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Handbook of and Ethnoastronomy

Clive L. N. Ruggles Editor

Handbook of Archaeoastronomy and Ethnoastronomy

With 969 Figures and 88 Tables Editor Clive L. N. Ruggles School of and University of Leicester University Road Leicester, UK

ISBN 978-1-4614-6140-1 978-1-4614-6141-8 (eBook) ISBN Bundle 978-1-4614-6142-5 (print and electronic bundle) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-6141-8 Springer New York Heidelberg Dordrecht

Library of Congress Control : 2014942048

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Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com) Preface

All have a . Through the ages, the celestial vault visible at has formed a breathtaking spectacle, as it continues to do in places beyond the reach of modern lighting. For countless millennia, how people interpret what they perceive in the sky has played a vital role in human communities’ understanding of the that they inhabit. For human societies ranging from small groups of hunter-gatherers and herders through to states and empires, the sky formed a prominent and immutable part of the observed world. The repeated cycles of the , , and helped to regulate human activity as people strove to make sense of their world and to keep their actions in harmony with the cosmos as they perceived it. In some cases, this was simply in order to maintain seasonal subsistence cycles; in others it helped to support dominant ideologies and complex social hierarchies. This quest for knowl- edge and understanding – “science” in its broadest sense – links the earliest skywatchers to modern and cosmologists. Sky perceptions very dif- ferent in nature from those offered by modern “Western” science persist in many indigenous cultures around the world. Archaeoastronomy and ethnoastronomy, also referred to jointly as “cultural ”, are concerned with humankind’s perceptions and understanding of astronomical phenomena, throughout human history and among all cultures. Monumental and other human constructions, artifacts, cultural landscapes, histor- ical accounts, and modern indigenous practices all bear witness to the extraordinary diversity of ways in which human communities have comprehended what they perceived in the and used or manipulated this knowledge for social ends. The twin disciplines have been recognized since the 1970s as a distinct academic field of endeavor of significant value in informing broader cultural questions. Research in archaeoastronomy and ethnoastronomy has been burgeoning since the 1980s, when academics from across the divide between the social and the physical and formal sciences began to work together in earnest to develop common goals and approaches. The result is a rich cross-disciplinary field with input from a wide range of academic disciplines including , archaeology, history (also the history of art, , and history of ), , astronomy, and statistics. Nonetheless archaeoastronomy,

v vi Preface in particular, has long courted controversy and acted as a magnet for sensationalism and uncritical speculation. A contributing factor is doubtless that each of its main constituent disciplines, archaeology and astronomy, has huge popular appeal. Such uncritical or sensationalistic accounts, often widely available, tend to obscure and undermine serious scholarship in the field. This three-volume handbook sets out to provide a definitive picture of the state of the art of research in archaeoastronomy and ethnoastronomy and to be a reliable and comprehensive source of reference regarding theory, method, interpretation, and best practice. It aims to be equally accessible to interested scholars regardless of the discipline in which they are qualified, as as for tertiary-level students and serious general readers. Its authors are drawn from a full range of relevant disci- plines and geographical areas. Part I of the handbook comprises thematic essays addressing general themes such as , perceptions of space and time, , and . The chapters here also highlight various aspects of the social context of astronomy such as its role in sustaining social and political power; its use in the service of world religions, particularly Christianity and ; and its relationship to . There is discussion of various disciplinary approaches to the study of prehistoric, historical, and indigenous astronomical knowledge, a historical perspective on the development of archaeoastronomy itself, and coverage of issues relating to heritage and tourism. Part II, “Methods and Practice”, covers topics ranging from social theory to field methodology, procedures, data analysis, and visualization. The opening chapters are concerned with the cultural interpretation of archaeological, historical, and ethnographic evidence. Several of the remainder deal with the identification and analysis of structural orientations and putative alignments upon various astro- nomical bodies; one with light-and-shadow interactions. A number of chapters here also provide broad definitions and explanations of key concepts that may be useful to readers unfamiliar with background matter in the relevant disciplines. The case studies that form the remainder, and major part, of the handbook have been selected to best illustrate broader themes and issues while ranging as widely as possible both geographically and through time and also in terms of the nature of the society in question and of their astronomical perceptions and practices. The subject matter does not extend to the development of modern scientific astronomy from the European onward, but does include topics such as Babylonian, Greek, and Islamic astronomy, focusing in the Greek case (for example) more broadly upon calendars, religious practices, and perceptions of the cosmos, rather than exclusively upon the development of mathematical astronomy. I would like to thank all the authors for taking time out from their many other commitments to complete their excellent contributions to this handbook. My particular thanks are due to the section editors without whose thoroughness, reliability, and punctuality, not to say tenacity, it simply would not have been possible to produce a work of such impressive scope. Finally, I am immensely Preface vii grateful to the Springer staff, and particularly to our production editors Sylvia Blago and Simone Giesler, for their endless patience and good humor, as well as their unyielding support, at all stages in helping us to bring this project to a very satisfactory completion.

