may also serve as arising from the Monitoring and individual ‘mini’ reports. Part 1 Reporting Mechanism on the is a report on the status of Implementation of the women in ASEAN vis-à-vis Declaration on the various indicators of economic, Advancement of Women in the social and political well-being. ASEAN Region (1995). It also The extent to which ASEAN considers the priorities in the women have advanced in Work Plan for Women’s participating in and benefiting Advancement and Gender from development is presented Equality 2005-2010 (WAGE) in here with ‘snapshots of particular the promotion of information’ along inequality women’s employability and indicators, similar to what the overall development while previous two reports on the addressing the challenges of advancement of women had globalisation. done. This report however differs from the earlier ones in Specifically, the report aims to that it utilises a set of indicators (a) enhance understanding of that measure the gender gap in the implications of globalisation human capabilities in ASEAN. and regional integration and This is undertaken with the use increase awareness of these of Amartya Sen’s Schema of implications on women’s Seven Women’s Inequalities. advancement and gender equality in ASEAN Member Part 2 is a set of country Countries; (b) identify an initial situation reports of women set of gender monitoring engaged in specific economic

2 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration activities including the range of the study. The state of national opportunities and challenges and regional gender statistics facing them as trade and trade is important to stress as the related reforms are felt in the opportunity to make women market. The country cases visible through gender-fair provide more in-depth and policy- and decision-making qualitative information on sub- processes, outputs and sets of women economic outcomes rests on quality of actors which serve as valuable data. data on how economic reforms - in particular the opening up of 2 Approach and domestic markets to the free methodology flow of goods, services, and investments as well as The report flows from a ASEAN-wide harmonisation of straightforward assumption: standards and technical women and men have regulations are affecting their disproportionate access to and economic options as women benefits from market reforms producers, traders and and macroeconomic workers. The country reports development. This is not only cover the countries of harmful to women, who Indonesia, Philippines and traditionally enjoy a lesser Thailand in the ASEAN-6 and share in the fruits of economic Cambodia, Lao PDR and reforms and development, but Viet Nam in the CLMV group of also for society in general. ASEAN Member Countries. • 3irst, gender-based Part 3 proposes a preliminary disparities are bad for set of gender indicators which growth, wealth creation and could engender ASEAN-wide poverty reduction. By monitoring indicators on limiting women’s capacity tracking progress towards “to do” and “to be”, the economic integration of productive capacity and ASEAN. Technical comments potential of women are also are offered here in terms of the concomitantly limited, availability, frequency, restricting their consistency and quality of data contributions in the to measure advancement of economy and stunting the women vis-a-vis men in the six capacity of the economy to Member Countries covered by become more dynamic.

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 3 Persistent inequities on between women and men account of gender affect the requires the collection of distribution of costs and statistics to monitor gender benefits from economic inequality. However gender arrangements, including statistics tend to lag behind regional economic others and in many cases integration and free trade collection and analyses are ad agreements. hoc and not mainstreamed in the core statistics programme • Second, gender inequality of countries (UNI3EM The feeds into the cycles of World’s Women 2005: disadvantage in society. Progress in Statistics 2006). Because women are denied their fair share in paid work Within ASEAN, the availability and other opportunities, of gender statistics reveal the relegated to socially- extent women’s concerns and ascribed, unpaid caring gender disparities are responsibilities, and face responded to, help identify enormous gender-related gaps as well as support systemic barriers in the improvements in gender market, they also tend to be statistics collection and sharing more vulnerable to human among its members. poverty. And because their well-being and agency are The report focuses on both often culturally qualified and nationally available statistics passed down through and regional estimates. Part 1 generations, women more of this report relies on region- than men tend to have wide sex segregated statistics limited power in all spheres and estimates found in of life. statistical handbooks and reports from the ASEAN • And third, gender inequality Secretariat, World Bank and not only erodes human United Nations agencies. Data security, but also deepens sets for 2003, where available, festering structural conflicts, have been collected and vulnerabilities and presented in an attempt to exclusions in society. provide comparable gender statistics across ASEAN Ensuring that policies and Member Countries around the programmes address gaps time when the Vientiane Action

4 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration Programme was adopted. This aimed at supporting women’s is consistent with the approach economic security and rights at of the ASEAN Baseline Report the national level and closing (Lamberte et al July 2006) that the gender gap at the regional this report aims to influence. level. Statistics presented in At the time of writing, however, these stand-alone country some Member Countries may situation reports were directly have advanced in terms of sourced from national collecting, systematising and statistical offices and reflect making available updated more current data. gender statistics to inform policy and decision-making. Part 3 differs from Parts 1 and Moreover, some national data 2 in that rather than presenting for 2003 admittedly may have indicators, a discussion on the been more updated and state of gender statistics in accurate than the regional data each of the ASEAN Member utilised in this report. Countries covered by the study Preference for regional data is provided. The gender was undertaken for uniformity statistics considered were and comparability that is limited to a few key indicators required for this part of the that may be considered for report. inclusion in the set of indicators that have been identified by the Complementing the regional ASEAN Baseline Report for landscape of gender statistics tracking the economic leg of in Part 1 is a set of country ASEAN integration. The specific qualitative reports that challenge is to rally the ASEAN are found in Part 2. These Community to begin its focus on how economic consistent collection of a reforms linked to regional cluster of gender information to integration and trade openness monitor the advancement of are affecting ASEAN women’s women in the region as market-based activities. This economic integration is part provides useful deepened, and to use the information on the diversity of same as platform to widen the women’s locations in vastly base of gender information and different national and local to inform country-specific and markets that could inform ASEAN-collective development policies and programmes policies and directions.

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 5 3 Collaborating Institutions In November 2006, the draft & National Stakeholders full report was shared at the Consultations 3ifth Meeting of the ASEAN Committee on Women in The report is a collective Singapore. 3urther undertaking that brought consultations across the focal together several national and points and within their regional state actors, respective national women’s governmental, non- machineries after the said governmental and academic meeting led to the integration institutions, and women and of additional statistics and men across six Member information. Countries of ASEAN (see Annex 1). Regional coordination was shared by the ASEAN Secretariat and the Women and Gender Institute of Miriam College in the Philippines. Six country researchers who were closely linked to non-governmental women’s organisations, research institutions, academe, or government agencies took part in the study.

The draft country reports and the matrix of indicators were shared in national multi- stakeholder consultations convened by the national women’s machineries and focal points of the ASEAN Committee on Women. These national consultations took place in six Member Countries between the months of August to October 2006.

6 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration Part One

The Third Regional Report on [2005 HDR: 51] and reinforced the Advancement of Women in by stark inequalities in access the ASEAN follows the 2005 to and benefits from resources, Human Development Report capacities and potentials. (HDR) which presented compelling reasons why Second, in the realm of values inequality matters in designing particularly on social justice appropriate policies and and moral imperative, the 2005 programmes and targeting HDR also upheld that desirable development inequality is unjust: “ few outcomes. As such, this report people would accept in focuses on the comparative principle that inequalities in human development capacities opportunity are tolerable when and opportunities of ASEAN based on gender, inherited women vis-a-vis those of men. wealth, ethnicity or other More broadly, it serves as a accidents of birth over which reference point for developing individuals have no control. a gender-sensitive roadmap The idea that people should be toward ASEAN’s consigned to an early death, comprehensive integration. illiteracy or second-class citizenship because of Inequality slows down human inherited attributes beyond development. There are their control violates most systemic barriers to a more people’s sense of what is fair.” equitable distribution of [2005 HDR: 52] opportunities in education, income, health and wider life In both reasons, distribution of chances in society, which arise benefits, resources, capacities from “complex hierarchies of and opportunities is at the core advantage and disadvantage of advancing human development transmitted across generations” beyond the systemic barriers

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 7 posed by gender, ethnicity, “ characterised by deeply class and/or location. unequal sharing of the burden Analysing aggregate indices, of adversities between women while important, is limited. In and men.” These include the fact, despite milestones in following: aggregate performance, • Mortality inequality – overlooking the painful realities inequality between women of distribution in society might and men that involves even reinforce persistent matters of life and death inequalities and reverse human • Natality inequality – development gains. inequality arising from exercising male preference Therefore it is not enough to as a result of cultural raise the question of whether reinforcement of prejudice or not there have been against women specifically improvements in total (and in male-dominated societies gender-blind) human • Basic facility inequality – development, but also to take inequality arising from account of whether or not differential access to those improvements have literacy, education, health addressed inequalities. and nutrition for individuals to function effectively in 1 ‘Many 'aces of Gender society Inequality’ • Special opportunity inequality – inequality The most felt patterns of arising from differential inequality are those that access to tertiary education directly or implicitly hit the and training human person. Amartya Sen • Professional inequality – [2001] stressed that “ within inequality arising from each community, nationality differential access to and class, the burden of employment opportunities hardship often falls dispropor- • Ownership inequality - tionately on women.” Gender inequality arising from lack inequality is among the or limited control over structural inequalities that assets and other resources erode human development. • Household inequality - Sen [2001] identified seven basic inequalities within the types of inequality family

8 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration These types of inequality may eradicating gender disparities, already be operative in for the realisation of the human reproductive decisions, where rights of women as equals of males are preferred over men, to widen the life females for economic and opportunities of women to the cultural reasons, reinforced by same extent as that of men, social norms and expectations, and to generate positive and entrenched in the different externalities for the family, stages of the life cycle. The community and society as a disproportionate burdens of whole. women systematically marginalise, if not exclude In this report, Sen’s seven them, from participating fully in types of women’s inequality economic and political life of have been further specified to society. The challenge encompass several indicators therefore is in narrowing, if not for each:

Sen’s Seven Types of Selected Indicators for this Inequality Report

Natality inequality • Male-female population ratio • Presence/absence of sex selected abortion

Mortality inequality • Male-female life expectancy • Male-female infant mortality • Maternal mortality

Basic facilities inequality • Nutritional status by sex and age group • Nutritional status of pregnant women • Literacy rate by sex • Basic education by sex • Percentage of unmet family planning needs

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 9 Sen’s Seven Types of Selected Indicators for this Inequality Report

Special opportunity inequality • Post secondary and higher education graduates by sex • Percentage of college graduates by cluster by sex • Training opportunities by sex

Professional inequality • Employment by sex • Wage disparity • Women and men in bureaucracy, technical and managerial positions, political leadership

Ownership inequality • Land ownership • House ownership • Ownership over other assets resources

Household inequality • No. of female-headed households • Prevalence of domestic violence • Time-use analysis

These indicators have been ASEAN member-governments culled from existing information on the need to obtain sex- using 2003 data to conform disaggregated data to inform with the ASEAN Baseline gender-affirmative and Study. The most recent data redistributive policies and available have been utilised strategies, a technique where 2003 data were lacking. similarly employed by the At the most extreme, “no data” technical writers of the ASEAN has been specified to prompt Baseline Study.

10 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration 2 Human and gender- Countries are within the band related development in of medium human ASEAN development countries, with the exception of Singapore and ASEAN Member Countries Brunei Darussalam which are generally fare well in human within the elite group of high development. All Member human development countries.

Table 1. Selected Human Development Indicators

HDI Country Human GDP per GDP Gender-related rank development capita index development index (PPP US$) index value 2003 Rank Value

25 Singapore 0.907 24,4810.92 .. .. 33 Brunei Darussalam 0.866 19,210 0.88 .. .. 61Malaysia 0.796 9,512 0.76 50 0.791 73 Thailand 0.778 7,595 0.72 57 0.774 84 Philippines 0.758 4,321 0.63 63 0.755 108 Viet Nam 0.704 2,490 0.54 83 0.702 110 Indonesia 0.697 3,361 0.59 87 0.691 129 Myanmar 0.578 .. 0.39 .. .. 130 Cambodia 0.571 2,078 0.51 99 0.567 133 Lao PDR 0.545 1,759 0.48 102 0.540

Note: This report uses 2003 data in ASEAN for comparability purposes. This data set is also consistent with that of the ASEAN Baseline Report.

Source: 2005 Human Development Report

However, among the countries Life expectancy and education within the medium human indices generally follow the development group, it is also human development pattern of instructive to cluster the ASEAN Member Countries, but countries further. Malaysia, income indices show a wide Thailand and the Philippines gulf in the region. GDP per are among the high end of the capita in Singapore is more band; Viet Nam and Indonesia than twice as much as at mid-range; and Myanmar, Malaysia; six times as much as Cambodia and Lao PDR at the the Philippines; and more than low end of the medium human twenty times as much as development countries. Cambodia and Lao PDR.

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 11 Adjusted for measuring gender 3 Women and men in equality, the gender-related ASEAN development index generally follows the overall trends in ASEAN has a young human development. population, a third of which are However, Singapore, Brunei children 14 years old and Darussalam and Myanmar below. This, in addition to were not ranked in terms of those in the 60 years old and gender index, because of lack above age group, accounts for of sex-disaggregated a high dependency age in information on combined gross ASEAN at about 40 per cent of enrolment ratio for Singapore the population. Except for and on estimated earned Singapore and Thailand, the income for Brunei Darussalam population structure in the rest and Myanmar. of ASEAN is one where the 0- 14 age group is most dominant Singapore and Brunei (see Table 2). Two Darussalam, despite being complementary reasons ASEAN’s pride in the elite explain this. One is that circle of high human population growth is still high, development countries, have except for Singapore and not been ranked in terms of Thailand which were able to advancement in gender contain population growth equality as comparative figures below 1 per cent. And two, the were not available in the year rest of ASEAN, except surveyed. Indonesia and Viet Nam, still have growth rates higher than the ASEAN average of 1.5 per cent.

'igure 1. ASEAN Population by Age Group 2003 It is instructive to

35 stress the 31.6 30 28.1 implications of having

25 a population with 21.5 20 high proportion of per cent 15 dependency age. 11.4 10 3irst, this creates 7.4 5 pressure on human

0 development (or child < 15 15-29 30-44 45-59 60+ development) costs /

12 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration Table 2. Selected Population Indicators

Countries % Number (‘000) 2003 Population Growth < 15 15-29 30-44 45-59 60+ Total 2003

Brunei Darussalam 2.7 121 105 87 32 18 363.5 Cambodia 2.0 5,540 3,657 2,286 1,160 677 13,320 Indonesia 1.3 65,048 62,709 46,486 24,128 15,348 213,720 Lao PDR 2.5 2,418 1,556 897 460 288 5,620 Malaysia 2.5 8,307 6,727 5,241 3,156 1,599 25,030 Myanmar 2.3 17,495 14,175 10,956 6,583 4,305 53,515 Philippines 2.0 30,007 22,424 15,485 8,326 4,839 81,081 Singapore 0.3 869 843 1,146 853 474 4,185 Thailand 0.8 15,425 16,374 16,547 9,574 6,027 63,947 Viet Nam 1.5 26,181 23,653 17,157 7,575 6,337 80,902 ASEAN 1.5 171,410 152,224 116,288 61,849 39,912 541,683

Source: 2005 ASEAN Statistical Yearbook investments particularly on and education. However, the health and nutrition and capacity of governments to education. A young population provide these is usually eroded “consumes” human by inadequate resources, if not development goods and running fiscal deficits, which services, which are critical to result in under-investment in the long-term quality of the public services and an impetus nation’s human stock and by to encourage private implication, to the provisioning. This situation competitiveness and resilience pushes the burden of the country’s economy. A downwards—at the level of the healthy and educated populace household, most notably on is assumed to contribute to women who, by virtue of their more active and responsible culturally attributed caring roles citizens of society and a in the family, absorb the full healthy stream of future impact of government’s participants in the economy. inability to provide access to health and education services Second, prioritising human and the likely momentum development investments towards the marketisation of means increasing budget basic human development pressures for health, nutrition needs.

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 13 4 'aces of gender unleash their capacities to inequality in ASEAN: contribute more meaningfully trends and patterns to the economy and to the society as a whole and to While Table 1 shows modest deepen a more robust performance of ASEAN foundation for inclusive and Member Countries in terms of egalitarian economic gender-related development integration, poverty reduction index, the indices may not and income and opportunity capture the full range of trends redistribution. and patterns that could either advance or hinder women’s Natality inequality: males are well-being in the region. The preferred over females? following report provides an enlarged snapshot of the ASEAN has about 550 million extent by which gender people, with an almost equal equality has been upheld so far number of women and men in in the various aspects of the region. There are more development in ASEAN. By males in Brunei Darussalam, comparing how women fare Indonesia, Malaysia and the vis-à-vis men, “gender-based Philippines, but the number of differentials” may be exposed males in the last three in the hope of raising countries seems to be not as appropriate action measures to significant compared to that of correct the same, as the Brunei Darussalam (see Table ASEAN Member Countries 3). intensifies its economic integration in pursuit of On the other hand, sex ratios commitments found in the in Cambodia, Lao PDR, Vientiane Action Programme. Myanmar, Singapore, Thailand and Viet Nam show a slightly The comparison is not meant higher number of females than to derive a “race to the top” males. Unlike in South Asia between women and men in where the termination of appropriating development pregnancy has been imperatives and outcomes, but documented as an affirmation to ensure that the process of of male preference, ASEAN economic integration removes Member Countries do not rather than reinforces barriers seem to practise sex-selection to the advancement of women, at birth, although there is

14 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration Table 3. Population by Sex, 2004

Countries Number (‘000) Percentage Sex Male 3emale Total Male 3emale Total Ratio

Brunei Darussalam 194 179 373 52.0 48.0 100.0 108.5 Cambodia 6,593 6,996 13,589 48.5 51.5 100.0 94.2 Indonesia 108,416 107,994 216,410 50.1 49.9 100.0 100.4 Lao PDR 2,8512,909 5,760 49.5 50.5 100.098.0 Malaysia 13,023 12,557 25,580 50.9 49.1 100.0 103.7 Myanmar 27,151 27,594 54,745 49.6 50.4 100.0 99.0 Philippines 41,580 41,083 82,664 50.3 49.7 100.0 101.2 Singapore 2,107 2,133 4,240 49.7 50.3 100.0 98.8 Thailand 31,909 32,560 64,469 49.5 50.5 100.0 98.0 Viet Nam 40,313 41,709 82,022 49.150.9 100.096.7 ASEAN 274,137 275,715 549,852 49.9 50.0 100.0 99.8

Source: 2005 ASEAN Statistical Yearbook

cultural inclination to prefer Mortality inequality: who male children to perpetuate the outlives whom? family name and to assist in hard labour, particularly in 3emales generally outlive agricultural or entrepreneurial males. This is true in the work. Although natality ASEAN region, as shown in inequality may not be as Table 4. All ASEAN Member pronounced as in other parts of Countries show female the world, the more important longevity. Several indicators are those that assumptions may be advanced emphasise gender-based to explain this phenomenon. inequities after children are One could be that men are born and socialised into a more exposed to risks, as they world where divides between tend to be “outside the home” women and men could be in general to earn a living for direct or implicit, affecting the the family. Another could be individual well-being of ASEAN that men are socialised into women and men. lifestyles that might be less healthy than that of women.

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 15 However, these assumptions Thailand which reduced their need a more nuanced and maternal mortality rates to less rigorous basis, particularly to than 50 out of 100 thousand take into account physiological, live births, ASEAN Member social and cultural factors that Countries still experience high contribute to female longevity. death rates for females giving What is more instructive in birth from 130 in Viet Nam to Table 4 is the disparity within as high as 450 deaths in ASEAN in terms of longevity Cambodia. indicators. Women and men in Cambodia, Lao PDR and Maternal deaths could be Myanmar have mortality rates attributed to the inadequate which are about a decade access to and poor quality of shorter than that of Indonesia, health care, including the the lowest in the ASEAN-6 extent of poverty, in ASEAN group. Member Countries. The 2005 Human Development Report Although females outlive has documented the males, ASEAN Member disproportionate access of Countries still have alarming poor and non-poor women to rates of maternal death. Except maternal health care. Among for Brunei Darussalam, pregnant women belonging to Malaysia, Singapore and the richest 20 per cent, skilled

Table 4. Selected Mortality Indicators

Infant mortality Maternal Life expectancy (years) rate mortality ratio 2003 (per 1,000 (per 100,000 live births) live births) Country Male 'emale '-M 2003 2000

Brunei Darussalam 74.0 79.0 5.0 5 37 Cambodia 56.5 62.7 6.2 97 450 Indonesia 66.3 70.3 4.0 31230 Lao PDR 54.0 56.0 2.0 82 650 Malaysia 70.5 75.9 5.4 7 41 Myanmar 55.0 60.0 5.0 76 360 Philippines 67.2 70.5 3.3 27 200 Singapore 77.0 80.9 3.9 3 30 Thailand 68.0 75.0 7.0 23 44 Viet Nam 67.0 72.0 5.0 19 130

Source: 2005 World Development Indicators

16 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration Table 5. Inequalities in maternal and child health

Country Survey Births attended One year olds Infant mortality Under-5 mortality Year by skilled health fully immunised rate rate personnel (%) (%)

Poorest Richest Poorest Richest Poorest Richest Poorest Richest 20% 20% 20% 20% 20% 20% 20% 20%

Brunei Darussalam ...... Cambodia 2000 14.7 81.2 28.6 67.7 109.7 50.3 154.8 63.6 Indonesia 1997 21.3 89.2 42.9 72.1 78.1 23.3 109.0 29.2 Lao PDR ...... Malaysia ...... Myanmar ...... Philippines 1998 21.2 91.9 59.8 86.5 48.8 20.9 79.8 29.2 Singapore ...... Thailand ...... Viet Nam 2000 58.1 99.7 44.3 92.3 39.3 13.8 52.9 15.8

Source: 2005 Human Development Report health personnel attended to mortality per 1,000 live births to births as much as 81 per cent a single digit, the rest remain in Cambodia to 99 per cent in high with double-digit figures Viet Nam. However, of the as high as 97 infant deaths in poorest 20 per cent, only about Cambodia (see Table 4). 15 per cent of women in Table 5 provides some clues Cambodia and about 60 per explaining the high incidence of cent in Viet Nam had births infant deaths in some ASEAN assisted by competent health Member Countries: personnel. • Poverty increases the vulnerability to infant and Although Tables 4 and 5 do not child death. Infant and show mortality by sex, it is under-5 mortality rates tend important to emphasise to be higher among those in indicators of child health as an the poorest 20 per cent, as extension of maternal health. shown in the national data Patterns of infant mortality in of Cambodia, Indonesia, the ASEAN Member Countries Philippines and Viet Nam. follow that of maternal • Poverty also limits access mortality. While Brunei to health care. In all Darussalam, Malaysia and countries in Table 5, the Singapore have reduced infant percentage of one-year old

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 17 babies fully immunised is important to women. Healthy between 28 per cent in and educated women and men Cambodia to 60 per cent in tend to demonstrate greater the Philippines for those capacities “to be” and “to do”, belonging to the poorest 20 contributing to improved per cent, compared to 68 individual well-being. per cent in Cambodia to 92 per cent in Viet Nam for However, this premise might those in the richest 20 per not hold true for some ASEAN cent, showing a difference Member Countries, in view of of about 40 percentage disparities within the region in points in both low and high terms of nutritional status of levels. children: • In general, about one-third Basic facilities inequality: of Cambodia’s population how are women and men and about one-fifth of the equipped to function population of Lao PDR, the effectively? Philippines, Thailand and Viet Nam are Basic health, nutrition and undernourished. This education are essential to could be attributed to making women and men poverty; families tend to function effectively in society. skip meals, allocate food Reproductive health is also

Table 6. Nutritional status of children

Countries Population Prevalence of child malnutrition* Infants with undernourished* (% of children under age 5) low birth weight (% of total population) Underweight Stunting (% of births) 2000-2002 (1995-2003) (1995-2003) 1998-2003

Brunei Darussalam ...... 10 Cambodia 33 45.2 44.6 11 Indonesia 6 27.3 42.2 9 Lao PDR 22 40.0 40.7 14 Malaysia < 3 19.0 15.6 10 Myanmar 6 28.2 41.6 15 Philippines 22 31.8 32.1 20 Singapore .. 3.4 2.2 8 Thailand 20 17.6 13.4 9 Viet Nam 19 33.8 36.5 9

Note: * total of both sexes and all age groups; no available data by age and sex

Sources: 2005 World Development Indicators; 2005 Human Development Report

18 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration and/or cut down on the learning outcomes have also quantity and quality of food been attributed to, among intake to survive. others, nutritional deficiency • By extension, the extent of among children. Their limited child malnutrition in ASEAN absorptive capacity in school is is also significant. Children hampered by hunger, which, in are most affected by most cases, reinforces the decreasing quality and decision of the child to drop-out quantity of food intake as a from school. consequence of poverty. Except for Singapore and The above discussion indicates Brunei Darussalam, all that food security and the ASEAN Member Countries protection of essential food registered a significant crops such as rice and corn percentage of underweight emerges as a critical policy children, from 17 per cent in concern in regional economic Thailand to 45 per cent in integration and the drive for Cambodia. Children are modern, export-oriented also stunting, as high as 44 agriculture. per cent in Cambodia. As a measure of the UN The foregoing figures, although commitment to provide important to highlight, do not “education for all”, it is provide an indication of important to note how many gender-based dynamics in are in school. While enrolment food allocation. In extreme ratios at the primary level are cases, particularly in response on the high side in ASEAN, to survival needs, males are there are notable differences in generally given priority in food female and male enrolment allocation as they are expected ratios. to assist the household in • Cambodia, Lao PDR, income-generation or females Singapore and Thailand are sent to other families to show higher enrolment assist in housework in an ratios for males at the attempt to earn and to lessen primary level. However, food expenditures at home. only Cambodia shows a significant difference Poor nutrition also robs between male and female children of the opportunity to enrolment ratios at 89 and participate well in school. Poor 83 per cent, respectively.

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 19 Table 7. Primary and secondary enrolment by sex, 2001

Countries Net primary enrolment Net secondary enrolment ratio (%) ratio (%) Male 'emale Male 'emale

Brunei Darussalam 98.1* 85.4* Cambodia 89.0 83.2 26 15 Indonesia 93.0 93.0 .. .. Lao PDR 86.179.4 35 28 Malaysia 96.0 97.4 77.6 82.9 Myanmar 81.8 82.0 36 34 Philippines 91.9 94.15162 Singapore 94.5 94.0 92.6 92.8 Thailand 87.5 85.1.. .. Viet Nam ......

Note: * Total of both sexes.

Sources: 2005 Human Development Report; 2005 ASEAN Statistical Yearbook

• On the other hand, and Singapore show higher Malaysia, Myanmar and the enrolments for females at Philippines show higher the secondary level. enrolment ratios for females in the same level, with the Table 7 not only shows Philippines registering the disparities in enrolment within highest enrolment ratios for ASEAN, it also indicates low females at a difference of 3 enrolment at the secondary percentage points. level. This could mean two • However, a different pattern things. emerges at the secondary • One is high drop out rate at level. Cambodia, Lao PDR the primary level and a low and Myanmar show higher transition rate from primary enrolment rates for males. to secondary education. It The disparities in male and might be instructive to female enrolment is reveal who drops out at the significant at 11 percentage primary level and the points for Cambodia; Lao gender dimension of school PDR with 7 percentage level transition. The latter is points; and Myanmar, 2 usually a critical point for percentage points. parents to determine • On the other hand, whether pursuing Malaysia, the Philippines secondary education is

20 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration worthy of time and first grade in elementary investment. The option to school, it is important to know have their male and female how many females and males children work to contribute continue progressively to each to family income is usually level until they complete attractive, even if unskilled secondary education. work does not pay well and terms are usually Meanwhile, the ability to read, exploitative. write and undertake basic • Another is the inability of numeracy skills is important to the public education system make a person function well in to track those who drop out society. In the ASEAN region, from formal education and males are generally more to assist them to return to literate than females, except school or initiate them for for the Philippines which also non-formal, alternative registered the most equitable education, which is one of literacy rates between females the basic human rights of and males. Cambodia and Lao children. PDR registered the highest disparity in literacy between It would also be instructive to males and females, at 21 and consider sex-segregated 22 percentage points, information on cohort survival respectively (see Table 8). rates. Of those who enter the Both countries also have the

Table 8. Adult literacy, 2003

Countries Adult literacy rate (% of ages 15 and above) 2003 Male 3emale Male-3emale

Brunei Darussalam 94.8 88.5 6.3 Cambodia 81.1 60.2 20.9 Indonesia 93.5 86.2 7.3 Lao PDR 78.0 56.2 21.8 Malaysia 89.3 81.9 7.4 Myanmar 89.3 81.9 7.4 Philippines 92.5 93.9 (1.4) Singapore 97.0 91.4 5.6 Thailand 97.5 94.6 2.9 Viet Nam 94.7 91.5 3.2

Source: 2005 ASEAN Statistical Yearbook

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 21 lowest literacy rates for ASEAN region. Cambodia and females at 60 and 56 per cent, the Philippines show high respectively, which are way percentage of women at risk of below their ASEAN unintended pregnancy at 30 counterparts. Limited literacy and 19 per cent, respectively. rates for women constrain their Contraceptive prevalence rates ability to participate in the region indicate extreme meaningfully in the economic, cases. Indonesia, Thailand social and political life of and Viet Nam are within the society. cluster of 60-79 per cent in terms of contraceptive Ensuring the reproductive prevalence. On the other hand, health of women is important to Cambodia, Lao PDR and the ensuring basic facilities to Philippines have low participate well in society. contraceptive prevalence rates Table 9 shows various trends ranging between 24-49 per in reproductive health in the cent.

Table 9. Reproductive health and nutritional status of pregnant women

Countries Women Contraceptive Antenatal Tetanus Births at risk of prevalence care, vaccination attended by unintended rate at least (% of skilled staff pregnancy (% of one visit pregnant (% of total) (% of married women (%)* women) 2000-2003 women ages 15-49) 2003 ages 15-49) 1995-2003 1990-2003

Brunei Darussalam .. .. 100 .. .. Cambodia 30 24 44 43 32 Indonesia 9 60 95 5168 Lao PDR .. 32 27 36 19 Malaysia .. .. 84 .. 97 Myanmar .. 33 76 77 .. Philippines 19 49 94 70 60 Singapore .. .. 95 .. .. Thailand .. 72 86 .. 69 Viet Nam 7 79 68 79 85

Note: *Most recent year; no year indicated in the UN3PA 2005-Country Profiles for Population and Reproductive Health: Policy Indicators and Development

Sources: 2005 UN%PA; 2005 World Development Indicators

22 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration Moreover, Table 9 also shows needs for family planning at 32, that except for Cambodia (44 40 and 17 per cent, per cent) and Lao PDR (27 per respectively. Specifically, cent), all ASEAN Member Cambodia has high unmet Countries have respectable need for family planning, percentage of women who had particularly spacing (17 per antenatal care. Cambodia, cent) and limiting (15 per cent). Indonesia and Lao PDR had 51 per cent and below of pregnant Special opportunity women who have undergone inequality: who are poised to tetanus vaccination. seize better life chances?

Moreover, women’s well-being Given the gender differentials may be measured by a proxy in basic facilities in the ASEAN indicator on meeting family region, it is likely that women planning needs. While and men have unequal Indonesia and Viet Nam have opportunities to improve their reduced unmet need for family individual well-being. This is planning to single-digit levels, most apparent in post- Cambodia, Lao PDR and the secondary education, Philippines still face high unmet vocational training and tertiary

Table 10. Percentage of unmet family planning needs

Country Unmet need for Unmet need for Unmet need for family planning, family planning, family planning, total (%) spacing (%) limiting (%) Most recent* Most recent* Most recent*

Brunei Darussalam ...... Cambodia 32.6 17.4 15.2 Indonesia 8.6 4.0 4.6 Lao PDR 40.0 .. .. Malaysia ...... Myanmar ...... Philippines 18.8 8.2 10.6 Singapore ...... Thailand ...... Viet Nam 4.8 2.0 2.8

Note: * No year specified in the UN3PA 2005-Country Profiles for Population and Reproductive Health: Policy Indicators and Development 2005

Source: 2005 UN%PA

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 23 Table 11. Participation in post-secondary, non-tertiary education

Country Enrolment in Enrolment in post-secondary, post-secondary, non-tertiary education, non-tertiary education, total (‘000) % female 2002/2003 2002/2003

Brunei Darussalam 0.160 Cambodia 8.5 32 Indonesia .. .. Lao PDR 20.142 Malaysia 172.8 46 Myanmar .. .. Philippines 452.2 46 Singapore .. .. Thailand* 17.3 72 Viet Nam .. ..

