Reformation to Millennium: Pugin's Contrasts in the History of English Thought Author(s): Rosemary Hill Source: The Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, Vol. 58, No. 1 (Mar., 1999), pp. 26-41 Published by: Society of Architectural Historians Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/991435 Accessed: 18/01/2010 11:58

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http://www.jstor.org Reformationto Millennium Pugin'sContrasts in theHistory of EnglishThought

1831-1832, when he was nineteen and old.6 Here ROSEMARYHILL, twenty years he drew the facades of three houses over the title "Contrasted Contrasts; Or, A Parallel Between The Noble Edifices Of The Domestic Architecture" (Figure 1). The first, dated 1470, is a FourteenthAnd FifteenthCenturies, And Similar Buildings Of timber-framed house with elaborate gabling. It appears in The PresentDay; Shewing The PresentDecay Of Taste:Accompanied some form in every subsequent version of the scheme. The byAppropriate Text. By A. WelbyPugin, Architect.was published on second house, dated 1532, is in a Flemish Renaissance style. 4 August 1836. It marked the turning point of the Gothic The third, a brick end-of-terrace house with the date 1832, is Revival. It made Pugin's reputation and remains his most much like the one in which Pugin himself was living with his famous book. parents, number 105 Great Russell Street, built by Thomas Yet Contrastsis more widely known than read. It has re- Cubitt.7 ceived relatively little critical attention, and it exists in no The "contrast" here, already to the disadvantage of the scholarly edition. The principal studies of it are Phoebe Stan- nineteenth century, is chiefly aesthetic. The richness of the ton's essay "The Sources of Pugin's Contrasts" and Henry- older buildings is set against the thinness of the new. There is a Russell Hitchcock's introduction to the reprinted edition of hint of satire in the laughable awkwardness of the lamp 1969.1 Apart from these, S. Lang's essay "The Principles of the bracket, but there is no indication of a wider moral or religious Gothic Revival in England" touched on the subject briefly but argument. That Pugin was already beginning to develop such significantly.2 Since then some of the preparatory drawings a view, however, is suggested by a sequence of drawings in the have been described by Alexandra Wedgwood in her cata- same sketchbook of designs for a "Catholic Chapel," the first logues of Pugin's work in the collections of the RIBA and the time he is known to have used the word Catholic.These are Victoria and Albert Museum.3 Margaret Belcher's essay dated 1831, four years before Pugin entered the Roman "Pugin Writing" discusses Contrastsin the context of Pugin's Catholic Church. Over the next five years, the implications of other books.4 Some graphic precedents have also been sug- these two groups of drawings, one religious and one stylistic, gested.5 were to merge. This article amplifies the previous studies and differs from them on some points, particularly the influences on Contrasts. UR-CONTRASTS It is divided into two main parts. The first is an account of the Between 1832 and 1834 Pugin made several sequences of book's composition between 1832 and 1836, including a discus- drawings that have come to be known as "ideal schemes." sion of the original, previously unpublished, scheme of 1833. These are neither copies of existing buildings, nor are they The second part deals with its sources and intellectual context. designs intended to be built. They show him beginning to It suggests that Contrastsgrew out of a particular tradition of deploy his knowledge of medieval art and architecture experi- English antiquarian writing to which its relation has not been mentally to create buildings of his own invention. Of the discussed. It will also show that Contrastsowes less to French surviving schemes, two, both of 1833, are of particular rel- and German theory than has sometimes been thought and evance. more to Romanticism, to the millenarian religious climate of The first is a bound volume entitled "Contrasts delineated the 1830s, to the influence of Pugin's mother, Catherine and executed by A.W. Pugin Ad MDXXXXXXIII" (sic).8 It Welby, and to the popular culture of the day. comprises thirty-two drawings presented in pairs, the medieval examples dated 1430 or 1530, the modern 1830. After the tide, THE FIRST DRAWINGS the contrasted subjects are: chapels, ecclesiastical architecture The earliest surviving intimations of the idea that was to (exterior and interior), sepulchral monuments, street architec- become Contrastsare in a sketchbook that Pugin was using in ture, sepulchral slabs, gatehouses, wells, castellated architec-

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FIGUREI: "ContrastedDomestic Architecture,"1832 ture, inns, town halls, prayer books, altars, domestic architec- hall, the inn, and the street fronts Pugin pointed the way ture, and public conduits. There is no text except for the titles forward. of each pair. The Ur-Contrastsshow Pugin partially mature as an artist Like the other ideal schemes, and unlike the illustrations and a satirist, still closely dependent on the experience of his for the published version of Contrasts,the drawings are all, in London childhood and his training as an antiquary and varying degrees, inventions. As a result, the scheme is diffuse; draftsman in the drawing school of his father, Auguste Charles the satire has yet to focus on particular targets. In the pub- (c. 1769-1832).9 Once again the Pugin family house appears, lished version the buildings were all real. The choice of here in situ (Figure 2). Set against it is the timber-fronted subjects is also, in this early stage, somewhat random. In 1836 house, this time unmistakably in (Figure 3). The Pugin dropped the rural models of modern architecture and windows of its neighbor are borrowed from the Chateau concentrated his attack on the nineteenth-century city. The Fontaine le Henri near Caen, which Pugin's father had in- comparisons of 1833 are also more gentle in their humor. The cluded in his Specimensof theArchitectural Antiquities of Normandy points they make are aesthetic and broadly moral, but not yet in 1827. Pugin was, of course, half French and architecturally Catholic or strongly polemic. as well as verbally bilingual. Although he talks in Contrasts In essence, however, the graphic idea is in place. The other principally about England, he reaches automatically for French important elements that would survive in the published scheme or Flemish examples when he needs them. are Pugin's preference for Late Gothic, though this would The "Catholic Chapel" of the earlier sketchbook also reap- change soon after 1836. Where Pugin was already, arguably, pears in simplified form, based in part, like its predecessor, on most prescient was in offering so many different building the mid-fourteenth-century Slipper Chapel at Houghton Saint types. The Gothic Revival of the early 1830s had moved be- Giles, Norfolk, which Pugin had drawn in 1831 for his father's yond private houses and churches, but it had yet to impose Examplesof GothicArchitecture (Figure 4). Its modern counter- itself on civic, commercial, or urban architecture. In the town part, the "Zion Chapel," is surely intended to be generic, with