January 2014 Clive L. N. Ruggles

About the Editor

Clive L. N. Ruggles Emeritus Professor of Archaeoastronomy, School of Archae- ology and Ancient History, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK

Professor Clive L.N. Ruggles obtained an M.A. in from Cambridge University in 1974 and a D. Phil in from Oxford University in 1978. Having already published several papers in archaeo- and ethnoastronomy, he moved shortly after this to University College, Cardiff (now Cardiff University), where he became a research fellow in the Department of Archaeology, moving on in 1982 to the Mathematics Department at the University of Leicester to pursue research in statistical applications in archaeology and archaeoastronomy. From 1984, he held various posts at the university, first as a lecturer and subsequently senior lecturer (1989) in Computing Studies, and later directing a cross-campus computer-based-learning project while also affiliated to two different departments (Mathematics and Computer Science, and Archaeology). He moved full time into the newly created School of Archaeological Studies (now the School of Archaeol- ogy and Ancient History) in 1997, gaining promotion to a personal chair in 1999 and becoming emeritus professor in 2007. Professor Ruggles has authored over 120 research and review papers in archaeo- astronomy and ethnoastronomy as well as various other subjects, and has authored,

ix x About the Editor edited, or coedited 17 books including Records in Stone (Cambridge University Press, 1988), and Cultures (University Press of Colorado, 1993), Astronomy in and ( Press, 1999), Ancient Astronomy: An Encyclopedia of Cosmologies and (ABC-CLIO, 2005), in Cosmologies (University Press of Colorado, 2007), and Archaeoastronomy and Ethnoastronomy: Building Bridges Between Cultures (Cambridge University Press, 2011). His early work focused on the and Age standing stone monuments of Britain and Ireland, a topic of great controversy at the time between archaeologists and astronomers. Since then his interests have ranged from prehistoric perceptions of the skies in various contexts around the world to modern indigenous calendars in sub-Saharan Africa. He has undertaken fieldwork in several European countries, as well as in , the Americas, and Polynesia, concentrating most recently on major projects in Peru and the Hawaiian Islands. Throughout his career he has been concerned with developing sounder theoretical foundations and more robust methodologies and practice. In 2010, he was awarded the “” prize by the European Society for Astronomy in (SEAC) for outstanding contributions in the fields of cultural astronomy and archaeoastronomy. From 2009 to 2012, Professor Ruggles served as president of the Inter-Union Commission on the (ICHA), a joint Commission of the International Astronomical Union (IAU) and the International Union of the History and of Science (IUHPS). He has also served as president of the Prehistoric Society (2006–2010), the International Society for Archaeoas- tronomy and Astronomy in Culture (ISAAC) (1999–2004), and the European Society for Astronomy in Culture (SEAC) (1993–99). He was editor from 1987 to 2001 of Archaeoastronomy, the supplement to Journal for the History of Astronomy, and coeditor from 1998 to 2010 of Archaeoastronomy: the Journal of Astronomy in Culture. He has organized two of the ten “Oxford” International Symposia on Archaeoastronomy, the principal conferences in the field, that have taken place between 1981 and 2014: Oxford III in St Andrews, , in 1990 and Oxford IX in Lima, Peru, in 2011. He is a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London. Since 2008, Professor Ruggles has worked on behalf of UNESCO and the International Astronomical Union to advance their joint initiative to promote, preserve, and protect the world’s most important astronomical heritage sites. From 2008 to 2012, he chaired the IAU’s Working Group on Astronomy and World Heritage, and he continues as a special advisor to the IAU, liaising with UNESCO. He has also worked with UNESCO’s advisory body for cultural sites, ICOMOS, to produce a joint ICOMOS–IAU Thematic Study on the Heritage Sites of Astronomy and Archaeoastronomy (2010), and with their advisory body for natural sites, IUCN, as a member of the Dark Skies Advisory Group (DSAG). He is director of UNESCO’s Astronomy and World Heritage Web Portal Project. Section Editors

Themes and Issues

Juan Antonio Belmonte Instituto de Astrofı´sica de Canarias, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain

Methods and Practice

Stephen C. McCluskey Department of History, Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA

Pre-Columbian and Indigenous America

Stephen C. McCluskey Department of History, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA

Pre-Columbian and Indigenous

Stanisław Iwaniszewski Divisio´n de Posgrado, Escuela Nacional de Antropologı´a e Historia, Tlalpan, Me´xico, D.F.,

Pre-Columbian and Indigenous America

Alejandro Martı´nLo´pez Seccio´n de Etnologı´a, Instituto de Ciencias Antropolo´gicas, Facultad de Filosofı´a y Letras, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina

Indigenous and Islamic Astronomy in Africa

Alejandro Martı´nLo´pez Seccio´n de Etnologı´a, Instituto de Ciencias Antropolo´gicas, Facultad de Filosofı´a y Letras, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina

Prehistoric (Western Part)

Juan Antonio Belmonte Instituto de Astrofı´sica de Canarias, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain

xi xii Section Editors

Prehistoric Europe (Central and Eastern Part) and Central Asia

Stanisław Iwaniszewski Divisio´n de Posgrado, Escuela Nacional de Antropologı´a e Historia, Tlalpan, Me´xico, D.F., Mexico

Ancient Egypt and the Classical World

John M. Steele Department of and Ancient Western Asian Studies, , Providence, RI, USA

Traditional Astronomies in Medieval and Modern Europe

Stephen C. McCluskey Department of History, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA

Ancient Near East

John M. Steele Department of Egyptology and Ancient Western Asian Studies, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA

India and the Islamic Near East

John M. Steele Department of Egyptology and Ancient Western Asian Studies, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA

China and the Far East

Xiaochun Sun Institute for the History of , Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xicheng, ,

Oceania (Including Australasia and Malay Archipelago)

Alejandro Martı´nLo´pez Seccio´n de Etnologı´a, Instituto de Ciencias Antropolo´gicas, Facultad de Filosofı´a y Letras, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina Contents