Note: * 2003/2004 data

Source: UNESCO Global Monitoring Report

education, which prepare the 12 below) and the number of entry of women and men into tertiary graduates in 2001 the labour force. Education (Table 13 below) are also and training opportunities, predominantly female. This among others, enlarge human bodes well for advancing the capacities to assume greater opportunities of women in economic, social and political education in these countries. roles in society and increase the likelihood of socio- Table 11 also shows a economic mobility. significant number of females enrolled in post-secondary, It is instructive to note that in non-tertiary education as a Brunei Darussalam and percentage of male enrolment Thailand, females tend to in Cambodia, 32 per cent; Lao dominate enrolment in post- PDR, 42 per cent; Malaysia secondary, non-tertiary and the Philippines, 46 per education (see Table 11). This cent. is not an isolated development as enrolment in tertiary However, it may be instructive education in 2001-2002 (Table to examine the structure of

24 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration non-tertiary education as this In Brunei Darussalam, might reinforce gender bias. Myanmar, the Philippines and 3or example, vocational- Thailand, females enjoy higher technical education might enrolment ratios in tertiary deepen gender stereotyping in education with a difference of the choice of courses available 7, 8 and 3 percentage points, for women and men. respectively, compared with the enrolment ratios for males Enrolment in tertiary education (see Table 12). On the other also indicates the extent to hand, there are about two which women and men males for every female advance to prepare for and enrolled in tertiary education in benefit from special Cambodia and Lao PDR. This opportunities. Preparation for is consistent with the low professional work usually tertiary completion rates of entails 10-15 years of women in both countries at education, an investment to about 25 and 33 per cent, ensure that women and men respectively, making Cambodia find or create employment after and Lao PDR fall behind its college. ASEAN counterparts in terms

Table 12. Tertiary enrolment by sex

Country Tertiary level gross enrolment ratio 2001-2002 Male 'emale

Brunei Darussalam 10 17 Cambodia 4 2 Indonesia 16 14 Lao PDR 7 4 Malaysia* 46 28 Myanmar* 8 15 Philippines 27 35 Singapore .. .. Thailand 35 38 Viet Nam 11 9

Note: * 2000-2001 data

Source: UN Statistics Division website

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 25 Table 13. Number of college graduates by sex

Country Number of college graduates 2001 Total (‘000) 'emale (%)

Brunei Darussalam 167.4 Cambodia 3 25.1 Indonesia 506 45.2 Lao PDR 5 32.7 Malaysia* 125 51.3 Myanmar .. .. Philippines 364 61.0 Singapore .. .. Thailand* 394 55.6 Viet Nam 125 45.1

Note: * 1999/2000 data

Source: E%A Global Monitoring Report

of closing the gender gap in However, it is important to tertiary education. deepen the analyses of the trends in education by In terms of trends in examining the cohort survival completing tertiary education, and the transition rates in all there are more female levels of education (i.e. from graduates in Brunei basic to tertiary education). Darussalam, Malaysia, the Locating the gender Philippines and Thailand (see dimensions of these indicators Table 13). Indonesia and Viet would reveal biases in Nam produce more male household decision-making graduates, but are near to and the likely implications to upholding egalitarian gender-fair education completion rates as females opportunities. comprise 45 per cent of the total number of college Professional inequality: how do graduates in both countries. women and men fare in Table 21 (attached) provides employment? information on the participation of females in tertiary education, Where are females and males particularly along disciplinal located by economic activity? specialisations. In general, female and male

26 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration economic participation follows Except for Indonesia and the general structure of the Thailand, the rest of ASEAN in economy. Table 14 show a remarkable shift to services. Malaysia, the Based on most recent Philippines and Singapore information available in Table indicate a robust concentration 14, Indonesia and Thailand of female and male economic remain predominantly participation in services. agricultural, which accounts for However, employment in the highest concentration of services is predominantly female and male economic female by as high as 10 activity. Both countries show percentage points in Malaysia; nearly equal percentage of 26 percentage points in the female and male participation Philippines and 12 percentage in agriculture. This observation points in Singapore. is sharply in contrast with the figures in Malaysia and the In terms of economic activity in Philippines where agriculture is industry, all ASEAN Member dominated by male Countries in Table 14 exhibit participation by as much as 7 higher male participation. and 20 percentage points, Among the ASEAN Member respectively. Countries, Singapore has the

Table 14. Employment by economic activity, 1995-2002*

Agriculture (%) Industry (%) Services (%) 'emale Male 'emale Male 'emale Male

Brunei Darussalam ...... Cambodia ...... Indonesia 43 43 16 19 41 38 Lao PDR ...... Malaysia 14 21 29 34 57 45 Myanmar ...... Philippines 25 45 12 18 63 37 Singapore .. .. 18 31 81 69 Thailand 48 50 17 20 35 30 Viet Nam ......

Note: *Data refer to the most recent year available during the period specified.

Source: 2005 Human Development Report

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 27 highest gender disparity in females and males in the employment in industry with 13 manufacturing sector in percentage points higher for Malaysia, Myanmar, the male participation. Bias for Philippines, Singapore and male participation in industry is Thailand. Women’s wages in not as high in Indonesia with Malaysia, the Philippines, male-female disparity of 3 Singapore and Thailand are percentage points; Malaysia, 5 lower than that of men, or an percentage points; Philippines, average of about two-thirds 6 percentage points; and that of men in the Thailand, 3 percentage points. manufacturing sector. Only Myanmar registered higher What is important is to women’s wages in the examine beyond the gender manufacturing sector. differentials in employment per industry is the quality of To analyse the full implications employment. One indicator of wage differentials, it would that may be used is wage be instructive to examine the differentials between women magnitude of women workers and men. in the manufacturing sector as a proportion of male workers. Table 15 provides information This is important to ascertain in on wage differentials between view of the increasing

Table 15. Industrial wage differentials by sex

Country Women’s wage Year in manufacturing as % of men’s wages

Brunei Darussalam .. .. Cambodia .. .. Indonesia .. .. Lao PDR .. .. Malaysia 63 1997 Myanmar 112 1999 Philippines 80 1998 Singapore 612003 Thailand 72 2001 Viet Nam .. ..

Source: UN Statistics Division

28 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration Table 16. Selected indicators for female economic, professional and political participation

Countries Labour force Seats in 'emale 'emale participation rate Parliament Legislators, Professionals (ages 15-64) held by Senior and women (%) Officials Technical and Workers (%) Managers (%) Most recent Most recent Most recent Most recent Male 'emale

Brunei Darussalam 84.2 49.4 ...... Cambodia 82.3 76.2 10.9 14 33 Indonesia 86.3 53.2 8 .. .. Lao PDR 91.1 77.4 22.9 .. .. Malaysia 35.7 39.4 16.3 20 45 Myanmar 89.7 68.3 ...... Philippines 84.3 54.8 17.2 58 62 Singapore 82.7 56.3 16 26 43 Thailand 81.1 65.0 10.6 27 55 Viet Nam 86.0 79.4 27.3 .. ..

Source: 2005 UN%PA

‘feminisation’ in the About three in every four manufacturing sector. women ages 15-64 in Women’s wages are generally Cambodia, Lao PDR and Viet cheaper and females are Nam join the labour force. deemed socially adapted to do This is very high in the region. tedious work more than men in However one has to examine manufacturing firms, where women workers are particularly in the electronics gaining in terms of employment sub-sector; hence the and incomes. Studies in the preference for female workers. Asian region have shown that these had tended to be from In general, the participation low-value added and labour- rate of females in the labour intensive sectors, such as, force is usually lower by half to garments, electronics and two-thirds that of males (see horticulture (Durano and Table 16). It is interesting to 3rancisco, 2006) note that compared with the rest of ASEAN Member In terms of political Countries, Cambodia, Lao participation of women, ASEAN PDR, Myanmar and Viet Nam has taken steps in having show higher participation rates women make an entry in for women in the labour force. Parliament, occupying seats

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 29 Table 17. Unemployment by sex, 2000-2002

Country Male 'emale Total (% of male (% of female (% of total labour force) labour force) labour force)

Brunei Darussalam ...... Cambodia 1.5 2.2 1.8 Indonesia 4.1. 5.0 9.1 Lao PDR ...... Malaysia .. .. 3.8 Myanmar ...... Philippines 9.4 10.3 9.8 Singapore 5.4 5.0 5.2 Thailand 2.7 2.5 2.6 Viet Nam ......

Source: 2005 World Development Indicators

from a low of 8 per cent in and Thailand topping the Indonesia to a respectable 27 region with 62 and 55 per cent, per cent in Viet Nam which is respectively. nearest the desirable UN benchmark figure of 30 per The other side of professional cent. Most countries have inequality is inequality in women occupying less than 20 getting jobs or having jobs that per cent of all parliamentary meet one’s capacity to work. positions. Table 17 shows the gender dimensions of unemployment In terms of inroads in in selected ASEAN Member occupying managerial posts, Countries. among others, the Philippines leads ASEAN in opening doors The Philippines and Cambodia to women legislators, senior experience higher officials and managers with 58 unemployment for females per cent, followed by Thailand than males (see Table 17). and Singapore with 27 per cent It is interesting to note that and 26 per cent respectively. despite more females completing tertiary education in Women tend to become the Philippines (see Table 13 professionals and technical above), they also experience workers, with the Philippines greater likelihood of

30 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration unemployment. This may underemployment is highest mean that job creation is low for people who have completed and slow or that for every job primary education only. Both created, either there is Singapore and Thailand have preference for males or that significant underemployment females crowd out each other. for those who have completed Cambodia, on the other hand, tertiary education. has a contrasting experience compared to the Philippines as It is worth noting that there is it only produces one female in no underemployment data every four graduates, making available by sex. tertiary education predo- minantly male (see Table 13). Ownership inequality: who has control over resources? On the other hand, Singapore and Thailand show slightly Control over resources and higher unemployment rates for productive assets help shape males (see Table 17). Table the degree of autonomy and 18 shows the extent of the scope of economic, social underemployment by and political participation of educational attainment. In women. Productive assets Indonesia and Thailand, such as land, capital, labour

Table 18. Unemployment by educational attainment, 1999-2001

Country Primary* Secondary* Tertiary*

Brunei Darussalam ...... Cambodia ...... Indonesia 46.0 36.6 6.7 Lao PDR ...... Malaysia ...... Myanmar ...... Philippines ...... Singapore 25.5 26.9 32.0 Thailand 70.6 7.2 19.2 Viet Nam ......

Note: * % of total unemployment; total for both sexes; no data available by sex

Source: 2005 World Development Indicators

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 31 and technology remain may largely be an urban predominantly within the phenomenon. The location control of men, which therefore of women may also be a deter women’s full participation barrier to the opportunities in society. afforded by technology and information. However, data is not available for “ownership” indicators, If we use earned income as a particularly on land ownership, proxy indicator of capital, Table access to capital and credit 19 shows significant disparities and access to technology and between female and male information. The following income. In all ASEAN Member implications show challenges Countries, the estimated to gender equality: earned income of males is • Land is predominantly twice as much as that of owned by males. Land- females. This means females titling is usually under earn half of what males get. fathers’ and sons’ names, as they carry with them the With the lower disposable cultural tradition of being income of women, they are bread-winners for the therefore more constrained to family. In the Philippines, invest on productive assets. land redistribution through the Comprehensive Household inequality: how is Agrarian Reform household work allocated? Programme shows an insignificant number of There is limited household- women-beneficiaries. level information. But the • Access to credit is also gender dynamics at the predominantly biased household level reinforces the against women as they lack economic, social and political asset which formal financial arrangements in the institutions usually require community and in society as a as collateral. This situation whole. The degree of pushes women to access empowerment at the informal arrangements, household, or lack thereof, which are expensive and defines the scope for women’s may even be exploitative. advancement at all aspects of • Women’s access to socio-economic life in society. technology and information

32 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration Table 19. Estimated earned income, 2003

Country PPP US$ 'emale Male

Brunei Darussalam .. .. Cambodia 1,807 2,368 Indonesia 2,289 4,434 Lao PDR 1,391 2,129 Malaysia 6,075 12,869 Myanmar .. .. Philippines 3,213 5,409 Singapore 16,489 32,089 Thailand 5,784 9,452 Viet Nam 2,026 2,964

Source: 2005 Human Development Report

Table 20 shows work and time household management and allocation in Indonesia and the caring responsibilities) which Philippines. In both Indonesian take away time for them to and Philippine data, women participate in paid, market tend to spend more time activities (i.e. production and working than men. However, employment). This is in sharp women tend to spend more contrast with men spending time doing unpaid, non-market only 14 per cent of their time activities than men. for household, non-market activities. In urban Indonesia, 65 per cent of women’s time is spent for The same pattern can be non-market activities (i.e. observed in the data for rural

Table 20. Work and time allocation

Countries Year Total work time 'emale Time allocation (%) (minutes per day) work time Total work time Time spent by women Time spent by men (% of Women Men male) Market Non- Market Non- Market Non- market market market activities activities activities activities activities activities

Urban: Indonesia 1992 398 366 109 60 40 35 65 86 14

Rural: 1975 - Philippines 1977 546 452 121 73 27 29 71 84 16

Source: 2005 Human Development Report

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 33 Philippines. About two-thirds and nurtures human and of women’s time is spent for collective security. household matters, while men only devote 16 per cent of their Care should be taken in time for household making gender policies and responsibilities. programmes sensitive to the unique needs and 5 Conclusion vulnerabilities of women and men, especially in a Using the gender inequality momentum of regional framework of Sen and integration and economic reflecting on the need to intensification, to advance consider redistribution welfare gains and to minimise strategies in advancing human reversals in opportunities. 3or development (see 2005 example, closing the gender Human Development Report), gap in education and training in ASEAN is poised to benefit ASEAN could be considered a from correcting inequities milestone in advancing women between women and men to between 5-21 ages, but the appropriate equitably and fairly same could be easily reversed the benefits from regional by implicit male preference in integration and to manage employment and/or significant vulnerabilities arising from wage differentials between policy shifts and transitions. women and men during the ‘employment age’, usually after Gender-based disparities completing tertiary education. impede socio-economic growth In facing the challenges that and development and erode may arise from a high the foundation of an inclusive, dependency ratio in the region, caring ASEAN community. ASEAN must begin to seriously Equality in life opportunities and consistently look into the matters for women as they disparities in work and time face disproportionate allocation between women and economic, social and cultural men and address women’s opportunities. This should also double burden that arise from matter for ASEAN their productive and governments as advancing the reproductive responsibilities. welfare and potentials of women pushes the socio- However, the mapping of economic frontiers of society inequity indicators does not

34 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration only provide a snapshot of where ASEAN women are vis- à-vis men in the continuum of development outcomes, but also signify the range of regional integration policies and programmes whose gender impacts need to be anticipated and corrected, where these entrench inequality, disadvantage and exclusion. Trade intensification and regional integration are not gender-neutral. This makes a strong case for gender analysis to be as robust as the usual socio-economic methodologies used to measure benefit incidence and welfare gains.

And while the foremost challenge is to formulate and implement appropriate gender- informed policies and programmes, there is a strong case to prompt ASEAN to commit to common gender indicators to track women’s advancement in the region. Access to regular, adequate and reliable gender information is necessary to inform policy dialogue and enrich policy options that uphold gender equality in regional integration.

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 35 2 — — 64 3,155 28,407 415,447 1,511,088 1,166,995 programmes generalunspecified programmes 47,228 21,641 — — — services agriculturewelfare and health 45 1,644 279 1,370 487 2,351 1,031 940 324 28 engineering, construction 164,141 23,576 53,059 16,864 29,434 11,873 — — ence — lawand manufacturing — 202,827 — 29,957 — 4,476 — 7,773 — 64 — — — — ment inment in Enrolment in Enrolment in Enrolment in Enrolment in Enrolment in Enrolment in Enrolment ial sciences,ial sci ,243 5,506 2,276 270 98 1,922 184 2,470 456 689 390 1,051 180 — — 7,979 48,786 170,514 116,016 103,098 51,778 150,285 46,037 13,800 9,166 27,008 18,784 1,205 768 — — 75,865 2003 2003 2003 2003 2003 2003 2003 2003 2003 and artsand and business in humanitiesin soc total female total female total female total 'emale total female total female total female total female total female 28,933 19,190 316,019 157,354 CountryDarussalamBrunei EnrolmenCambodia(1) 464 Enrol 237 6,505 557 2,144 23,478 333 8,702 196 7,437 95 1,036 1,066 138 55 — — 520 388 — — — — 115 Indonesia(2)PDR Lao (3)Malaysia — — — — 1 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 3,441,429 MyanmarPhilippinesSingaporeThailandNam Viet — 75,281website UNESCO Source: %igures 2004 : (1) 43,033%igures —2001 : (2) —%igures 2002 : (3) 744,048 — 482,653 126,566 — 299,666 — 161,126 — 299,831 — 90,816 — 84,609 — 43,651 — 220,195 — 160,963 — 99,839 — 15,187 — — — — — — — 180,335 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 2,205,581 Table 21. Tertiary enrolment by programme and by sex, 2003

36 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration References

ADB, 2005. Key Indicators of Developing Asian and Pacific Countries (Mandaluyong City: ADB Publications, 2005) http://www.adb.org/Documents/Books/Key_Indicators/2005/default.asp

ASEAN, 2005. ASEAN Statistical Yearbook 2005 (Jakarta: ASEAN Secretariat, Nov 2005) http://www.aseansec.org/18175.htm

NSO, 2006. The Philippines in %igures 2006. (Sta. Mesa: NSO, 2006)

Sen, Amartya. 2001. Many %aces of Gender Inequality.

UN Statistics Division- Statistics and Indicators on Men and Women. Online. 19 June 2006. http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/indwm/ indwm2.htm#Education

UNDP, 2005. Human development report 2005- International cooperation at a crossroads: aid trade and security in an unequal world (New York: UNDP, 2005) http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/2005/

UNESCO- E%A Global Monitoring Report 2005. Online. 19 June 2006. http://portal.unesco.org/education/en/ev.php URL_ID=36027&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html

UN3PA, 2005. Country Profiles for Population and Reproductive Health- Policy Development and Indicators 2005 (UN%PA, 2005)

World Bank, 2005. World Development Indicators 2005 (Washington: WB, 2005) http://devdata.worldbank.org/wdi2005/Section2.htm

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 37 Part Two

The establishment of an representing a 28 per cent integrated regional market for increase from the previous ASEAN through the ASEAN year. However, intra ASEAN $ree Trade Area (A$TA) had trade of US$101 billion is less been slow. The slowness of than a fourth of this total. It is economic integration is evident expected that intra-ASEAN in the still wide disparity trade will pick up, given recent between intra-ASEAN and pronouncements by the extra-ASEAN trade. Exports ASEAN ministers on the need data shows that more than a to fast-track regional decade since A$TA, total integration and what appears ASEAN exports are increasing to be a more serious effort at ($igure 1). However, ASEAN engaging all member countries has been trading more with around a roadmap to an non-ASEAN economies rather ASEAN economic community. than with one another. Total ASEAN exports in 2004 This section aims to raise amounted to US$459.9 billion, market-based issues for

igure 1. Total ASEAN Exports, 1993-2004 (in US$ million)

500,000.0 450,000.0 400,000.0 350,000.0

300,000.0 Extra ASEAN 250,000.0 Intra ASEAN 200,000.0 Total 150,000.0 100,000.0 50,000.0 0.0 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

Source: 2005 ASEAN Statistical Year

38 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration women and gender equality that may arise as a result of greater market openness through the encouragement by the members of ASEAN of a freer flow of goods, services and finance. ASEAN women’s economic security and rights do not represent the entirety of women’s empowerment nor do they occupy the most important set of empowerment Photo: SILAKA indicators. Rather the In the following case studies, focus here on the economic women in ASEAN occupy aspect of women’s realities is specific locations and perform meant to surface to the fore the particular roles in national embeddedness of market economic systems that are factors and processes in a undergoing shifts linked to prevailing gender system of a intensified trade. The question: particular society. The what are the opportunities and discussion on women and challenges facing them as gender that follows is trade and trade related reforms concentrated on data on take root in the markets in incomes and labour which are which they operate? This the easiest to retrieve from section provides qualitative in- available statistics. The depth information on mainstream expectation is that subgroups of women economic trade intensification will expand actors that enables policy employment and will lead an makers to better understand increase in the government’s how the opening of domestic revenues. However as pointed markets to the free flow of out by many economists, such goods, services and connections are never investments are affecting the predictable or clear and at best economic options of women results are mixed (Durano and producers, entrepreneurs, $rancisco, 2006). traders and factory workers.

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 39 There are six country studies in extent Lao PDR, meanwhile, this section, each with a story tackled the phenomenon of to tell yet the stories often expanded women’s transgress national boundaries employment in the primary as their storylines reverberate sectors where labour intensive in various places. The case work and low pay prevail. $or studies from Thailand and Lao thousands of women, mostly PDR and to a certain extent, young migrants from rural Viet Nam, provide valuable communities, employment in information on ordinary the garments factories that had women’s small and micro sprouted across ASEAN region enterprises. In Thailand through foreign direct women’s SMEs are being investments has been an linked– through outsourcing important source of survival but channels - with the tourism also of individual industry that has become an empowerment. The creation of important source of revenue for new jobs especially for poor the Thai government. women who used to perform Meanwhile women SMEs in unpaid family work in the rural Lao PDR had gained from areas was lauded as a benefit intensified cross border from globalisation. informal trade. In both Nevertheless, the over-reliance instances, women on a single $DI-dependent entrepreneurs have to deal sector such as garments with not just institutional and administrative barriers but also cultural attitudes and norms that make it hard for them to access market information and resources. In the case of the Lao PDR the pattern of firm ownership is one in which men tend to dominate in the large firms whereas women are found mostly in the small and micro firms.

The case studies of West Kalimantan, Indonesia, Cambodia and to a certain Photo: SILAKA

40 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration presents many risks and The integration of the rural uncertainties. Across all the economy into the regional and case studies, issues related to international markets was the quality of work foremost of central theme of the case study which are low wages, long in Viet Nam where agricultural working hours and lack of liberalisation had promoted the adequate occupational and cultivation of higher value health safety measures, were added crops away from cited. Men tend to occupy traditional rice farming. In the higher paying supervisory border villages of Lao PDR, positions or leadership there is an increase in the positions in the trade unions trading of natural timber, forest even in female prone industries products, and handicrafts, by such as garments indigenous women. The need to support the ability of the The cross-border labour women traders to command migration of women in and good prices for their products around ASEAN, according to emerged in the case studies. the case studies on the Philippines, West Kalimantan Tourism development which in Indonesia, Cambodia and was prominent in the case Lao PDR, has been further study on Thailand was also stimulated by trade discussed as a new source of liberalisation. In the revenue for governments in Philippines, the government’s Cambodia and Lao PDR where long-standing policy of sending concerns on the rise of the abroad a part of its labour force ‘hospitality’ industry and coupled with its inability to possible spread of STDs generate enough employment including HIV and AIDS through inside the country, had given unprotected sex, were raised. impetus to the exodus of health professionals thereby creating Although three of the case a care drain crisis for the studies were carried out in the country. The problem of ASEAN-6 countries and three trafficking in women and were in the CLMV group of children was specifically raised countries, the situation of in the case study on West ordinary women who engage Kalimantan but also mentioned directly with the liberalised in the case of Lao PDR and market do not reflect a huge Cambodia. development gap. Regardless

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 41 of which country the poor The suspension of WTO women resided, they were negotiations announced in July found to be concentrated in 2006 as a result of the inability low-waged and/or small-scale of trade ministers from major economic activities in powers to come to agreement manufacturing, informal on main issues is a clear sign trading, agriculture, care- that the multilateral trading giving, and tourism. system will be further weakened, or even on its way 1. “Women in SMEs and out, replaced by regional and Tourism in Thailand” by bilateral free trade agreements Pawadee Tonguthai which take much shorter time to conclude. The need for Introduction continued global linkages will mean regional blocs like As a result of trade ASEAN and $TAs will become liberalisation, women in more important mechanisms Thailand are now living and for Thailand. working in an environment that is continuously changing and Although trade liberalisation their livelihoods depend on affects both men and women in being able to understand and developing countries, women keep up with new conditions tend to be among the most and challenges arising from vulnerable to adverse impacts. global competition. Women Women’s groups in fact see need to gain new knowledge, the ‘indefinite suspension’ of upgrade their WTO Doha skills, and negotiation as a improve their unique opportunity productivity as to review the well as take existing global advantage of trading system and emergent forms to adopt a new of networks and approach that will alliances. New promote gender opportunities can equality and also be explored women’s human in bilateral free rights. In Thailand trade this finds agreements. Photo: Pawadee Tonguthai expression in the

42 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration dual track approach of rural farms into the cities, most government, which is, of them earning income for the strengthening the economy at first time and sending money the grassroots level while at home to support their families. the same time pursuing These remittances would give competitiveness in increasingly them a greater voice and integrated regional and global recognition in their households. markets. As trade liberalisation Women’s work in the era of proceeded in the late 1980s, trade intensification more women joined the workforce but the pattern of Thailand’s economic and social work had changed structure has long been an considerably. The policy of enabling factor for women’s attracting foreign direct high rate of labour force investments saw local participation, beginning with companies fiercely competing small scale, family owned with lower cost global firms. farming enterprises where They tried every means to cut everyone — including women costs and to adapt quickly to and children —contribute to the changing consumer demand family’s economic activities by adopting new practices and share in the benefits. In such as letting go of fixed/ such a setting, however, permanent workers or buying women’s work is unpaid which less specialised machinery. have implications on how they The only type of workers value their time and how much retained were those who were (or rather how little) they are flexible in terms of skills, could willing to accept as wages from adjust to new types of work paid employment. Export- demands and willing to work oriented industrialisation in the on short-term basis often 1970s and the resulting without any contract. The rest demand for unskilled workers of the tasks were outsourced to for labour-intensive production small firms or home-based — particularly in textile/ workers, where women garment, electronics, and food comprised a majority, turning processing— brought millions both the new and the old of women into the employees into informal and manufacturing sectors. Young, flexible workers. Such single women migrated from outsourcing was made

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 43 possible by the rise of environments for their family international production members. networks in which the work process could be subdivided The practice of outsourcing into a series of small tasks provided employment and across several locations. income to villagers at the same time that formal employment in Although women workers find the urban areas was declining. this type of arrangement Competition from countries appealing since it enables with lower labour costs have them to combine their role of shrunk the export share of wife and mother with that of goods traditionally dominated income earners, they have no by female workers. Table 1 bargaining power over their shows that the proportion of wages and working conditions, women in textiles and no control over the regularity of garments are two-thirds and their work and income. four-fifths respectively but the $urthermore, they work outside share of textile/garments in the formal protection of either total exports had kept the labour law or any form of dropping, from number 8 to its social security, working 10-12 current place at number11. hours a day under unsanitary conditions and even running The ability of the informal the risk of turning their homes sector to absorb retrenched into unhealthy or hazardous workers partly account for the

Table 1. Proportion of women workers in selected industrial sectors, June 2006

Type of Industry Proportion of women (%)

$ood 56.6 Textile 66.7 Garment 83.3 Leather goods 59.4 Electrical goods and equipment 47.5 Chemical and chemical products 33.6 Plastic products 47.8

Total 45.6

Source: Industrial Works Department “Industrial %actory Statistics”

44 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration Table 2. Daily hours of housework performed by male and female, 2005

Participation in housework and number of hours per day Male emale

Per cent of population who participate in housework 43.8 84.6

Average number of hours per day spent in housework (by all population) 0.7 2.8

Average number of hours per day spent in housework (by those who participate in it) 1.6 3.3

Source: National Statistical Office, Report of the Time Use Survey, 2005 consistently low unemployment cent of men participate in rates (1.5 per cent and 1.2 per housework and even among cent for male and female, those who participate, women respectively, in 2005) put in twice the number of regardless of the impact of hours that men put. global competition on exports and production on formal Women are concentrated in a employment. Among the 50 few industries, and in almost all million people 15 years and of them women are paid less. older, 36.3 million are currently On average, women are paid employed (19.5 million men 89.8 per cent of men, with the and 16.8 million women). Of lowest being 65.7 per cent in these, 13.8 million are in the health and social work where formal sector (7.5 million men women constitute three- and 6.3 million women), and quarters of the workforce (see 22.5 million in the informal Table 3). It is notable, sector (12 million men and however, that there are several 10.5 million women). industries where women’s average wages is higher than Although women are working men, such as that in wholesale longer hours or double shifts – and retail trade and in public either in the factory setting or administration. Among those at home, there is hardly any working for international change in their family duties – organisations, where a large the entire weight remains number of women are at the solely on women’s shoulders higher grade of professional instead being shared by men. levels, women’s average wage Table 2 shows that only 44 per is 173.7 per cent that of men.