HILL: PUGIN'S CONTRASTS 27 FIGURE2: "ContrastedStreet Architecture 1830," 1833 FIGURE3: Streetarchitecture, 1 530," 1833

alternative is not much better its inappropriately sited "wine vaults" and "counting house" Unfortunately, Pugin's medieval MCCCCXXX" 9) is in the cellars (Figure 5). digested. His "Ecclesia Parochialis (Figure an that includes the west end of Saint Mary, Bever- A major source for the drawings of 1833 was the tour of the anthology Taunton. He does West Country that Pugin made with his parents in the previous ley, and the tower of Saint Mary Magdalen, a autumn of 1832, during which the idea for Contrastswas not manage, however, to make them into plausible unity. with its anachronistic Renaissance developed. It was to be the last of the annual drawing trips that In the "medieval" altar, is another of A. C. Pugin took with his pupils before his death that Decem- retable (Figure 10), there example Pugin's forms. His ber. The medieval buildings of Wells in Somerset, especially fast-developing but still imperfect grasp of medieval from Flemish the cathedral and the Vicars' Close, a whole planned street of fantastic Gothic town hall is a wild extrapolation for himself the fourteenth century, drove Pugin "mad" with excitement; buildings he had probably not yet seen (Figure 11). as he told his friend William Osmond in a letter on the top of OF A POLEMIC which are drawn a memorial tablet and a canopied tomb, THE DEVELOPMENT of "The in 1830," is a labeled "1832" and "1532," respectively.10? Pugin's other scheme 1833, Deanery five illustrations made into a booklet (Figure At Glastonbury "The George" was the basis of Pugin's fragment, up for the first time, the moral and historical argu- medieval inn (Figure 6). In his own version Pugin made the 12).11 Here, into The drawings are humorous, late-fifteenth-century building grander. He also made it sym- ments are brought fully play. brief text the satire home. The fictional dean- metrical, something he would not have done five years later. and the brings medieval that has suffered first at the hands of The modern inn, perhaps another generic composition, was a ery is a building the Cromwellian forces in the Civil War and then from mod- target that Pugin found hard to hit (Figure 7). There was ern who have smartened it up with sash windows nothing impractical about it. A coach office on the premises improvers and At the same time, was highly appropriate. gas lamps. The success of the early scheme is variable. The caricature ... the Gatehousehaving been destroyedcannot here be represented of a commissioner's church is probably meant particularly for but this light and appropriatedesign was erected by the late munificent of the Edward Lapidge's Saint Peter's, Hammersmith (Figure 8). dean at the expence of 54 poundswhich was defrayed by the sale

28 JSAH / 58:1, MARCH 1999 materialsof the old gatehousewhich were sold to a Builderin the town With the controversy over the rebuilding of the Palace of for ?170 includingthe lead.12 Westminster, destroyed by fire in 1834, the battle of the styles between Gothic and classical architects erupted into the pub- The eighteenth-century dean, "a staunch supporter of the lic arena. Pugin felt he could contain himself "no longer"and union of church and state," appears as one of a pair of con- went "boldly to the attack."16His pamphlet A Letterto Hakewill, trasting clergymen (Figure 13). "The Deanery in 1830" takes a reply to William Hakewill's suggestion that the Houses of a political position with its ironic reference to the "freedom of Parliament be rebuilt in the classical style, appeared on 18 the people" under the Commonwealth and its anti-Erastianism. August 1835.17At the beginning of the Letterto Hakewill,Pugin In the style of its drawings, "The Deanery," like Contrasts, described himself for the first time in print as "Architect" for may, as Phoebe Stanton suggests, owe something to George he had now built his house, Saint Marie's Grange, outside Cruikshank's cartoons. It is hard to discern a predominating Salisbury, Wiltshire. Now, also for the first time, he put into influence. Pugin had found his own voice in the manner of the words his views on modern architecture. The targets of "The day. He had known Rudolph Ackermann's print shop and art Deanery in 1830" had been the clergy and modern taste in emporium in the Strand, The Repository of the Arts, all his general. Here he launched an attack on the architectural life, and he was thoroughly familiar with modern prints, as his profession and its "foolish" training, as well as a defense of the discussion of them in An Apologyfor Contrastsmakes clear.13 craftsman builder that anticipates Ruskin. Students of architec- The text of "The Deanery" is a parody of contemporary art ture, he complained, journalism in general and perhaps in particular of Acker- after a few on the classicsoils of Greece and mann's Repositoryof Arts, Literature,Commerce, which described idling years Italy,having ... restoreda whole from a few feet of stone return Pugin's father's designs in 1827 as being in the Gothic style but amphitheatre seat, to their countriesand venture to the which the master- with "those improved forms and elegant contrivances which attempt styles mind of a Steinbackor a carriedto such the superiority of modern art and ingenuity have intro- Wykeham perfection.18 duced."14 While, by contrast, After 1833 the scheme for Contrastslay dormant but it was The chiselsof manya humble mason,whose only school has been not forgotten. The direction of his thoughts is evident from his the cathedral of the city in which he dwells, have lately produced sketchbooks for that year and the next, which contain occa- stoneworkscarcely inferior to the finest specimensof the olden time.19 sional notes such as: "182 lay and clerical persons executed in Queen Elizabeth's reign." On the other side of the same page Pugin had been a Roman Catholic forjust over two months is a drawing of iconoclasts.15 when he published the Letter to Hakewill, but the religious

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FIGURE4: Chapel,"1430," 1833 FIGURE5: "ContrastedChapels 1830," 1833