Volume 1

Part I Themes and Issues ...... 1 Juan Antonio Belmonte

1 Concepts of Space, Time, and the Cosmos ...... 3 Stanisław Iwaniszewski

2 Calendars and Astronomy ...... 15 Clive L. N. Ruggles

3 Astronomy and - , , and Egypt ... 31 Rolf Krauss

4 Astronomy and Navigation ...... 43 Fernando Pimenta

5 Astronomy and Power ...... 67 Edwin C. Krupp

6 Astronomy and Politics ...... 93 John M. Steele

7 Astrology as Cultural Astronomy ...... 103 Nicholas Campion

8 Astronomy, Astrology, and Medicine ...... 117 Dorian Gieseler Greenbaum

9 Ancient “” - A Relevant Concept? ...... 133 Juan Antonio Belmonte

10 Origins of the “Western” ...... 147 Roslyn M. Frank

11 Astronomy in the Service of Christianity ...... 165 Stephen C. McCluskey

xiii xiv Contents

12 Astronomy in the Service of Islam ...... 181 David A. King 13 Interactions Between “Indigenous” and “Colonial” Astronomies: Adaptation of Indigenous Astronomies in the Modern World ...... 197 Alejandro Martı´nLo´pez 14 Development of Archaeoastronomy in the English-Speaking World ...... 213 Alun Salt 15 Disciplinary Perspectives on Archaeoastronomy ...... 227 Stephen C. McCluskey 16 Astronomy and Studies ...... 239 William Breen Murray 17 Presentation of Archaeoastronomy in Introductions to Archaeology ...... 251 Victor B. Fisher 18 Archaeoastronomical Concepts in Popular Culture ...... 263 Edwin C. Krupp 19 Astrotourism and Archaeoastronomy ...... 287 Stanisław Iwaniszewski 20 Archaeoastronomical Heritage and the World Heritage Convention ...... 301 Michel Cotte

Part II Methods and Practice ...... 313 Stephen C. McCluskey

21 Cultural Interpretation of Archaeological Evidence Relating to Astronomy ...... 315 Stanisław Iwaniszewski 22 Cultural Interpretation of Historical Evidence Relating to Astronomy ...... 325 Stephen C. McCluskey 23 Cultural Interpretation of Ethnographic Evidence Relating to Astronomy ...... 341 Alejandro Martı´nLo´pez 24 Nature and Analysis of Material Evidence Relevant to Archaeoastronomy ...... 353 Clive L. N. Ruggles Contents xv

25 Best Practice for Evaluating the Astronomical Significance of Archaeological Sites ...... 373 Clive L. N. Ruggles

26 Techniques of Field Survey ...... 389 Frank Prendergast

27 Analyzing Orientations ...... 411 Clive L. N. Ruggles

28 Analyzing Light-and-Shadow Interactions ...... 427 Stephen C. McCluskey

29 Visualization and Techniques ...... 445 Georg Zotti

30 Basic Concepts of Positional Astronomy ...... 459 Clive L. N. Ruggles

31 Long-Term Changes in the Appearance of the Sky ...... 473 Clive L. N. Ruggles

32 Solar Alignments - Identification and Analysis ...... 483 Juan Antonio Belmonte

33 Lunar Alignments - Identification and Analysis ...... 493 A. Ce´sar Gonza´lez-Garcı´a

34 Alignments upon (and Other ) - Identification and Analysis ...... 507 Ivan Sˇprajc

35 Stellar Alignments - Identification and Analysis ...... 517 Clive L. N. Ruggles

Part III Pre-Columbian and Indigenous North America ...... 531 Stephen C. McCluskey

36 ...... 533 John MacDonald

37 Medicine of the Great Plains ...... 541 David Vogt

38 Hohokam Archaeoastronomy ...... 551 Todd W. Bostwick

39 Mesa Verde Archaeoastronomy ...... 565 Gregory E. Munson xvi Contents

40 Great Houses and the Sun - Astronomy of Chaco Canyon ...... 577 J. McKim Malville and Andrew Munro 41 Rock Art of the Greater Southwest ...... 593 Edwin C. Krupp 42 and Anasazi Alignments and Rock Art ...... 607 Bryan C. Bates 43 Sun-Dagger Sites ...... 621 Ray A. Williamson 44 Dine´ (Navajo) Ethno- and Archaeoastronomy ...... 629 Von Del Chamberlain 45 Ethnoastronomy ...... 641 Ray Williamson 46 Hopi and Puebloan Ethnoastronomy and Ethnoscience ...... 649 Stephen C. McCluskey 47 Astronomy and Rock Art in Mexico ...... 659 William Breen Murray 48 Boca de Potrerillos ...... 669 William Breen Murray

Part IV Pre-Columbian and Indigenous Mesoamerica ...... 681 Stanisław Iwaniszewski

49 Astronomical in Ancient Mesoamerica ...... 683 Susan Milbrath 50 Astronomy in the ...... 695 Gabrielle Vail 51 Counting Cycles in Mesoamerica ...... 709 Stanisław Iwaniszewski 52 Astronomical Correlates of Architecture and Landscape in Mesoamerica ...... 715 Ivan Sˇprajc 53 Astronomy at Teotihuacan ...... 729 Stanisław Iwaniszewski 54 Pecked Cross-Circles ...... 737 Stanisław Iwaniszewski 55 Templo Mayor, Tenochtitlan - and Astronomy ...... 743 Jesu´s Galindo Trejo Contents xvii

56 of the Astronomers at ...... 749 Arnold Lebeuf

57 Colonial Zapotec Calendars and Calendrical Astronomy ...... 759 John Justeson

58 Layout of Ancient Maya Cities ...... 769 Grant R. Aylesworth

59 Governor’s Palace at ...... 773 Ivan Sˇprajc

60 E-Group Arrangements ...... 783 Grant R. Aylesworth

Volume 2

Part V Pre-Columbian and Indigenous South America ...... 793 Alejandro Martı´nLo´pez