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 45 Table 3. Average wage by industry by sex, 2005 (amount in Thai baht)

Industry Average wage Average wage Proportion of male of female female in industry

Agriculture, hunting and forestry 3,079 2,385 45.0 $ishing4,773 3,093 20.9 Mining and quarrying 8,606 6,595 24.7 Manufacturing7,686 5,617 53.1 Electricity, gas and water supply 18,823 19,013 16.8 Construction 5,387 4,632 14.8 Wholesale and retail trade 6,564 6,913 47.9 Hotels and restaurants 6,431 4,901 66.9 Transport and communication 11,598 15,932 16.3 $inancial intermediaries 22,274 16,862 52.3 Real estate and business activities 10,354 8,981 42.1 Public administration 11,377 11,870 33.7 Education 15,873 14,091 58.2 Health and social work 15,703 10,315 74.5 Other community and social services 7,337 6,044 58.5 Private households with employed persons 7,166 3,856 87.6 International organisations 30,000 52,123 86.4 Unknown 11,850 12,180 43.7

Total 7,903 7,099 46.4

Source: National Statistical Office, Report of the Labour %orce Survey, July-September 2005, calculated from Table 14

combination of external and Strengthening Local Thai internal factors — prosperous Economy for global market and efficient Competitiveness management of domestic macro-economy. Low inflation The rise of SMEs and steady growth created by Thailand’s commitment to As Thailand went through market-oriented years of unprecedented growth industrialisation have provided of both GDP and exports in the an enabling environment for late 1980s and early 1990s, the dynamic private sector the benefits of globalisation whose initiatives were the main and trade liberalisation was forces behind those years of seen to far outweigh its costs. rapid growth. Thailand’s ‘golden economic age’ has been attributed to a Although institutional reform to

46 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration adjust to the force of were downsizing, if not globalisation was initially not a disappearing completely, and government priority, the effects the era of small and medium of globalisation and trade enterprises (SMEs) was born. liberalisation quickly exposed Part of the growth of SMEs in local enterprises to the full the 1990s was linked to large force of international firms dividing their operations competition. The government in response to the globalised, was forced to recognise the competitive markets. As well, urgent need to come up with the need to increase domestic strategies to support its content and value of exports industries in the face of was emphasised especially relentless competition. With after the 1997 financial crisis the entry of countries like Viet led to a sharp rise in the cost of Nam and China into the world production. market, Thailand could not depend solely on low-cost SMEs are key components in labour to provide a competitive Thailand’s recent economic advantage. development and reforms. The 2004 survey of establishments As global buyers kept raising indicated that out of 2 million their expectations of variety enterprises, 99.5 per cent of and quick response, export them are classified as SMEs, success could no longer with the following distribution: depend on large manufacturing manufacturing 21.6 per cent, enterprises with benefits from services 35.9 per cent, economies of scale. $irms wholesale 6.3 per cent

Table 4. SMEs by Sector

Sector Employed Persons ixed Assets

Manufacturing & Services Small = not more Small = not more than 50 persons; than 50 million baht Medium = 51-200 persons Medium = more than 50 million up to 200 million baht

Wholesale Small = not more Small = not more than 25 persons than 50 million baht Medium = 26-30 persons Medium = more than 50 million up to 100 million baht

Retail Small = not more Small = more than 30 million than 15 persons to 60 million baht Medium = 16-30 persons Medium = more than 50 million up to 100 million baht

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 47 and retail 36.2 per cent. also political. Politicians came Almost one-third (30.6 per to realise the link of SMEs, cent) of them are located in the particularly in the rural areas, Bangkok Metropolitan area. to large number of potential SMEs contribute to 38.1 per voters, and during the run up to cent of GDP and although their the hotly contested elections in share of total exports is small, the late 1990s. Each political they account for 45.5 per cent party tried very hard to come of manufacturing exports. up with policies supporting SMEs. None was more The definition of SMEs, effective than the Thai Rak according to the Ministry of Thai Party which boldly Industry, uses the number of announced it as one of the employment or fixed assets main themes for its 2000 (excluding land) as the main election campaign. It criteria (see Table 4). subsequently won by a landslide. The Thai government’s strategy of promoting SMEs The Thai government currently actually began earlier in the has a clear set of policies late 1980s but did not receive dedicated to promoting and much attention and was developing SMEs which it developing slowly until the regards as significant for 1997 crisis gave it a Thailand’s long term economic tremendous boost. The crisis development. The SME Plan that caused several large firms 2002-2006 specifically states to collapse with tens of the aim of encouraging more thousands of workers being Thais in their entrepreneurial laid-off was not followed by efforts, enhancing the quality of massive unemployment and SMEs to be able to compete economic suffering. It was internationally, and serve as a apparent that the agricultural solid foundation for both local sector and SMEs gave the and national economy. Thai economy enough resilience and acted as an Thailand’s commitments to free effective cushion absorbing trade, along with the current unemployed workers. government’s strategy of bilateral free trade agreement The government’s motivations ($TA) with a number of were not only economic but countries have translated into

48 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration Table 5. Employed persons by work status by sex, 2005 (In thousands)

Work status Male emale (percentage) (percentage)

Employer 874 (4.48) 256 (1.52) Government employee 1,670 (8.57) 1,393 (8.27) Private employee 6,986 (35.8) 5,797 (34.4) Own account worker 7,280 (37.4) 4,167 (24.7) Unpaid family worker 2,635 (13.5) 5,191 (30.8) Member of producers’ cooperatives 24 (0.12) 27 (0.16)

Total 19,470 (100) 16,832 (100)

Source: National Statistical Office, Report of the Labour %orce Survey, July-September 2005 strategies to promote enterprise of any size - among competitive capability of SMEs, all employed women, one including: the upgrade of quarter are classified as own workers’ skills, advisory account worker compared to service to enterprises, SMEs more than one third of the men. use of modern technologies Men are also three times more and knowledge, expansion of likely than women to have the market, packaging, and brand status of employer. In addition, promotion. There is also a where they work for family programme for the promotion enterprises, women are less of new entrepreneurships, likely to get paid, three out of especially in knowledge-based ten being in the category of areas such as ICT, agricultural unpaid family worker compared technology, and biotech. This with only 13.5 per cent of men. is done through training, upgrading courses and Tourism development providing information, to give existing entrepreneurs new Export of services and tourism and wider choices. in particular, is one of the economic sectors that had Data in Table 5 is instructive to been receiving support and SME development in that it encouragement from the Thai shows women are less likely government because it is a than men to be operating an leading provider of foreign

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 49 exchange. Since 1990, image from a ‘male paradise’ to Thailand has enjoyed surplus a safe destination, for families in its current account and in or single woman. The country 2004 the surplus was 211,315 attracted 4.9 million female million baht — most of which visitors in 2004 — almost came from tourism. double the figure of 2.6 million in 1995. Ratio of female to In 2005, tourist arrivals in male tourists rose from 38:62 Thailand numbered 13.38 to 43:57 during that 10-year million, an increase of 14.8 per period and the number of cent from 2004, with 25 per female tourists from at least cent from the ASEAN Member four countries exceeded that of Countries. Average males. In 2004, the growth expenditure per person/day rate of female visitors was 29 was 4,150 baht and length of per cent compared to 9 per stay 8 to 10 days, generating cent for male visitors. If this revenue of 450,000 million trend continues, the 50:50 baht. The highest category of male-female ratio is not too far expenditure in 2004 was the in the future. purchase of goods/souvenirs, accounting for 28.32 per cent, A contributing factor to this followed by accommodation trend is that globally more (26.31 per cent) and food/ women are working, earning drinks (16.84 per cent). incomes which allow them to make independent decisions One achievement from the on travelling as well as take a efforts to make Thailand a more active role in choosing leading tourist destination in destinations for family holidays. this region is the change of its Also, recent marketing campaigns seem to be appealing to women travellers, particularly those promoting Thai cuisine, exclusive health spa and shopping. Products under the “One Tambon One Product” (OTOP) project, being inexpensive and imbued with a unique cultural

Photo: Tourism Authority of Thailand

50 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration identity make for hotels and excellent gifts. restaurants came The sales are from small (62.3 generating per cent) and employment and medium (19.7 per income for cent) enterprises. women, especially In terms of in the rural areas. employment, 80.1 per cent were The government is generated in small Photo: Tourism Authority of Thailand developing enterprises while tourism 7.7 per cent in infrastructure to enhance medium enterprises. access to the country’s natural beauty and diverse cultures but The new types of tourism (in there is not enough linkage addition to the regular business being made to women in and leisure travels) being SMEs. This despite the fact promoted that are likely to that compared to other sectors, have more impact on women a higher proportion of benefits are those around nature-based derived from the travel and eco-tourism. The government tourism industry go to women – is also discussing plans to whether through formal or better link the highly successful informal employment. Women “One Tambon One Product” constitute 70 per cent of the (OTOP) project to tourism by entire tourism workforce, pushing for the ‘OTOP Tourist estimated to be around 3.1 Village’ which will encourage million in 2004. tourists to visit the source of products they are buying for Most of the tourism services souvenirs. It is expected to be are not only performed by a new alternative destination women in SMEs but also have for tourists wishing to the potential to create experience the local lifestyle employment and value added and appreciate the application to many supporting industries: of local knowledge and skills. transportation, hotels, restaurants, handicrafts, %inancing local economies souvenirs, retail trade, health and entertainment. In 2004, 82 A part of the ‘dual track’ policy per cent of value of GDP from of the current government is

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 51 strengthening the economy at assist small and medium the local grassroots level along enterprises that are considered with promoting competition on to be the foundation of the Thai the global level. Towards this economy. end, the provision of credit to local communities is an People’s Bank: Recognising important strategy. There are the financial needs of people indications that women SMEs who want to start small scale are benefiting from the and micro enterprises but lack government’s microfinance assets to be used as collateral programme even though it was for bank loans, the government not originally formulated to assigned the Government’s target them. Savings Bank (GSB) to set up the “People’s Bank” to provide SME Bank: The origin of the low income people with better SME Bank dates back to more access to financial resources. than three decades ago when The scheme was also an the government approved a alternative that government financing scheme to promote hoped would help reduce the small industries. The Small poor’s dependency on informal Industries $inance Office often usurious sources of fund. (SI$O) was set up to provide Credit is provided without financial support to small requiring assets as collateral manufacturing enterprises. Its but the bank relies on personal operations, however, were guarantees and the person’s hindered by limited funds capacity. which were solely coming from the national budget as well as Community savings groups its lack of programme flexibility. have been set up in Subsequently, the status of the coordination with the office was transformed to allow Department of Community it to raise capital domestically Development. The savings and internationally. In 2000, its groups operate on the basis of equity was raised to 2,500 common trust, with members million baht and the office was providing guarantee for each re-established as ‘the Small other’s loans. In most and Medium Enterprise community groupings, a Development Bank of majority of the members are Thailand” or SME Bank. This female. In particular, more than was to be a key mechanism to 90 per cent of rural savings

52 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration various branches and the bank’s website. Bank customers with reliable occupation and products can use them as collateral, with the bank focusing on discipline and savings.

Collateral is the main Photo: Pawadee Tonguthai obstacle to obtaining a loan for small enterprises, groups are women particularly women-owned (housewives’ group), and enterprises. To address it, a which are seen as playing an recent responsibility assigned important role in supporting to GSB is “Assets Capitalisation grassroots economy. Credit is - Converting Assets into given to these social groups at Capital,” with assets broadly the smallest level, to build a defined as including such solid foundation. The members things as the right to use street of the social group not only pavements for petty trading or guarantee each other’s loans OTOP brand name or and assist one another in copyrights – which can be accounting, marketing and used as loan collateral. coordinating with those who will bring the products to Promoting Women in SME various trade/export fairs. and Tourism Development

Mobile units (on bicycles or on Although both SME and foot) reach out to owners of tourism sectors in Thailand small enterprises who need to have contributed significantly attend to their business for to women’s employment most of the working hours. opportunities, there are still a Their assistance begins with number of areas for financial planning, provision of improvement if women are to working capital to purchase take advantage of the fast raw materials and other changing global market, in production inputs, as well as particular in relation to marketing. The bank has networking and linkages, and helped disseminate their new knowledge and customers’ product through the technologies.

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 53 Networking and Linkages between SME Bank and other financial institutions which can There is room for a wider use lead to easier access to credit of network. At present, women for SMEs in the provinces. tend to focus on details Given the small number of surrounding their production branches of SME bank and base rather than take that 99.5 per cent of advantage of wider networks enterprises fit into that that can reduce costs, improve category, there remain a vast product quality or expand number of them that do not market. Women are more likely have access to SME bank and than men to attempt to do have to resort to borrowing everything themselves rather from other financial institutions. than make use of networks, Regular banks, however, tend and subsequently their to give low priority to SMEs enterprises remain small. because of the large expenses The type of networking they relative to the size of the loan. have engaged in put more In addition, the nature of emphasis on the traditional women’s business are networking among groups and sometimes seen by loan communities rather than the officers as carrying higher required networking among risks. If the SME bank can join product segments. with other banks with countrywide branch such as Promotion of tourism can pay Government Savings Bank and more attention to the linkage Agricultural Bank, it may be between large tourist operators able to reach out to a larger and local SMEs. $or example, number of its target groups. large hotels can benefit from outsourcing of services like Knowledge and Technologies laundry, creating excursion packages to visit villages to Currently, Thailand has taken see how handicrafts are made, part in several regional home-stay or lodging with local economic cooperation efforts people etc. such as Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) and Networking between agencies Asean $ree Trade Agreement with mandates to provide (A$TA) at the regional level support/promote SMEs can be and bilateral free trade very beneficial; for example, agreements ($TAs) with a

54 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration number of countries. They all registering their products. The have implications for SMEs. government should have The reduction of tariff and non- outreach programmes to build tariff obstacles to trade has awareness among SMEs about opened up markets allowing the significance of intellectual Thai producers to sell more property rights in the age of goods abroad but at the same trade liberalisation, how to time allows foreign goods to protect their own property compete with Thai products. rights over products and SME managers therefore need inventions, and how to use to know how these economic existing ones. agreements will affect them, and how to adapt to new An example is the forthcoming challenges that these bring. Japan-Thai Economic Partnership Agreement. Japan Knowledge about intellectual is well recognised as the property rights is essential, country that has provided since it can help creative SME advice and assistance to the entrepreneurs improve their promotion of SMEs in Thailand market positions and income from the beginning. It has potentials by enhancing the many best practices and market value of the enterprises opportunities that Thailand can and consequently their ability use to its advantage. Some of to raise fund, find new partners the special projects included in and suppliers, and even to the agreement have clear acquire new technology to implications for women SMEs, upgrade quality. such as: ‘kitchen of the world’ ‘textile and apparel Many SMEs owned by women cooperation’ through which have the potential to own brand names, copyrights and even patents. However, the issue of intellectual property rights is far from their minds, either they are completely unaware or pay little attention to it and therefore rarely consider

Photo: Pawadee Tonguthai

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 55 there will be a transfer of It has made some adjustments technological know-how. (enforced since May 2006) in Among the many trade that law, changing the system agreements that Thailand has and list of chemicals, additives been negotiating for the past in animal food, including the few years which mainly focus type of antibiotics allowed. on the reduction/elimination of tariffs, this pact with Japan There exists a considerable discusses technology transfer pool of knowledge among and training which will not only ASEAN Member Countries increase trade/exchange regarding SME promotion, between the two countries but particularly in Malaysia and the will help Thailand SMEs Philippines. Thailand does not become more competitive. need to ‘reinvent the wheel’ but can take advantage of this, as Some possibilities for women has been recently done by the SMEs relate to Thai food. The signing of MOU between potential for exports of food Thailand’s SME Office and its and fruits is immense but up to Malaysian counterpart – the now the main barrier has Small and Medium Industries revolved around proper Development Corporation processing, packaging and SMIDEC. These two agencies marketing. Thailand needs have in fact been cooperating food processing technology, for some time using the APEC and this trade deal may speed and ASEAN forums, and have things up by helping to deal bilaterally exchanged with the improvement of the information and visits. Malaysia quality of agricultural produce emphasised the necessity of for export so that these may having a high level committee, pass strict food safety in its case shared by the standards in countries such as highest government Japan. In this regard, Thai leadership. Under the MOU producers will benefit from plan for exchange of accessing information on information between these two Japan’s $ood Sanitation Law agencies, local entrepreneurs which is the key instrument can learn from one another’s used by Japan’s Ministry of best practices as well as trade Health, Labour and Welfare to information and possibly joint control food safety and quality. ventures.

56 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration National / Regional Monitoring potential. The process is far Indicators from easy. But it is far from insurmountable either.” $ree trade offers both opportunities and challenges to 2. “Market-Based Gender women in Thailand, and Issues in West indicators on the implications Kalimantan under the of globalisation and trade BIMP-EAGA” by Delima liberalisation on the status of Hasri Azahar, Rita Nur women in the past 5-10 years Suhaeti & Edi Basuno should be made available. These indicators should be Introduction designed not only to keep track of the impacts on women as As an engine for growth and mentioned in this regional development, trade strongly report (see Part III) but also to affects many aspects of life, show common concerns including its norms, values and among countries in the ASEAN culture as a whole. As a player region. Consequently, this will in a new growth area, trade encourage the ASEAN serves as a leading sector community to come up with a developing the area into a common strategy to promote bustling established city. women in SMEs so they can Influences of strategic social take full advantage of new changes such as globalisation opportunities resulting from also bring about many trade liberalisation and regional transformations in every aspect integration. of life. These changes need to be analysed from a gender As H.E. Ong Keng Yong, the perspective to ensure that the current ASEAN Secretary- trade sector does not worsen General recently remarked: gender inequalities. This paper “SMEs have an exciting role to is a study of market-based play in the wake of these gender issues in Indonesia, developments in ASEAN and and as a case study it will the global economy. But bold focus on West Kalimantan, an changes in business mindset Indonesian member province and a supportive policy of Brunei Darussalam, environment are needed to Indonesia, Malaysia, the bring performance of the Philippines - East ASEAN regional SMEs closer to their Growth Area (BIMP-EAGA). It

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 57 is Asia’s largest sub-regional manufacturing, high grade grouping, spanning territories tourism and other non- of four ASEAN Member resource based industries. Countries. BIMP-EAGA comprises the entire Sultanate West Kalimantan with which of Brunei Darussalam; 10 this study is concerned, lies provinces in the Indonesian side by side Sarawak, East islands of Kalimantan, Malaysia. It is also right on the Sulawesi, Maluku, and Irian equator line which makes it Jaya; Sabah, Sarawak, and one of Indonesia’s provinces Labuan in Malaysia; and with a high temperature and Mindanao and Palawan in the high air humidity. Philippines. Geographically, West Kalimantan has a great BIMP-EAGA has a combined opportunity to develop faster land area of around 1.5 million than others because it is sq kms, which is about half the hemmed in by four growth size of India. Add to the land its areas. The first growth area is combined sea area, and BIMP- Sarawak in the north, the EAGA’s total size is much second is Java in the south. larger. It has some 57 million The third growth area is people, 2.5 times more than Singapore, Malaysia and the Malaysia’s total population, Batam Authority and other with a significant percentage of potential areas in Sumatra them low-income earners who island in the west. The fourth live on the thousands of growth area is one of the islands spread across this vast richest provinces in Indonesia, area. These sub-regional East Kalimantan in the east. collaborating countries add high value to agro-industry, West Kalimantan has an area natural resource based of 146,807 km2 representing 7.64 per cent of Indonesia’s total area. It is 1.13 times bigger than Java island and consists mostly of lowland, swamp, and peat. West Kalimantan is also famous for its big, long rivers, foremost of which is the Photo: Rita Nur Suhaeti and Edi Basuno

58 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration Kapuas river. Kapuas, women’s livelihoods. The Indonesia’s longest river, winds challenge now is how to through the four provinces of implement the policy that can Kapuas Hulu, Sintang, boost economic integration Sanggau and Pontianak activities on one side while Regency. benefiting gender on the other.

Twelve years have passed The Economic Situation of since the BIMP-EAGA was Women in West Kalimantan created. But this sub-region of ASEAN has so far failed to live West Kalimantan’s population up to its name as a growth in 2004 was about four million, area. Economic integration with almost the same number among its focal areas is of men and women. Total progressing but at a snail’s male-headed households were pace. Given its archipelagic more than ten times that of nature, BIMP-EAGA is female-headed ones, a desperately in need of an proportion of 91 per cent efficient regional air compared to 9 per cent. Most transportation system to link its of the population (60 per cent) various economic centers and belonged to a productive age to realise its economic (15 - 65 years), while integration objective. population with less than 15 years and more than 65 years The implementation of were 33 and 5 per cent liberalisation measures will respectively. Among the certainly yield benefits. population who were less than However, the call for 15 years, around 20,000 boys “improvement in and 13,000 girls worked as competitiveness and export child workers. Like other diversification can also easily Indonesian women, generally, lead to a “race to the bottom,” women in West Kalimantan get building on gender wage gaps married for the first time at less and gender biases, and than 20 years of age. marginalising or steering women into low paid/dead end $rom the economic and jobs in free trade zones and employment condition point of export oriented sectors. view, West Kalimantan $urthermore, unregulated Province is average compared import liberalisation threatens to other provinces in Indonesia.

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 59 Table 1. West Kalimantan and Indonesian Population (2004)

No. Indicators West Kalimantan Indonesia MenWomenMenWomen

1. No. of population (persons) 2,058,853 2,135,165 108,876,089 108,196,257 2. Productive age population (%) 61.98 61.67 62.34 63.21 3. Population less than 15 years (%) 32.74 33.14 30.46 28.76 4. Population above 65 years (%) 5.28 5.28 7.80 8.0 5. Number of people in Household (HH) 831,494 78,186 47,952,261 6,943,092 6. Household (%) 91.41 8.59 87.40 12.60 7. Woman’s age, first time married (year) - 19.94 - 19.29 8. Number of children labourers (persons) 20,160 13,111 714,247 421,942 9. Child labour (%) 0.98 0.67 0.66 0.39

Source: Gender indicators by regions, 2006, Ministry of Women Empowerment

The number of poor men- Indonesia but the wide gender headed household was still gap in favour of males, above the nationwide average, remains reflected in the while women-headed ones provincial data. was lower than the national figure. Overall employment The Central Bureau of rate at 87.76 was a little better Statistics has divided the than that of the national economy into three: (a) the average of 86.58 per cent. The primary sector, which strictly Central Bureau of Statistics relates to natural resource claimed that women’s utilisation, for instance employment rate in West agriculture (food crops, Kalimantan was at 45.60 per livestock, and fishery), forestry cent in 2001 but this increased and mining; (b) the secondary to 55.50 in 2004 (CBS, 2004). sector, which refers to industry. Like the employment rate, the The industry processes raw unemployment rate in West material into processed ones, Kalimantan was also better including electricity and than the national average for construction, and has wide both men and women. In other coverage, ranging from small- words, the average scale industry to wood employment opportunity in processing. Unlike the primary West Kalimantan was a lot sector, however, the better than that for the whole of secondary sector differs from

60 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration province to province, quality in West Kalimantan is depending on the industries relatively low and this is that exist. The more industries reflected by the fact that most in a province the bigger the of the population work in the figure for both men and informal sector. Men and women; and (c) tertiary sector, women who are engaged in the which includes trade, informal sector are 67 per cent transportation, finance, and and 83 per cent respectively, services. with both figures higher than the national averages. Employment in the primary sector is dominated by the Compared to the national plantation and mining sectors. figure, however, the urban Of the total number of male wage for men in West workers, 62 per cent were Kalimantan is almost the same, primary sector workers and for but for women it is slightly women the figure was higher, higher. The situation is different at 72 per cent. Secondary and for rural wages, which are tertiary sectors, which demand higher than the Indonesian more skilled workers, only average. This shows that rural accommodated 37 per cent livelihood in West Kalimantan working men and 27 per cent is better than that of Indonesia women. Human resource as a whole.

Table 2. Gender indicators on economic condition and employment rates in West Kalimantan and Indonesia (2004)

No. Indicators West Kalimantan Indonesia MenWomenMenWomen

1. No. of poor households (unit) 89,505 6,441 6,310,485 753,858 2. No. of poor households (%) 10.76 8.24 8.24 10.86 3. Employment participation rate (%) 87.72 55.50 55.50 47.91 4. Unemployment (%) 7.48 16.50 16.50 19.96 5. Primary sector (%) 61.80 72.40 45.24 45.23 6. Secondary sector (%) 12.20 5.25 18.48 14.68 7. Tertiary sector (%) 25.00 22.71 36.28 40.09 8. $ormal sector (%) 33.40 17.12 36.48 30.01 9. Informal sector (%) 66.60 82.88 63.52 69.99 10. Urban wage (Rp/month) 978,826 755,974 1,000,396 721,639 11. Rural wage (Rp/month) 774,247 582,080 692,927 488,600

Source: Indikator Gender Berdasarkan Wilayah (Gender Indicators by Regions), Ministry of Women Empowerment 2006

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 61 Table 3. Average of wage for women and men by main sector and sex, 2003

No. Sector Wage (Rp) WomenMenAverage

1. Agriculture 290,167 708,360 663,537 2. Mining644,780 663,378 660,615 3. Industry 535,382 730,278 686,636 4. Electricity, LPG and water 911,938 724,507 747,756 5. Construction - 698,566 698,566 6. Trade 415,367 640,631 556,749 7. Transportation and communication 429,935 748,604 723,852 8. $inance 1,006,465 1,200,654 1,136,694 9. Services 839,151 1,162,386 1,038,816 10. Others - 1,581,964 1,581,964 11. Total 658,816 830,822 790,063

Source: CBS, Susenas (National Socio-economic Survey), 2003 in Baporapp 2004

Details of the imbalanced wage enterprises in four adjoining for men and women in West countries. Since its Kalimantan are presented in establishment, however, Table 3. The significant Indonesia has been less active imbalanced wage for women is than the other three countries, shown in agriculture, trade, in promoting the businesses and transportation and and commodities of West communication. Even in the Kalimantan. In fact, the other construction sector, no data is three countries have been available for women’s wage, actively promoting their own reflecting the assumption that potential, and even invested construction work is funds in Indonesia. The West predominantly for men. Kalimantan Regional Chamber of Commerce (Kadinda), which The Role of BIMP-EAGA in is supposed to represent West Kalimantan’s Economy private entrepreneurs, has not yet functioned. The Overseas promotion of local coordinators among businesses stakeholders in the BIMP- EAGA themselves are the local The BIMP-EAGA was government and Kadinda of established to improve the West Kalimantan. The role of performance of similar Kadinda had only been minor,

62 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration and that of the local (Bakomapin). This time, government had been much Kadinda expects to maximise more dominant, despite the the existence of BIMP-EAGA, fact that the local government and for a start, introduces a is supposed to be only a BIMP-EAGA Road Map at the facilitator. The results of Bakomapin’s Office so that the various meeting among BIMP- latter could better facilitate EAGA members have almost contacts among entrepreneurs never been followed up. in the four BIMP-EAGA Kadinda has not performed countries. It will also involve well partly because of budget the district level government unavailability. According to toward harmonising provincial Kadinda, the progress of and district rules thereby BIMP-EAGA’s development avoiding investors confusion. since its establishment in 1996 Talks on the topic of alternative has been minimal. Brunei direct transportation from Darussalam, Malaysia, and the Brunei Darussalam to West Philippines (Davao) have been Kalimantan other than via more enthusiastic about Kuching in Sarawak that are benefits from BIMP-EAGA. still in progress will be fast Adding to difficulties of tracked; the existing Kuching Indonesia, the BIMP-EAGA road considered to be too formation has overlapped with circuitous and too far a similar programmes such as distance for travel of goods Malindo, founded in 1967. and personnel.

Nevertheless, through the Overall Investments in West Governor’s Decree No. 510/ Kalimantan 2327/Bakomapin-C dated August 22, 2005 and which $ollowing the objectives of came into effect in early 2006, BIMP-EAGA, business volume, the BIMP-EAGA has another both domestic and foreign, is opportunity to play an still expected to rise. Table 4 important role. The decree is shows that there was an transferring the joint secretariat obvious difference in growth of BIMP-EAGA from Bappeda between the two kinds of to the Agency for Cooperative, investments. There was a Small Medium Enterprise decrease in the number of (SME) and Collaboration of domestic enterprises from 259 Promotion and Investment units in 2000 to 111 units in

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 63 Table 4. Growth of Investments in West Kalimantan (2000 – 2005)

Year Domestic Investment oreign Investment No. of Investment No. of Investment Enterprise (Rp millions) Enterprise (‘000 US$)

2000 259 3,395,910.48 66 190,628.74 2001 92 3,681,353.57 41 240,093.79 2002 101 3,871,001.49 48 318,913.03 2003 105 4,411,370.44 53 419,792.66 2004 110 4,437,964.81 68 433,126.49 2005 111 9,576,507.51 81 573,089.68 r*) -133,33 64,54 18,52 66,74

r = Growth rate Source: Bakomapin, West Kalimantan (The Regional Agency for Cooperative and Investment), 2005

2005. It must be recalled that 81 units was recorded in 2005 the region was still recovering (18.5 per cent). It is interesting from the 1997 Asian financial to observe that the increase of crisis, such that a 130 per cent foreign investment value was decrease in the number of also significant, at 66.74 per domestic enterprises was cent. The highest increase recorded between 2000 and occurred during 2004-2005 2005. Nevertheless, the value from US$4.33 billion to of investments increased US$5.73 billion. Thus, the during the above mentioned biggest impact of BIMP- period, from Rp 3.40 billion in EAGA’s presence is the 2000 to Rp. 9.58 billion in increase in the value of 2005. In other words, there investments from 2000-2005, was an increase of 64.54 per both for domestic and foreign cent in the amount of investments in West investment during these Kalimantan. periods. A significant increase occurred in 2004 to 2005. Domestic Investment by Sector

Unlike domestic investments, Data on domestic investment foreign investments showed a in West Kalimantan during different picture. Although there 2000-2005 show that the was a decrease in the number number of enterprises of businesses from 2000 to decreased for all three sectors 2003, an increase from 68 to (see Table 5). The amount of

64 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration investment during 2003 and The decreasing primary sector 2005 did not depend on the investment also reflected a number of enterprises, but may deteriorating environment in be due to more expensive West Kalimantan which called investment and to devaluation for more expensive investment. of the Indonesian rupiah. In 2000 there were 142 enterprises operating in the As a whole, investment in the primary sector, but in the primary sector was always following years, this fell to only bigger than the secondary about 50. The same pattern sector, and the secondary occurred in the secondary sector’s investment was bigger sector where the number of than that placed in the tertiary enterprises fell from 90 to only sector. The primary sector was around 40 in 2005, and in the dominated by the plantation tertiary sector, from around 30 sub-sector and mining sector in 2000 to only 10 enterprises and was labour intensive, but in 2005. During 2001-2004, the secondary and tertiary there had not been a single sectors required more mining enterprise and in 2005 expertise and more capital. there were only two. The high

Table 5. Domestic Investment by Sector in West Kalimantan (2000- 2005)

Year Sector No. of Investment No. of Labourers Enterprise (Rp million) Domestic oreign

2000 Primary 142 2,780,936.73 63530 81 Secondary 86 827,472.54 14747 16 Tertiary 30 38,251.21 649 1 2001 Primary 49 2,745,147.13 43759 46 Secondary 33 450,884.15 7783 3 Tertiary 10 33,622.29 534 0 2002 Primary 53 3,373,561.12 51959 50 Secondary 38 463,620.75 9573 5 Tertiary 10 33,729.62 573 0 2003 Primary 55 3,779,758.42 22975 55 Secondary 40 597,822.40 9738 5 Tertiary 10 33,729.62 573 0 2004 Primary 57 3,805,932.79 62013 56 Secondary 42 598,302.40 9950 5 Tertiary 11 33,729.62 573 0 2005 Primary 57 3,360,690.62 66168 56 Secondary 43 647,778.11 13166 16 Tertiary 10 88,098.07 829 0

Source: Bakomapin, West Kalimantan (The Regional Agency for Cooperative and Investment), 2005

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 65 increase in tertiary sector sector was relatively steady, investment in 2005 was mostly and only 2 out of 39 from hotel and restaurant enterprises had collapsed (see activities. Table 6). In 2004 the number of enterprises rose again. $rom the labour absorption Unlike the number of point of view, the primary enterprises which tend to sector was the winner due to decrease, the value of foreign its lower skill requirement when investment continuously compared to the two other increased, from US$ 1.71 sectors. Physical activities million to US$ 5.40 million. The dominated this sector, and same pattern took place for generally, physical activity is domestic labour absorption, done by men. The few foreign which increased from 8,511 to workers in West Kalimantan 24,080 persons. This means also tend to be found in the that the foreign investment was primary sector, mainly as capable of absorbing domestic supervisors. labour. The same phenomenon characterised foreign labour in %oreign Investment by Sector the primary sector. The number of foreign workers Collaboration among the BIMP- increased again in 2004 EAGA countries can take two following a decrease during forms: West Kalimantan or 2000-2003. As a whole, foreign Indonesian enterprises investment in West Kalimantan investing in other BIMP-EAGA is a lot better than domestic countries or other BIMP-EAGA investment. This must trigger countries investing in West some questions, such as why Kalimantan. The latter can be did domestic business in the form of running new decrease while foreign enterprises or joining existing investment remained relatively ones by buying its stocks, etc. stable? BIMP-EAGA is expected to facilitate collaboration among Like the primary sector, the countries towards a win-win secondary sector showed a solution, and that its presence pattern similar to that of the will enhance enterprise primary sector. In 2000, the collaboration. number of firms was at 39 units and this fell to 15 units in 2003. $rom 2000-2005, foreign In 2005 it again rose to 20 investment in the primary enterprises. Unlike the primary

66 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration Table 6. oreign Investment by Sector in West Kalimantan

Year Sector Number of Investments No. of Workers Enterprise US$ (‘000) Domestic oreign