HILL: PUGIN'S CONTRASTS 29 Contmei.L Jn,w FIGURE6: Inn,"1530," 1833 FIGURE7: "ContrastedInns 1830," 1833 argument was still only implicit in the stylistic one. On the back drew the pump at Saint Anne's, Soho, a mean little structure of the pamphlet, however, was an advertisement for Contrasts, with its handle chained up, which symbolized the parsimony OrA parallelbetween the nobleedifices of themiddle ages, and thestate of the modern age as compared to the generous medieval of architecturein the 19th century,described as "In progress and conduit from which water flowed free and abundant (see will be published as soon as completed." Figure 17). In August 1835, Pugin was in London. It was almost cer- After that, Pugin sketched Ely House, Dover Street, home tainly then that he made the first drawings for the book.20 of the Bishop of Ely. This modern family house (1775) had They were all modern, "bad" contrasts. The London of the replaced the medieval Bishop's Palace, a building referred to 1830s would provide him with no good examples. He decided by Shakespeare. The old and new buildings appeared in to concentrate on urban building types. He worked on an- Contrastsas the pair of Episcopal Residences. It was a compari- other version of "castellated architecture" but dropped it, as son that had struck others before Pugin. As David Watkin has he dropped the villa and the gatehouses. Contrastsnow be- noticed, Sir John Soane had made the same point in his came part of the nineteenth-century debate about the city. lectures.22 Pugin, however, would not knowingly have bor- Pugin drew the entrance to King's College in the Strand, rowed an idea from the despised "Professor." He took his view newly completed by Sir Robert Smirke, whose career, Pugin of the old palace and part of his text, with due acknowledge- felt, had "gone on too long" (Figure 14).21 Focusing the attack ment, from Brayley's Londiniana.23 on the architectural profession, he now substituted for his Then the project lapsed again. Pugin was preparing draw- parents' house as an example of a modern house front that of ings for Charles Barry's and Gillespie Graham's entries in the Sir John Soane, Professor of Architecture at the Royal Acad- competition for the Palace of Westminster. He returned to emy (Figure 15). Stephen Geary's King's Cross, an unsatisfac- Contraststhe next year and began drawing on 23 February.24In tory and much lampooned building that combined memorial March he was in Brighton and London, after which he made a cross and police station, made an irresistible target, as did the ten-day tour of the north and west of England. Inwoods' feeble commissioner's church, Saint Mary's, in Ever- He drew the late-fifteenth-century facade of the Angel Inn sholt Street nearby. at Grantham, Lincolnshire, and the early-fifteenth-century Pugin went on to sketch John Nash's All Souls, Langham chapel at Skirlaw,Yorkshire, on the later part of his tour. In Place, the epitome of Regency chic that would appear as both cases he "improved" the buildings. For the Angel he the modern parish church in the published version. He also reconstructed the mullions and restored the sculpture, the

30 JSAH / 58:1, MARCH 1999 kind of topographical license that was common practice in his technique was Pugin's parents' invention, although the figures father's drawing school. Pugin went further, however. The in the Microcosmwere drawn by Rowlandson.29 plates as published were idealized. At the Angel he moved the Pugin deployed it in the same way. The disorderly crowd gateway to the dead center, making, as in the earlier scheme bursting out of Saint Pancras Chapel and the bobbing bonnets for an inn, a symmetrical composition (Figure 16). at Brighton spoke for the secularity of the modern age. The At Skirlaw,where the only criticism Nikolaus Pevsner could devout and orderly procession at Saint Mary Redcliffe in later make of this "perfect" Perpendicular chapel was that Bristol contained a contrast within itself, for there had been "the South porch sits against the building awkwardly"and that violent anticlerical riots in the city in 1831. The godly citizens, "the West tower is a little short," Pugin altered just these like the gracious residents of the rue de l'Horloge, spoke for a points.25 He chose an angle that heightened the tower, and he better, more civil age. In "Contrasted Public Conduits," as The left the porch off altogether. Gentleman'sMagazine pointed out, the message is carried al- On 26 March Pugin began "etching contrasts." A volume most entirely by the figures (Figure 17).30 A policeman shoo- of preliminary and finished drawings and plates survives in the ing away a child from the chained pump while an indifferent Victoria and Albert Museum.26 To the sketches of that month spectator lounges against a doorway in the background says and the previous summer he added the "regular roman altar more about modern morals than does the architecture. It is a screen" at Hereford, which he had deplored three years plate that reminds us that Contrastswas published a year before earlier, and the Gothic screen at Durham.27 The parish church OliverTwist. was Saint Mary Redcliffe, Bristol, which he had also visited in Pugin now gave the book a title page, the successive drafts 1833. He disguised its incomplete spire in the engraving by of which varied mostly in the spelling of "Parallel" (a question making it appear to soar out of the picture frame. that he never settled). The endpiece of the book, a scale with Sir John Soane's house, placed in a suitably caricature the nineteenth century weighed against the fourteenth, was Soanian frame, was paired with the rue de l'Horloge, Rouen. more importantly transformed in these drawings from an The only other un-English plate, and the only invention in the elegant piece of metalwork, much like his designs for fashion- published version, was the medieval H6tel de Ville. Pugin had able iron and brassware, to a great balance pivoted on the eye now visited the Low Countries and grown out of the extrava- of Truth (Figure 18). The frontispiece has been fully de- gance of his first idea. Here he composed a building from scribed byJohn Summerson.31 Flemish sources, principally the thirteenth-century cloth hall Of the plate "dedicated without permission to the trade," in Ypres.28 there is a first version in a drawing divided vertically between a The most significant addition to the preparatory sketches medieval scene and a modern "temple of taste" (Figure 19). was Pugin's inclusion of figures as well as carriages, animals, The published version is more successful and funnier in its and other animate scenery. He used them, not according to satire on late-Georgian architecture, epitomized by the glazing topographical convention, merely for scale, but as they were bar in the sash window running impudently through John used in his father's most popular work, The Microcosmof Nash's nose (Figure 20). With the help of his friend Talbot London, to add a narrative, sometimes comic element. This Bury, who "understands my style," Pugin finished etching

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FIGURE8: "Parishchurch 1830, Contrasted Ecclesiastical Architecture No. I,"1833 FIGURE9: "EcclesiaParochialis MCCCCXXX," 1833

HILL: PUGIN'S CONTRASTS 31 Contrastson 2 May 1836.32 On 30 May he completed the letterpress that is the subject of the second part of this article. Two months later Contrastswas published.