61 Pre-Inca Astronomy in Peru ...... 795 J. McKim Malville

62 Chankillo ...... 807 Iva´n Ghezzi and Clive L. N. Ruggles

63 of the Peruvian Coast ...... 821 Clive L. N. Ruggles

64 Inca Astronomy and Calendrics ...... 831 David S. P. Dearborn and Brian S. Bauer

65 Inca Calendar ...... 839 Mariusz Zio´łkowski

66 Ceque System of Cuzco: A Yearly Calendar- in Space and Time ...... 851 R. Tom Zuidema

67 Inca Royal Estates in the Sacred Valley ...... 865 J. McKim Malville

68 Machu Picchu ...... 879 J. McKim Malville

69 Island of the Sun: Elite and Non-Elite Observations of the June ...... 893 David S. P. Dearborn and Brian S. Bauer xviii Contents

70 Inca Moon: Some Evidence of Lunar Observations in Tahuantinsuyu ...... 897 Mariusz Zio´łkowski, Jacek ´ciuk, and Fernando Astete 71 Observations of and in the ...... 913 Mariusz Zio´łkowski 72 Landscape, Mountain Worship and Astronomy in Socaire ..... 921 Ricardo Moyano 73 Skyscape of an Amazonian Diaspora: Arawak Astronomy in Historical Comparative Perspective ...... 931 Fabiola Jara 74 Astronomy in Brazilian Ethnohistory ...... 945 Fla´via Pedroza Lima 75 Ticuna Astronomy, Mythology and Cosmovision ...... 953 Priscila Faulhaber 76 Moxos’ Lagoons ...... 959 Juan Antonio Belmonte and Josep F. Barba 77 “Chiriguano” Astronomy - Venus and a Guarani New ... 967 Gonzalo Pereira 78 Astronomy and of the Guarani of Southern Brazil .... 975 Fla´via Cristina de Mello 79 The Sky Among the Toba of Western Formosa (Gran Chaco, Argentina) ...... 981 Cecilia Paula Go´mez 80 Astronomy in the Chaco Region, Argentina ...... 987 Alejandro Martı´nLo´pez 81 Ethnoastronomy in the Multicultural Context of the Agricultural Colonies in Northern Santa Fe Province, Argentina ...... 997 Armando Mudrik 82 Selkᛌnam Astronomy ...... 1005 Sixto R. Gime´nez Benı´tez

Part VI Indigenous and Islamic Astronomy in Africa ...... 1011 Alejandro Martı´nLo´pez

83 Cultural Astronomy in Africa South of the ...... 1013 Jarita Holbrook 84 Indigenous Astronomy in Southern Africa ...... 1031 Thebe Rodney Medupe Contents xix

85 “Reading” Central African Skies - A Case Study from Southeastern DRC ...... 1037 Allen F. Roberts 86 Mursi and Borana Calendars ...... 1041 Clive L. N. Ruggles 87 Yoruba Ethnoastronomy - “Orisha/Vodun” or How People’s Conceptions of the Sky Constructed Science ...... 1051 Dafon Aime´ Se`gla 88 Pre-Islamic Dry-Stone Monuments of the Central and Western Sahara ...... 1059 Yves Gauthier 89 Astronomy at Nabta Playa, Southern Egypt ...... 1079 J. McKim Malville 90 Pre-Islamic Religious Monuments in North Africa ...... 1093 Ce´sar Esteban 91 Astronomy as Practiced in the West African City of Timbuktu ...... 1101 Thebe Rodney Medupe 92 Calendar Pluralism and the Cultural Heritage of Domination and Resistance (Tuareg and Other Saharans) ...... 1107 Clare Oxby 93 Pre-Hispanic Sanctuaries in the Canary Islands ...... 1115 Juan Antonio Belmonte 94 A Modern Myth - The “” of Guı€´mar ...... 1125 Antonio Aparicio and Ce´sar Esteban

Part VII [Western Part] ...... 1133 Juan Antonio Belmonte

95 Patterns of Orientation in the Megalithic Tombs of the Western Mediterranean ...... 1135 Michael Hoskin 96 Seven-Stone Antas ...... 1149 Michael Hoskin 97 Megalithic Cromlechs of Iberia ...... 1153 Fernando Pimenta and Luı´s Tirapicos 98 Iberian Sanctuaries ...... 1163 Ce´sar Esteban xx Contents

99 Taula Sanctuaries of Menorca ...... 1169 Michael Hoskin 100 Celtic Sites of Central Iberia ...... 1175 Manuel Pe´rez Gutie´rrez 101 Basque Saroiak ...... 1187 Luis Mari Zaldua Etxabe 102 Possible Calendrical Inscriptions on Artifacts ..... 1197 Michael A. Rappengluck€ 103 Possible Astronomical Depictions in Franco-Cantabrian Paleolithic Rock Art ...... 1205 Michael A. Rappengluck€ 104 Astronomical Symbolism in Bronze-Age and Iron-Age Rock Art ...... 1213 Marco V. Garcı´a Quintela and Manuel Santos-Este´vez 105 and its Landscape ...... 1223 Clive L. N. Ruggles 106 The Neolithic and Monument Complex of Thornborough, North Yorkshire, UK ...... 1239 Jan Harding 107 Irish Neolithic Tombs in their Landscape ...... 1249 Frank Prendergast 108 Boyne Valley Tombs ...... 1263 Frank Prendergast 109 Recumbent Stone Circles ...... 1277 Clive L. N. Ruggles 110 Scottish Short Stone Rows ...... 1287 Clive L. N. Ruggles

Part VIII Prehistoric Europe [Central and Eastern Part] and Central Asia ...... 1297 Stanisław Iwaniszewski

111 TRB Megalithic Tombs and Long Barrows in Central Europe ...... 1299 Stanisław Iwaniszewski 112 Neolithic and Bronze Age Houses in Central Europe ...... 1307 Emı´lia Pa´sztor and Judit P. Barna Contents xxi