2000 Primary 39 171,065.36 8,511 103 Secondary 19 17,800.30 1,914 31 Tertiary 3 1,763.08 375 6 2001 Primary 24 224,062.75 15,011 61 Secondary 12 8,324.59 991 16 Tertiary 5 6,247.60 81 6 2002 Primary 23 265,191.79 11,204 76 Secondary 13 16,138.60 1,224 33 Tertiary 11 37,582.64 63 6 2003 Primary 23 356,506.79 12,761 99 Secondary 15 25,703.23 1400 40 Tertiary 12 37,582.64 10,097 12 2004 Primary 30 401,161.96 15,205 104 Secondary 17 25,716.93 1,527 101 Tertiary 19 6,247.60 14,397 32 2005 Primary 37 540,072.37 24,080 111 Secondary 20 26,748.33 1,685 99 Tertiary 23 5,268.98 14,587 62

Source: Bakomapin, West Kalimantan (The Regional Agency for Cooperative and Investment), 2005 and secondary sectors, the million in 2000 and reached tertiary sector steadily US$ 5.27 million in 2005. increased from only 3 units in During 2002-2003, it increased 2000 to 23 units in 2005. A significantly, from US$ 6.25 to significant increase occurred in US$ 37.58 million. 2002 from 5 to 11 units. The number of domestic Investment increase in the workers in the tertiary sector tertiary sector reflected foreign decreased from 375 persons in investment interest in the 2000 to 63 in 2002 and rose processing and services again to more than 10,000 in sector. 2003. Even as late as 2005 the number of domestic The value of secondary sector workers for the tertiary sector foreign investments increased was more than 14,500 consistently, except in 2001. persons. It showed that the Investment in 2000 was US$ skill of domestic labourers had 17.80 million and rose to US$ increased so that they could 26.75 million in 2005. In the take part in the secondary and tertiary sector, foreign tertiary sectors. The same investment was US$ 1.76 pattern also took place among

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 67 foreign workers for the tertiary had a husband who was sector. jobless. Everyone was eager for their children to become Market-based Gender Issues well-educated in the future. in West Kalimantan Household asset was relatively good, and almost everybody Gender Issues in Employment owned a magic jar and coloured television set. Less Below are the results of a than 50 per cent owned a focused group discussion refrigerator, VCD, LPG stove ($GD) conducted in a timber and motor bike. Most of the processing enterprise called houses had wooden floors and PT Sinar Kapuas Kalimantan walls, a few had ceramic floor. Barat (Sikab) which included Like the general condition in 11 women workers and four West Kalimantan, their access supervisors. Women workers to clean water was poor and interviewed in PT Sikab had an only 2 out of 11 $GD average age of 33.5 years, participants had access to with work experience of about clean water, apart from not 8.4 years. The average having their own private toilets. educational background was only 9.3 years, which means Although data from the Ministry the average worker finished of Women’s Empowerment Junior High School. The revealed a wage gap between average number of family men and women, the issue members was 5.3 persons per never emerged from the household, with an average of focused group discussion. 3-4 dependents each, who However information supplied could be their own children, parents, in laws, niece/ nephew, cousins or maid. A gender analysis of the domestic domain did not show any inequality between men and women, and only one out of 11 woman workers

Photo: Rita Nur Suhaeti and Edi Basuno

68 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration by the government officer from Cross Border Trafficking in the Provincial Labour and Women Transmigration Service Office (Disnakertrans Provinsi) Women play a role as both referred to the prevailing object and subject at this time practice of male preference of international trade. Women especially for managerial work are subjects or agents in and to a wage gap based on trading activities but they could ethnicity. Labourers from the also be commodified objects or indigenous population usually victims as found in women get a lower wage for the same trafficking (WT). Women job performed by her/his trafficking and women involved counterpart of Chinese in international trade are usual descent. twin phenomena in the border areas. $or West Kalimantan Cross Border Smuggling by area that borders Malaysia, the Women two activities are understandable and are direct Many women in West consequences of economic Kalimantan are engaged in disparities between the two smuggling at border areas. At countries. Poverty, or the Entikong Immigration economic difficulty, is the main Station, for example, there are root of human trafficking. many smuggling-prone areas. Women trafficking refer to a Women carry smuggled goods trading transaction using from Sarawak, usually sugar, women as commodities who garlic, canned goods, etc, are either materially which vary depending on the exchanged for money or price gap between the two informally transferred through countries. The choice of buying and selling activities. smuggling reflects women’s poverty and powerlessness. Poverty is something familiar to They lack capital, and can only the population, especially to use their labour power as those who live in the rural cross-border transporters for areas. Rural living means organised smugglers. They various shortages, aggravated face a high risk of arrests and by the fact that the agricultural receive wages that are too work is not attractive for small even for their family earning a living, markets are survival. unavailable and inaccessible,

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 69 information is limited, and there Since 1992, marriages have is closed communication to the occurred with increasing outside world. Moreover, frequency, sometimes more people have low educational than 1000 times a year. The attainment and low skilled. marriage is usually an These poor conditions force arranged one, forcible, and women to seek jobs abroad, with brides being placed in such us in Malaysia where subordinated and weak wages are higher. positions. The couple meets only once or twice before With low educational level and getting married. In addition, little information, women are there is a capitalist factor in the vulnerable to human rights marriage since it involves violations through various middlemen, who see it as a forms of trafficking. In West profitable business venture. Kalimantan, at least 65 border Usually, women are entrances can be used for subordinated to their family in illegal WT activities. The West Indonesia or the husband’s Kalimantan Police has reported family in Taiwan, the 29 cases from 2001 – 2004, destination country. ranging from labour deception, to WT for prostitution Supporting Women’s purposes, to trafficking in Development in BIMP-EAGA children, child labour, and children identity falsification Women’s Development in (Bapporap, 2005). But West Kalimantan observers say this may just be the tip of the iceberg, The Government of West unreported cases must be Kalimantan has set a much higher than those development slogan as the contained in police blotters. basis of their way of thinking and action: “to create ethnic Another form of WT is the harmony, support successful transnational marriage, which business affairs and good involves mostly Chinese governance.” In addition, an women who live in Pontianak institution dealing with and Singkawang. The women’s empowerment has transnational marriage usually also been created in echelon takes place between Chinese III, Division of Women women and Taiwanese men. Empowerment, Agency for

70 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration Youth, Sport and Women community participation Empowerment (Badan development. Pemuda, Olah Raga dan Pemberdayaan Perempuan/ In the economic realm, Baporapp). programmes aimed at empowering women fall under The vision of Baporapp is to the following areas: poverty realise gender equity and alleviation, improving women’s equality, community welfare productive activities; increasing and children’s protection in the the proportion of employed family, community, nation and women; and improving state life. Its mission clusters women’s working conditions. around (1) making women’s quality of life better; (2) Regional agreements improving women’s involvement in political Regional integration differs processes and public from other types of market functions; (3) eliminating all opening in that it offers the forms of violence against possibility of establishing women and children; (4) arrangements at the regional improving children’s welfare level to cope with the social and protection; (5) dimensions of trade. The strengthening gender effectiveness and mainstreaming and institutional comprehensiveness of these data availability; and (5) structures depend on available improving community resources and the underlying participation in development. political commitment. Which social dimensions should be Strategies in empowering determined and resolved at the women are: (1) gender regional level and which should mainstreaming implementation; be typical national responsi- (2) gender awareness for all bilities (‘subsidiary’) is another communities; (3) legal matter for consideration. development for women’s protection; (4) gender BIMP-EAGA countries want to advocacy, facilitation and upgrade production and raise mediation; (5) harmonious local value added so that they partnership development; (5) can continue to provide decent development of gender labour standards and compete information system; and (6) internationally. In the past

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 71 decades, many jobs were cannot compete at prevailing created in foreign-owned levels of productivity and enterprises, which offered a labour costs. Relocating those ready package of technical, activities that make intensive managerial and marketing use of migrant labours to know-how. Ambitious where migrant labour come governments relied on such from could serve as an direct foreign investment for interregional redistributive growth to a considerable instruments. extent. In West Kalimantan the number of jobs spurred by $DI Moreover, intra-regional did increase while other migration should take place in provinces had a less an orderly fashion (preferably comparable experience. But as part of a regional many of the activities involved agreement), taking into only the simple processing of account the interests of both imported inputs with little value sending and host countries and being added domestically. making sure that the rights of migrant workers are protected. Relaxing rules on intra-regional Migrant workers in general and migration has been suggested women workers in particular as another means of should be protected from expressing BIMP-EAGA exploitation, particularly sexual solidarity among low-and high- abuse. In order to enhance the income members. International experience of women in the migration is an important link labour market at least three between BIMP-EAGA sets of questions must be countries. Migrants keep local addressed; why is access to labour costs low and act as training and education easier safety valves in host countries’ for men than for women, and labour markets. They are what can be done to remedy active in manufacturing (e.g. this? Why is it easier for men garments, plywood and other than for women to set up their timber processing) and own business, and what can construction, on plantations be done to remedy it? And (rubber, fruit and vegetables) finally, what would be the effect and as domestic workers. The of a gender equality policy on abundant use of migrant women’s participation in the labours in the trade industry economy and how can this often indicates a loss of best be brought about? competitiveness; the industry

72 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration 3. “The Gender Dimension of commitment to the A$TA has Health Professional been realised as 100 per cent Migration from the of all the tariff lines are now at Philippines” by Jean zero to five per cent. A$TA Encinas- ranco intends to achieve full economic integration by the Institutional Arrangements year 2020. Some less- for Trade Liberalisation developed member countries such as Cambodia, Laos, Since the late 80s and early Myanmar and Viet Nam are 90s, the Philippines has allowed more time to adjust actively pursued and managed their tariff rates. globalisation by opening its economy and liberalising trade Consistent with the sequencing in a bid to attract foreign direct of liberalisation, members of investments. In line with this, it the ASEAN have also agreed has continuously sought to to cooperate and expand trade integrate its economy with the in the services sector, more rest of the world. The specifically in temporary labour country’s entry into the World migration, as a means to Trade Organization in 1995 improve competitiveness. As provided the imprimatur that such, an ASEAN $ramework ushered in the Philippines’ link on Agreement on Services to the global market economy. (A$AS) was signed at the $ifth At the regional level, the ASEAN Summit in Bangkok in Philippines signed the 1995. To date, two negotiations Association of Southeast Asian have already taken place while Nations $ree Trade Agreement a third round has started. In the (A$TA) in 1992. Through the first round, seven key priority Common Effective Preferential sectors are covered, namely: Tariff (CEPT) Scheme, the air transport, business agreement aims to eliminate services, construction, financial high tariffs or taxes on traded services, maritime transport, goods and to scrap the telecommunications and quantitative restrictions (QRs) tourism (Manning and and other non tariff barriers Bhatnagar, 2004). (NTBs) within the region. It seeks to enhance intra-ASEAN The General Agreement on trade and bolster ASEAN Trade in Services (GATS) of market’s competitiveness in the World Trade Organization the global economy. Philippine (WTO) serves as a reference

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 73 point in the formulation of the Malaysia are emerging A$AS. In particular, the four markets for $ilipino workers. modes1 by which natural At present, there are only three persons can provide services bilateral agreements the as contained in the A$AS is Philippines has signed culled from similar provisions in pertaining to nurses. These are the GATS (Ibid). with Norway, the United Kingdom (UK) and the most Philippine’s commitment under recent one with Japan. the A$AS includes the liberalisation of business As a result of these services and construction and commitments, the government engineering services. has pursued a major Meanwhile, under the GATS- restructuring of the economy. It WTO, the country has agreed initiated the liberalisation of the to open up its telecommunications, financial telecommunications, financial, services and banking sectors, air transport, maritime and the privatisation of major tourism sectors (Ibid). At industries such as water present, the Philippines is in services and the deregulation the process of A$TA of oil. Lowering of if not the negotiations with regard to the removal of tariffs on key mobility of health professionals sectors have been met. At the and information technology same time, labour, monetary, workers. Notably, the fiscal and expenditure policies movement of workers within are managed to attract ASEAN is relatively limited. In investments and maintain the case of the Philippines, a market competitiveness. huge portion of migrant Education and training policies workers can be found in have also been geared countries outside of ASEAN. towards making the $ilipino a However, A$AS is relevant ‘world class’ worker. given that Singapore and Government officials pursued

1 The four modes are as follows: Mode 1: A service is provided in the manner of international trade of goods such as in cross-border supply where the supplier and the user are not in direct contact with each other; Mode 2: When a specific consumer moves to a country to avail of a supply otherwise known as Consumption abroad; Mode 3:The establishment of a commercial presence , and Mode 4: The movement of natural persons as when an individual supplier physically moves to the country of the client (Manning and Bhatnagar, 2004:11-12).

74 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration Table 1. Share of agriculture, industry and services to GDP, and Sectoral Growth

Share (%) 1990-1995 1996-1999 2000-2003

Philippine (average) Agriculture 22.44 20.36 19.97 Industry 34.96 35.33 34.17 Services 42.61 44.31 45.87

Source: IM% %inancial Statistics in Pasadilla, 2005b

Table 2. Average share (%) of agriculture, industry, and services on employment

1991-1995 1996-1999 2000-2003

Philippine (average) Agriculture 45.06 40.27 37.36 Industry 15.78 16.16 15.67 Services 39.11 43.54 46.96

Source: IM% %inancial Statistics in Pasadilla, 2005b or at the very least made policy consequences for women’s pronouncements that seek to work in the country. In general, enhance what is perceived to economic restructuring in be the $ilipino worker’s favour of the services sector is comparative advantage of said to increase the labour English proficiency and force participation of women in tertiary-level education. developing countries (Orbeta, 2002:4). International Liberalisation has restructured fragmentation of production the Philippine economy as the brought by lower services sector increasingly communication costs, has occupied a bigger chunk of the contributed to this trend (van country’s gross domestic Liemt, 2005). There is at product (Table 1) and present a surge in Business employment (see Table 2). Product Outsourcing (BPO) and other ICT-related jobs in Gender Issues in Expanding the country. Reports indicate Services Sector that call centers in particular hire predominantly female The declining share of industry employees (Benitez-Reyes, and agriculture has 2004).

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 75 Indeed, female labour force high cost of production, the participation in the Philippines Philippine labour force is increased from 48.2 per cent in pushed into the informal sector 1994 to 51.4 per cent in 2004 (ILS, 2000). Estimates in 1998 (SEPO,2005). Likewise, in show that 5 million women are terms of sector-specific data, in the informal sector (Ofreneo women generally outnumber in ILS, 2000) where women are men in the services sector most vulnerable to harassment compared to agriculture and and low remuneration. The industry from 2001 to 2003 lack of reliable data in this (Table 3). While on the surface sector also hampers protection this may seem to mean more efforts. jobs for women, it is in the services sector where gender- Studies have also noted that based jobs can be found such women’s predominance in the as personal services and services sector is a result of sales. Orbeta (2002) explains gender stereotyping in that women are generally occupations and industries, favoured by employers and in the course chosen in the because they are less tertiary level (ILS, 2000) as organised and underpaid well as bias in employment allowing increased flexibility in recruitment (Illo, 2005). Thus, operations. Moreover, these prevailing gender bias in types of jobs are usually cultural norms endemic in associated with casual or Philippine society also explains temporary working why most women workers are arrangements (Ibid). At the in this sector. same time, because some industries resulted in Moreover, privatisation, retrenching workers due to liberalisation and market-led

Table 3. Employed Persons by Sex, 2001-2003 (in thousands)

2001 2002 2003 Male emale Male emale Male emale

Agriculture 8085 2765 8205 2916 8356 2863 Industry 3300 1412 3309 1386 3430 1409 Services1 6535 7053 6790 7451 7085 7490

Source: National Statistical Coordinating Board (NSCB) 1 Services do not include Extraterritorial Organisations and Bodies

76 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration growth strategies have Philippine Labour Migration: consequences for women as The Case of Health care providers (Young and Professionals Hope, 2003:16) particularly in the country like the Philippines General Trends where the poverty incidence stands at 24.7 per cent of Since the 1970s, out-migration households ($IES 2003). $or has been the response of one thing, women bear the $ilipinos to labour contractions. burden as vital social services However, what was then a are de-prioritised in favour of temporary stop-gap measure debt service payments which continues to this day; $ilipino occupy a third of national exodus to the rest of the world government expenditures. As remains unabated. As such, such, the lack of resources for the country is considered to be social services has a one of the world’s primary detrimental impact on women’s labour exporters. Economists role in social reproduction point to the ‘jobless growth’ (Ibid). As it is, $ilipino women characteristic of the Philippine perform about 90 per cent of economy as the primary unpaid work (Virola and de reason why $ilipinos leave in Perio in ILS, 2000). search of jobs. Simply put, the

igure 1. Male and emale Unemployment Rates, Gross Domestic Product, 1996 to 2005

14.0

12.0

10.0

8.0

6.0

4.0

2.0

0.0 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 -2.0

GDP Growth Rates Male Unemployment Rates $emale Unemployment Rates

Source of data: NSO, NSCB

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 77 economy is unable to generate (O$Ws) are in the Americas jobs for the new entrants to the and its trust territories while labour force even in periods of East and South Asia and West relative growth ($igure 1), Asia have 1 million and 1.4 making unemployment levels million temporary O$Ws, high compared to other respectively. East and South countries. Asia have the biggest share of irregular workers (443,343). As of December 2004, the The daily deployment average stock estimate of overseas stands at 2,709 in 2005 $ilipinos is at 8.08 million (see (POEA). $igure 2) or nearly ten per cent of the country’s population and %eminisation of Migration 23 per cent of the country’s labour force. Of this, 3.2 million The 2004 Survey of Overseas are permanent workers, 3.6 $ilipinos shows that 51 per million are temporary while cent of migrant workers are about 1.3 are irregular. women. This trend continues Notably, a huge bulk or 2.7 as latest POEA data show that million of the permanent female new hires comprise 72 overseas foreign workers per cent of those deployed in

igure 2. Stock Estimates of ilipino Overseas oreign Workers (O Ws), 2004

3 % 1 % 4 % A RICA 19 %

ASIA, East & South

ASIA, West

EUROPE

44 % AMERICAS / TRUST 19 % TERRITORIES

OCEANIA

SEABASED WORKERS 10 %

TOTAL: 8.08 MILLION O%WS

78 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration 2005. They are mostly the balance of payment (BOP). employed in the services $rom 2001-2005 alone, O$W sectors as entertainers, remittances2 have averaged domestic helpers, care-givers $7.9 billion dollars and and nurses. contributed an average of 8.9 per cent of the country’s gross Women migrant workers can national product (GNP). be found in Hong Kong, Saudi Remittances also constitute Arabia and Japan. The low- about a fifth of the country’s paying jobs that women have total export earnings for the reflect the amount of five-year period (Table 4). remittances they send home. However, studies show that In 2004, they sent a mere 57 remittances can have a per cent of the P74,267 sent by deleterious effect on the their male counterparts (SO$ economy. A good number of in NCR$W, 2005). families dependent on remittances have lost the Economic Contribution and energy to actively participate in Government Response the economy and passively depend solely on the O$W remittances help fund the remittances sent their way country’s imports and prop up (Chami, et.al. in Opiniano,

Table 4.Total Remittances as Percentage of GNP and Total Exports, 2001- 2005

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Average

Total Remittances1 6,031 6,886 7,578 8,550 10,689 7,947

Gross National Product1 76,023 81,756 84,708 92,212 105,213 87,982

Percentage of Remittances to GNP (%) 7.93 8.42 8.95 9.27 10.16 8.95

Total Exports1 31,313 34,403 35,339 38,794 40,231 36,016

Percentage of Remittances to Total Exports (%) 19.26 20.02 21.45 22.04 26.57 21.87

Source:Banko Sentral ng Pilipinas (BSP) 1 in Million U.S, Dollars

2 It is widely believed that these figures are underreported since a huge percentage of O%Ws course their remittances thru door-to-door delivery and other informal systems other than the banking sector. Thus, the exact amount that the economy receives from %ilipino migrant workers is difficult to ascertain.

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 79 2004). Moreover, research deregulate overseas finds that remittances made employment to increase the very little dent in improving role of the private sector are poverty levels because they suggested (Opiniano, were spent in consumption 2004:16). The Medium-Term rather than in income- Philippine Development Plan generating activities (Opiniano, (MTPDP) of 2001 to 2004 has 2004). also made a pitch for deregulation for “employment Migration also eases enhancement”. unemployment levels in the country as a percentage of the In particular, the government labour surplus is absorbed by sought to transform its other countries. Because of education and training systems these factors, the government to meet the demands of the has increasingly facilitated international market. Notably, labour migration by creating “flexible, market-oriented and agencies such as the user-driven tertiary education Philippine Overseas and training programmes” Employment Administration (Tan, 2005a :246) were (POEA) and the Overseas created. Also, the Medium- Workers’ Welfare Term Philippine Development Administration (OWWA) to Plan (MTPDP) of 2001-2004 facilitate overseas employment pursued the country’s regional and protect migrants and their and international commitments families. The Philippine as it recognised the need for a government encourages ‘shift to higher skill and migration and even labels knowledge-based categories of $ilipino O$Ws as “modern-day jobs in the new heroes”. economy ”(NEDA, 2001). A law was approved A Migrant Worker’s Act (RA decentralising the public 8042) was enacted in response elementary and secondary to the clamour for more educational system even as protection and assistance to the Commission on Higher O$Ws and their families as a Education (CHED) was result of the national trauma established. The Technical over the death of $lor Education and Skills Contemplacion, a domestic Development Authority helper in Singapore. It is in this (TESDA) was put up to certify measure where plans to skills for vocational and

80 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration technical education that would country loses 15,000 nurses respond to overseas yearly. This has prompted employment. some sectors to warn, not only of a brain drain, but of a health Deployment Trends of systems crisis if this trend .ilipino Health Professionals persists. This forecast is not without basis as the Philippines Of late, the large out migration is perennially threatened with of the country’s health shortage of health professionals has been professionals due to decades receiving attention. Since 1996, of underinvestment in health. medical or health professionals $rom 1992 to 2003, nurses far consistently formed the bulk of outnumbered other health new hires among selected professionals in deployment professional and technical abroad ($igure 5). workers (Table 5). Predominant among these The recent migration of health health professionals are professionals is contributing to nurses. the over-all pattern of feminisation of migration in the The World Health Organization country. Health workers, (WHO) estimates that the particularly nurses are

Table 5. Deployment Per Skill Of Selected Professionals and Technical Workers, (New Hires), 1996-2002

Occupation1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

Engineers 2,819 3,653 2,986 2,248 2,098 2,834 2,688 Chemical 26 21 26 17 14 29 21 Civil 571 786 575 361 267 377 455 Electrical and electronics 667 754 645 548 509 626 570 Industrial 124 238 138 97 104 135 144 Mechanical 494 618 544 416 336 384 362 Geodetic/Surveyors 225 280 208 158 106 188 235 Others 712 956 850 651 762 1095 901

Medical 5,515 5,305 5,454 6,031 8,368 13,882 12,419 Doctor 38 60 55 59 27 61 129 Nurses 4,734 4,242 4,591 5,413 7,683 13,536 11,867 Nursing personnel 743 1,003 808 559 658 285 423

InfoCom / (ICT) 704 955 1073 808 470 581 340 Computer programmer 702 944 1066 805 469 539 324 Systems analyst 2 11 7 3 1 42 16 Teachers 114 166 140 128 241 390 623

Source: Philippine Overseas Employment Administration in Tan, 2005a

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 81 igure 5. Number of Selected Health Workers who Left the Country and Worked Abroad, 1992-2003 Dentists 20000 Dietitians & Public Health 18000 Nutritionists

16000 Doctors Medical

14000 Midwives Professional 12000 Nurses Professional 10000

8000 Optometrists & Opticians

6000 Pharmacists 4000 NO. O HEALTH WORKERS Physiotherapists & 2000 Occupational Therapists 0 Technicians Medical X-Ray

1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 Caregivers & Caretakers YEAR

Source:POEA in Lorenzo, forthcoming

gendered occupations as these 70 per cent of nurses left the are perceived to be extensions country (Table 6). As of 2003, of the traditional role of women a total of 87,852 nurses have as nurturers. Indeed, among been deployed abroad (Table the total nurses deployed since 6). 1992, 8 out of 10 are female (Table 6). Notably, from 1910- Parallel to the pattern of 1950, the Philippines produces feminisation, a peculiar trend in health professionals purely for the recent wave of health domestic needs (Lorenzo, professional migration is ‘de- forthcoming). In the 1950s, skilling’ as the number of nurses joined exchange visitor ‘nurse medics’ or doctors programmes in the United training to be nurses are lured States. In the 1970s, $ilipino by overseas jobs. A National nurses were deployed in oil Institute of Health (NIH) study producing and exporting estimates that about 1000 countries. nurse medics per year went abroad from 2000 to 2003 However, recent migration (Lorenzo, forthcoming). It is patterns are different. $rom estimated to triple in 2005 and 1992 to 2003, nurse the coming years. deployment has increased exponentially, reaching its POEA figures indicate that on peak in 2001 when more than an annual average, more than

82 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration Table 6. Distribution of Nurses Deployed Abroad by Gender and Year, 1992- 2003

Year Male % emale % Total

1992 680 11.8 5,067 88 5,747 1993 729 10.8 6,015 89 6,744 1994 1,013 15.1 5,686 85 6,699 1995 1,160 15.3 6,424 85 7,584 1996 665 14 4,069 86 4,734 1997 671 15.8 3,571 84 4,242 1998 666 14.5 3,925 85 4,591 1999 839 15.5 4,574 85 5,413 2000 1,273 16.6 6,410 83 7,683 2001 2,269 16.8 11,267 83 13,536 2002 1,615 13.6 10,295 86 11,911 2003 981 10.9 7,986 89 8,968 Total 12,561 14.3 75,289 86 87,852

Source: Philippine Overseas Employment Administration in Lorenzo (forthcoming)

POEA. Note: Data for 2002 and 2003 may not add up to the total due to the lack of information on gender. half of $ilipino nurses deployed education and labour trends in from 1999 to 2003 are in Saudi wealthy countries that no Arabia ($igure 6) though there longer view the nursing are estimates that high income profession as a means to countries in Asia such as acquire upward mobility, Singapore and Japan are indicate a continuing demand emerging as new markets. for nurses. Within ASEAN, countries like Singapore and Though the first wave of the wealthy middle class of migration of health Malaysia and Thailand are professionals occurred in the reported to be poised to 1950s in the United States, increase demand for health today’s trend indicates a more professionals (ASEAN-ANU permanent or long-term ‘pull’ Migration Research Team, pattern on the demand side. 2005). Demographic changes brought by declining birth rates in high On the supply side, health income countries and shift in professionals see higher

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 83 income, better working the benefits of increased job conditions, opportunities for opportunities and higher migration and peace and order income are a boon for their condition as ‘pull factors’ that families. However, a critical combine with the ‘push’ factors examination of their role in their of low pay, job stress and own health care systems, in negative socio-political the international division of environment in the Philippines labour and in their families (Lorenzo, forthcoming). This is must be done to mitigate the consistent with findings of the potential negative impact of World Health Organization migration and maximise its (WHO) on structural and supposed gains. societal reasons for health professional migration in While brain drain is the Pacific Island Countries (2005). traditional approach used to calculate the costs of The Gender Dimensions of professional migration to the Labour Migration of Health host country, it does not take Professionals into account the differential impact of migration on men Clearly, the feminisation of and women. An alternative health professional migrants framework of a ‘care drain’ is should be examined. Indeed, therefore needed.

igure 6. ive-Year Average, Deployment of Nurses by Major Country of Destination (1999-2003)

Libya, 102 Kuwait, 105 Qatar, 123

United States, 193

Singapore, 304 Brunei Darussalam, 3 United Arab Emirates, 311

Ireland, 555

Saudi Arabia, 4981

United Kingdom, 2139

Source: POEA in Lorenzo, forthcoming

84 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration The ‘global care chain’ nurturing and care of the framework is particularly individual for human capital. compelling. $eminist economists and activists Vulnerabilities of Women (Durano and $rancisco, 2006; Health Professional Migrants Hochschild and Ehrenreich, 2003) argue that the At the level of women health feminisation of migration sets a worker migrants, the main condition wherein women who person in the care chain, are supposed to be vulnerabilities exist brought responsible for social about by many factors. To reproduction or the nurturing begin with, as frameworks for and care of an individual in the the international movement of source country are made to workers, the A$AS and the perform these tasks in the host GATS Mode 43 have inherent countries, exacerbating what is limitations. The GATS already a ‘care-deficit’ in their provision fails to take into own countries. Women leave account nurses that form the their families and ask other huge bulk of health worker members of the family, migrants in the Philippines and particularly a female elderly, where the women are located their older female children or a (Wee et.al. as cited in Durano domestic helper (most possibly and $rancisco 2006). While female) to care for them. This Mutual Recognition then, leaves them with no one Agreements (MRA) in the to care for, given the gaps in nursing profession are social service delivery in their currently being negotiated own country. At the national under the A$AS, its impact is level, the reproductive care limited since more than half function of the health care (56.5 %) of $ilipino nurses are system is particularly relevant in Saudi Arabia because of the as it is responsible for the less stringent requirements. At

3 Under Mode 4 of the GATS, there are three ways by which a person can temporarily provide a service: “(1) having been sent by his/her employer to a foreign country in order to undertake a specific assignment of duty for a restricted and definite period of time; or (2) engaged in work that requires professional, commercial, technical or other highly specialised skills for a restricted and definite period of time, or (3) upon the request of his/her employer in the country of employment, engages in work that is transitory or brief for a restricted and definite period of time” (Garnier, as quoted in Stahl, 2001:371-372).

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 85 the very least however, Convention on the Elimination successful A$AS MRAs may of Discrimination Against redirect the destinations of Women (CEDAW) and the $ilipino nurses to ASEAN 1993 Declaration on the member countries. Elimination of Violence Against Women can be viewed as a Moreover, much of the out- source of redress for women migration of health health worker migrants. professionals that is occurring, However, many host countries fall outside of formal bilateral have not even signed these agreements between the agreements (Piper, 2003:31). Philippines and the labour- importing countries as majority Meanwhile, it has been pointed of $ilipino nurses in particular out that a rights-based are in the Middle East. As approach is also limited in the mentioned earlier, there are sense that even if the Migrant only three (UK, Norway, Workers Convention includes Japan) existing bilateral female migrants, it has not agreements on nurses the taken into account their role in country has signed. Also, the care-taking economy because of the huge demand (Truong in Piper, 2003: 31). for nurses, there is active The reluctance of some labour recruitment that occur outside importing governments to of the POEA (Galvez-Tan, recognise the public sphere in 2005) thus exposing some their legal frameworks and the migrants to potential hazards specifically harsh policies that such as illegal recruitment, countries impose on their own human smuggling and citizens (Piper, 2003: 32) also trafficking. This also makes make migrants in the care national accounting of the economy vulnerable. This is deployment of health especially true for $ilipino professional migrants difficult. nurses who are mostly in Saudi Outside the rubric of the GATS Arabia, a Middle Eastern and A$AS, international human country known for its restrictive rights conventions such as the laws against women. Likewise, 1990 UN Convention on the this has implications on some Protection of the Rights of All nurses who are actually not Migrant Workers and Members even hospital-based especially of their $amilies (Migrant those hired to take care of Workers Convention), the 1979 children and the elderly.

86 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration However, POEA does not have available data on this.