CONTRASTS AND THE ANTIQUARIAN TRADITION The text of Contrastscomprises a preface, five chapters, a conclusion, and twenty-one appendices. In summary, Pugin's intention is to show "how intimately the fall of architectural art in this country, is connected with the rise of the established religion," by which he means the Church of England.33 He begins by praising the "wonderful superiority" of Gothic buildings, explaining that architecture flourished until the Reformation, when the dissolution of the monasteries de- stroyed the fabric of medieval society, after which artistic and social integrity were lost. The plates are intended as examples of this thesis.34 Contrastsis, as Henry-Russell Hitchcock said, "primarily" a picture book.35 It is so literally, in the sense that Pugin first conceived it visually and worked on the plates of the published version before the text. More than that, however, without its illustrations, which have a wit and clarity absent from the letterpress, it would have had little impact either in 1836 or since. Yet it is important, in considering Contrastscritically, to consider it whole. The text that Pugin felt was "appropriate" to his book is revealing of the author and his age. Long in

FIGUREI I:Town Hall, 1833

contemplation, rapid in execution, it bears the marks of haste. Nevertheless, it contains the essence of Pugin's convictions and much that would be fundamental to his thinking for the rest of his life, beliefs that would inform his work and to some extent the course of the Gothic Revival. Contrastswas shaped as much by Pugin's ignorance as by his knowledge. Both were remarkable. He was educated almost entirely at home by his intellectually adventurous mother and in his father's drawing school. He knew almost as much as anyone alive about Gothic architecture, but his grasp of his- tory was vague. He could not spell "parallel" or "marriage." His first serious book, like his first building, Saint Marie's Grange, bears the marks of autodidacticism; it has the original- ity, at times the naivete, of a mind working not against but apart from academic convention. In considering the influences on Contrasts,it would seem FIGURE10: Altar, 1833 reasonable to begin with those that Pugin himself acknowl-

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FIGURE12: "The Deanery in 1830,"1833 FIGURE13: Contrasting clergy from "The Deanery in 1830,"1833 edged. William Camden, John Stow, Henry Spelman, Peter Their interests were not primarily-or, in some cases, at all- Heylyn, John Strype, William Dugdale, and other English aesthetic. It was the institutions, the fabric of medieval society, historians of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries comprise that concerned them. All had an interest in establishing the his principal sources. They were the authors that any historian continuing legitimacy of the English church. None was politi- of the Middle Ages relied on in the early nineteenth century. cally neutral. They are still, on some points, definitive. Pugin was generally It was indeed possible, as Phoebe Stanton says, for Pugin to familiar with them throughout his life, for these were the read Stow as an account of the world changing from good to sources that his father and E. J. Willson used for their own bad at the Reformation. It was not only possible but common. books. Stow was twice arrested by Elizabeth I's secret police on In his preparation for ContrastsPugin read more deeply suspicion of Catholic sympathies. Such incidents were not among the works of the early antiquaries, but there is no unusual in the lives of the early antiquaries. The charge that evidence of his breaking new intellectual ground. What he Pugin would face, of writing Catholic propaganda under the knew of the Middle Ages came to him principally from these guise of history, was centuries old. The association of antiquari- authors. It was from them that he acquired his belief in the anism and Catholicism went back to the Reformation itself. social and moral value of Gothic architecture, a belief he never Walter Raleigh in his Historieof the Worldin 1614 complained recanted and one of the most influential elements of the book. that "all cost and care bestowed and had of the church, For the antiquaries of the Elizabethan and Stuart eras, whereby God is to be served and worshiped, was acount- Protestant and Catholic alike, the Reformation was the defin- ed ... a kinde of Popery." Dugdale made pointed use of these ing event of English history. English antiquarianism began words in his Historyof St Paul's, which Pugin read.38 with the dissolution of the monasteries, that "unparalleled The lack of any broader sense of history led Pugin, too, to catastrophe" that "arrested the stream of English life."36 The see the Reformation as the absolute break in the fabric of antiquaries Pugin read were engaged in "the recovery of the national life. He wrote in Contraststhat architecture had contin- Middle Ages" in the immediate aftermath of that cataclysm.37 ued in "a high state of perfection ... to the eleventh hour" of

HILL: PUGIN'S CONTRASTS 33 the Dissolution,39 thereby, as one reviewer pointed out, setting X'4Snn o his golden age in the midst of the Wars of the Roses.40 Later, when he knew more, he attributed the change of style to the Renaissance and made drastic alterations to the second edi- tion of Contrasts,shifting the aesthetic high point back in time accordingly. Pugin's picture of the Middle Ages owed most to the greatest of the Stuart antiquaries, William Dugdale (1605-1686). The engravings of Wenzel Hollar and others populated Dugdale's works with grave monks and sweet-faced nuns in a landscape of castles and monasteries. They created a world of beauty and harmony such as Pugin envisaged restor- I: ing in England. He later owned a first edition of the Monasticon Anglicanumand used the map of Thanet from it in the glass of his house at Ramsgate.41 Dugdale, who was at the Battle of Edgehill and went with Charles I's exiled court to Oxford, wrote about the Reforma- u tion under the shadow of what he saw as another, similar catastrophe, the Commonwealth. The Monasticonis a lament for the lost treasures of the English church. Its lists of jewels, "pillars of silver," and "clusters of pearls" lie behind Pugin's own evocative notes of "oaken presses now empty and decayed [once] filled . .. with .. . vestments of richest materials."42On the title page of the Monasticon,drawn by Hollar but designed ii - 1' .; ? by Dugdale, is a pair of contrasting images (Figure 21). In one 'nrMtiliM^ 4.

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mi i , s. %+'w' ` 1rV a medieval king makes an act of donation to an abbey. It is a scene of order and piety, with Art, Church, and State at peace. FIGURE14: King'sCollege, London.Preparatory pencil sketch for "Contrasted Against it stands Henry VIII brandishing a sword. At his "Sic CollegeGateways," 1835 volo" the abbey he has seized is brought to ruin.