113 Neolithic Circular Ditch Systems (“Rondels”) in Central Europe ...... 1317 Emı´lia Pa´sztor, Judit P. Barna, and Georg Zotti 114 Celestial Symbolism of the Vucˇedol Culture ...... 1327 Emı´lia Pa´sztor 115 Celestial Symbolism in Central European Later - Case Studies from the Bronze Age Carpathian Basin ...... 1337 Emı´lia Pa´sztor 116 Disk ...... 1349 Emı´lia Pa´sztor 117 Lessons of Odry ...... 1357 Stanisław Iwaniszewski 118 Astronomical Orientation in the Ancient Dacian Sanctuaries of Romania ...... 1365 Florin Sta˘nescu 119 Astronomy in the Bulgarian Neolithic ...... 1377 Alexey Stoev and Penka Maglova 120 Thracian Sanctuaries ...... 1385 Penka Maglova and Alexey Stoev 121 Thracian ...... 1395 A. Ce´sar Gonza´lez-Garcı´a, Dimiter Kolev, and Vesselina Koleva 122 Sardinian Nuraghes ...... 1403 Mauro Peppino Zedda 123 Nuraghic Well of Santa Cristina, Paulilatino, Oristano, Sardinia ...... 1413 Arnold Lebeuf 124 Temples of Malta ...... 1421 Frank Ventura and Michael Hoskin 125 Minoan Astronomy ...... 1431 Mary Blomberg and Go¨ran Henriksson 126 Astronomy in the Ancient Caucasus ...... 1443 Irakli Simonia and Badri Jijelava 127 Carahunge - A Critical Assessment ...... 1453 A. Ce´sar Gonza´lez-Garcı´a 128 Observational and Cult Sites in Pre-Christian Georgia ...... 1461 Irakli Simonia, Badri Jijelava, G. Gigauri, and Gordon Houston xxii Contents

Volume 3

Part IX and the Classical World ...... 1469 John M. Steele

129 Egyptian Cosmology and Cosmogony ...... 1471 James P. Allen 130 Egyptian Constellations ...... 1477 Jose´ Lull and Juan Antonio Belmonte 131 Ancient Egyptian Calendars ...... 1489 Anthony Spalinger 132 Egyptian “ Clocks” ...... 1495 Sarah Symons 133 Orientation of Egyptian Temples: An Overview ...... 1501 Juan Antonio Belmonte 134 Monuments of the Plateau ...... 1519 Clive L. N. Ruggles 135 ...... 1531 Juan Antonio Belmonte 136 Kingdom of Kush ...... 1541 Juan Antonio Belmonte 137 Greek Cosmology and Cosmogony ...... 1549 Alexander Jones 138 Greek Constellations ...... 1555 Stamatina Mastorakou 139 Calendars ...... 1563 Robert Hannah 140 Greek Temples and Rituals ...... 1573 Efrosyni Boutsikas 141 Greek Mathematical Astronomy ...... 1583 Alexander Jones 142 Material Culture of Greek and Roman Astronomy ...... 1589 James Evans 143 Reconstructing the ...... 1603 Tony Freeth 144 Greco-Roman Astrometeorology ...... 1625 Daryn Lehoux Contents xxiii

145 Greco-Roman Astrology ...... 1629 Roger Beck 146 Etruscan and Architecture ...... 1637 Giulio Magli 147 Roman City Planning and Spatial Organization ...... 1643 A. Ce´sar Gonza´lez-Garcı´a and Giulio Magli 148 Light at the Pantheon ...... 1651 Robert Hannah and Giulio Magli 149 Nemrud Dag ...... 1659 Juan Antonio Belmonte and A. Ce´sar Gonza´lez-Garcı´a 150 Mithraism ...... 1669 Roger Beck

Part X Traditional Astronomies in Medieval and Early Modern Europe ...... 1677 Stephen C. McCluskey

151 Skylore of the Indigenous Peoples of Northern Eurasia ...... 1679 Roslyn M. Frank 152 Qibla in the Mediterranean ...... 1687 Mo`nica Rius-Pinie´s 153 Interactions Between Islamic and Christian Traditions in the ...... 1695 A. Ce´sar Gonza´lez-Garcı´a and Juan Antonio Belmonte 154 Orientation of Christian Churches ...... 1703 Stephen C. McCluskey 155 Orientation of English Medieval Parish Churches ...... 1711 Peter G. Hoare 156 Church Orientations in Slovenia ...... 1719 SasˇaCˇ aval 157 Church Orientations in Central and Eastern Europe ...... 1727 Rimvydas Lauzˇikas 158 Role of Light–Shadow Hierophanies in Early Medieval Art . . . 1733 Kirsten Ataoguz 159 Light–Shadow Interactions in Italian Medieval Churches .... 1743 Manuela Incerti 160 Lost Skies of Italian Folk Astronomy ...... 1755 Piero Barale xxiv Contents

161 Folk Calendars in the Balkan Region ...... 1767 Dimiter Kolev 162 Wooden Calendar Sticks in Eastern Europe ...... 1773 Vesselina Koleva and Svetlana Koleva