$or ASEAN in particular, its non-intervention policy with member-states’ human rights violation makes it difficult for migrant health workers to seek redress for violations Photo: Jean Encinas-%ranco committed by countries within the region. Likewise, migrants in the US find that labour-sending members in the gender relations go through the ASEAN like the Philippines can process of renegotiation hardly use the organisation (Espiritu, 2002:47) as women because the lack of a regional move in to their new human rights mechanism environment. However, studies dilutes its bargaining capacity are divided in their to adopt a rights posture at the assessments of whether international level when it so migration is a boon or a bane requires. At the same time, for women. In some instances, there is wide disparity in the emigration ends in ‘increased number of International Labour participation in wage Organization Conventions that employment, more control over ASEAN governments have earnings, and greater ratified (van Liemt,2005:23). participation in family decision- making’ (Espiritu in Pessar Vulnerabilities of migrants’ 2002:47). In a study that used households in-depth interviews with $ilipino American women health Vulnerabilities also exist at the professionals who brought their level of the household for the husbands and families to the female migrant. In terms of United States, their increased gender relations, it is resources and status did not lamentable that few studies necessarily translate in have covered this important women’s being empowered at dimension despite the home, thus challenging feminisation of migration. traditional notions of income as Studies on health professional leveling the playing field

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 87 (Ibid.2002:64). If any, the female or the grandmother who findings suggest that are often tasked to care for the ‘traditional workload and male family because of insufficient privilege’ persists’ with paid publicly provided day-care jobs, further adding to the institutions. At the lowest chain women’s work at home (Ibid). of the care drain is the female house maid who often comes Moreover, a study on “left- from the rural areas behind households” (Morada, (Ehrenreich and Hochschild, 2003) using 1997 Labour 2002) who themselves have $orce data notes that on the children left behind. An ILO one hand, when a woman is study that analysed $ilipino the O$W, there are more domestic workers argue that household members who are they are least educated and employed than when the male least protected by outdated is the O$W. Likewise, there and inconsistent legislative and are more unemployed persons regulatory framework (Sayres, in the male-O$W households 2005). Also, informal work than in the female-O$W abode. arrangements expose them to Among others, these findings trafficking and inhumane show that women migrants treatment (Ibid). have much greater need for financial support than male Batistella and Conaco (1996) migrants (Ibid). Another result find that children of migrant of the Morada (2003) study parents from Luzon, indicates the high dependency Philippines, performed worse ratio of the female migrant who in school and tended to be less are left with more people to socially adjusted, particularly if care for. While they have fewer elderly people in their households than their male counterparts, they have more single persons who do not possess college education and therefore have low economic potential.

A care deficit also exists at the level of the eldest

Photo: Jean Encinas-%ranco

88 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration the mother had emigrated. At the international level, Despite these realities, national domestic work has not been indicators do not take into incorporated in the definition of account the feminisation of work in the statutes of the ILO, migration, seriously despite the huge number of undermining efforts to craft migrants performing domestic policies and programmes work. pertaining to women migrants’ plight and to women’s work in The Care Deficit in the general. Data gathering and Philippine Health System domestic laws must consider the changing nature of work The impact of labour migration and the increasing participation of health care professionals of women both in local and are usually examined in the migrant work. In its context of its effect on “health questionnaire, the $amily systems performance, Income and Expenditure population health outcomes Survey ($IES) still adopts a and the health workers territorial view of defining the remaining in the country” household head who (WHO, 2005). accordingly is the person who makes the decisions for family The increasing out-migration of expenditures. This type of data health professionals gathering does not take into exacerbates an already account women migrants who existing ‘care-deficit’ in the may indeed be making family Philippine health care system. decisions even as they are It must be pointed out that a abroad and the breadwinners. ‘care-deficit’ also exists in Moreover, domestic work has wealthy countries as a result of not even been fully recognised declining population resulting in in the national accounts. The an aging population. However, country’s 32-year old Labour the huge wage differentials Code has not taken into between the Philippines and account key changes in the these countries lure health labour market conditions since professionals to find jobs it was enacted. Equal overseas. This has prompted opportunity employment should even the head of the World also be incorporated in the Health Organization to declare code. a health systems crisis if the

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 89 trend continues. A brief Many studies have discussion of the existing care documented that cutbacks in deficit in the country is in order social services put a heavy toll to understand how the on women mainly because of continued migration of health their role in the social professionals impact on reproduction of services. The women in particular and the health sector is specifically health system in general. important for women because of its care component or its The resources allocated to the impact specifically on maternal health sector in the Philippines and child services. reflect a pattern of under- investment in social services. Since 1997, the health budget While sectoral allocation may as a percentage of the show that social services seem allocation for social services to get a huge chunk of the has been decreasing in budget next to debt servicing, nominal terms (Table 7). (Table 7) in reality, when the Coupled with the rapid budget is broken down by increase in the country’s expense class, personnel population, this has profound services and interest payments consequences for the health crowd out funds for the delivery sector. Per capita expenditure of basic services such as on health in the Philippines health ($igure 7). averages $ 28 and is in fact

Table 7. Sectoral Allocation of National Government Expenditures, Obligation Basis (Per cent Share)

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

Economic Services 26.80 24.08 23.98 24.50 22.13 20.38 20.22 18.03

Social Services 32.30 32.59 33.23 31.21 30.36 31.06 29.03 28.71

Health 2.88 2.52 2.58 2.15 1.83 1.95 1.60 1.49

Defense 5.94 5.86 5.68 5.31 5.09 5.24 5.01 4.99

General Public Services 18.82 18.84 18.25 17.95 17.13 17.91 16.63 16.23

Debt Service 15.85 18.57 18.31 20.65 24.73 25.05 28.43 31.40

Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

Source: Congressional Planning and Budget Department

90 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration igure 7. National Government Expenditure by Expense Class (1997-2003)

100 16.5 14.5 13.4 12.9 10.6 9.5 9.2

80 15.9 18.6 18.3 20.6 24.7 25.0 28.4

14.4 14.3 16.4 16.7 60 16.6 18.3 17.6 14.4 16.5 14.3 14.8 12.5 10.6 40 10.1

20 36.4 38.2 37.1 34.5 35.0 36.1 34.0

0 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

PS MOOE IRA Interest Payments Capital Expenditure

one of the lowest among since disparities in Internal selected countries in Asia and Revenue Allotments (IRA) of the West according to a World local government units and the Bank report. Moreover, public political will of local executives spending on health is a mere affect health spending. 1.1 per cent of GDP and accounts for only 39 per cent This situation accounts for the of total health expenditure in dismal state of the country’s 2002. Governments of Laos, health system both in terms of Indonesia and Cambodia two inter-related factors: mal- spend more on health for their distribution of health citizens than the Philippines. professionals and health Health spending is also borne outcomes. by households, and out of pocket expense for health is at As it is, the distribution of 77.8 per cent (World Bank, public health professionals in 2005). Private hospitals the Philippines remains poor represent 60 per cent of the (Table 8). Hence, the fear that total 1,600 hospitals in the unmanaged migration will lead country (Lorenzo, forthcoming). to critical shortage of health Moreover, the devolution of professionals are not health services provided under unfounded. The NIH finds that the Local Government Code of health manpower stands at 8.8 1991 has affected health care per cent of the 82 million

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 91 Philippine population (Lorenzo, 1992 Magna Carta for Health forthcoming). Even more, Workers provided them urban to rural and regional subsistence allowance and disparities in the distribution of hazard pay. While the health professionals remain Congressional Commission on alarming (Table 8) as most are Health reported in 1993 the concentrated in the National need for a health human Capital Region (NCR) and resource development, no other urban areas while legislation has been pursued regions such as Autonomous along this lines. Even the Region of Muslim Mindanao health sector reform agenda, (ARMM) and the Cordillera launched in 2000, failed to Administrative Region (CAR) include health workers in its bid hardly see physicians and to develop the country’s nurses. healthcare system (Lorenzo, 2006). Salaries also remain This is not surprising given that dismally low especially for a lack of a comprehensive public health workers at the national policy that pertain to local government levels as public health workers since the devolution made their salaries

Table 8. Total Number of Selected Public Health Professionals by Region, 2002

AREA DOCTORS DENTIST NURSES MIDWIVES

PHILIPPINES 3,021 1,871 4,720 16,534 N.C.R. 658 540 745 1,165 C.A.R. 85 33 159 579 REGION 1 158 96 203 1,033 REGION 2 175 58 267 801 REGION 3 297 161 382 1,573 REGION 4 350 256 648 2,282 REGION 5 190 85 338 1,026 REGION 6 226 112 433 1,791 REGION 7 229 115 379 1,473 REGION 8 153 109 233 887 REGION 9 90 55 196 675 REGION 10 99 71 189 803 REGION 11 79 71 161 791 REGION 12 84 32 158 671 CARAGA 79 54 130 613 A.R.M.M. 69 23 99 371

92 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration and benefits hostage to the or midwife. Of this, 79 per cent priorities of local government come from urban and 41 per executives. cent from rural areas. While fertility rates decreased in the Health outcomes show last 30 years, from 6.0 children improvements but still fall in 1970 to 3.5 in 2001, the below regional averages. NDHS says this is still Maternal mortality rate (MMR) considerably high compared to stood at 172 in 1998 while Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia, infant mortality (IMR) rate Singapore, Thailand and Viet decreased from 48.9 per cent Nam where women have an in 1998 to 29 per cent in the average of T$R of 2.5 latest National Demographic (PLCPD, 2005). The NDHS Health Survey (NDHS). also notes that the poorer and However, the Philippine IMR is the less educated the women still considered high compared are, the more children they to other Southeast Asian tend to have. Moreover, while countries such as Brunei $ilipino women’s use of the Darussalam, Malaysia, contraceptive method Singapore and Thailand dramatically increased from 17 (PLCPD, 2005). Results of the per cent in 1973 to 49 per cent NDHS are also alarming in in 2003, the NDHS finds that terms of maternal and child 51 per cent lack proper access health as it reports 67 per cent to information on family of $ilipino women do not have planning methods. The access to health care. At the Philippines has also one of the national level, most (61%) highest drug prices in the world deliveries occur at home while with the cost of medicines 38 per cent are in a health occupying 44 per cent of health facility. However, of those who expenditures while health delivered babies at health institutions cover only 5 per facilities, only 22 per cent cent of drug costs (Bernardino, come from rural areas and 54 2004). per cent from urban areas. Nine out of ten mothers at the Given these health indicators, National Capital Region gave the role of health professionals birth in health facilities. Only 60 is crucial as they are said to be per cent of women in the “the most important of the country give birth with the health system’s inputs” assistance of a doctor, nurse, according to the World Health

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 93 Organization (WHO). Thus, unmet needs for information should migration continue sans regarding family planning, ante critical intervention from the and post natal care and child government, this can lead to, care. In all this, the shortage among others: (1) delays in of health professionals has care intervention due to long consequences not only for waiting time; (2) closure of women’s right to health but for health services; (3) their reproductive rights as compromised care, and even well. Likewise, their role in (4) deaths in the worst instance social reproduction is (Brown in WHO, 2005:2-3). compromised leading to serious gaps in the country’s Though there are reports of human capital capacity. hospitals closing due to lack of doctors and nurses, the Health Labour Market and Department of Health has not the Care Deficit come out with definitive data for an accurate assessment. The outflow of health Compromised care due to professionals and their job- burn-outs has not been seeking behaviour is affected documented. Shortage of by many factors such as the health professionals may lead quality of the local stock, to decreased quality of care as requirements of labour will be pointed out in the next importing countries, wage section. differentials and characteristics of the economy. This has $urthermore, in developing consequences for a continuing countries such as the care deficit. Because of the Philippines, health workers not unparalleled increase in the only provide the needed care outflows of nurses and the interventions as they also phenomenon of nurse medics, perform an equally important this discussion will limit itself to role in rural areas where health nurses and doctors. information is scarce given the lack of comprehensive nation The demand is high as the wide health information United Kingdom (UK) and campaign on health issues Northern Ireland are said to such as family planning. The need 10,000 doctors and above-cited results of the 2003 20,000 nurses for their new NDHS reveal that women have health plans (WHO, 2005)

94 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration while the United States (US) of $oreign Nursing Schools estimates that it will be needing (CG$NS) and the National one million nurses in the next Council Licensure Examination ten years to meet its own (NCLEX) examinations (Ibid). shortage (Ibid). Recently These tests require significant however, the UK with whom amounts of money, thus the Philippines has bilateral indicating not only the quality of agreements on health nurses deployed in the US but professionals, has declared also their capacity to pay. that it will no longer include Among the UK requirements is general nurses in its preferred 77 per cent minimum score in list of professional migrants. the board rating (Ibid). The NIH has also identified the Expectedly, this limits the entry Netherlands and high income of nurses to the US and UK to Asia as new markets and those who have money and Japan as an emerging one. good credentials. On the other Yet it is interesting to note that hand, Saudi Arabia just still, Saudi Arabia remains the requires a nursing degree, a primary destination of $ilipino board license and one year nurses. experience in a hospital (Ibid). Given this scenario, nurses are Contrary to popular belief that not able to go to so-called $ilipino nurses trek to the US, attractive destinations. Rather deployment rate to the US is a they are pushed towards mere 16.7 per cent of total countries with less local supply while 33.7 per cent remuneration, harsh laws and go to the UK (Tan, 2005a: 242) discriminatory policies against in 2002. This represents a women. significant decline in deployment rate in the US The low passing rate in the since 1994 when the country nursing board in recent years was able to deploy 81.4 per is also another contentious cent of job orders (Ibid). issue and affects both the Several factors account for supply and quality of nurses. this. Stringent requirements The proliferation of nursing exist in these countries schools since the early 90s has primarily in the United States led to low quality nursing where nurses need to pass the instruction, compelling the Test of Spoken English (TSE), Commission on Higher the Commission of Graduates Education to issue a

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 95 moratorium on new nursing have also decreased in recent schools. In June 2003, nursing years (Table 9) affecting the schools increased by 47 per country’s supply of doctors. cent nationwide and 84 per cent in Metro Manila alone As had been noted, wage (Galvez-Tan, 2005). $rom differentials between 1994 to 2004, the passing rate developed and developing in the nursing board countries are staggeringly high examinations has ranged from that nurses serving abroad a high of 61.45 per cent to a receive salaries as much as 30 low of 44.75 per cent. Passing times higher than their local rate within this ten-year period counterparts. A study on wage averaged at 54.18 per cent structure of migrant workers ($igure 8). Within this time pegged the average monthly frame, the country produced an salary of a nurse in the average of 10,991 registered Philippines at US$109, nurses per year. However, this compared to US$506 in Saudi low passing score prevents Arabia and US$3359 in the them from migrating to better United States (Tan, 2005). destinations. This wide wage differential informs the job-seeking Likewise, applicants for the behavior of health National Medical Entrance Test professionals, often resulting in

igure 8. Nursing Board Exam Performance and Number of Examinees, 1994 to 2004

60,000

50,000

61.45 % 58.24 % 40,000

30,000 54.22 % 49.68 % 50.02 % 54.18 % 20,000 55.79 % 49.86 % 48.18 % 49.20 % 53.50 % 44.75 % 10,000

0 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 94-04 average

PASSING RATE Number of Examinees Number of Passers

96 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration Table 9. National Medical Entrance Test Applicants 1994 - April 2003

YEAR VOLUME % Increase

1994 5049 0% 1995 5360 6% 1996 5814 8% 1997 5730 -1% 1998 5948 4% 1999 6121 3% 2000 6245 2% 2001 6192 -1% 2002 5853 -6% 2003 4475 -24%

Professional Regulation Commission in Galvez-Tan, 2005 de-skilling. There is anecdotal the duration of their stay evidence that nurses make abroad, (Go, 2002) nurse Saudi Arabia their springboard medics may opt to stay longer to the US. to recoup their personal investments. The Meanwhile, the huge wage consequences are dire for the differential and the unabated health system. This is not to demand for nurses contribute mention health migrants who to the emergence of nurse opt to permanently stay in such medics in the Philippines who attractive destinations as the are willing to forego their first US and the UK. It is logical to profession to meet the current believe that nurse medics are demand. Most of these those that can afford to pay professionals are women and high costs of tests as doctors are actually specialists in vital relatively are middle class, not fields of medicine (Lorenzo, to mention their capacity to forthcoming). The high cost pass the nursing board and the and length of time in training foreign examinations. These doctors makes replacement factors show that once the levels in the country more decision to be nurse medics problematic. In addition, are made, there is reason to consistent with studies that believe that entry to the US or reveal the economic gains from other attractive nurse importing migration are higher the longer countries is assured.

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 97 Another supply issue is the low Without a systematic database deployment levels abroad and monitoring of health compared to the number of professionals, it is difficult to health professionals in the ascertain the extent of this country. Given this, Tan trend. In the same vein, the (2005a) questions the lack of a systematic and existence of a brain drain. institutionalised profiling of Consistent with this, the NIH departing health professionals study noted the ‘oversupply’ of impedes a serious 138,983 nurses in the country. investigation of deskilling in According to the study, this is labour importing countries. the net of the study’s estimate current stock of 332,206 and Clearly, what these the international and local explanations raise is the low nurses employed which is absorptive capacity of the local 193,223 (Lorenzo, economy. This is consistent forthcoming). with the challenges facing the rest of the professionals and Several explanations may college graduates in the account for this. $irst, strict country. $urthermore, the requirements and low quality of proliferation of nurses will nursing schools prevent nurses further depress their already from working abroad. Second, low wages. some of these nurses may be waiting for job placements. Lastly, this situation also has Third ‘oversupply’ may actually consequences for the quality of be a misnomer. A better term the local stock in terms of should be ‘missing’ nurses as experience, age and this may indicate that these competence. Given that the registered nurses are either NIH study indicates that most unemployed or have shifted to migrant health professionals occupations that may not leave at their prime and after necessarily be hospital or an average training of 10 clinic-based but offer better years, (Lorenzo, forthcoming), remuneration. Again, this is a the consequences for the local version of health quality of the remaining health professionals resorting to labour force in the country are deskilling due to unattractive not good, ushering in a remuneration and benefits in generational divide. One set the local health labour market. may either be young and

98 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration inexperienced and the other health professionals in set may be past their prime particular: and no longer trainable. This leaves little incentive for the National Level government and the private sector to improve salary, A comprehensive study on how training and benefits. Also, to better address health worker stringent requirements in some outflows must be designed by countries coupled with the low taking into account the ratio of quality of nursing instruction, new entrants to total stock, skill enable rich countries to get mix, distribution of new quality stock while leaving entrants according to gender behind those who are of and ethnic grouping, and the inferior lot. This then directly cost of training (WHO, 2002). affects the quality of health This will inform the government care services in the country about the costs of retaining and exacerbates health care health professionals in the inequality between the country in terms of benefits Philippines and developed and remuneration packages. economies. This also arms the government with the necessary information Research Implications and and strategies for negotiations Policy Recommendations in future bilateral and regional agreements. The Philippine country study demonstrates that long- In terms of research, the standing gender-based complex nature of the discrimination in society and feminisation of health migrants the specificities of the local compels scholars to look economy contribute to losses beyond remittances and be and impede whatever gains a more eclectic in their country may attain from a methodologies. Remittance- liberalised regime of goods and based accounts fail to dig into services. Taking this into gender relations and the social account, a set of research and costs of migration. The care- policy recommendations at the drain analysis is a step in the national, regional and right direction. Existing public international levels are use file of surveys done by explored both for women various government agencies migrants in general and for can be rich sources of studies

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 99 that can generate an professional groups are not understanding of gender and mandatory. Profiling of work in general and in departing health professional exploring patterns of gender migrants must be enforced so relations and family welfare in that the national government is female-O$W households, in informed of their demographic male-O$W households, and in profiles and the nature of their non-O$W households. work.

There needs to be a serious Huge budgetary support must investigation of the extent of be allocated to the education, deskilling trends both for the training and incentives of local stock of health migrants health professionals to improve and for those deployed. While the quality of existing and there are as yet no reliable future health workforce. databases and no monitoring Barangay (local unit) health mechanisms, estimates can workers who usually fill the provide the government with medical professional gaps in information on how to design rural areas must also be policies for training of the local included. Toward this end, a stock and manage the outflow comprehensive health human of health migrants. resource policy must be prioritised. Linked to this, the Resources must be allocated government must also ensure for creating a reliable and a better regulatory framework systematic national database for nursing and medical of health workers for the schools and allied government to effectively professionals. This will help address the impact of improve the quality of schools migration on the country’s and hopefully improve the health system. Different data passing rate of board bases of the Professional examinations. Regulation Commission (PRC) and the different health It is lamentable that after professional associations each several decades of have their own limitations. $or feminisation of migration, instance, the PRC limits itself national indicators have not to those who passed licensure fully taken them into account. examinations but do not take Toward this end, the POEA, into account deaths. At the the Commission on Overseas same time, memberships in $ilipinos and the National

100 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration Statistics Office must be mechanisms to enhance both provided with resources and the productive and social proper training to devise reproductive role of women. indicators that will better The framework for the review present the gender dimensions is one of giving women of migration. Unpaid work of substantive equality, consistent women must also be integrated with the intent of the into the national accounts. Convention on the Elimination of All Discrimination Against The government must enact Women (CEDAW). poverty alleviation programmes that increase provision of care $inally, while the usual knee- services and ensure citizens’ jerk reaction of governments is well-being. Laws that to limit migration by seeking a empower women and give ban on, say health them ‘substantive equality’ professionals schooled in state must be prioritised and their institutions for a required role in the care economy must number of years to recoup be reflected in policy-making investments, this report argues and in resource allocation at all that it is discriminatory to levels. In line with this, women’s economic rights and reproductive health may just increase the programmes and population propensity for irregular management must be migration. What is needed are implemented to curb the better retention strategies that country’s high birth rate which are incentive-based. As such, impacts on the education health tourism as a mode of sector and labour supply. retention strategy for the country’s health professionals The country’s 32 year-old should be explored as an labour code must be reviewed option. The country’s to take into account competitiveness in this area developments brought by trade may generate revenues for the liberalisation such as the development of the health international fragmentation of sector. production and labour mobility. Key amendments must Regional Level address equal opportunity employment and the provision Existing cooperation of institutional and societal frameworks used by other

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 101 countries should be studied market policies, education, and and evaluated to determine training. arrangements that can be used during negotiations. Gender Regional cooperation both by analysis should be state and non-state actors in incorporated into these trade policy research is being frameworks. In line with this, proposed (Pasadilla, 2005) to the Commonwealth Code of better capacitate negotiators. Practice for International At the local level, health Recruitment of Health Workers professional associations must is said to be a sound be harnessed to create the framework that can be used in constituency for health bilateral and regional professional migrants. At the agreements (WHO, 2005). This global and regional levels, code ensures fairness, transnational civil society reciprocity and transparency organisations must be for both labour-sending and supported in their efforts to fill labour-importing countries the state’s limitations in since employment conditions, meeting the challenges of training programmes and migration. In particular, return arrangements are advocacy for labour-importing facilitated during the countries to ratify international negotiations (Ibid). human rights instruments and enact local complementary Since it is apparent that the laws must be pursued. Track deployment of health Two initiatives to develop an professionals is affected by ASEAN Human Rights labour and immigration policies Mechanism must also be of labour importing countries, endorsed. Lobby efforts to there is a need to continually recognise women’s unpaid audit labour and immigration work in national accounts must policies of major labour be supported, as well as efforts importing countries. This has to redefine the meaning of implications not only in terms ‘work’ to include domestic work of protection of migrants but in ILO statutes.4 also in designing local labour

4 Speech of Labour Secretary Patricia Sto. Tomas at the 95th International Labour Conference, Geneva, Switzerland as cited in “RP Pushes for New Definition of ‘Work’ “, Philippine Daily Inquirer, June 11, 2006 p.A10.

102 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration 4. “Livelihood and Crop impact of new agricultural Diversification in Rural policies influencing livelihoods Viet Nam: The Case of and crop diversification in Thai Thai Binh Province” by Binh Province which is an Ngo Thi Lan Phuong agricultural plain in Viet Nam’s Red River Delta. In recent Introduction years, it has seen a lot of shifts in plant, husbandry and crop In July 1988, the conference of production. In Thai Binh, many ASEAN Ministers of $oreign policies create favourable Affairs declared the importance conditions for women to gain of the advancement of women economic advancement. Thai in the region, and in 1995 the Binh is also where 11 per cent Beijing Platform for Action of cultivated area reached a appealed for gender equality. spectacular total production of Inspired by these and other VND 50 millions per hectare United Nations’ declarations, per year. the Vietnamese Government has focused a lot of attention Viet Nam’s economy in the on poor women’s groups past 5 years

Viet Nam is concluding the final In recent years, the discussions for its entry into Vietnamese economy has the WTO, and will join it after shown much dynamism, several years of undergoing thanks to many government the accession process. This policies, investment event will impact on the programmes and the active national economy, especially participation of civil society on agriculture. The question is, organisations (see Table 1). what difference will it make for Viet Nam has recently the rural poor and particularly stabilised its growth rate, and for the rural poor women? GDP per capita during the last What policies will help the 5 years has increased to 7.5 farmers and women best? per cent. In 2005, GDP was What should be done to USD 52.375 million, and per support the rural poor and poor capita was over USD640 per women to minimise risks and year which, according to World maximise benefits during this Bank classification, is above era of economic integration? the average situation of the The study focuses on the low- income countries, which

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 103 Table 1: Viet Nam’s growth rate, 2001 to 2005

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

6,9% 7,08% 7,34% 7,80% 8,43%

Source: GSO

have a per capita of USD 530 increasing number of women per person per year. are also now in management jobs. As a result, the national poverty rate has consistently Viet Nam has the goal of gone down. At present, making Viet Nam an industrial according to new poverty country in 2020 and it has standards used by the consciously led shifts in the government, there are 3.9 economic sectors, with million poor households, industry and services gaining accounting for 22 per cent of more prominence (Table 2). the total population. Life has generally improved for poor Traditionally a food-importing women - their access to country, Viet Nam is now self- finance/capital resources has sufficient in food. While food increased, and the rate of production in 2000 was 34.5 female unemployment has million tons, in 2004 this dropped. The number of reached 39.32 million tons and literate women has increased, in 2005, reached a record 40 as well as that of women who million tons. The value of are earning advanced formal agricultural, forestry, and degrees which now accounts fishery products has increased for 19.9 per cent of total by 5.4 per cent. This number of women. Already, increased capacity, more than 1 per 5 female productivity, and technological officials had received advance in agriculture and government skills training. An aquaculture are now ensuring

Table 2: Ratio of economic sectors to the GDP (2000 and 2005)

Industry Agriculture Service

2000 36.8% 24.5% 2005 41% 20.9% 38.1%

Source: GSO

104 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration Table 3: Rice export productivity

1989 2005 2006 (estimate)

Rice export productivity 1.37 million tons 4.4 million tons 5 million tons

Source: GSO food security for Viet Nam. Chau and Son La). The result: forest cover has increased Viet Nam also exports from 33.7 per cent a year in agricultural produce. It is the 2000 to 37.4 per cent a year in 2nd rice-exporting country in 2005. $orests are being the world, and some other of developed in combination with its agricultural products also high value trees such as vie for important positions in bamboo shoots, field bamboo, the global economy. Coffee and green bamboo. The and cashew are contending for Northern Central area plants the position second to rice, ramnoneuron for exploiting pepper contends for the first aquilaria. and rubber for the fourth. Total export revenue, mainly from Aquaculture is being promoted, agriculture, in the last five with the government years reached USD 211 billion, implementing a programme of an increase of 17.5 per cent a turning rice areas of low- year. Export per capita is USD income farmers into 390 per person. aquaculture. Aquaculture production includes smooth- The state has issued skin fish, shrimp and prawn significant policies for people to farms. In 2005, 200,000 plant new forests and to care hectares of rice were for renewable ones. It has also converted to aquaculture ordered the protection of development. $or instance, the watersheds by allocating 5 aquaculture areas in Ca Mau million hectares for increased by 11 per cent, and reforestation. It has resettled in Bac Lieu by 15 per cent in and allocated funds, through 2005. programme No. 186, for the six neediest mountainous As well, crop diversification provinces (Cao Bang, Bac toward higher value-added Can, Lang Son, Ha Giang, Lai agricultural products is taking

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 105 Table 4: Diversification in agricultural products according to location

Suburban areas High land and The Red River and South-East areas Mekong deltas

Vegetables, fruits, flowers, rubber, coffee, cashew, rice, crops, husbandry, aqua meat, eggs, milk, agricultural pepper, fruit trees, livestock products, rural services products, processing, agricultural service

Source: GSO

place (see Table 4). The North in 2002 was about 1,827,000 has diversified its winter crops people, of which 94.2 per cent to include corn, bean, live in the rural areas and 58 groundnut, other vegetables, per cent in the urban area. and flowers. Population density is 1,183 people per square km. and There are now multiple forms population growth is 1.02 per of agricultural producing cent a year. (source: organisations. An estimated www.thaibinh.org.vn) 7,300 agricultural cooperatives and 71,914 farms with 400,000 Of its 104,000 hectares of hectares (with products of USD agricultural land, 87,000 440 million, each farm reaching hectares are cultivated. VND97 million a year) attract Approximately 7,000 hectares 400,000 farm workers. There consist of ponds, lakes and are 412 forest areas with 6.3 swamps; 16,000 hectares of millions hectares and 314 state alluvial land can be devoted to farms with 636,000 hectares. aquaculture (more than 4,000 hectares have already been Thai Binh’s economic cultivated as such). performance from 2001 to 2005 Thai Binh traditionally produces rice, harvesting over 12 tons Thai Binh is a province with per hectare per year. $ood much potential especially in the yield is continuously more than areas of agriculture, forestry one million ton each year. The and aquaculture. It includes area for high quality food trees one city and seven districts has recently been widened to with 284 communes and include potato, cucumber, towns. Thai Binh’s population tomato, onion, and garlic.