34 JSAH / 58:1, MARCH 1999 t _.s4>; Lg- <

The title page is not suggested here as a source for Contrasts Willson suggested that this would "imply too much," for but rather as a precedent in the same intellectual tradition and Christianity predated the pointed arch. If, he continued, "a an image that Pugin certainly knew. It is, like Spelman's term were to be borrowed from religion, it might be more illustration of primitive Christian architecture, "The first properly denominated 'Catholic Architecture.' "49 It was in Church of the Christians in Britaine" at Glastonbury (Figure 1831 that Pugin made the drawing discussed above for the 22), more relevant to Pugin's ideas in 1836 than, for example, "Catholic Chapel," apparently the first time he had used the the frontispiece to Milizia-Laugier's primitive hut set against word. a Corinthian portico.43 Pugin could have known Milizia's The question was certainly debated by A. C. Pugin and his Memoriedegli architettiantichi e moderniwhen he wrote the first pupils in the Great Russell Street school. Another of them, edition of Contrasts,but nothing in the book depends on it.44 Thomas Larkins Walker, who had been introduced by his The tradition to which Contrastsbelongs was still current in "master and friend" to the Architectural Society, read his the antiquarian circles in which Pugin grew up. His immediate "Essay on the Study of Gothic Architecture" to the members intellectual predecessor is John Milner (1752-1826), the on 31 December 1833.50 He began by citing Willson's use of builder of the Gothic chapel at Winchester and Catholic Vicar the term Catholic,which he preferred to Britton's Christian. Apostolic of the Western District. Milner was attacked, when After this, Walker, a Scots Protestant, proceeded to make a his Historieof Winchesterappeared in 1798-1801, for writing a confused case arguing both for the Gothic and for the forward work of Catholic propaganda dressed up as antiquarian his- "march of good taste." On the conduct of Henry VIII, like tory. Pugin was reading Milner while he worked on his own many better historians, he was unable to make up his mind. book and admired him greatly. Three years later, Walker was offended by Contrasts.This was Indeed, in speaking of the dissolution of the monasteries, it probably because, as Pugin said, he took its criticisms person- was almost a commonplace of antiquarianism to say, as E. J. ally.51He may also have felt that the subject was to some extent Willson did in 1821 in the introductory remarks to A. C. his own. Pugin's Specimensof GothicArchitecture, that the loss of those "grand establishments, where Architecture, Sculpture, and *. ' Painting had always been warmly cherished, .. . gave a terrible !i?...- , 4 .i ' ..~ ',~v.,,*X blow to those arts 'that adorn and soften life.' "45Willson was a Carter was to be and the vein of Catholic; John thought one, . ^ x:^^^^^^ - . -{I tK *? '-A .4 Catholicism still ran deep. When the Society of Antiquaries declined to elect James Wyatt in 1797, for reasons that had nothing to do with religion, George III denounced them as a "Popish Cabal."46 Thus the intellectual milieu that, long before he wrote Contrasts,formed the cast of Pugin's mind had prepared the ground for a view of the pre-Reformation world as a golden o-^ (X>,...< ...... ,l ,4O. i. age of faith and art. Itwas perhaps what he meant when he said in 1840 that he had prayed "from a child for the long lost glory of Catholic England" and wept over its ruins.47 This line of thought came to him most directly through Willson (1787-1854), who had known the Pugin family since 1818, when Pugin was six. A competent architect and a sophisticated restorer, as his work at Saint Mary's, Hainton, Lincolnshire, shows, Willson lived in Lincoln, and Pugin visited him regu- larly from childhood. It was almost certainly Willson who was a A , , a- responsible for Pugin's first making the explicit connection . - ,,.mA ;D\,t0---ew/* between Gothic and "Catholic" architecture. In May 1831 Willson wrote the introduction to the first volume of A. C. Pugin's Examplesof GothicArchitecture. In it he took up the knotty business of nomenclature, a question that much preoccupied antiquaries of his generation. His friend John Britton had recently offered the term "Christian" as an FIGURE16: Angel Inn, Grantham. Preparatorysketch for "Contrasted Public Inns," alternative to Gothic, with its still pejorative connotations.48 1836

HILL: PUGIN'S CONTRASTS 35 St ANNES SOHO COHTRn STea WEST CH*FXP CO}HYIT THOMAS IbtA 1+79 IlYBRLIC COnahYtTS

FIGURE17: "Contrasted Public Conduits," as publishedin Contrasts, 1836

In the context of English antiquarianism, the argument grown up with the Picturesque.54 His father had worked for made in Contrastsfor the moral connotations of Gothic archi- Nash when he was closely associated with Payne Knight and tecture can be seen to arise naturally out of that tradition. Uvedale Price. David Watkin complains that Pugin offers the There were other influences on the book, however, which theories of Knight and Price "as though he had discovered Pugin did not acknowledge. They were too close for him to them himself."55 He probably thought he had; that is often the see. They were aspects of . way with ideas absorbed in childhood. Pugin's churches would alwaysconform-when he could get a rood screen-to Knight's ROMANTIC MILLENARIANISM description of the effect of Gothic "dim and discoloured light Contrastsis imbued with Romanticism and the sensibility of the diffused through unequal varieties of space, divided but not Picturesque. "Soften perspective," Pugin noted to himself as separated."56 he prepared the medieval drawings.52Much as he mocked the Pugin's religion was steeped, like that of the Tractarians, Regency Picturesque, he was an inheritor of its philosophy. His with Romantic longing and similarly was charged with the text sets out the case for Gothic architecture entirely in terms millenarianism of the late 1820s and 1830s.57 Yet Pugin re- of association, of the devout "feelings" that certain visual mained unaware before 1836 of developments at Oxford. The effects will inevitably produce. In a Gothic church "the eye is only child of older parents, with whom he lived until their carried up and lost in the height of the vaulting ... the intri- deaths in 1832 and 1833, he was in some ways sheltered. His cacy of the ailes; the rich and varied hues of the stained chief contact with intellectual life was through his mother, windows."53 Catherine Welby Pugin (c. 1769-1833). In considering the Pugin laughed at "cloisters by moonlight," but he had original conception of the book, it is remarkable that no one