Part XI ...... 1781 John M. Steele

163 Orientation of Hittite Monuments ...... 1783 A. Ce´sar Gonza´lez-Garcı´a and Juan Antonio Belmonte 164 Orientation of Phoenician Temples ...... 1793 Jose´ Luis Escacena Carrasco 165 Astronomy in the Levant During the Bronze Age and Iron Age ...... 1801 Andrea Polcaro 166 Petra and the Nabataeans ...... 1813 Juan Antonio Belmonte and A. Ce´sar Gonza´lez-Garcı´a 167 Mesopotamian Cosmogony and Cosmology ...... 1823 Wayne Horowitz 168 Mesopotamian Star Lists ...... 1829 Wayne Horowitz 169 Mesopotamian Celestial Divination ...... 1835 Lorenzo Verderame 170 Mesopotamian Calendars ...... 1841 John M. Steele 171 Astronomy, Divination, and Politics in the Neo-Assyrian Empire 1847 Lorenzo Verderame 172 Babylonian Observational and Predictive Astronomy ...... 1855 John M. Steele 173 Babylonian Mathematical Astronomy ...... 1863 Mathieu Ossendrijver 174 Late ...... 1871 John M. Steele 175 Transmission of to Other Cultures . . . 1877 Alexander Jones Contents xxv

176 Ancient and Medieval Jewish Calendars ...... 1883 Sacha Stern 177 Astronomy in the Book of Enoch ...... 1889 Jonathan Ben-Dov 178 Astronomy and Calendars at Qumran ...... 1895 Jonathan Ben-Dov 179 Ancient Persian Skywatching and Calendars ...... 1901 Arkadiusz Sołtysiak

Part XII India and the Islamic Near East ...... 1907 John M. Steele

180 Islamic Mathematical Astronomy ...... 1909 Clemency Montelle 181 Islamic Astronomical Instruments and Observatories ...... 1917 Tofigh Heidarzadeh 182 Islamic Folk Astronomy ...... 1927 Petra G. Schmidl 183 Folk Astronomy and Calendars in Yemen ...... 1935 Daniel Martin Varisco 184 Star Clocks and Water Management in Oman ...... 1941 Harriet Nash 185 Astronomy of the Vedic Age ...... 1949 Yukio Oˆ hashi 186 Use of Astronomical Principles in Indian Temple Architecture ...... 1959 B. S. Shylaja 187 Astronomy of Indian Cities, Temples, and Pilgrimage Centers ...... 1969 J. McKim Malville 188 Mathematical Astronomy in India ...... 1981 Kim Plofker 189 Va¯kya System of Astronomy ...... 1991 M. S. Sriram 190 Kerala School of Astronomy ...... 2001 Krishnamurthi Ramasubramanian xxvi Contents

191 Astronomical Instruments in India ...... 2007 Sreeramula Rajeswara Sarma 192 Observatories of Sawai Jai Singh II ...... 2017 Susan N. Johnson-Roehr

Part XIII China and the Far East ...... 2029 Xiaochun Sun

193 Ancient - An Overview ...... 2031 Yunli Shi 194 Observation of Celestial Phenomena in Ancient China ...... 2043 Xiaochun Sun 195 Chinese Constellations and Star Maps ...... 2051 Xiaochun Sun 196 and Mathematical Astronomy ...... 2059 Xiaochun Sun 197 Shang Oracle Bones ...... 2069 David W. Pankenier 198 Excavated Documents Dealing with Chinese Astronomy ..... 2079 Yuzhen Guan 199 Astronomy and City Planning in China ...... 2085 David W. Pankenier 200 in Ancient China ...... 2095 Geng Li 201 Taosi ...... 2105 Xiaochun Sun 202 Dengfeng Large ...... 2111 Fengxian Xu 203 Ancient Chinese ...... 2117 Kehui Deng 204 Chinese Armillary Spheres ...... 2127 Xiaochun Sun 205 Water-Powered Astronomical ...... 2133 Xiaochun Sun 206 Beijing Ancient Observatory ...... 2141 Yunli Shi Contents xxvii

207 Astronomical Aspects of Korean Dolmens ...... 2149 Hong-Jin Yang 208 Korean Astronomical Calendar, Chiljeongsan ...... 2157 Eun Hee Lee 209 Striking Clepsydras ...... 2163 Moon-Hyon Nam 210 Song I-Yeong’s Armillary Clock ...... 2179 Sang Hyuk Kim and Yong Sam Lee 211 Cultural Astronomy in Japan ...... 2197 Steven L. Renshaw

Part XIV Oceania (Including Australasia and Malay Archipelago) ...... 2205 Alejandro Martı´nLo´pez

212 Cultural Production of Skylore in Indonesia ...... 2207 Gene Ammarell and Anna Lowenhaupt Tsing 213 Australian Aboriginal Astronomy - An Overview ...... 2215 Ray P. Norris and Duane W. Hamacher 214 Australian Aboriginal Astronomy and Cosmology ...... 2223 Philip A. Clarke 215 Archaeoastronomy in Polynesia ...... 2231 Clive L. N. Ruggles 216 Ancient Hawaiian Astronomy ...... 2247 Clive L. N. Ruggles 217 Archaeoastronomy of Island ...... 2261 Edmundo Edwards Erratum ...... E1 Index ...... 2269

Contributors

James P. Allen Brown University, Providence, RI, USA Gene Ammarell Ohio University, , OH, USA Antonio Aparicio Departamento de Astrofı´sica and Instituto de Astrofı´sica de Canarias, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain Fernando Astete Parque Arqueolo´gico Nacional de Machu Picchu, Direccio´n Regional de Cultura , Cusco, Peru Kirsten Ataoguz Indiana University-Purdue University Fort Wayne, Fort Wayne, IN, USA Grant R. Aylesworth Anthropology, St. Thomas University, Fredericton, NB, Canada Piero Barale Societa` Astronomica Italiana, Rome, Italy Josep F. Barba Centre d’Estudis Amazo`nics, Barcelona, Spain Judit P. Barna Balatoni Museum, Keszthely, Hungary Bryan C. Bates Coconino Community College, Flagstaff, AZ, USA Brian S. Bauer University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA Roger Beck University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada Juan Antonio Belmonte Instituto de Astrofı´sica de Canarias, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain Jonathan Ben-Dov Department of Bible, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel Mary Blomberg Department of Archaeology and Ancient History, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden Todd W. Bostwick PaleoWest Archaeology, , AZ, USA Verde Valley Archaeology Center, Camp Verde, AZ, USA Efrosyni Boutsikas University of Kent, Canterbury, UK