106 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration igure 1: Map of Thai Binh Province

There are tropical fruits like In the past years, the Thai Binh longan, lychee, orange, apple, has implemented many guava and many other organic programmes in support of its indigenous fruits. A great agro-forestry-fishery potential exists for fruit juices development, among which are for beverage factories. the following: (1) prioritised Industrial trees include jute, investment in cattle and sedge, and strawberry. Herbal agricultural processing, plants consisting of mint, aquaculture in coastal Sophora japonica, and others seawater, brackish water, can also be developed. The seedling and stud animal total pig production is roughly production; (2) improved 800,000 heads; pork meat ponds, lakes, and swamp production is more than 50,000 areas for intensive farming and tons a year. Cow breeding rapidly developed the model of includes 40,000 heads using fish-rice linkage in the low land; the Singapore style of milking (3) introduced and raised new and raising leaner cows. The aquaculture such as shrimp, total cattle production of 7 prawn, lobster, crayfish, white million cattle is being brills, tilapia and crab for diversified, while maintaining processing and exporting; and meat productivity of over 60 (4) developed household, farm, tons a year. trade villages and building

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 107 igure 2: GDP of Thai Binh (USD Million)

450 404 400 375

350 321 340 299 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Source: Thai Binh Statistic Department

infrastructure in the rural areas. Local authorities have allowed Table 5 below gives an farmers to improve ponds and overview of the trend in swamps, and convert them into production of the province’s big-scale and intensive farming main produce. areas. $rom 2001 to 2005, the

Table 5: Volume of Production of Main Agricultural Products and Livestock in Thai Binh (2000 – 2005)

# 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

1 Agricultural products

- Rice (tons) 1,050,536 993,914 1,081,575 930,766 1,071,311 981,598 - Per capita (kg) 583 548 593 507 581 530 - Corn 19.,90 18,732 21,024 33,668 55,468 51,715

2 Industrial tree

- Sedge 3,267 2,456 4,636 5,905 4,254 3,940 - Jute 1,420 1,736 2,293 1,766 1,371 1,214 - Ground-nut 5,396 5,425 4,860 5,712 6,539 6,236 - Soya 6,404 6,444 6,639 7,758 11,879 11,767

3 Livestock

- Buffalo (‘000) 11,142 7,964 7,602 7,095 6,717 6,652 - Cow (‘000) 57,371 40,263 40,961 43,611 47,364 53,950 - Pig (‘000) 691 778 794 906 1,015 1,134 - Chicken (‘000 ) 5,679 4,972 5,618 6,694 6,130 6,319

Source: Thai Binh Statistic Department

108 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration igure 3: Share of economic sectors in GDP of Thai Binh

60 51.59 45.46 50 Agri, orestry, Aqua 42.27 40 product 31.94 33.22 34.87 30 Service 21.22 22.86 20 16.47 Industry 10 0 2001 2004 2005

Source: Thai Binh Statistic Department areas converted into intensive tons, an increase of 71 per farms cover 3,644 hectares, cent; production value is including 2,724 hectares of estimated at USD16.25 million, fresh water, 920 hectares of 81 per cent more than in 2000. brackish water, making the In the coming years Thai Binh total cultivated land in 2005 will focus on high value fruits cover over 12,376 hectares, an and coastal watershed increase of 2,916 hectares (31 planting, and will try in 2005 to per cent) from 2000. In Nam develop 200 hectares of Cuong commune, (Tien Hai saphora, 7,500 hectares of fruit district) the average revenue is trees and, within a dyke, USD 8,000 with a profit of USD 10,000 hectares of perennial 3,650 per hectare per year. In trees such as eucalyptus, Thai Do commune (Thai Thuy sophora (pagoda tree), longan, district), income is USD 3,000 lychee, and mangoes. per hectare with a profit of USD 1,250 per hectare per Thai Binh has 49.25 km of year. This is 6.2 times more coastal area where 156 profitable compared with species of fish thrive. Many income from rice cultivation. In high value fish such as Dong Minh (Tien Hai district) sardinella, perch, conger pike, shifted areas reached an and mackerel are found in both income of over USD 5,000 per fresh and sea water. There is hectare per crop and created a potential for diversified employment for 40 per cent aquaculture, and Thai Binh’s households in the commune. capacity for cultivating fish is Cultivated productivity in year expected to bring great 2005 accounted for 33,500 economic benefits. At present,

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 109 Table 6: Aquaculture Productivity, 2000 - 2005

TT Aqua productivity 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 (tons)

1 Cultivation

1.1 Shrimp 616 1,357 1,902 2,344 2,683 2,201

1.2 $ish 10,695 12,727 14,153 12,157 16,307 19,733

2 Exploitation

2.1 Shrimp 1,984 1,971 1,886 1,766 987 1,091

2.2 $ish 12,666 12,909 14,960 19,170 18,976 22,775

Source: Thai Binh Statistic Department

more than 4,000 hectares of transformation of the water alluvial land have been system to allow the cultivation planned for aquaculture. Every of high value plants. This shift year, aquaculture harvest is aimed at supporting reaches 24,000 tons, of which processing and export 4,000 to 5,000 tons of shrimp industries. It has also meant and fish are exported. applying advanced technological systems into Total production revenue from intensive farming and raising aquaculture in 2005 was USD the productivity of livestock 29 million, an increase of 11.08 cultivation. $ruits covered by per cent to 2004, and an intensive farming include: increase of 67.9 per cent to orange, tangerine, pineapple, 2000. Total achieved harvest in longan, lychee, mango, five years is over 60,000 tons. coconut. Vegetables include The ratio of aquaculture in soya bean (Hung Ha), sedge agro-fishery-aquaculture and chili (Quynh Phu), baby increased from 6.8 per cent in corn and cucumber (Kien 2000 to 9.4 per cent in 2005 Xuong), and groundnut (Vu (see Table 6). Thu, Hung Ha).

The shift from agricultural Assisting the Rural production for consumption to Population and Local production for the global Women make the Shift market has resulted in a drop in farming areas by 10 per cent In the last five years, the Thai - 15 per cent and a Binh People’s Committee

110 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration (TBPC) has focused some of women by offering skills its energies on the export of training (business high-quality rice. management, effective use of Consequently, the Thai Binh loans, and budget Province Women’s Union management). cooperated with the Department of Agriculture, the The Women’s Union also Center for Agricultural works with the district authority Extension, and the Plant to organise vocational training Protection Department to study seminars on embroidery, and select the high quality conical stitching, and basket breed of rice. This has raised crocheting. Poor people and the value of farming acreage, Orange Agent victims from the and the quick transfer of war are the main target groups technology to women (training for these seminars and are seminars are given twice a exempted from training fees. year). The Women’s Union This is in line with the also supports farmers who are programme of the Thai Binh late in their payment for People Committee on agricultural materials (e.g., enlarging the trade villages, of manure, breed, food, and which a total of 188 such herbicide). This means villages are in the province. payments may be made even after harvest to help poor Provincial and district Women’s women cope. Besides Unions have conducted a supporting women in survey of 2,200 women who agriculture extension, the head their own businesses, Women’s Union also provides and subsequently gave several credit of USD100 million a year to poor women (the Women’s Union manages this directly). The Women’s Union also identifies markets for products and consistently mobilises assistance for capital, grain and technical consultancy. As well, it focuses on capacity building for Photo: Ngo Thi Lan Phuong

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 111 training seminars. Participants technical support such as usually expand their infrastructure, technology, businesses after such training and human resources trainings. Some, whose small are accepted and may be businesses consisted of five given to needy agricultural workers or less, then grew to areas. WTO requests for more about 200-500 workers. $or competitive products from Viet example, Mrs. Cuc, Doan (Tra Nam for the global market, as it Giang, Kien Xuong), Mrs. Ngan needs to encourage quality (Tay An, Tien Hai) are now goods. However, the able to employ 3,000 workers monopolies and subsidies are for 25 communes and districts. anticipated to create an $acilitators are in charge of environment for corruption. $or looking out for quality products. the above reasons, Thai Binh They also provide the Women’s Union focuses on conditions for women to create raising women’s awareness on new products raise their seedling selection, soil income and overcome poverty. improvement, water The Women’s Union also environment and insecticide assists women in their capital use – ensuring food hygiene and credit application, advises and safety – the first them regarding land lease conditionality for Vietnamese documents, and gives special agricultural products to be attention to single women. accepted in the world market.

Viet Nam has a competitive Although the poverty rate in edge in rice production and Thai Binh has fallen and the aquaculture, advantages that number of crops has encouraged the country to join diversified, there is still hunger the WTO. Nevertheless, it in some parts of the province. seeks to learn lessons from Women need support so they others countries who have can raise their income, given already entered the WTO. that they are unequal in power These countries’ experiences within their families and cannot show the risk of being sued by make important decisions. dumping goods with low prices However, women who when into the global market. In they become good principle, the WTO does not entrepreneurs are seen as allow subsidies in agriculture, contributing to the development but many other kinds of of the local economy, and

112 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration subsequently acquire more his village in 1989. Life was power within their households very hard but he was and communities. determined to catch meretrix (marine bivalve mollusk), and Three stories reflect the varied other fish to earn his living. In outcomes of the efforts of the 1989, he and a friend made a Women’s Unions and the one kilometer dyke in an area People’s Committees. The first devoted to cultivating aqua is that of Mrs. Bon. There are products. He then carved out five people in Mrs Bon’s family, 30 hectares for shrimp, fish in Thai Thuong (Thai Thuy, and gracilaria ponds. His total Thai Binh). Some years back, investment capital is almost her husband went to the USD 200,000, and he now Central district to learn owes the bank only USD aquaculture from other 17,000 which is still due at the farmers. He transmitted the end of 2008. His main worry techniques he learned to his now is the limit recently wife, who successfully imposed on sea-surface developed them. Now she allocation that has designated provides fish, crab and shrimp only 2 hectares of land for breeders to four provinces. each household. This new Every year, her harvest is policy came out after he had worth roughly USD 25000- already established his 30000. Her secret? Twice a business and after 40 week, her husband buys labourers from other seawater for her breeders. She communes now work on his religiously follows the whole farm. His case presents a procedure from breeder dilemma for the Thai Thuong selection, feeding methods, authorities who want to support scale of ponds, and swamp the entrepreneurial spirit of conditions; otherwise, she ordinary people but would also knows the breeders may need to balance this out with immediately die. Thanks to redistributive objectives. high-tech breeding procedures that she had adopted, she now The last story tells of the woes provides breeders not only to of farmers in Thai Do (Thai Thai Thuy but also to its Thuy) (VTV1, September 4 neighboring areas. 2006). In 2005, in line with shift from rice cultivation to a higher The other is the story of Mr. plant/breed seventy hectares Pham Duc K who went back to of low rice field was dug for

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 113 feeding shrimp. The electric poor to be better-off. station has already been built but up to now, there is no Recommendations electric grid line. The pump is stained and rusty, and cannot In response to the myriad replace the water in the pond. challenges of trade Because the farmers did not liberalisation and market attend any training in integration regionally and aquaculture, the shrimps and globally, Viet Nam should fish also died. $armers who continue to understand the used to plant rice now do not potential and foresee the have enough land for rice difficulties and risks spawned cultivation. They stare far into by its market reforms. Towards the vast swampland. They are this, information should be disappointed but keep waiting collected and assessed in a for new guidance from the timely fashion to help policy government. The lesson makers continue to develop seems to be that hurried policies that are beneficial to investments without careful the Vietnamese people. The planning and preparation is a information system should be waste of state budget when perfected, and the Statistics planning a shift in crop Department should evaluate cultivation. Shifting to higher and manage all the local value plant products and indicators (there are nearly 50 husbandry can bring many indicators provided by different changes in the farmers’ lives. If organisations that are still not intensive investment is done under the Statistics wisely, the state can help the Department’s management).

Government should support the poor (especially women) with capital, production methods and create markets to increase poor people’s income. There are a wide variety of tropical fruits in Viet Nam for export, among them mango, mangosteen, Photo: Ngo Thi Lan Phuong

114 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration durian, pineapple, and longan external assistance, Cambodia etc. However, Viet Nam is has achieved some peace and lacking in post-harvest economic stability. Peace and processing technology, and security have paved the way needs to learn from others and for national reconstruction and apply useful lessons to its own an enabling environment for agricultural and aquaculture social and economic reform. processing. Cambodia has joined the Government should allocate Association of Southeast Asian land to farmers for a longer Nations (ASEAN) in 1999 and time so they can invest in the the World Trade Organization land for the long-term. More (WTO) in 2003. It is part of a importantly, opportunities cluster of new developing should be given for accessing countries within the ASEAN social services such as credit called the Cambodia, Lao and banking. This will help PDR, Myanmar and Viet Nam poor farmers and women (CLMV). Cambodia also develop their small businesses signed onto the Asian $ree and create quality production Trade Area (A$TA) which was that can compete globally. set up in January 2002 to eliminate tariff barriers among $inally, government agencies Southeast Asian countries. should cooperate with A$TA aims to integrate the scientists to study high breed ASEAN economies into a plants suitable to local single production base and conditions and prepare a create a prosperous regional master plan for intensive market of 500 million people. cultivation of ideal crops. The ASEAN-6 countries (Brunei Darussalam, 5. “ oreign Direct Indonesia, Malaysia, Investment-led Growth Philippines, Singapore and Strategy: Women in the Thailand) only have 3.8 per Garment Industry” by cent or 1,683 items out of Thida C. Khus 44,060 that would have tariffs above 5 per cent by 2002. The Introduction plan is to eliminate all tariffs by 2008. In the spirit of economic After more than two decades of integration with ASEAN, national strife and considerable Cambodia has committed to

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 115 reduce import tariff of goods experts’ group to work on traded among other ASEAN recommendations for Member Countries to 0-5 per economic cooperation. cent by 2010 and for other Leaders also see further sensitive products, such as collaborations with South rice, by 2015. Korea, Australia and New Zealand. The leaders of ASEAN have also entered into economic Cambodia has actively traded cooperation with China, and with China with the hope of have agreed to establish an receiving investments and ASEAN-China free trade area gaining access to the vast in 10 years. If this agreement Chinese market. However, at takes place, ASEAN and China this stage, Cambodia appears would have a combined market to be losing out. Cambodian of 1.7 billion people and a trade with China has become gross domestic product of 2 lopsided since Cambodia has a trillion US dollars (ASEAN limited capacity to compete in Secretariat, 2002). Trade the Chinese market. Bold estimates place ASEAN export economic policy has created to China growing at 48 per cent wider inequalities, especially and China to ASEAN growing among the least developing at 55 per cent. To boost this countries, of which Cambodia growth, ASEAN and Japan is one. Cambodia’s economic have established a joint development has so far

Table 1: Asia Pacific Countries’ trade balance with China, 2004 ($ millions)

Export to Import to Trade China China balance

LDC of which: 314 3560 -3246 Bangladesh 57 1906 -1849 Cambodia 30 452 - 422 LAO PDR 12 101 - 89 Myanmar 207 938 - 731 Nepal 8 163 - 155 Low income countries 11,460 12,945 - 1,485 Middle income countries 46,017 25,140 20,877 High income countries 247,109 228,419 18,690 Total Asia Pacific 304,900 270,064 34,836

Source: IM%, 2006

116 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration created too few jobs for youth growth has fluctuated for the and women (UNDP-HDR past 10 years. The high 2006). economic growth averaged around 6 per cent in the last Since joining the World Trade decade with the population Organization, Cambodia’s growth decreasing from 2.49 National Assembly has per cent in 1998 to 1.81 per approved only two measures cent in 2004. Cambodia has a required by the WTO. Twenty favourable geographic area eight more legislative bills are with vast land areas for waiting to be passed in cultivation and an impressive compliance with the WTO, seaport. Cambodia also has including civil procedure codes, borders with two fast growing criminal codes and criminal economies, something which is procedural codes, expected to favourable to cross border become law by the end of 2006 trade. As well, Cambodia has (The Joint Monitoring many tourist sites that can Indicators of the Country attract thousands of visitors, Consultative Meeting in March especially if it can put an end to 2006). the political and social turmoil.

Cambodia has also been bold Cambodia’s real GDP is in taking steps to integrate the estimated to have grown by economy into the region and 13.4 per cent in 2005 (IM$ has embarked on several Mission to Cambodia, May regional initiatives, including 2006). This growth is attributed the Economic Cooperation to higher agriculture production Strategy (ESC). borne by recent favourable weather conditions, raised Cambodia’s National productivity, and continued Situation robust performances of the tourism, garment, and Economic Profile construction industries.

Cambodia has an estimated The source of economic GDP per capita in 2005 of growth for Cambodia is $448 (Ministry of Planning concentrated in a few areas, 2006) and a population of 13.9 namely: (1) garments; (2) million. Cambodia’s economic tourism; (3) private

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 117 Table 2: Cambodia Economic Growth (%, 2000 prices)

Sectors 2002 2003 2004 2005e

Agriculture -2.8% 12% -2.1% 1.3% Paddy -7.8% 22.3% -12.3% -0.4% Industry & Constructions 17.7% 12.3% 16.5% 6.8% Garments 21.2% 16.9% 24.9% 8.5% Services 4.4% 0.1% 9.2% 6.5% Tourism 18.8% -10.3% 23.6% 18% Total GDP 5.2% 7% 7.7% 5%

Source: NIS for 2002-04; EIC model projection for 2005

construction; and (4) new Cambodia has to work quickly cultivated areas recovered to make the industry more from deforested land. competitive and to diversify production in other sectors. Garments export has remained strong because of the The service sector, on the imposition of safeguards by the other hand, is spurred by United States on imports from tourism. In 2005, tourist arrival China, and a bilateral rate reached 1.4 million, an agreement between the increase of 35 per cent over European Union to restrain the 2004 rates (Ministry of import of garments from China $inance, 2006). This sector as well. This has created has contributed to the GDP, opportunities for Cambodia and growing 6.2 per cent annually has absorbed 87 per cent of from 1999-2005. With value Cambodian garments export. added by hotels and The garments export has restaurants, the service sector totalled $2.25 billion in 2005, has contributed an average of an increase of 12 per cent over 15 per cent to the GDP. the 2004 figure (IM$, ibid). However, the EU and US Agriculture made a strong restrictions on Chinese comeback in 2005, compared garments will end by 2007. to 2004 which was marked by Threats on the garments drought. However, as in other industry are therefore developing countries, anticipated, especially when Cambodia has seen a Viet Nam enters the WTO. decrease in food production

118 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration due to the growth of cheap overcome obstacles in the form food imports from China and of weak public institutions, other neighboring countries including public administration, (UNDP-HDR 2006). Many the judicial system, a high level farmers have abandoned food of corruption and a poorly production due to high educated work force. The production costs and the private sector has cited also inability to compete with inadequate infrastructure and imports from Viet Nam and poor access to financing. To Thailand. This trend, if it attract more foreign continues, will create problems investment, Cambodia has to for national security which is be more competitive and built on food security. develop other relevant industries for the Attracting $oreign Direct manufacturing of ancillary Investment ($DI) has been a materials such as buttons, central feature of Cambodian thread, and other accessories. economic development. $DI is concentrated in the urban The government’s fiscal policy areas and in the garment, aims at maintaining fiscal tourist and construction stability through a gradual sectors, benefiting only a small increase in budget for social proportion of the rural poor (20 and economic programmes, per cent). Because of foreseen reducing public expenditure challenges within the garment and broadening the tax base. and tourist industries, $DI is It also aims to prevent leakage, estimated to drop by half in the strengthen customs and tax first semester of 2005, administration and collect according to the Economic additional revenues. The Institute of Cambodia. The Cambodian government’s government has initiated a new policy is to ensure a level of strategy to create a Special public spending consistent with Economic Zones (SEZ) and macroeconomic stability. This Industrial Zones at the borders means promoting domestic of Thailand and Viet Nam as a savings, productive way of geographically investment, and an efficient dispersing $DI. It also has to resource allocation. work on several fronts to keep on attracting foreign The Cambodian Government investments. It has to has also swiftly reformed its

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 119 monetary policy. The central Cambodia has missed its bank’s role has been payments to Russia and the transformed to one of oversight US. A debt rescheduling with for the whole financial sector. these two countries is needed Banking is completely for Cambodia to continue to privatised; after a few bank enjoy credit from multinational failures in the previous five banks. years, private banks appear to be regaining the trust of foreign Human Development investors. As a result foreign currency deposits rose by 20 Trade in the past decade has per cent in 2005, and credit to mainly benefited the educated the private sector – mainly to and the higher income finance the construction of population, resulting in many hotels and houses - rose by 40 rural communities being left out per cent. Bank capital and of development. These rural reserves is up by 9.6 per cent poor do not have access to and official reserves rose by 12 development opportunities per cent. All these activities because of lack of information reflect a strong export and education. Indeed, performance, sustained by globalisation has created many tourist arrivals and capital opportunities but the rural inflows. To add to these population has not taken positive developments, inflation has been kept at a minimal of 5.8 per cent despite the high oil prices. However, more needs to be done to encourage locals to use the local banking system instead of keeping their savings in US dollars or in gold standards.

Cambodia’s external debt situation has been considered manageable and sustainable. Current outstanding debt is now equal to 43 per cent of GDP, with a debt ratio of 2.6 per cent. Lately, however, Photo: SILAKA

120 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration advantage of them. Poverty 2005. The total combined stalks the countryside where unemployment and under economic development has employment from the rural been slow. The national community is estimated at be poverty line, based on a food about 2 million in 2004. The basket computed at $0.45 per modern sector only absorbs 20 day per person, is said to be per cent of this labour pool around 34 per cent in 2004, while 5 per cent of the excess with a higher proportion of labour migrates to other those living in the rural areas countries, mainly to Thailand. being affected. The poverty rate has consistently dropped The bias of economic by 1 per cent annually but this development toward the urban improvement has left out the area mainly in Phnom Penh majority of the rural population. where garment firms are mostly found and Siam Reap $ormal employment is much where there is a thriving tourist smaller compared to industry has generated employment in the informal migration from the countryside economy which is estimated to to the city. It is estimated that be the source of up to 90 per 150,000 migrated from the cent of jobs. New entrants into rural community to the urban the labour force increase by an areas in 1994. This number estimated 3.5 per cent has jumped to 300,000 in annually, such that 300,000 1997. In the 1998 census, 30 new jobs have to be created per cent of people surveyed in each year. However, the rate the city of Phnom Penh were of job creation is slow, and only found to have migrated from 50,000 jobs in the formal the rural areas. sector had been created during this period (Cambodia Landlessness has grown and Economic Review 2004). threatens to become a critical According to the Economic political problem. The rural Institute of Cambodia the poor have found themselves unemployment rate among the more and more without land, rural poor rose from 150,000 in such that according to an the period 1994 to 1998 to Oxfam study, landlessness has 200,000 in the period 1999 to increased from 3 per cent in 2003. An estimated 230,000 1984 to 12 per cent in 1999 (or were unemployed in 2004- 1.2 million people). Within this

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 121 Table 3: or population 25 years and older

Education Level Completed Both Male emale Sexes

Pre School 0.1% 0.1% 0.2% None 4.3% 4.3% 4.3% Primary not completed 54% 45.9% 63.6% Primary 23.7% 27.3% 19.5% Lower secondary 11.3% 13.6% 8.6% Secondary/diploma 4.5% 6.0% 2.6% Vocational training 0.8% 1.0% 0.6% Beyond secondary 1.1% 1.6% 0.5%

Source: Cambodian Inter-Censal Population Survey 2004, Ministry of Planning

group, 21 per cent are female primary education. Of the 0.8 headed households. per cent of the population that has attended some skills Socio-economic Status of training, women also fare Cambodian Women worse than men.

$ifty-two per cent of Cambodian women are Cambodia’s 13.9 million are disadvantaged in employment, women according to the 2004 with the men dominating the inter Census conducted by the few occupations that bring in Ministry of Planning of the good pay (see Table 4). Royal Cambodian A large majority of the Government. More women (63 economically active women are per cent) than men (45.9 per found in the agriculture and cent) have not completed fisheries related occupations

Table 4: Distribution of Literate and Economically Active Population

OccupationCambodia Urban Rural Males emales Males emales Males emales

Legislator, senior officer, manager 0.7% 0% 1% 0.1% 0.7% 0% Professional 0.3% 0.1% 1.6% 0.4% 0.1% 0% Technicians 3.6% 1.7% 6.9% 5.3% 3.1% 1.2% Clerk & services 7.5% 10.6% 23.1% 23.3% 4.8% 7.3% Agriculture/fishery 70.1% 75% 31.8% 36.8% 76.4% 80.5% Craft 6.6% 6.4% 13.4% 11.7% 5.4% 5.6% Other 11.3% 6.2% 22.4% 12.2% 9.5% 5.3%

Source: National Institute of Statistics, 2005

122 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration (75 per cent of total and 60.5 garments factories are located, per cent of those found in the there are slightly more females rural areas). than males that have migrated in-city (females at 58.2 per The country has a rather high cent and males at 54.2 per rate of women-headed cent). households, about 29.2 per cent of all households Maternal mortality rate in nationwide (National Institute of Cambodia, from 1994-2000, is Statistics, Ministry of Planning among the highest (437 per 2004). Women-headed 100,000) in the region. households are mostly found in Approximately 2000 women the rural areas where less than die during child birth annually. half of all female heads (48.9 It is estimated that more than per cent) are literate, more one-fifth of women between the than one-third are 50 years ages of 15 to 44 die of and older and 89.7 per cent of illnesses related to pregnancy these women work in complications, causing concern agriculture. among health authorities. Poor women with little or no About a third of the population education are less likely to is reported to have migrated receive prenatal care and have from their home towns for their baby delivered by trained various reasons. Both men and health professionals. The women are also migrating. An survey cites the cost of overall increase in migration of services as the major obstacle both male and female to receiving care (CDHS 2000). populations has been noted, Poor women’s access to from 9 per cent in 1998 to 12.5 prenatal care is only at 30 per per cent in 2004. However, in cent compared to 75 per cent the urban areas where the among better-off women. The

Table 5: Migrant and Non Migrant Population

Status Cambodia UrbanRural Males emales Males emales Males emales

Non Migrant 64.9 65 45.8 41.8 68.2 69

Migrant 35.2 35.1 54.2 58.2 31.8 31

Source: National Institute of Statistics, 2005

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 123 Table 6: Garment Industry: Economic structural effect

Effects on Economy 1995 2000 2005

Contribution to economy as % of GDP 1 9 15 Share in exports of goods 3 70 82

Physical infrastructure Rehabilitation and new construction $inancial infrastructure Enhancement of banking and financial services

Government policies - Globalisation & regionalisation - Institutional reforms - Institutional establishment: GMAC, Trade Unions, ILO better factories,

Source Neak Samsen, EIC, June 6, 2006

situation is further complicated unwittingly benefited by the shortage of doctors for Cambodia. While other the general population (in countries in the region have 1998, there was only one moved away from garment doctor per 6,808 persons). production, Cambodia has managed to continue attracting .ocus on the Garment investments even from China Industry itself and Taiwan as well as buyers from the United States Although the Multi $iber and the European Union. Agreement was eliminated at Cambodian products have the end of 2004, the garment accounted for 82 per cent of industry in Cambodia garment merchandise among amazingly showed resiliency its export products which when and survived in 2005. Earlier, it compared to those in other had been anticipated that the Least Developing Countries elimination of the quota will such as Pakistan (68 per cent), benefit China and India, Bangladesh (59 per cent), Sri countries that are large Lanka and Nepal (around 50 garment producers. However, per cent each) is much larger the import safeguards against (UNDP-HDR 2006). The China that were introduced by garment industry has the US and the EU in 2005 had significantly benefited the

124 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration economy as may be gleaned million US dollars last year. As from Table 6. Its share in well, from 1995 to 2005 the export has increased from number of exporters rose from US26 million dollars to US2 20 to 258, when exports billion dollars in 2004 and now simultaneously climbed from accounts for over 80 per cent 27 million to 2.197 million US of the country’s total exports. dollars. The export market has been mainly the European Over a quarter of a million Union in 1995 but in 2005, the workers are currently US export market rose to 70 employed in the garment per cent (see Table 7). industry, and a greater number work in the informal support While the garments industry sectors. These workers are has brought much of the mostly women from rural needed foreign exchange and communities, their remittances created the desperately sustaining an estimated 20 per needed jobs for the rural poor, cent of the country’s population Cambodia has not profited as of 13 million (EIC, April-June much as it should due to the 2005). It has also remitted for high costs of imported the workers a total of 110 materials needed in garment

Table 7: Overview of Garment Industry in Cambodia

1995 2000 2005

Producers/exporters 20 190 258 Production (US $ million) 27 985 2,197 Market US: 1% US: 63% US: 70% In 1996 EU: 34% EU: 22% EU: 96% Other: 3% Other: 8% Other 3% Employment 19,000 123,000 284,000 Indirect Employment (1 for every 5 direct employment) 3,800 24,600 56,800 Nominal wage 50-75 USD/month 72 USD Remittance 40-50% of monthly wage; 110 US Million in 2005

Sources: Customs and excise; GMAC(compiled by EIC)

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 125 Table 8: DI-led Industries: Costs as Percentage of Total Sale

Garment Tourism

Import Input 67% 62 % Labour cost 13 % 3 % Others 20 % 35 % Total 100 % 100 % Total sale (USD) 1,300 570

Source: EIC 2004

production. Only 13 per cent of support families in the rural labour costs directly benefit the areas. 88 per cent of those poor. Nevertheless, the surveyed report having garment industry is still better contributed to family health than the tourist industry in care, and about 60 per cent terms of job creation and other said they contribute to their economic benefits. siblings’ education. This contribution has given the Impact on women workers women garment workers more authority in their families’ Eighty eight per cent of decision making and has workers in the garment reportedly altered relationships industry have access to so that Cambodian families housing and sanitation (CRD/ now allow their daughters to ADB survey in 2003). They venture out of their homes, to also have access to clean work in the city or outside their water, unlike in the rural areas, home towns. This was rarely where only about 30 per cent the practice in Cambodian have access to it. In an conservative communities in interview conducted by EIC an earlier period. Moving out survey in 2006, 74 per cent of from their rural communities to the respondent said that they city life therefore has brought limit their expenditures on food both advantages and and spend 68 per cent of their disadvantages to Cambodian incomes on clothing. An ADB women. survey of 112 workers from Prey Veng province found that In-depth interviews of seven the garment workers save on women were carried out by the their monthly remittances to study. The workers were

126 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration young, between the ages of 20 and managers — the latter to 35 years; three of whom are jobs being more highly paid. single. The rest who are either The women workers reported married or divorced have only an improvement in their one child each. They depend working conditions in the last 3 on their family to watch over years. Two factories have built their children, aged between 1 a health clinic for their to 9 years. One child died while employees, and there are an in the care of the grandmother adequate number of restrooms in the rural area. All of them for men and women. Some came to work in the garments factories have even installed industry in search of electric fans for air to circulate employment in place of farm inside the work place. Women work. Two of the women can avail of maternity leaves brought their siblings to work in averaging 3 months, with some the same factory. reduction of salary if leave is extended. One factory gives They reportedly earn from baby formula and a small US$45 to US$90, depending stipend for the new mothers on overtime work. They work until the baby is 8 months old. an average of 10 hours daily, They also revealed belonging but with overtime work this can to unions but feel that some run to over 14 hours per day. unions are not as effective as All the women insist they need others in protecting women the overtime pay to make ends members’ interest. meet and to be able to send money home. With this All the women reported some income, they spend an form of sexual harassment average of US$30 for basic coming from male workers, needs such as housing, food especially male supervisors. and utilities. All report having $orms of sexual harassment health problems, ranging from include name calling and stomach ache to headache. All sexual innuendos. Other unfair support their parents and labour practices come in the siblings, sending an average of form of unexplained cuts in US$10 to US$30 a month. paycheck. Most of the women want to learn new skills and get Women variously work as other jobs but do not have any sorters and sewers while the idea how or where to go. $ive few men work either as out of the seven women loaders, cutters, inspectors, interviewed have managed to

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 127 save US$400 for the past 6 Cambodian women’s years working at their jobs. employment in the garments They plan to work 2 more sector, however, remains years and move on to their tenuous. It is predicted that in own business. the next two to three years, the garment industry will become The garment industry has unstable unless the certainly brought employment government addresses the to thousands of women who needs of the industry for a otherwise would not find similar more effective bureaucracy, opportunities in the rural areas adequate infrastructure and where they came from. Having provision of basic utilities. A acquired city-based relocation of garment firms to employment also meant having foreign countries where access to information, mainly business might be more through radio and television. profitable would mean a lost of Their new-found capacity to jobs for thousands of women send income back to their left- garment workers who will not behind families in the rural find any comparable areas has given them some employment to fall back on. prestige and power within their families. Some of the women And while women workers are have been able to make grateful for the incomes they decisions about their lives such get from the garment sector, as getting out of a marriage they are, however, not that do not satisfy them. In a oblivious to the risks that they recent survey (EIC 2006) 53 face. Most expressed concerns per cent of those surveyed over the deterioration of reported to be a union member women workers’ health which which taught them to be they linked to malnutrition, effective in group bargaining. under-monitored environment Women have also reported to safety standards, and long have been effective in dealing working hours. with the police during strikes. Despite the women making up Government Response 85 -90 per cent of the total work force in the garment The Cambodian Government sector, however, they still are has adopted what it calls a not represented in union “Rectangular Strategy” that leadership. focuses on economic growth,

128 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration Table 9: Components of Government’s Economic Approach

Enhancement of urther Private sector Capacity Building the agricultural rehabilitation and development and & Human sector construction of employment Resources physical generation Development infrastructure

1. Improved 1. Transport 1. Strengthening the 1. enhancing quality productivity and crop infrastructure private sector and of education diversification attracting investment

2. Strengthened land 2. Management of 2. Creating jobs and 2. Improving health reform and mine water resources and ensuring improved service clearance irrigation working conditions

3. $ishery and 3. Energy sector and 3. Promoting SMEs 3. $ostering gender forestry reform electricity network equity