36 JSAH / 58:1, MARCH 1999 the plan of Contrastswas being formed, it seemed to so temperate a man as Dr. Arnold of Rugby that "the church of England as it now stands no power on earth can save."62 That is the premise on which Contrastsis based. It is a mani- festo for action "whenever" the present establishment should fail.63 From Wells, while Pugin wrote of his excitement about the buildings and drew contrasting memorials on the letter, his mother told her sister, "Many a cathedral I have seen but none so lovely as this," adding that "tears of admiration rushed into the eyes" of her son at the sight of the lady chapel. Yet they feared it was threatened with ruin. The greater part of the townspeople were "rank Methodists." The clergy therefore, "having no-one to jog them," either did nothing to repair the fabric or, if they did, they employed "ignorant blockheads" who bodged. Therefore, Mrs. Pugin concluded: ". . . when in the confession they chant forth we have done what we ought not to have done & left undone what we ought to have done we can scarcely forbear casting our eyes around and respond- ing you have indeed."64 Mother and son had much in com- mon. me, ww 00 Im &&nee Catherine Pugin died in 1833, the year the first schemes w sn^ -,?i- wwti were drawn. "The Deanery in 1830" probably expressed her anti-Erastian Anglicanism as much as her son's. Over the next FIGURE18: "They are weighed in the balance and are found wanting,"preliminary three years, however, he lost patience with the Church of design for endpiece in pen with red and black ink, 1836 England, finding the resolution of his religious and architec- tural beliefs in a return to the true, pre-Reformation, Catholic has taken up Benjamin Ferrey's unambiguous attribution of faith. Like Ambrose Phillips, soon to be his friend, and some of the plan to the "suggestive imagination" of Catherine Pugin.58 Ferrey disliked Mrs. Pugin and would not have given her credit unless it was due. His statement is given weight by the evidence of her surviving papers.59It was Catherine Pugin who worked out the idea for her husband's most popular book, The Microcosmof London.60Moreover, the Microcosmwas unique among A. C. Pugin's works, as Contrastswas to be in his son's, in having a conceptual rather than an exegetical basis. This, it seems likely, was the reflection of Catherine Pugin's more analytic mind. She was of Coleridge's generation and intellectually typical of it. A reader of Thomas Paine and Rousseau in her youth, optimism had been turned, by disillusionment with the ideals of the French Revolution, to pessimistic conservatism. Her son shared, or he inherited, her conservatism. She was not, as has sometimes been said, a Calvinist, and Pugin was certainly not brought up as a Puritan.61 She was an Anglican but, like many of her contemporaries, a troubled and critical one. Catholic Emancipation in 1829 and the Reform Act of 1832 challenged the authority of the established church. The apa- thy of many of the clergy and the neglect of church buildings seemed all of a piece, and not only to the Pugins. In the autumn of 1832, while the family was in the West Country and FIGURE19: Preliminary design for frontispiece and title page in pencil,1836

HILL: PUGIN'S CONTRASTS 37 ......

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the Tractarians for whom he would be ready "to write CREDO sive" society, while for conservatives like Cobbett, Southey, and with our blood," Pugin's religious belief was imbued with a Pugin, it offered a model of stability.66The works of the early millenarian sense of urgency.65 England seemed to him re- antiquaries began to be reprinted, and those who pondered served for some great destiny, and the reunion with Rome the position of the church looked to the early Anglican di- imminent. vines. Keble's edition of that foundation stone of the Church For thinking men and women of every religious persuasion of England, Hooker's Laws of EcclesiasticalPolity, appeared in and none, the England of the 1830s seemed on the verge of the same year as Contrasts. crisis. Criticism of the Church was combined with a wider fear In England in the first third of the nineteenh century, as W. of social disintegration in the wake of the July Revolution in H. Oliver has said, prophecy was "an ordinary intellectual France. Fear of a loss of moral center, of "privatejudgement," activity."67More than two dozen books and pamphlets called which Pugin attacks in architecture and in religion equally, Signs of the Timeswere published between 's in running mad led people of widely different opinions to recon- 1829 and the second edition of Contrastsin 1841. The authors sider the Reformation critically.John Stuart Mill saw in Chris- included the Rev. Patrick Bronte, Robert Owen, and the tendom in the Middle Ages the greatest example of a "progres- millenarian preacher Edward Irving. Pugin had been taken by

38 JSAH / 58:1, MARCH 1999 than has perhaps been thought. Pugin's antiutilitarian vocabu- lary, his characterization of the modern age as "mechanical," or the use of a phrase like "the age of improvement" tells us nothing more than that he read the newspapers and the developing architectural press. He certainly readJohn Carter, from whom he seems to have adapted the phrase "dozing pens" for pews.72 Indeed, as J. Mordaunt Crook points out, much that Carter says about the structural and conceptual flimsiness of Regency architecture anticipates Pugin. Yet Carter was writing in The Gentleman'sMagazine before Pugin was born. By 1836 these criticisms of modern architecture were general, as the reviews of Contrastsmake clear. Perhaps Pugin read Cobbett, as Phoebe Stanton suggests. Whether he knew Rural Rides, however, hardly matters, for what Cobbett, that "very honest man with a total want of principle," tells us is not so much what he thought as what thousands of other people thought at any given time.73 At Salisbury, where Pugin was living when he wrote Contrasts, Cobbett had written in 1826: "I could not look up at the spire and the whole of the church ... without feeling that I lived in degenerate times. Such a thing never could be made now."74 In an age preoccupied, as Mill said, with comparing itself with the past, such ideas were the journalistic commonplaces of Pugin's childhood. The growing interest in the Gothic past was to be found in many currents and crosscurrents of thought and taste. It was expressed in the popular enthusiasm for the "olden times" that created a market for Scott's novels and hundreds of modestly priced prints. It animated the public FIGURE21: Title page of MonosticonAnglicanum, Wenzel Hollar, 1655 debate about the state of the established church, and, aided by books of measured drawings of medieval buildings like A. C. his mother to hear Irving. He found the experience pro- Pugin's, it offered an alternative model at a time when discon- foundly boring. Yet he, too, shared with that "son of thunder" tent with contemporary architecture was becoming general. the vocabulary of apocalypse.68 Much of what Pugin knew of popular taste came to him The text that concludes Contrastsis the writing on the wall through the theater, where he worked in the late 1820s and from Daniel 5.27: "They are weighed in the balance and are early 1830s. He assisted on productions of Kenilworthand found wanting." In his Apology,Pugin cited Romans 13.12: Henry VIII (the revival of which was another manifestation of "the night of sorrow is far spent, the brightness of returning public interest in the Reformation). If, as is perfectly likely, glory is seen."69 Carlyle suggested that prophecy was now a form of history, and if such a genre ever existed, Contrasts would be an example of it.