xxix xxx Contributors

Nicholas Campion University of Wales Trinity Saint David, Lampeter, UK SasˇaCˇ aval Institute of Anthropological and Spatial Studies, Scientific Research Centre of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Ljubljana, Slovenia Department of Anthropology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA Von Del Chamberlain Kanab, UT, USA Philip A. Clarke Environmental & Landscape Planning, Urban Research Program, School of Environment, Griffith University, Nathan, Qld, Australia Michel Cotte University of Nantes, Nantes, Fla´via Cristina de Mello Department of Anthropology, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz – UESC, Ilheus, Bahia, Brazil David S. P. Dearborn Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA, USA Kehui Deng College of Humanities and Sciences, Donghua University, Shanghai, China Edmundo Edwards Centro de Estudios Isla de Pascua, Universidad de Chile, Santiago Metropolitan Region, Chile Jose´ Luis Escacena Carrasco Department of Prehistory and Archaeology, University of Seville, Seville, Spain Ce´sar Esteban Departamento de Astrofı´sica and Instituto de Astrofı´sica de Canarias, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain James Evans University of Puget Sound, Tacoma, WA, USA Priscila Faulhaber Museum of Astronomy and Related Sciences, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Victor B. Fisher Department of Sociology, Anthropology, and Criminal Justice, Towson University, Towson, MD, USA Roslyn M. Frank University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA Tony Freeth Antikythera Mechanism Research Project, South Ealing, London, UK Jesu´s Galindo Trejo Instituto de Investigaciones Este´ticas, Universidad Nacional Auto´noma de Me´xico (UNAM), Mexico City, Mexico Marco V. Garcı´a Quintela University of Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain Yves Gauthier Re´aumont, France Iva´n Ghezzi Instituto de Investigaciones Arqueolo´gicas, Miraflores, Lima, Peru G. Gigauri Eqvtime Takaishvili Historical Society, Tbilisi, Georgia Contributors xxxi

Sixto R. Gime´nez Benı´tez Universidad Nacional de La Plata, La Plata, Argentina Cecilia Paula Go´mez Faculty of Philosophy and Letters, University of Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina A. Ce´sar Gonza´lez-Garcı´a Instituto de Ciencias del Patrimonio, Incipit, Santiago de Compostela, Spain Dorian Gieseler Greenbaum University of Wales, Trinity Saint David, Lampeter, Wales, UK Yuzhen Guan Department of Egyptology and Ancient Western Asian Studies, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA Duane W. Hamacher Nura Gili Indigenous Programs Unit, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia Robert Hannah University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand Jan Harding School of History, and Archaeology, Newcastle University, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK Tofigh Heidarzadeh University of California, Riverside, CA, USA Go¨ran Henriksson Department of and Astronomy, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden Peter G. Hoare Ely, Cambridgeshire, UK Jarita Holbrook University of the Western Cape, Belville, South Africa Wayne Horowitz The Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel Michael Hoskin Churchill College, Cambridge, UK Gordon Houston Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Manuela Incerti Department of Architecture, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy Stanisław Iwaniszewski Divisio´n de Posgrado, Escuela Nacional de Antropologı´a e Historia, Tlalpan, Me´xico, D.F., Mexico Pan´stwowe Muzeum Archeologiczne, Warszawa, Poland Fabiola Jara Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Cultural Anthropology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands Badri Jijelava Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Susan N. Johnson-Roehr Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, USA Alexander Jones Institute for the Study of the Ancient World, , NY, USA xxxii Contributors

John Justeson University at Albany, Albany, NY, USA Sang Hyuk Kim Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, Republic of Korea David A. King Johann Wolfgang Goethe University, Frankfurt am Main, Dimiter Kolev Institute of Astronomy and National Astronomical Observatory, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, Bulgaria Svetlana Koleva Faculty of Classical and Modern , Sofia University, Sofia, Bulgaria Vesselina Koleva Institute of Astronomy and National Astronomical Observatory, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, Bulgaria Jacek Kos´ciuk Laboratory of 3D Scanning and Modelling, Institute of , Arts and , Wrocław University of Technology, Wrocław, Poland Rolf Krauss Humboldt-University, Berlin, Germany Edwin C. Krupp Griffith Observatory, Los Angeles, CA, USA Rimvydas Lauzˇikas Faculty of Communication, Vilnius University, Vilnius, Lithuania Arnold Lebeuf Institute for the History of Religions, Jagiellonian University, Krako´w, Poland Eun Hee Lee Yonsei University Observatory, Seoul, Republic of Korea Yong Sam Lee Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, Republic of Korea Daryn Lehoux Queen’s University, Kingston, ON, Canada Geng Li Center of Ancient Chinese Astronomy, National Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Fla´via Pedroza Lima Rio de Janeiro Foundation, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Alejandro Martı´nLo´pez Seccio´n de Etnologı´a, Instituto de Ciencias Antropolo´gicas, Facultad de Filosofı´a y Letras, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina Jose´ Lull Universitat Auto`noma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Valle`s, Spain John MacDonald Nunavut Research Institute, Iqaluit, Nunavut, Canada Giulio Magli Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy Contributors xxxiii