4. Information and 4. Ensuring social 4. Implementing communication safety nets population policy technology full employment and an industry and to diversify it equitable distribution of profits (Ministry of Economy and and resources. The strategy $inance Consultative Meeting, has four components: (1) March 2006). These are as enhancement of the follows: (1) increased agricultural sector; (2) further incentives given to garment rehabilitation and construction industries to stay in Cambodia; of physical infrastructure; (3) (2) diversification of industries private sector development into toys, footwear, electrical and employment generation; and electronic assembly; (3) and (4) capacity building and establishing special economic human resources development zones (at the border towns of (see Table 9). In line with this Viet Nam and Thailand); and plan, the Cambodian (4) persisting with reforms Government has acted on key (administrative, judicial and reform areas, including legal legal, public financial and judicial reform, armed management). forces reform and demobilisation, pubic A generous package of administration reform, and incentives is extended by the reforms to fight corruption. government to $DIs in the garment industry in order to Specific measures have been entice them to stay in taken to maintain the garment Cambodia. These include: (1)

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 129 pegging corporate tax at a low improved health care, the nine per cent; (2) guaranteeing development of agricultural and tax relief on corporate tax to up rural non-farm activities, as to nine years which is may be well as improved infrastructure. extended to five more years if losses are reported; (3) Conclusion and exempting profits from tax if Recommendations reinvested in Cambodia; (4) exempting dividends from Globalisation and a growth withholding tax; and (5) strategy have brought unrestricted repatriation of prosperity to Cambodia in a profit. Such tax exempt highly uneven manner that is measures given to foreign also full of uncertainties. The corporations had meant that gap between the rich and poor government has been hard has become wider and the pressed to look elsewhere for majority of the population, funds to support its anti- especially from the rural areas, poverty programme and is being left behind while the measures that cut across the middle class from the cities four components of its enjoy the fruits of liberalisation. economic development The garment industry has strategy. certainly reversed the situation of unpaid agricultural work that To increase competitiveness an estimated 300,000 women and attract investments, workers now employed by the Cambodia plans a Special garment firms used to engage Economic Zone (SEZ) and in. There are indications that industrial zones at the border employment in the garment towns of Thailand and Viet industry had empowered Nam. This strategy is designed individual women in making to take advantage of these personal decisions, engaging neighbouring countries’ cheap in family decisions, and in basic utilities and their already accessing information. developed infrastructure. Nevertheless, the development Hopefully, this strategy will also of the garment industry shows lessen the movement of that government has also Cambodia’s rural communities become overly dependent on a to the urban areas. To small group of foreign direct succeed, the Cambodian investors who would need to Government has to prioritise be continually enticed by tax

130 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration and other incentives in order to food from their natural habitat; remain in Cambodia. And it is they must have access to hurting not just government but technology and credit. They also the ordinary citizens who must be trained in food now have to assume the costs processing, packaging, and of inadequate, inefficient or business skills if the farmers privatised services and utilities. are to increase the value $or women workers in the added to their products. They garment industry, the health need government protection and safety issues are major from competitors from concerns. neighboring countries. Protection of local products is In the Cambodian context, a necessary to national food more sustainable approach to security and to food growth and development is sovereignty. found in supporting women in the rural communities and in As well, develop a competent developing measures to corps of public servants that safeguard the majority of the will protect the good of the Cambodian rural population. general population. This is Economic integration with the already a government priority, neighbouring countries without but it is important to special protective measures is underscore it as the only way tantamount to denying rural Cambodia will be able to folks’ basic rights to survival. protect its public interest. Effective measures should Effective policy implementation include support to agricultural builds trust with the general producers such as the public and will ensure strengthening of agricultural economic transformation. The services, technology and low pace of planned reforms of the interest loans. Irrigation bureaucracy should be systems must be developed to accelerated. $ighting provide farmers with adequate corruption will become easier access to water. $armers must with a better structured system also be protected from massive of administrative and public agriculture imports, especially finance management, staffed in sensitive products such as by qualified public servants rice and meat. $armers must receiving decent wages. also increase their capabilities Reform of the judicial system to go beyond just gathering of will result in making Cambodia

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 131 credible and attractive to A final recommendation is foreign investors and to local comprised of a set of studies businesses. that need to be carried out in support of policies and Put in place services in support regulations pertinent to of women in the garment women’s economic security industry. As the country opens and rights in the context of itself up to foreign investment globalisation and regional and moves toward integration. These studies are industrialisation, women will be as follows: pulled from their homes and • Study on social costs into factories. These women related to the garment will need basic family services industry. We need to know such as child care, health care, the industry’s impact on and adequate housing. family life, child rearing, and Government must ensure that the costs of a changing life factories provide daycare, style for rural women in the improved housing, and health industrial sector. care for their employees’ • Study on women workers’ children. An educational health and well being in the system must also be put in garment industries. The place to upgrade women’s women save on food, health skills so they can move up care, and clothing so they within the industry or move can send home a portion of elsewhere to better their salary to support their opportunities. families. How is their reproductive health affected Increase the national capacity by this practice and their to collect and analyse data exposure to chemicals in related to gender issues. This factories? will improve the monitoring of • Study on the informal policies that address women’s garment sector and the needs. In the process of other businesses that are collecting data for this linked to garment workers. research, for example, many This informal economy is obstacles were encountered, registered and is not being including the difficulty in monitored for labour code accessing national data for a compliance. systematic gender analysis. • Study on garment workers’ children’s health and

132 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration education. Most of the and economic security. garment workers have Women and the economy is entrusted their children in one of the twelve areas of the care of the concern in the Beijing Platform grandparents and older for Action. Therefore, in Beijing relatives in the rural areas, all governments committed but little is known of their themselves to promote well being and how they are women’s access to growing up. employment and appropriate • Study on the working conditions; eliminating multidimensional implication occupational segregation and of the Cambodia National employment discrimination; Economic Policy to facilitating women’s equal women’s empowerment access to resources, markets, and advancement. and trade; providing business • Study on cross border trade services, training and access with Thailand and Viet Nam to markets, information, and and its link to women’s technology especially for low employment and income women; and livelihoods. strengthening women’s • Study on the impact of economic capacity and tourism and construction commercial networks. industries on Cambodian Since introducing the New women. Economic Mechanism in 1986, the Government has been 6. “Lao Women’s Cross expanding trade, transport, and Border Trading and New other links with neighbouring Customs Regulations” by countries in the Greater Gender Resource Mekong System. Through sub- Information and regional cooperation, the Development Center Government aims to turn Lao [GRID] PDR’s “landlocked” status to advantage as a “land link” Introduction between the more dynamic economies in the region. This The Beijing Platform for Action, expansion of cross-border which Lao PDR and other UN transport networks and trade Member Countries endorsed in would also restore the 1995, supports enhancement country’s historical position as of women’s economic potential a crossroads for the movement

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 133 of people and goods. Greater pro-poor trade strategy as economic links with follows: 1) continuing neighbouring countries present sustainable trade policy a number of opportunities for reforms; 2) mainstreaming Lao women and men. trade into national growth and poverty reduction strategy; 3) As a member of ASEAN, Lao rationalising and streamlining PDR has committed to reduce trade administration import tariffs and to take other procedures; 4) upgrading the steps under the framework capacity of service delivery agreement for the ASEAN $ree system in the trade sector; and Trade Area (A$TA). The 5) improving trade facilitation. country is also included in ASEAN framework agreements The Constitution guarantees to liberalise trade with PRC, equal rights of women and India, and Japan. Lao PDR has men. It states that ‘Lao citizens a trade and cooperation of both sexes shall enjoy equal agreement with the EU and a rights in political, economic, more specific agreement on cultural, social and family textiles and clothing that affairs. The Law on Women accounts for the large increase Development and Protection in textile and clothing exports defines principles, rules and to the EU in recent years. Lao measures relating to the PDR signed a trade agreement development and protection of with the United States in late women. Article 15 clearly 2003 that is still to be ratified. states the equal economic Lao PDR has also applied for rights of women and men- it membership in the WTO. says “The State, society and family shall promote the rights In addition to the gradual of women to engage in development in the trade production, business and sector and in order to expand service which are permitted by its role in promoting the law on an equal basis with development and poverty men. The State, society and eradication, especially to family shall also ensure to encourage poor people to women equal rights to work, to engage in trade activities as a employment and remuneration. means for their overcoming Women who have the same poverty, the Government of position and responsibilities as Lao PDR has introduced its men shall have the right to

134 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration allowances and benefits on an Women’s Union Training equal basis with men. Centre provides training on vocational education for The Government of Lao PDR employment and income has taken some initiatives to generation skills. promote women’s enterprises, in weaving, silk production, The Lao PDR Economy handicrafts, etc. National Under a Liberalised Regime bodies such as the Lao Trade Promotion Centre (LTPC) of The Lao economy remains the Ministry of Commerce and predominantly subsistence the Vientiane Women’s agriculture. Agriculture is Business Association (VWBA) employing 80 per cent of the are supporting the government. labour force. The annual GDP The LTPC is providing per capita is US$320 in 2003. assistance to larger textile and About 48 per cent of value weaving enterprises owned by added of GDP comes from the women and organises agricultural sector, 26 per cent business training seminars for from industry and handicrafts, rural entrepreneurs (women 25 per cent from the service and men). VWBA on the other sector and 1 per cent from hand, is providing training and import duties (NSC, 2003). The other kinds of support to Lao PDR is rich in forest and businesswomen who are water resources, which is a based in Vientiane. great potential for its development of its economy The Lao Women’s Union is which has grown rapidly for implementing some projects in more than a decade. In the all provinces covering 1941 1990s, real GDP grew by an villages in 68 districts in the annual average rate of 6.3 per country. The main activities cent and exports grew at include vocational training, around 15 per cent a year. extension of micro credit, Agriculture grew rapidly as did handicraft development and industry and services. Donors income generation activities for provided considerable financial women. The micro finance and technical support; in 2002/ project has been implemented 03, donor-funded programmes in 8 districts. The LWU set up accounted for 7 per cent of 289 groups of saving schemes GDP, 39 per cent of total public with 20,764 members. The Lao expenditure, and 61 per cent of

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 135 the capital budget (WB of tourist arrivals to Lao PDR Economic Monitor 2004). The increased rapidly from 37,613 country’s trading activity has in 1991 to 894,806 in 2004 increased substantially over (LNTA, 2005). Tourism the past decade. Exports rose contributes substantially to from US$64 million in 1990 to national income with a total US$443 million in 2002 while revenue of 118 million US imports rose during the same dollars in 2004 and generates period from US$149 million to employment. Tourism has US$763 million. The Lao demonstrated its potential for PDR’s main exports are creating jobs and encouraging electricity, garments and wood income-generating activities to products. benefit local communities.

In recent years, larger private At present, the important enterprises have been set up trading partners of Lao PDR with foreign owners or partners are mainly Asian and Pacific including garment factories. nations, such as Thailand, Viet The recent mushrooming of Nam, Japan, China, garment factories in Lao PDR Singapore, Hong Kong and has opened up new job some European nations like opportunities for young Lao $rance, Germany, Italy, the women from mainly rural United States of America, areas. However, Lao garment Russia and others. Lao PDR’s workers are also in an export goods are mainly timber uncertain position because of products, electricity, gypsum, the phase-out of import quotas rattan products, coffee, on textiles and clothing under cardamom, sesame, forest the World Trade Organization products, garments and Agreement. This liberalisation handicraft items. Some exports of the textile and clothing contribute more directly to market will expose Lao human development in the Lao garment manufacturers to PDR than others. Exports that greater competition with contribute most directly include uncertain effects on jobs and labour-intensive export wages in the sector. products - garments, wood products, processed foods and Tourism and related services handicrafts – as well as are also expanding in the big international tourism overseas cities. In general, the number labour migration to Thailand.

136 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration Table 1: Direct Employment by Type of Export and by Gender 2002-2004

Export Total direct % Number of Number of employment Women womenmen

Agriculture + NT$Ps 277,000 50 (est.) 138,500 138,500

Labour to Thailand 250,000 55 137,500 112,500 Garments 26,000 80 20,800 5,200 Wood products 20,000 10 (est.) 2,000 18,000

Handicrafts 20,000 70 (est.) 14,000 6,000 International tourism 18,000 50 9,000 9,000 Source: International Trade and Human Development, Lao PDR, 2006

These create employment factories are young women. particularly of women, they There were 24,874 industry expand opportunity and choice, handicraft establishments in they increase incomes of rural Lao PDR that employ 91,034 families and rural women, and workers (MIH, 2003). When we are more likely to reduce exclude the garment industry, poverty directly, and to benefit the number of women rural and other communities employed in the production via remittances sent or carried industry is low, about 33 per home and through other cent while that of men is 67 per multiplier effects. cent. Electricity production employs more technicians than There were about 37,075 others, while wood, wood workers in 2000 (Shyam products do; non-metallic Upadhayaya and Ittichai mineral products (brick and tile Yossri, 2000) employed in the industry) and basic metal industry sector. About 70 per products industries employ cent of the workers are more seasonal and temporary production workers, 13 per workers than the other cent technicians, 10 per cent industries (Shyam Upadhayaya administrative and 7 per cent and Ittichai Yossri, op.cit.). seasonal and temporary workers. The highest numbers Variations in salaries, wages of production workers are in and other kinds of the textile and garment remuneration are common industry, of which 85 per cent among female and male are women. The vast majority workers. The average salaries of workers in Lao garment and wages of female workers

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 137 Table 2: 1 Number of employee in the 2005 Census

Code Categories Total Women (%) Men (%)

1 Government Employee 168,388 31 69 2 Parastatal Employee 11,446 33 67 3 Private Employee 121,786 40 60 4 State Enterprise Employee 19,486 27 73 5 Employer 7,210 31 69 6 Owner Account Worker 1,149,906 32 68 7 Unpaid family work 1,260,671 71 29

Total 2,738,893 50 50

Source: Census 2005, National Statistics Center

in the textile and garment 63 percentages of micro and industry are lower compared to small enterprises in the Lao males. $or example in 1999, PDR are female owned. LECS male workers received an 3 survey (2003) noted that 28 average of 2.7 million Kip and per cent of Laos’ households female workers 1.41 million operate at least one household Kip. The male-female wage business and that 53 per cent discrepancy was explained by of household businesses are the fact that average wages operated by women (62 per and salaries for females in the cent in urban and 43 per cent predominantly-female textile in rural areas). The most and garment industry, were common sub-sectors for lower than that of male women’s commercial micro employees in other industries. and small enterprises are The CEDAW report (2003) retail, vending, and noted that low factory wages guesthouse/restaurant have contributed to an operations. Men are mostly increase in prostitution. There involved in wholesaling. In the are also reports of harsh, even manufacturing sector, textiles abusive working conditions in appear to be the exclusive some garments factories. domain of women. Lao women have long been active in small- Women’s Small and Micro scale trading including cross- Enterprises border trading. The expansion of cross-border trade is also The 1995 National Small opening up new markets for Enterprise Survey found that hand-woven textiles and other

138 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration

Source: GSP Division Source: MOA

0.432.119.95 2.50 0.864.310.680.61 0.12 1.57 0.203.023.08 1.083.34 0.492.930.912.90 0.93 0.68 15.83 18.22 20.77 Source: MOA$ 23.61 21.57 10.53 21.2125.56 74.44 100.00 100.00

682 2,162,195 3,914,654 686,020,068 1,371,505 7,404,860 3,345,189 6,222,753 6,405,763 4,690,000 10,804,229 20,707,259 21,113,915 22,897,206 20,107,079 19,900,550 72,228,949 148,000,000 145,471,319 553, 45,342,508 1,970,591 9,599,327 3,907,743 3,107,908 2,756,635

72,129,382 83,010,893 94,629,997 11,388,150 19,645,326 107,582,471

87,902,904 162,556,338 146,458,346 510,670,576 1,506,445 1,732,131 5 (7,8,9)/05 Total I+II+III+IV Export 10,150 157,720,720186,258,635 218,28447,614,472 51,514,022 230,395,455 873,37332,360,233 39,800,289 175,349,492 31,272,097 21,993,896

4,728,706 2,213,424 2,228,505 5,876,472 270,003 35,652,602 64,048,67767, 51,315,59751, 15,555,140 15,555,140 20,389,402 31,511,211 26,370,000 15,237,957 23,540,684 29,481,356 22,369,432 22,369,432 13,757,816 13,732,270 115,713,539123,138,204 125,360,487 226,998 226,998 850,635 1,105,523 507,178 1,444,407 338,704 258,201 362,747 258,201 2,406,457 2,240,233 338,470 307,947 392,550 5,366,796 985,264 1,007,264 3,280,225 950,000 643,292 413,285 1,135,079 433,949 404,152 1,314,961

21,387,441 ent project equipment 117,558 117,466 100,554 1,035,927 ucts 791,418 751,219 1,090,127 712,425 Lao PDR167,029,136 175,011,577 oods Total102,980,459 107,793,293 110,106,248 134,744,613 455,624,613 Transit and re-export goods Border Trade values Duty fees values Total of import for production and consumption Total of Import in Balance Trade Total of import for investm No ItemsI1 Export Itemsproductswood and Timber 18,024,721 18,104,661 25,958,739 (10,11,12)/04 10,041,261 (1,2,3)/05 iscal I (4,5,6)/0 iscal II iscal III iscal IV04/05 iscal In Percentage Remark 23bamboo and Rattan 4beans Coffee 5 Gypsum, tin and gold ores/Barite6 Goldproduced $orestry 1112 Electricity Power13miscellaneous& products industrial Other Others 1,600,010 2,740,610 2,372,113 3,122,535 5,525,005 139,509 143,847 100,201 170,125 78othersand products Agricultural 9animals feeding and Poultry 10products Handicraft products Garment 2,683,267 6,625,657 1,669,199 8,667,203 31,820,551 40,107,897 19,654,023 16,000,000 II1 Import Items 2inputsand tools Agricultural sports & supplies Office 2,016,203 2,314,403 3,891,879 2,581,744 34stuffs $ood 5consumptionother and textile, Clothes, appliances Electrical 6,351,367 6,700,591 4,659,568 3,402,389 1,566,053 4,944,534 1,619,184 5,051,674 1,186,088 4,958,501 3,033,535 5,752,550 67materials Construction gasand $uel 12commodities Other 4,554,557 4,825,550 11,346,094 4,119,742 17,291,040Sources: 9,397,357 Department of Trade Provincials, MOA%, %oreign Trade Department (GSP Division 56,735,523 62,627,343 89prod Pharmaceutical 10partsspare and Vehicles 11g Luxury Import of electricity power1314 Raw materials for garment productionTrade Informal III 4,101,624 1,932,200 4,847,899 3,337,320 4,331,225 2,790,780 6,826,331 11,840,250 4,690,000 15 Other raw materials for industry production 49,608,766 52,597,215 24,065,909 19,199,429 Table 3: Summary of Export and Import by fiscal Year 2004/05

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 139 igure 1. irms’ owners by gender and size

Total 243 141

Large 20 1

Medium 49 15

Small 128 94

Micro 52 31

0 20 40 60 80 100

Male emale

Source: Census 2005, National Statistics Center

handicrafts that are produced (38.8 per cent) compared to mainly by women. urban ones (34.9 per cent). This could be due to a number The NSC (2005) survey of embroidery, handicraft and showed a similar pattern. In other home-based production total, only 36.2 per cent of activities. (Census NSC, 2005). sample firms’ owners are female. The highest share Studies also showed that the (95.5 per cent) of males is in main constraints of female large enterprises. $emale small enterprises consist of: 1) owners have been noticed in limited capital, 2) taxation medium (23.4 per cent) and system, 3) lack of technical small (42.3 per cent) skills for business, and 4) bad enterprises. The share of experience with banking female owners in the micro institutions. Moreover, women enterprise group with 37.3 per also predominate as unpaid cent was slightly smaller than family workers in many those in small enterprises sectors, thus reinforcing their group. This is still in line with economic dependence, which the findings of the 1995 survey, further limits opportunities for that businesses owned by them to generate income. women are generally smaller Other factors include women’s than those by men. A closer multiple chores arising from the look at $igure 1 shows that the traditional system of gender female share of firms owned is roles and division of labour that slightly higher in rural settings hinder women’s full

140 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration participation in public life and in men. Many of the micro economic development, as well finance programmes to assist as, the persistence of negative women’s micro enterprises cultural values that businesses had village disadvantage women in terms revolving funds to promote of their participation in politics women’s traditional livelihood and decision-making activities of e.g. small livestock processes. $inally, marketing rising and embroidery. problems become much more However, these revolving significant over time as the funds are/were generally domestic market is limited in controlled by men in some terms of the number of ethnic minority villages, most of consumers and their who are members of Village purchasing power (GTZ 1995; Development Committees. And GRID 2004). also the funds are normally given to powerful families in the Women entrepreneurs are villages and not to poor constrained by the lack of, or families. limited access to credit and financial facilities due to a Moreover, business licenses number of reasons: (a) and taxes are to heavy for cumbersome procedures of women owners of micro and applying for loans/credit; (b) small enterprises since they collateral requirements; and (c) have very little working capital gender bias on the past of to start with. This is, in turn, some bank officials. As a linked to the fact that women result, many women handicraft producers in the entrepreneurs rely on rural areas are at a traditional money lending disadvantaged position when it schemes of borrowing money comes to negotiating prices for from money lenders at their handicrafts products with exorbitant interest rates. A traders. Their subordinated UNIDO study also found that social position also makes women are more constrained them more vulnerable to than men because they have arbitrary treatment by tax fewer assets and less revenue. authorities and other The study also found that the government officials of e.g. average loan received by paying licenses/fees and taxes women entrepreneurs is in advance. normally smaller than that of

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 141 There are international • Providing market and organisations, which are storage facilities for small- providing support to the scale traders at border development of small and crossings and in duty-free micro enterprises (SMEs) such zones; as CIDA, EU, GTZ, ILO, JICA, • Improving market UNDP and several NGOs. information systems for However, women’s businesses handicraft producers, agro in especially rural areas have processors and other small very little or no support. businesses, using radio, Another issue is the low Internet, and other representation of technologies; businesswomen in the National • Coordinating with the Bank Chamber of Commerce and of Lao PDR, the Agriculture Industry where the Lao Promotion Bank, LWU, National Handicraft Group is external agencies, and being represented. In its NGOs to improve the poverty eradications strategy financial services available (NGPES), the Government of to micro and small the Lao PDR, supports businesses, including measures to ensure that both savings programmes that women, particularly women of are accessible to poor and ethnic minorities participate ethnic minority women; and fully in private sector • Ensuring that women and development including in SMEs ethnic minorities are development. In this regard the represented in any Government has taken the provincial chambers of following measures: commerce, and that these • Working jointly with the associations respond to the national authorities to needs of micro and small simplify the registration, businesses. licensing, and taxation of micro and small Women’s Informal Cross businesses; Border Trade • Taking into account the impact of trade rules and Discussions with various duties (and proposed government officials and changes in these rules) on traders during the baseline micro and small survey confirmed the existence businesses; of widespread unofficial/

142 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration unrecorded trade in both practices and type of agricultural and industrial commodities traded. products across the border. Many traders engage in Traders involved in cross- informal trade because the border trade sell Lao products official procedures are rigid, in Thai, Chinese and long and bureaucratic thus Vietnamese border markets, increasing the costs of storage, and import products from those food, accommodation and countries for resale in the Lao unofficial rents. Traders PDR. Often the imports are therefore avoid the costly simple consumer goods. official channels in favor of the Women cross-border traders unofficial means. Cross-border interviewed in Vientiane and trade was similar in two Savannakhet exported and surveyed sites. However, there sold Lao skirts, other Lao were some variations in trading clothing, NT$Ps and bamboo

Case Study 1: Ms. Thongdy

“I am 39 years old and started my business at the age of 35. I completed primary education. I am a single mother with 4 children. In the past, I was a street vendor with a push cart selling fruit in Vientiane Capital. As street vending made only a small profit, I quit the job and found new work as an illegal border trader. I started my business in 2001 by copying Thai traders who do illegal cross-border trade at the Thai-Lao border checkpoint (at Ban Dankham). I buy Chinese goods (keys, batteries, machinery, materials used for repairs and so on) at Nongdouang market and sell them in Thailand. While doing informal cross-border business, I developed a business network with Thai traders. I employ more than 10 workers who live along the bank of the Mekong River (Ban Dankham and Ban Kaoliow) to carry and deliver my goods to Thailand. The fact that the trade is illegal is my main problem. Everyday I have to plan to avoid police control both at the Lao and Thai sides. I make a good income because the prices of Chinese goods in the Lao PDR are very cheap and I sell them at much higher prices in Thailand. I have used my income to build a new house, pay the school fees of my children and for food. I start work at 7 am and finish at 5 pm each day. As the Lao government allows Chinese traders to do business in the Lao PDR, now I have many challenges because of more competition from Chinese traders. Now, I don’t think this business is a permanent job. It faces higher risks. So I would like to change my job. I would like to get a loan to begin raising livestock in the future”. (Source: GRID, 2006)

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 143 baskets (GRID, 2006). They license. They cited the lack of imported and sold fish sauce, capital as the main reason why soap, toothpaste, detergent, they could not apply for cooking oil and instant noodles. licenses that are often Cross-border traders in the expensive. The majority of north imported and sold VCD cross–border traders are and DVD players, mobile unable to obtain finance from phones and other electronic formal financial institutions. goods. These traders generate Rather, they fund their employment for others in retail activities from their personal sales. They also hire others, savings, through informal including children, to carry money lenders, friends and some of the goods both ways relatives. Only a small fraction in order to evade ceilings on is able to raise money from the amount and value of banks or from savings and exports and imports not subject credit societies. The shortage to duties (GRID, 2006). of ready finance hinders expansion of informal cross Women make up a large share border trade activities. The risk (70 per cent) of those relates to police harassment participating in informal cross- and payment of unofficial border trade. Several factors, charges in the form of “rents” some of which were cultural, paid to public officials. played a role in the type of activities women undertook in $emale traders have also cross-border trading. complained of excessive Transactions in some harassment at the borders. $or commodities were gender this reason, women traders segregated with women said that they would feel more playing a prominent role in the comfortable if female trading of agricultural produce authorities conducted searches such as vegetables. At Ban at borders. Dankham, women hired men to avoid the customs check In the rural areas, women are points and may thus have been mainly responsible for under-counted. marketing the agricultural produce in the international The informal hawkers who sell and local markets. $emale their goods in Thailand often farmers revealed that they do so without the necessary earned higher incomes by

144 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration selling their crops in the Thai how a traditional handcraft for market. Livestock production is home consumption was quickly one of the most important adapted to a small industry for sources of cash income for commercial consumption once farmers in remote areas. cross border trade was made According to a recent study in possible by the Lao Savannakhet, the trade in live Government liberalising the pigs and cattle were from Viet economy and a road Nam and transported to infrastructure connecting the several points on the Mekong two sides of the border. A River and then shipments were study in Xayabury (2000) noted destined for Thailand. It is that the growth in weaving estimated that 200,000 pigs activity in villages on the Lao- transported in this way each Thai border provided relatively year. The imported animals high incomes for female were slaughtered mostly by weavers. This contributed to women to sell at the local women’s sense of self-esteem. markets. Women have more benefits from selling live Those living along the Lao-Thai animals and meat at the local border area in the Sayaboury markets. province used to rely on subsistence agriculture and The expansion of cross-border natural timber and forest trade is also opening up new products (NT$P) collection markets for hand-woven from the forests (mainly for textiles and other handicrafts home consumption) but after that are produced mainly by being exposed to Thai market women. Lao women are demand, they started to increasingly involved in produce new goods. As one commercial weaving and old Lao Theung man embroidery activities, and have explained, “We can now collect established relationships with more things from the forest trade agencies in overseas than before. Now we collect markets (Shigeru M, 2005, things that we have never Kyoko, 2000). The study collected before.” Demand for carried out in 2000 by Kyoko new cash crops such as Kusakabe of the Asian Institute keenaf and NT$P like palm of Technology into the growth seed, as well as for hand- in weaving activity in villages woven materials, increased. on the Lao-Thai border showed Although high transportation

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 145 costs served as a bottleneck, needs are met, i.e. improved Laotians increasingly brought food security, nutritional status, their goods to border markets. basic education, and access to Middle traders began visiting medicine and medical services, villages to collect goods to be both men and women enjoy sold in the border market. At spending more on non- the same time, merchants essential items such as started to visit Lao villages with condiments, cosmetics Thai commercial goods. Some (women), and tobacco (men). roads were improved by Thai An increase in incomes, businessmen, who invested in however, does not necessarily road construction in exchange mean an increase in profits per for access to natural resources labour input. $emale villagers such as lignite and timber. reported that labour input Expanded trade in NT$Ps can (working hours and amount of increase incomes for the work) has increased since they families that harvest and sell started collective NT$P them, but the rapid depletion of marketing (Miyuki and NT$Ps in rural areas also can Boonthavy, 2004). In the deprive poor households of timber export sector in alternative food sources and Savannakhet province, the natural medicines. majority of the paid employment went to men According to a study in (GRID, 2004). Oudomsai province, villagers used to collect NT$Ps for According to the cross border household consumption only, study in the Northwest Laos, but with the increase in trade Muang Long and Muang sing with Chinese traders, they has become a favored have recently started collecting destination for many young and processing NT$Ps to backpackers. The rapid rise in generate income. $emale tourism as a key staple in the collectors sell NT$P to local economy has lead many Chinese traders at higher local entrepreneurs to prices than local traders. With capitalize on the daily arrival of the increased cash incomes, new visitors. This ranges from villagers can now afford a transport, food and wider variety of products and accommodation services services that they could not through to guide provision and before. Now that their basic handicraft production. Since

146 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration then Tai Dam women soon to cities and towns to work in began to sell silk and cotton tourism-related businesses will fabrics and traders regularly increase the transmission risk come from Vientiane and of STDs and HIV/AIDS. The abroad to buy silver artifacts of STD and HIV/AIDS risk is the various ethnic groups. A especially high for young local tourism initiative is the women working in hotels, recently constructed small guesthouses, restaurants, and market building for local Tai nightclubs who may be drawn Dam and Hmong women to into part-time or full-time sex sell fabrics and clothing. The work. According to a recent groups of Akha women who study (ILO 2004), female come to sell bracelets and workers in nightclubs reported small bags (and in the past that this work meant that they opium) are gradually beginning worked at serving (37.4 per to use this venue. cent), entertaining (26.9 per cent) and having sex with the However, women and men customer (35.7 per cent). A may not benefit equally from recent study done by UNDP increased tourism. A GRID found that the “service women” field survey done in working in several northern Savannakhet indicated that provinces were predominantly traders paid low prices to the from ethnic minority women who make local backgrounds and had higher handicrafts and then sell the than average education levels crafts at a substantial profit. but had very little awareness of Hotels, restaurants and tour HIV/AIDS and virtually no agencies hired women with leverage to require customers lower-paying jobs. More men to use condoms. than women are hired in many tour agencies. Women were Customs Regulations ignored during the village planning activities. As a result, There has been real progress women can not benefit from in reform and improvement of income generation activities in customs in recent years. There the community-based tourism. is now a “single administrative document” instead of the 16 The influx of tourists to remote that were used in the past. areas and the migration of There is now a simplified and young people from rural areas much shorter declaration form

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 147 for petty traders. The customs many rural women who ferry service has now adopted the products across for sale on ASEAN 8 digit classification both sides of the border. system, and has produced a Women’s informal cross border book for border use with trade may be supported duties, with turn-over and through a number of excise taxes specified. But measures. $irst is the implementation lags, and even introduction of adequate the book is not kept up-to-date physical, administrative and with changes in policy. institutional infrastructure necessary to support these Some serious problems, trading activities, in particular however, remain. There is still to minimise if not totally misclassification and under- remove rent seeking behaviour invoicing of imports. Customs of customs and border officers are paid by the authorities. Second the Provincial Governors and are initiation of producer contract more responsive to them, than payments could be made to to the national headquarters women farmers and family office. The customs inspectors members and not just to male receive modest salaries that farmers. Third, addressing the cause some of them to collect existing restrictions on women informal payments from in getting the necessary loans, traders. As a result export production inputs and access licenses for goods subject to to marketing channels quotas, for instance, may not compared to men in order to be checked or duties may not reduce their ability to move to be collected, or if collected bigger scale of production and may remain unreported to the trading. And finally, improving Ministry of $inance in the the negotiation power of province. women traders in order that they can get increased returns Conclusion and from trade expansion. Recommendations Trade related employment as Conclusion any kind of employment is potentially empowering and The intensification of trade in may contribute to enhancing the border areas has opened women’s capacity to negotiate up income opportunities for their role and status within the

148 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration household and society. In the disproportionately involved in past two decades, the unstable and precarious forms relocation of labour-intensive of employment increasingly industries from advanced used to maximize profits: market economies to middle temporary, part-time, casual, and low income-developing and home-based work. And economies has increased despite women’s key role in employment of women in the the global economy, latter. Lao women have unemployment rates of women benefited from this are very high. The feminisation employment-creation of unemployment therefore is dimension of trade expansion. as much a characteristic of the Many women produce for the global economy as is the international market both feminisation of labour. directly and indirectly. Rural Moreover the problem of women are involved in gender biases in the allocation producing agricultural or of labour and control of income horticultural products for are highly pertinent to trade foreign markets, or work for expansion in agriculture, due to wages in traditional cash crop three reasons: The first is the plantations. In industry, women control of export crop revenues work in factories, in export by men even where women’s processing zones, clothing, labour is a major input into food-processing, electronics production. The second is the industries, and, generally, in enforcement of female labour industries with a high into export activity, without propensity to export. Due to adequate return. The third is intensified cross border that presupposes supremacy trading, many women in rural of the price system and and indigenous communities emphasises the principle of have shifted from unpaid work comparative advantage. This in agriculture and food threatens food security, which production to paid work. is the main responsibility for women in their homes. Nevertheless, women are still disadvantaged in the new Recommendations labour markets, in terms of wages, training and A comprehensive gender occupational segregation. analysis of existing trade They are also policies, programmes and

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 149 regulations needs to be carried village-based training; (4) out in order to understand the develop and support women’s multi-dimensional impact of business groups or trade liberalisation on women’s associations; and (5) update economic security and rights. regularly the statistics on micro $or instance, ascertain the and small enterprises and existence of gender elements especially about women in the overall national entrepreneurs. development plan and in the sectoral policy of the Ministry of Trade, as well as, ascertain provisions for gender equality in the personnel policy of the Ministry of Trade and its related agencies;

In relation to supporting the empowerment and development of women cross border traders and business owners, the following measures are being proposed: (1) establish a gender focal point or gender division within the new national SME promotion office, and by establishing an SME promotion fund for which women entrepreneurs would be a priority target group; (2) ensure that women are reached in the public sharing of information to micro and small entrepreneurs; on legal and regulatory requirements, business and market information, and sources of business training and credit; (3) extend business development services to women in rural areas through

150 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration References

“Women in SMEs and Tourism in Thailand”

Chayan Tantivasdakarn, “Thailand’s International Trade Policy, 2000- present,” paper presented to the brainstorming session on “Thailand’s International Trade Policy,” organised by WTO Watch Project, May 2006

Economic Research and Training Centre, Thammasat University, %inal Report on Restructuring Plan for SMEs, by Sector, submitted to Office of SME Promotion, May 2006

H.E. Ong Keng Yong, “New Growth and Business Opportunities for ASEAN SMEs”. Remarks at the IE Singapore-Citigroup ASEAN SME $orum, Singapore, 18 April 2006

International Gender and Trade Network, International Labour Organization, Labour and Employment Implications of the ASEAN %ree Trade Agreement, edited by Anne Trebilcock, ASEAN Secretariat and the International Labour Office, 2005

National Statistical Office, Report of the Labour %orce Survey, July – September 2005

————————, Report of the Time Use Survey, 2005

Office of Women’s Affairs and $amily Development, Papers for the Preparatory Meeting for the 10th Women Leaders’ Network in APEC, 2005

Thai Economy in the Changing Global Social and Economic Conditions, Collected papers for the 2006 Annual Economic Symposium, $aculty of Economics, Thammasat University, July 2006

Thailand Tourism Review, 2005 The Bangkok Post

United Nations Development Programme, Asia Pacific Human Development Report 2006: Trade on Human Terms, MacMillan, 2006

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 151 “Market-Based Gender Issues in West Kalimantan under the BIMP- EAGA”

Badan Pemuda, Olah Raga dan Pemberdayaan Perempuan Provinsi Kalimantan Barat dan Kementerian Pemberdayaan Perempuan Republik Indonesia. 2004. Profil Statistik dan Indikator Gender Provinsi Kalimantan Barat. Pontianak.