PANTOMIMES AND PUBLIC OPINION It has been said that Pugin must have read Carlyle and agreed with him, or that he studied Schlegel, Saint-Simon, and Cha- teaubriand.70 This seems unlikely. He was never much given to academic pursuits. His outline for an autobiography reveals- apart from a particular enthusiasm for the theater-the inter- ests of the popular press: royal deaths and marriages, bankrupt- cies, fires, and elopements.71 All his life he read novels and

newspapers but not philosophy. FIGURE22: "The first Church of the ChristiansIn Britaine,"from Henry Spelman's The ideas that run through the book were more prevalent Concilia,1639

HILL: PUGIN'S CONTRASTS 39 Pugin was taken in 1822 to GogMagogat Drury Lane, he could millenarian flowering of a tradition whose roots ran deep in have seen the essence of his argument in pantomime form.75 the history of English thought. The Harlequinade was cast as a battle between modern archi- tects and the of In the transformation Society Antiquaries. Notes scene, the buildings of modern London were turned into their I am especiallygrateful to AlexandraWedgwood, who lent me her microfilm medieval equivalents. copy of the early Contrastsscheme, without which the first part of this study would have been use of from Ward's a impossible. Pugin's epigraphs Reformationsuggests A version of the article was read to ChristopherWoodward's discussion taste in poetry more robust than refined. Ward's popular group at the Soane Museumin April 1998. I am gratefulto him and to those seventeenth-century burlesque is, like Contrasts,a heady mix of whose comments then and since have helped me: Simon Bradley,Gillian Darley,Lindsay Duguid, Michael Hall, Roderick O'Donnell, EdwinaPorter, and low culture.76 Its declared sources include some of high MargaretRichardson, Andrew Saint, Andrew Sanders, Gavin Stamp, and Pugin's own (Stow and Camden), but the style is Drury Lane AlexandraWedgwood. doggerel. Dr. and Mrs.James Mackeyhave been generous in making unpublished materialavailable to me. The that Contrasts him in reputation brought put Pugin 1Phoebe Stanton,"The Sourcesof Pugin'sContrasts," inJohn Summerson, touch, after 1836, with advanced religious and architectural ed., ConcerningArchitecture: Essays on ArchitecturalWriters and WritingPresented to NikolausPevsner and A.W.N. with thought. He made contact with the Tractarians, and having (London, 1968), 120-139, Pugin, an introduc- tion by H.-R.Hitchcock, Contrasts (Leicester, 1969). much information,"77 in 1841 he revised 2 "gained Contrasts, S. Lang, "The Principles of the Gothic Revivalin England,"JSAH 25 changing the argument, such as it was, and shifting the high (1966): 240-267. 3 the Collection the Institute BritishArchitects point of Gothic back in time so that, as Margaret Belcher says, Catalogueof Drawings of Royal of (Farnborough,1969-1977), AlexandraWedgwood, ed., B (1977), and Alexan- the reader who had been invited to admire King's College dra Wedgwood,ed., Cataloguesof ArchitecturalDrawings in theVictoria and Albert Chapel in the first edition was now to deplore it.78 Museum,A.W.N. Pugin and the Puginfamily (London, 1985). 4 Belcher, in Paul and Clive Wain- Between 1836 and 1841, Pugin worked out his "true prin- Margaret "Pugin Writing," Atterbury wright,eds., Pugin,a GothicPassion (London, 1994):105-116. ciples." It is with them that the influence of French rationalist 5Ashby Bland Crowder,"Pugin's Contrasts,sources for its technique," theory, which has sometimes been discussed in relation to Architectura12 (1983): 57-63. 6 Describedin Wedgwood,V&A (see n. 3), 123-127. Contrasts,becomes significant. Whatever Pugin knew of it plays 7 The house has since been demolished (information from Clive Wain- no visible part in the first edition; his remarks on "propriety" wright). 8 are no more than the Vitruvian conventions of the drawing Now in the collection of the PublicLibrary of St. Louis, Missouri.Publica- tion of a facsimilelimited edition of the sketchbookis in progress. school. It was perhaps soon after Contrastsappeared that he 9 For an account of some aspectsof A. C. Pugin'scareer, see RosemaryHill, began to consider theories of construction. The prospectus for "A.C. Pugin,"Burlington Magazine 1114 (1996): 11-19. 10 his Ancient TimberHouses, dated 12 January 1837, suggests a Letternow in SalisburyMuseum, Salisbury, Wiltshire. 11Wedgwood, V&A, 145-146. These drawings relate to but should be new discovery, promising to reveal, in these "wooden edi- distinguished from the ideal scheme "The Deanery," Wedgwood, V&A, fices," a "most important but unknown principle of ancient 144-145. 12 design."79 "The Deaneryin 1830,"fol. iv. 13A.W.N. Pugin, An fora workentitled Contrasts 1837), The first edition of Apology (Birmingham, Contrastscaught a wave of public feeling. 42. As the English examined their position in the light of Continen- 14 TheRepository ofArts, Literature, Commerce 10 (1827): 245. 15 tal revolution and social unease, they looked back, as Dugdale Sketchbookin privatepossession, fols. 2 and 2v. 16 Letter to EdwardWillson dated 6 November 1834, in the Milton S. and his had looked to the contemporaries back, Reformation, EisenhowerLibrary, Johns HopkinsUniversity, Baltimore. trying to understand the crisis of the present in the light of 17A Letterto A. W Hakewill,Architect, in answerto his reflectionson thestyle for history. Pugin's familiarity with that tradition enabled him to rebuildingthe houses of parliament. By A. WelbyPugin, Architect, Salisbury, 1835. 18 Ibid., 8. produce a manifesto that brought the wider issues to bear on 19Ibid. architecture. It was both of the moment and original. By 1841 20 The sketchbookis describedin Wedgwood,V&A, 162-163. 21 Letterto Willson n. that moment had passed; the second edition with its impor- (see 16). 22 DavidWatkin, SirJohn Soane: Enlightenment Thought and theRoyal Academy tant new plates received little contemporary notice and lies Lectures(Cambridge, 1996), 341. beyond the scope of this article. 23 EdwardBrayley, Londiniana or Reminiscences of the British Metropolis, 4 vols. 1: 223-231. As it appeared in 1836, however, launched on the tide of (London, 1829), 24The progressof Contrastscan be followedafter 1835 from Pugin'sdiaries, public debate that surrounded the new Palace of Westminster transcribedin Wedgwood,V&A, 32-100. and the emergence of the architectural profession, Contrasts 25Nikolaus Pevsner and DavidNeave, eds., TheBuildings of England, Yorkshire: Yorkand theEast Riding (2nd ed., London, 1995), 689. marked a beginning and an end for Pugin as it did for 26Described in Wedgwood,V&A, 164-166. nineteenth-century architecture. It was the beginning of his 27Letter to WilliamOsmond dated 27 October 1833, now in privateposses- career and the end of the rich, intense world of his childhood, sion. 28Contrasts (1969), 11, describesit as "the hotel de ville atYpres,"but the the end of the and the of a new of Regency beginning phase resemblance is not exact. 29 the Gothic Revival. In itself, it represented the Romantic, For an account of the Pugins' involvement in the original concept of the