Penka Maglova Stara Zagora Department, Space Research and Technology Institute, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Stara Zagora, Bulgaria J. McKim Malville Department of Astrophysical and Planetary Sciences, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA Stamatina Mastorakou Institute for Research in Classical Philosophy and Science, Princeton, NJ, USA Stephen C. McCluskey Department of History, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA Thebe Rodney Medupe Department of Physics, North West University, Mahikeng, South Africa Susan Milbrath Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA Clemency Montelle University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand Ricardo Moyano Escuela Nacional de Antropologı´a e Historia, Me´xico, D.F., Mexico Armando Mudrik Facultad de Matema´tica, Astronomı´ayFı´sica, Universidad Nacional de Co´rdoba, Co´rdoba, Argentina Andrew Munro Centre for Astronomy, James Cook University, Townsville, Qld, Australia Gregory E. Munson Dolores, CO, USA William Breen Murray Departamento de Ciencias Sociales, Universidad de Monterrey, San Pedro Garza Garcı´a, Nuevo Leo´n, Mexico Moon-Hyon Nam Konkuk University and Jagyeongnu Research Institute, Seoul, Republic of Korea Harriet Nash University of Exeter, Exeter, UK Ray P. Norris Department of Indigenous Studies, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia CSIRO Astronomy & Space Science, Epping, NSW, Australia Yukio Oˆ hashi Tokyo, Japan Mathieu Ossendrijver TOPOI, Humboldt University, Berlin, Germany Clare Oxby Institute of , University of Bern, Bern, David W. Pankenier Department of Modern Languages and Literatures, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA, USA xxxiv Contributors

Emı´lia Pa´sztor Magistratum Studio, Dunafo¨ldva´r, Hungary Gonzalo Pereira Planetario Max Schreier, Carrera de Fı´sica, Universidad Mayor de San Andre´s, La Paz, Bolivia Manuel Pe´rez Gutie´rrez Higher Polytechnical School of A´ vila, University of Salamanca, A´ vila, Castilla y Leo´n, Spain Fernando Pimenta Associac¸a˜o Portuguesa de Investigac¸a˜o Arqueolo´gica (APIA), Lisbon, Portugal Kim Plofker Union College, Schenectady, NY, USA Andrea Polcaro Universita` degli Studi di Perugia, Perugia, Italy Frank Prendergast Spatial Information Sciences, College of Engineering and Built Environment, Dublin Institute of Technology, Dublin, Ireland Krishnamurthi Ramasubramanian Cell for Indian Science and Technology in Sanskrit, Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, IIT Bombay, Mumbai, India Michael A. Rappengluck€ Adult Education Centre and Observatory, Gilching, Germany Steven L. Renshaw Kanda University of International Studies, Chiba, Japan Mo`nica Rius-Pinie´s Studies, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain Allen F. Roberts University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA Clive L. N. Ruggles School of Archaeology and Ancient History, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK Alun Salt University of Leicester, Leicester, UK Manuel Santos-Este´vez Centro de Ciencias Histo´ricas y Sociales (CSIC), Madrid, Spain Sreeramula Rajeswara Sarma Dusseldorf,€ Germany Petra G. Schmidl Institut fur€ Orient– und Asienwissenschaften – Abteilung Islamwissenschaften, Rheinische Friedrich–Wilhelms–Universit€at, Bonn, Germany Exzellenzcluster “Normative Ordnungen”, Goethe–Universit€at, Frankfurt, Germany Dafon Aime´ Se`gla Martin–Luther University, Halle, Germany Universite´ d’Abomey Calavi UAC – Centre Universitaire d’Aplahoue´, Abomey Calavi, Benin Republic Yunli Shi University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China Contributors xxxv

B. S. Shylaja Jawaharlal Nehru Planetarium, Bangalore, India Irakli Simonia Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Arkadiusz Sołtysiak Institute of Archaeology, University of Warsaw, Warszawa, Poland Anthony Spalinger Department of Classics and Ancient History, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand Ivan Sˇprajc Institute of Anthropological and Spatial Studies, Research Center of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Ljubljana, Slovenia M. S. Sriram Department of Theoretical Physics, University of Madras, Guindy Campus, Chennai, India Florin Sta˘nescu University “1 Decembrie 1918”, Alba Iulia, Romania John M. Steele Department of Egyptology and Ancient Western Asian Studies, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA Sacha Stern University College London, London, UK Alexey Stoev Stara Zagora Department, Space Research and Technology Institute, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Stara Zagora, Bulgaria Xiaochun Sun Institute for the History of Natural Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xicheng, Beijing, China Sarah Symons McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada Luı´s Tirapicos Centro Interuniversita´rio de Histo´ria das Cieˆncias e da Tecnologia, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal Anna Lowenhaupt Tsing University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, USA Gabrielle Vail Division of Social Sciences, New College of Florida, Sarasota, FL, USA Daniel Martin Varisco Department of Anthropology, Hofstra University, Hempstead, NY, USA Frank Ventura University of Malta, Msida, Malta Lorenzo Verderame “Sapienza” Universita` di Roma, Rome, Italy David Vogt Media & Graphics Interdisciplinary Centre (MAGIC) Laboratory, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada Ray Williamson Secure World Foundation, Broomfield, CO, USA Fengxian Xu Institute for the History of Natural Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xicheng, Beijing, China xxxvi Contributors

Hong-Jin Yang Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, Republic of Korea SohNam Institute for History of Astronomy (SIHA), Seoul, Republic of Korea Luis Mari Zaldua Etxabe Urnieta, Basque Country, Spain Mauro Peppino Zedda Agora` Nuragica, Cagliari, Italy Mariusz Zio´łkowski Centre for Precolumbian Studies, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland Georg Zotti Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Archaeological Prospection and Virtual Archaeology, Vienna, R. Tom Zuidema University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, USA