Badan Pemuda, Olah Raga dan Pemberdayaan Perempuan Provinsi Kalimantan Barat. 2005. Selayang Pandang Pembangunan Pemberdayaan Perempuan Kalimantan Barat, Edisi Ke-empat. Pontianak. Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Daerah Provinsi Kalimantan Barat. 2005. Manfaat Kerjasama Ekonomi Sub-regional BIMP-EAGA.

$loro, Maria. Gender Concerns on International Trade Discussions at the $fD Conference and WTO Agenda. http://www.kulu.dk/%inancing/Seminar/mariafloro.htm

Kementerian Negara Pemberdayaan Perempuan/KPP (Ministry of Women Empowerment). 2006. Indikator Gender Berdasarkan Wilayah. Kerjasama KPP dengan PT Diast Mitra Utama. Jakarta.

Statistics Kalbar on line. http://kalbar.bps.go.id/

Thohari, E.S. 2006. Pemberdayaan Perempuan dalam Pembangunan Pertanian (Women Empowerment in Agricultural Development). Pusat Pembiayaan Pertanian, Biro Perencanaan, Departemen Pertanian. Jakarta.

Overview on The BIMP-EAST ASEAN GROWTH AREA BUSINESS COUNCIL (BIMP-EAGA BC). http://www.bimpbc.org/eabc1.asp#overview

“The Gender Dimension of Health Professional Migration from the Philippines”

Asis, M. 2002. “$rom the Life Stories of $ilipino Women: Personal and $amily Agendas in Migration”, Asian and Pacific Migration Journal. Volume 11 Number 1 pp. 67-94.

152 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Statistical Yearbook 2005. Retrieved August 23. http://www.aseansec.org/18175.htm

ASEAN-ANU Research Team. Movement of Workers in ASEAN: Healthcare and IT Sectors. $inal Main Report. June 2005.

Batistella, G and Conaco,M.C.1996. “Impact of Migration on The Children Left Behind”, Asian Migrant. Volume 9. Number 3 pp. 86-91.

Bernardino, N. 2004. “Beijing Meets WTO”. Retrieved August 2. http://www.isiswomen.org/pub/wia/wia1-05/b10wto10.html

Benitez-Reyes, A. 2004. “Trade Liberalization, Gender Equality, and Government Policies: Reflections on the Philippine Experience”. Paper Presented at the UNCTAD XI Roundtable on Trade and Gender, Sao Paulo, Brazil, 15 June 2004.

Durano, M. and $rancisco, J. 2006. Gender and Trade in the Asia Pacific: An Overview, UNI$EM.

Ehrenreich, B. and Hochschild, A.R. 2002. Global Woman: Nannies, Maids, and Sex Workers in the New Economy. New York: Henry Holt and Company, LLC.

Espiritu, Y. 2002. “$ilipino Navy Stewards and $ilipina Health Care Professionals: Immigration, Work and $amily Relations”, Asian and Pacific Migration Journal. Volume 11 Number 1 pp.47-66.

Galvez-Tan, J. 2005. “The Brain Drain Phenomenon and Its Implications for Health: 10 Strategic Solutions for Actions by $ilipino Leaders”. Retrieved August22. http://www.up.edu.ph/forum/2005/Jul-Aug05/brain_drain.htm

Go Stella. 2002. “Remittances and International Labour Migration: Impact on the Philippines”. Paper prepared for the Metropolis Interconference Seminar on “Immigrants and Homeland,” Dubrovnik, Croatia, May 9-12, 2002. Retrieved August 22. http://international.metropolis.net/events/croatia/Dubrovnik_paper.doc

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 153 Illo, J.$. 2005. “Promoting Gender Equality, Equity, And Women’s Development”. Retrieved August 24. http://www.plcpdfound.org/New%20Look/PT5-Illo-%ull%20Paper.htm/

Kanji, N. and Menon-Sen, K. 2001. “What Does $eminisation of Labour Mean for Sustainable Livelihoods?” International Institute for Environment and Development.

Lorenzo, $.M. (forthcoming). Philippine Case Study on Nursing Migration. UP Manila: National Institute of Health.

Manning,C. and Bhatnagar P. Liberalizing and $acilitating the Movement of Individual Service Providers Under A$AS: Implications for Labour and Immigration Policies and Procedures in ASEAN.

Morada, H. 2003. “Left-Behind Households of Overseas $ilipino Workers”. Philippine Labour Review. Volume XXVII. Number 1. January-June 2003. pp.118-143.

National Commission on the Role of $ilipino Women (NCR$W). Undated. $act Sheet on $ilipino Women.

Opiniano, J. 2004. Our $uture Beside the Exodus: Migration and Development Issues in the Philippines. Manila: $riedrick Ebert Stiftung ($ES).

Orbeta, A.Jr. 2002. “Globalisation and Employment: The Impact of Trade on Employment Level and Structure in the Philippines” in Philippine Institute for Development Studies (PIDS) Discussion Paper Series No. 2002-2004.

Pasadilla, G. 2005a. Strengthening Trade Research Capacity for Policymaking and Negotiations, in Policy Notes, No. 2005-06.

Pasadilla, G. 2005b. “Services Sector: The Next Big Thing?” Development Research News. September-October 2005. Philippine Institute for Development Studies (PIDS).

Philippine Legislators’ Committee on Population and Development (PLCPD). Information Packet on the Results of the 2003 National Demographic Health Survey (NDHS).

154 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration Philippine Overseas Employment Administration (POEA). O$W Global Presence 2005: A Compendium of Overseas Employment Statistics.

Piper, N. 2003. “Bridging Gender, Migration and Governance: Theoretical Possibilities in the Asian Context,”, Asian and Pacific Migration Journal. Volume 12 Number 1-2 pp. 21-48.

Tan, E. 2005a. “Policies and Institutions for Training and Skills Development of Migrant Labour”, Labour Migration in Asia: Protection of Migrant Workers, Support Services and Enhancing Development Benefits. International Organization for Migration (IOM). Switzerland.

Tan, E. 2005b. “The Wage Structure of Overseas $ilipino Workers”, UP School of Economics Discussion Paper No.0503. Retrieved August. http://www.econ.upd.edu.ph/respub/dp/pdf/DP2005- 03.pdf#search=%22wage%20structure%20O%W%20Edita%20Tan%22

Tyner, J. 2002. “The Globalisation of Transnational Labour Migration and the $ilipino $amily: A Narrative”, Asian and Pacific Migration Journal. Volume 11 Number . pp. 95-116.

Van Liemt, G.2005. Labour and Employment Implications of the ASEAN $ree Trade Area (A$TA), ASEAN Secretariat and International Labour Organization (ILO)

Women and Gender Institute. 2005. To Produce and To Care. Philippines: United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)

World Bank. 2005. World Development Indicators 2005. http://devdata.worldbank.org/wdi2005/index2.htm. Retrieved July 24.

World Health Organization. “Migration of Health Personnel”, Paper presented at the Meeting of Ministers of Health for the Pacific Island Countries. Apia, Samoa 14-17 March 2005.

World Health Organization. November 2002. Human Resources for Health: Developing Policy Options for Change.

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 155 Young, Brigitte and Hoppe Hella. 2003. “The Doha Development Round: Gender and Social Reproduction”, Dialogue on Globalisation Occasional Papers No. 7. $riedrich Ebert Stiftung. $ocus on WTO. Retrieved August 5. http://www.fes- geneva.org/publications/OccasionalPapers/ %ES%20OccPapers%207.pdf#search=%22The%20Doha%20Development %20Round%3A%20Gender%20and%20Social%20Reproduction. %20Dialogue%20on%20Globalisation%20Occasional%20Papers %20No.%207.%20%riedrich%20Ebert%20Stiftung.%20%ocus%20on %20WTO.%22

Interviews

Donabelle De Guzman, (Legislative Liaison Officer, Department of Health) June 29, 2006. Senate of the Philippines.

$ely Marilyn Lorenzo, Phd. (Institute Director, Institute of Health Policy and Development Studies, National Institute of Health. June 8, 2006. University of the Philippines, Manila.

Director Liberty Casco (Marketing Division, Philippine Overseas Employment Administration), July 4, 2006. (Phone Interview)

Government Documents

National Demographic and Health Survery. 2003 $amily Income and Expenditure Survey.2003 Survey of Overseas $ilipinos (SO$), 2004

Websites of Government and International Agencies

Association of Southeast Asian Nations Secretariat Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas Bureau of Labour and Employment Statistics (BLES) Department of Health (DOH) International Labour Organization (ILO) National Statistics Office (NSO) National Statistical Coordinating Board (NSCB) National Commission on the Role of $ilipino Women (NCR$W) National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA) Philippine Overseas Employment Agency (POEA) World Health Organization (WHO)

156 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration “Livelihood and Crop Diversification in Rural Viet Nam: The Case of Thai Binh Province” http:// www.mard.gov.vn http:// www.gso.gov.vn http:// www.thaibinh.gov.vn

Thai Binh Statistics Yearbook 2005, Report of the implementation on 5 year work-plan (2001-2005) of Thai Binh.

Proceedings of the national conference summing up the implementation of the National Strategy for the Advancement of Viet Namese Women and to develop the implementation of the work plan up to 2010.

“ oreign Direct Investment-led Growth Strategy: Women in the Garment Industry”

Informal Economy Profile and Policy Development in Cambodia, Economic Institute of Cambodia, October 2005

Cambodia Socio-Economic Survey 2004, Summary Subject Matter Report, National Institute of Statistics, Ministry of Planning, Royal Government of Cambodia

Labour $orce Survey of Cambodia, November 2000, National Institute of Statistics, Ministry of Planning, Royal Government of Cambodia

Labour $orce Survey of Cambodia, November 2001, National Institute of Statistics, Ministry of Planning, Royal Government of Cambodia

“Lao Women’s Cross Border Trading and New Customs Regulations”

Adapted from Shigemu Matsushima, Hosei University, Entrepreneurship in Laos, 2004

ADB, 2004, Lao PDR Gender, Poverty and the MDG

BA$IS & EDC, 2001, Micro-%inance Service in Lao PDR, Vientiane.

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 157 CDRI (2004) “The Cross-Border Economy; Structure, Importance and Role: Case Study of Cambodia,” (Vientiane, Lao PDR: Development Analysis Network Workshop and Conference on (the) Cross Border Economy in Lao PDR, Cambodia, Viet Nam and Thailand, 27-28 October 2004.)

Committee for Planning and Cooperation, National Statistical Centre, March 2004.)

Expenditure and Consumption Survey 2002.2003, LESC3,” (Vientiane:

GRID, 2003, Gender, Micro-Credit and Income Generation Activities, Vientiane

GRID, 2004, Country Gender Analysis and Profile of the Lao PDR.

GTZ, 1996, Gender Approaches to Small Enterprise Development in the Lao PDR, Vientiane

GTZ, 2006. Enterprise Baseline Survey Volume 1: Main Report

ILO, 2002, Study on Generating Employment through Micro and Small Enterprise and Cooperative Development in Lao PDR, Vientiane

ILO, 2005, Micro and Small Enterprise Development in Lao PDR

ILO, Child Labour Survey in Lao PDR, 2004

LWU/GRID and ILO. 2004. Gender Issues in Micro and Small Enterprises in the Lao PDR. Vientiane.

Kyoko Kusakabe: Cooperation and Competition Across Border Markets: Changes In Women’s Weaving Activity In Lao-Thai Borderlands, Asian Institute of Technology.

Ministry of Commerce, Lao PDR—trade statistics

Ministry of Industry and Handicrafts, The The Lao PDR,Vientiane, UNIDO, NISP Lao Project US/LAO/97/142, July 2000,p.16

Ministry of Industry and Handicrafts and German Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ). 1996. Results of a National Survey: Small and Medium Enterprises in the Lao PDR. Vientiane.

158 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration NSC (2004) “The Household of Lao PDR: Social and Economic Indicators, Lao

NSC (2005) “Result from the Population and Housing Census, 2005”

One District One product, Sample Survey on Rattan Product of Phone Village

Rose, Andrew (2002) “Do We Really Know that the WTO Increases Trade?”

Shyam Upadhyaya and Ittichai Yossri, Survey of Industrial Establishments, 1999,

(University of California, Berkeley: CEPR Discussion Paper 3538.)

GRID,2003, Gender, Micro-Credit and Income Generation Activities, Vientiane

GRID, 2004, Country Gender Analysis and Profile of the Lao PDR.

GTZ, 1996, Gender Approaches to Small Enterprise Development in the Lao PDR, Vientiane

National Statistical Centre, 2000, Basic Statistics of the Lao PDR, Vientiane

NSC & NERI, 2001, The Labour Market in the Lao PDR, Vientiane

World Bank, Economic Monitor, 2004

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 159 Part Three

Women are “invisible” not globalisation, among other because they are not deemed processes that affect the important in the nation’s socio- outcomes of development, are economic and political life, but not gender-neutral. They because their contributions and impact on women and men potentials are not recognised differently and unequally. or accounted for. They are Government’s commitment to systematically made invisible ‘engendering development’ and by lack of or inadequate data, advancing women may be which do not help in exposing weakened without the gender-based inequities in concomitant support to data development processes and generation along development outcomes and addressing such indicators affecting women and to make development inclusive men. and gender-fair. ASEAN would make a The challenge is as basic as significant step forward should collecting gender information it make women visible in regularly and making it development statistics. With available to inform policy and timely and appropriate gender decision-making. Awareness information, gender-blind of gender inequality may itself development directions may be limited as a direct finally be a significant consequence of government’s departure from the past. inability to support information collection and analysis of the 1 Proposed Gender gender dimensions of Indicators for Economic development. Integration

As has been shown in Part 1, The following indicators are regional integration and being advanced to comprise a

160 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration selected gender monitoring managed at home? How is statistical assessment matrix, time use allocated between complementing the results of production and social the ASEAN Baseline Report reproduction (i.e., caring) (Lamberte et al 2006): functions? What are the • Industry wage differentials implications of gender- by sex – What is the value based division of labour to of female and male labour? general well-being? To what extent do industry • Informal sector work by sex wage differentials indicate – Who are being pushed to gender-based inequality? do informal sector work? • Unemployment rate by sex Why are some more likely – Who is likely out of work to do informal work than and therefore constrained to others? What are the benefit from income implications of informal opportunities? To what work to women and men? extent do unemployment • Proportion of technical and disparities reveal vocational education by discrimination on account of cluster programmes by sex sex? What are the barriers – Who likely benefit from to entry to paid employment technical and vocational for women and men? education? In what cluster • Underemployment rate by do women and men likely sex – Who likely suffer from participate in technical and inadequate number of hours vocational education? of paid work? Who are What are the implications of being denied to benefit from gender-based patterns in full employment based on technical-vocational their capacities and education to securing potentials? What are the employment? implications of • Science and technology underemployment to education by sex – Who are women’s well-being? likely educated in science • Number of hours per week and technology? How do given to housework by gender-based patterns in employed women and men science and technology – Who works longer hours education show gender- with combining housework stereotyping in education with paid employment? and professional How is housework opportunities?

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 161 These indicators are by no indicators builds upon the means exhaustive, but they infrastructure of information serve as proxy indicators for already available in the measuring women’s economic sphere and advancement / gender equality exposes areas that require (or lack thereof) in an enrichment, particularly on environment of regional gender dimensions. integration and globalisation. While locating women’s status The specific indicators are in ASEAN integration being advanced for various encompasses all spheres of reasons. Indicators in science life, this report advances key and technology and technical- indicators in the “economic leg” vocational education may be to complement the ASEAN considered instrumentalist, but Baseline Report. There are these provide clues as to how two key reasons for this: education investments are • One is that economic being prioritised for women and indicators are regularly men, in an attempt to widen collected and therefore are opportunities for employment. easily accessible. This presupposes the On the other hand, opportunity to analyse employment indicators, gender dimensions of including hours spent for economic processes and unpaid housework, provide outcomes. information on the structure of • Another is for technical women’s and men’s reasons. Economic participation in the economy, indicators are generally including the explicit and accepted as rigorous and implicit barriers to entry or robust in terms of scope, maintaining full, decent frequency and quality of employment and the relegation data, although much is to of unpaid household work to be desired to make women as an extension of economic information cultural socialisation. The gender-framed. This does extent of informal work for not however mean that women and men also spell out socio-cultural and security the degree of exclusion from indicators are less formal employment and the important. Rather the lack of social protection from desire to focus on economic the vagaries of the economy,

162 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration the onset of natural or human- differentials, and where these made calamities and are available, information is not exploitative work conditions. usually disaggregated by sex.

2 Gender-based wage 3Unemployment: who are differentials: valuing excluded from paid work? women’s labour Women’s employment is The pace and scope of ASEAN usually lower than that of men. regional integration and But given that female globalisation create participation in all levels of opportunities and tensions, education has widened in the particularly in employment, one ASEAN region, it is logical to of the impacts of which is assume that female gender-based wage disparity in employment is likely to industry and other sectors of increase. the economy. Income inequality is a structural issue However, the extent to which facing women and is assumed regional integration and to intensify in an environment globalisation create windfall of of economic liberalisation and opportunities for female integration. Narrowing the employment or entrench income gap is a function of employment differentials exposing systemic and between women and men structural barriers to valuing remains an issue. The more women’s labour and fundamental challenge is in addressing the same. monitoring whether economic liberalisation intensifies The state of data on industrial exclusion of women from wage differences in the six employment. ASEAN Member Countries highlighted in Table 1 is at best The state of data for mixed, indicating some unemployment by sex is robust opportunities to strengthen in the selected countries in information generation on Table 2. ?or Cambodia and gender-based indicators. Lao PDR, however, the Except for the Philippines and challenge is in making data Thailand, all other countries collection regular to track over have intermittent data on wage time changes in employment.

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 163 Table 1. Industrial wage differentials by sex

Selected Source of Length of the ,requency Data Mode of ASEAN Data series Disaggregation dissemination

Indonesia Labour ?orce Since 1976 Yearly By sex, by age, Printed report, Statistics. by education, website survey by area

Philippines Labour ?orce Quarterly By sex CDRom, Survey printed report, website

Thailand Labour ?orce Since 1963; Monthly By sex Website and Survey monthly survey printed report since 2001

Viet Nam GSO 2004 Viet 2001, 2002, Every two Not Printed report Nam 2003, 2004 years disaggregated Household by sex Living Standards Survey

Cambodia Labour ?orce Industrial Intermittent; Industrial Available in the Survey wages latest data is wages are not Informal tabulated in 2001 disaggregated Economy 2000 and 2001 by sex; proxy Profile and L?S, but not by indicator is Policy sex; L?S and monthly Development in Socio- earning of Cambodia Economic employer/own- Surveys started account only in early workers in ‘90s 2001

Lao People’s (1) Survey of The first was Intermittent; By sex for the Printed report Dem. Rep. Small done in 1999 annual for the first two Manufacturing by the Ministry Survey on reports; but Establishments of Industry and Enterprise results of (2) Women, Handicraft and regular Survey ?amily and the other in on Enterprise International 2006 by the are not Trade Gender disaggregated (3) Survey on Resource by sex Enterprise Information and Development Center. Survey on Enterprise was firs done in 2004.

4 Underemployment: who and are therefore inclined to are likely to have look for more work. This inadequate work? usually occurs in labour surplus economies or in Underemployment provides a situations where efficiency clue as to how many are gains or greater productivity working at sub-optimal levels warrant shifts to technology-

164 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration based production. As regional information on integration and globalisation underemployment. put premium on the synergy of technology and the productivity 5 Housework: who works of high-end technical workers, more hours at home in this creates pressure to low- addition to time spent on value, unskilled workers and paid work? intensifies employment vulnerability. The differential Time use in production (market impacts of underemployment activities) and social to women and men under such reproduction (non-market, scenario and the range of household activities) reflects a social protection measures gender-based division of available to mitigate adverse labour socialising women to effects need to be examined. bear a disproportionate share of housework. Household Cambodia’s latest information allocation of time puts women on underemployment is as of at a disadvantage as they are 2001, while Lao PDR has no culturally ascribed to put in

Table 2. Unemployment rate by sex

Selected Source of Length of the ,requency Data Mode of ASEAN Data series Disaggregation dissemination

Indonesia Labour ?orce Since 1976 Yearly By sex, by age, Website and statistics by education, printed report survey by area

Philippines Labour ?orce Since 1998 Quarterly By sex CDRom, Survey printed report, website

Thailand Labour ?orce Since 1963; Monthly By sex Website and Survey monthly survey printed report since 2001

Viet Nam Labour ?orce 2000-2004 n.a. By sex Printed report Survey

Cambodia Labour ?orce n.a Intermittent; By sex Printed report Survey latest data is 2001

Lao People’s Results from 2005 Intermittent; By sex Printed report Dem. Rep. the population and housing census 2005

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 165 Table 3. Underemployment rate by sex

Selected Source of Length of the ,requency Data Mode of ASEAN Data series Disaggregation dissemination

Indonesia Labour ?orce Since 1976 Yearly By sex, by age, Website and statistics by education, printed report survey by area

Philippines Labour ?orce Since 1998 Quarterly By sex CDRom, Survey printed report, website

Thailand Labour ?orce Since 1963; Monthly By sex Website and Survey monthly survey printed report since 2001

Viet Nam Labour ?orce 2000-2004 n.a. By sex Printed report Survey

Cambodia Labour ?orce n.a Intermittent; By sex Printed report Survey latest data is 2001

Lao People’s n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Dem. Rep.

longer hours on account of or pushing them to do informal their caring roles, without much work. Being excluded from consideration of general formal work is usually a productivity outside the home. symptom of limited education and/or skills, which Indonesia and the Philippines presupposes increased have had no recent time use vulnerability to exploitative surveys, unlike the other informal work conditions. ASEAN Member Countries provided in Table 4. Informal work intensifies under a period of crisis-induced 6 Informal work: who are macroeconomic adjustment or pushed to the margins of bold policy shifts. Women tend formal work? to be more vulnerable to do informal work in view of The net effect of high female systemic barriers to getting unemployment and employed and keeping their underemployment, despite job. increased female participation in education, is confining them The informal sector, by its very to unpaid household work and/ nature, is difficult to measure

166 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration Table 4. Number of hours per week given to housework by employed women and men

Selected Source of Length of the ,requency Data Mode of ASEAN Data series Disaggregation dissemination

Indonesia 2005 Human 2005 Yearly By sex Printed report Development Report citing a 1992 study of time use among urban Indonesian women in 1992

Philippines 2005 Human n.a n.a. By sex Printed report Development Report citing a 1992 study of time use among urban Indonesian women in 1975-77 survey in rural Philippines

Thailand Time Use Time Use n.a. By sex Website and Survey 2001 Survey was printed report and 2004 only conducted twice in Thailand.

Viet Nam 2002 Survey was n.a. By sex Website and Household done in 2002 printed report Living and 2004 Standards Survey

Cambodia Cambodia Time use By sex Website and Socio- questionnaire printed report Economic was only Survey 2004 administered in 2004 as part of the CSES.

Lao PDR Social and n.a. Every 5 years By sex Website and economic printed report indicators, Load Expenditure and Consumption Survey, 2002- 2003 or monitor, given its size and acceptability of what comprises complexity, including some informal work. Only Thailand methodological and definitional has initiated a survey for the issues that confound the informal sector. It is important

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 167 for governments to collect and vocational training and information regularly on education and tracking the informal work, as women and programme they pursue give children are most notably an indication of the quality of vulnerable and/or at risk in this the labour stock to respond to sector. the requirements of the domestic and global economy. 7 Technical-vocational education: who are being Information on female and prepared for paid work? male participation in technical and vocational education is not Quality technical-vocational available in most countries. education is a prerequisite to This poses difficulty in tracking skilling a significant portion of the extent to which women and the labour force to meet the men are being prepared to demands of development. The meet the requirements of the extent to which women and economy. men participate in technical

Table 5. Informal work by sex

Selected Source of Length of the ,requency Data Mode of ASEAN Data series Disaggregation dissemination

Indonesia Labour ?orce Since 1976 Yearly By sex, by age, Printed report, statistics survey by education, website by area

Philippines n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a

Thailand Informal Sector This is the first n.a. By sex Website and Survey 2005 survey for printed report Thailand

Viet Nam n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a

Cambodia Own-account n.a n.a. By sex Printed report worker and unpaid family workers were used as proxy indicator for informal work by sex

Lao PDR n.a. n.a n.a n.a. n.a

168 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration Table 6. Proportion of technical and vocational education by cluster by sex

Selected Source of Length of the ,requency Data Mode of ASEAN Data series Disaggregation dissemination

Indonesia National Socio- Since 2000 Yearly By sex, by Printed report, Economic education, by website survey area

Philippines Technical and n.a. Yearly By cluster, by Website and Skills sex printed report Development Authority

Thailand Not available, n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a but alternative source is the Labour ?orce Survey 2005

Viet Nam (1) MOET n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a (2) GSO 2004 Household Living Standards Survey

Cambodia Cambodia n.a n.a. By sex but no Printed report Socio- disaggregation Economic by cluster Survey 1999 and 2004

Lao PDR Statistical n.a n.a By sex but no Printed report Yearbook disaggregation by cluster

8 Science and technology at managing change and using education: who are science and technology to geared to propel improve productivity. economic integration and Investments in science and benefit from it? technology education are necessary to propel creativity The onset of the knowledge and innovation. As will be economy and the requirements gleaned from table 7, gaps in of ASEAN economic statistics related to this integration necessitate a new indicator may exist in some breed of workers that are adept countries.

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 169 Table 7. Science and technology education by sex

Selected Source of Length of the ,requency Data Mode of ASEAN Data series Disaggregation dissemination

Indonesia National Socio- Since 2000 Yearly By sex, by Printed report, Economic education, by website survey area

Philippines Commission on n.a. Yearly By cluster, by Website and Higher sex printed report Education

Thailand Office of Higher n.a. n.a. n.a. Printed Education statistical yearbook

Viet Nam (1) MOET n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. (2) GSO 2004 Household Living Standards Survey

Cambodia Department of n.a n.a. By sex, by Printed report Higher cluster. with limited Education dissemination Graduation Statistics

Lao PDR Statistical n.a n.a By sex but no Printed report Yearbook disaggregation by cluster.

170 - Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration Annex 1

PROJECT TEAM

JOSE?A (GIGI) S. ?RANCISCO Miriam College – Women and Gender Institute Project Coordinator / Overall Writer

PAWADEE TONGUTHAI Thai Women’s Watch Country Writer, Thailand

DELIMA HASRI AZAHAR, RITA NUR SUHAETI and EDI BASUNO Country Writers, Indonesia

JEAN ENCINAS-?RANCO Miriam College – Women and Gender Institute Country Writers, Philippines

NGO THI LAN PHUONG Cisdoma Country Writer, Viet Nam

THIDA KHUS Silaka Country Writer, Cambodia

Gender Resource Information and Development Center [GRID] Lao PDR

MARILEN ABESAMIS Miriam College – Women and Gender Institute Editor

Third Report on the Advancement of Women in ASEAN: Gender Dimensions of Globalisation and Regional Integration - 171 Ten Nations One Community www.aseansec.org