40 JSAH / 58:1, MARCH 1999 Microcosm,see RosemaryHill, "Bankers,Bawds and Beau Monde," CountryLife, 3 November1994, 64-67. 56Richard Payne Knight, An AnalyticalEnquiry into the Principlesof Taste 30 Gentleman'sMagazine, March 1837, 285. (London, 1805), 174. 31John Summerson,Georgian London (London, 1991), 286-287. 57 For a discussion of Pugin and Romanticism,see RosemaryHill, " 'To " 32 Undated letter to WilliamOsmond, probablyearly 1835. Letter now in stones a morallife,' TimesLiterary Supplement 4981 (1998): 21-22. private possession. 58 Benjamin Ferrey, Recollectionsof Pugin, with an introduction by Clive 33A.W.N. Pugin, Contrasts(1836), 15. Wainwrightand an index byJaneWainwright (London, 1978), 92. 34Ibid., 1. 59 Now in the YaleCenter for BritishArt, New Haven. 35 Contrasts(1969), 16. 60 Hill, "Bankers"(see n. 29). 36JoanEvans, History of theSociety of Antiquaries (Oxford, 1956), 2. 61 Lang, "Principlesof the GothicRevival" (see n. 2). 37Graham Parry, The Trophiesof Time:English Antiquaries of the Seventeenth 62 Quoted in Owen Chadwick, The VictorianChurch: Part One 1829-59 Century(Oxford, 1995), 217. (London, 1966), 47. 38William Dugdale, TheHistory of St Paul's Cathedralin London(London, 63 A.W.N.Pugin, Contrasts(1836), 23. 1656), epigraph. 64 Letterdated 9 September1832, in the YaleCenter for BritishArt (Pugin 39A.W.N. Pugin, Contrasts(1836), 5. mss. no. 54). 40 BritishCritic and QuarterlyTheological Review, April 1839, 279-298. 65 Letter from AmbrosePhillips to J. R. Bloxam, 4 March 1841, Magdalen 41 WilliamDugdale, Monasticon Anglicanum, 3 vols. (London, 1673), 297. College, Oxford. 42A.W.N. Pugin, c. 1835, notes in a sketchbookin the Victoriaand Albert 66JohnStuart Mill, TheSpirit of theAge (1831; Chicago, 1942), 77. Museum,Wedgwood V&A, 128. 67W. H. Oliver,Prophets and Millenialists (Oxford, 1978), 11. 43Watkin, Soane, 136 (see n. 22). 68Thomas Carlyle'sobituary of EdwardIrving (London, 1835). Carlyle's 44Edward Willson owned a copy at his death in 1854. The sale catalogueof reference to John Donne's descriptionof the Anglican divines ("we are the his possessionsis in the libraryof the Societyof Antiquaries,London. sons of thunder")is anotherinstance of contemporarypreoccupation with the 45 Specimensof GothicArchitecture ... byAugustus Pugin, theliterary part byE.J. earlydays of the establishedchurch. Willson(vol. 1, London, 1821;reprint, , 1895), "Remarkson Gothic 69A.W.N. Pugin, Apology,29-30. Architectureand on modern imitations,"x. 70Stanton, "Sources" (see n. 1), and Lang, "Principlesof the Gothic 46 Quoted in J. MordauntCrook, John Carter and theMind of theGothic Revival Revival." (London, 1995), 58. 71The autobiographyis publishedin Wedgwood,V&A, 24-31. 47Letter toJ. R. Bloxam, postmarked25 October 1840, MagdalenCollege, 72 Carter'sphrase is "sleepingpens," quoted in Crook,JohnCarter, 63 (see n. Oxford. 46). 48Britton may have evolvedthis term withArcisse de Caumont,who worked 73William Hazlitt, The Spirit of theAge or Contemporary Portraits (1825; 4th ed., withhim and A. C. Pugin on ArchitecturalAntiquitiesofNormandy. For a summary London, 1886), 293. of de Caumont'sviews, see PaulFrankl, The Gothic: Literary Sources and Interpreta- 74 WilliamCobbett, Rural Rides (1830; London, 1985), 324. tionsThrough Eight Centuries (Princeton, 1960), 519-522. A.W.N.Pugin knewde 75Ferrey claims that Pugin never went to the theater as a child, but the Caumont,whose viewof Gothic as "touchingand religious"may have contrib- evidence of his autobiographyand his mother'sletters strongly suggests other- uted somethingto Pugin'sdeveloping ideas. wise. 49A. Pugin, Examplesof GothicArchitecture, 3 vols. (London, 1831-1838), 1: 76England's Reformation: a poem in four cantos by a Catholicsoldier. xiv. 77 Letter to J. R. Bloxam, postmarked12 January1841, MagdalenCollege, 50 Manuscript in the British Architectural Library, London. Oxford. 51Letter to EdwardWillson dated 5 September 1836, in the Milton S. 78Belcher, "Pugin Writing" (see n. 4). EisenhowerLibrary, Johns HopkinsUniversity, Baltimore. 79 Loudon'sArchitectural Magazine 4 (1837): 145. 52 Sketchbookdescribed in Wedgwood,V&A, 162-163. 53A.W.N. Pugin, Contrasts(1836), 2. 54A.W.N. Pugin, Apology(see n. 13), 11. Illustration Credits 55 David Watkin, Moralityand Architecture:The Developmentof a Themein Figures 1-11. George Fox Steedman Architectural Library, St. Louis Public ArchitecturalHistory and Theoryfrom the GothicRevival to theModern Movement Library, St. Louis, Missouri (Oxford, 1977), 21. Figures 12-20. Victoria and Albert Museum, London

HILL: PUGIN'S CONTRASTS 41